I

Mlardalen University Press Licentiate Theses

No. 106

IMPACT WAVE PROCESS MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION IN HIGH

ENERGY RATE EXPLOSIVE WELDING
APPLIED MECHANIC
Mohammad Tabatabaee Ghomi
2009

School of Sustainable Development of Society and Technology

II

Copyright Mohammad Tabatabaee Ghomi, 2009
ISSN 1651-9256
ISBN 978-91-86135-35-5
Printed by Mlardalen University, Vsters, Sweden
II

Copyright Mohammad Tabatabaee Ghomi, 2009
ISSN 1651-9256
ISBN 978-91-86135-35-5
Printed by Mlardalen University, Vsters, Sweden
3

Abstract


Impact waves are used in many different industries and are classified according to whether they
cause plastic or elastic deformations. In the plastic deformation mode, these waves can be used to
produce special electrical joints. In the elastic deformation mode, they can be used to detect leakage
or to measure the thickness of pipes. Both modes have applications in offshore technology.

In this thesis the application of impact waves in the plastic deformation mode and explosive
welding are discussed. In the explosive welding (EXW) process a high velocity oblique impact
produced by a carefully controlled explosion occurs between two or more metals. The high velocity
impact causes the metals to behave like fluids temporarily and weld together. This process occurs in
a short time with a high rate of energy.

EXW is a well known method for joining different metals together. It is a multidisciplinary research
area and covers a wide range of science and technology areas including wave theory, fluid
dynamics, materials science, manufacturing and modeling. Many of the important results in EXW
research are obtained from experimentation.

This thesis is mainly based on experimental work. However, it begins with a review of the
fundamental theory and mechanisms of explosive welding and the different steps of a successful
welding operation. Many different EXW tests are done on horizontal and vertical surfaces with
unequal surface areas, and on curved surfaces and pipes. The remainder of the thesis evaluates the
results of these experiments, measures the main parameters, and shows the results of simulations to
verify the experimental results.


The thesis ends with a number of suggestions for improving and optimizing the EXW process. One
of these improvements is a model for joining metallic plates with unequal surface areas. An Al-Cu
joint based on this model is used in the ALMAHDI aluminum factory, a large company in southern
Iran that produces more than 200,000 tons of aluminum per year. Improved methods are also
suggested for joining curved surfaces. These methods may have extensive applications in pipelines
in oil and gas industries, especially in underwater pipes.
















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5

Sammanfattning



Impact vgor anvnds i mnga olika branscher och klassificeras beroende p om de orsakar plast
eller elastiska deformationer. I plastisk deformation lge, kan dessa vgor anvndas fr att tillverka
speciella elektriska skarvar. I elastisk deformation lge, kan de anvndas fr att upptcka lckage
eller att mta tjockleken p rren. Bda lgena har tillmpningar inom offshore-teknik.


I denna avhandling tillmpningen av effekten vgor i plastisk deformation mode och explosiva
svetsning diskuteras. I den explosiva svetsning (EXW) behandla en hg hastighet sned anslaget av
en noggrant kontrollerad explosion intrffar mellan tv eller fler metaller. Den hga hastigheten
effekten gr att metaller att bete sig som vtskor tillflligt och svetsa ihop. Detta sker under en kort
tid med hg energi.


EXW r en vlknd metod fr att g olika metaller tillsammans. Det r ett tvrvetenskapligt
forskningsomrde och tcker ett brett spektrum av vetenskapliga och tekniska omrden inklusive
vgrrelselra, strmningsmekanik, materialvetenskap, tillverkning och modellering. Mnga av de
viktigaste resultaten i EXW forskningen erhlls frn experiment.

Denna avhandling r huvudsakligen baserad p experimentellt arbete. Dremot brjar det med en
genomgng av grundlggande teori och mekanismer av explosiv svetsning och de olika stegen i en
lyckad svetsning operation. Mnga olika EXW tester grs p horisontella och vertikala ytor med
ojmn yta, och p krkta ytor och rrledningar. terstoden av avhandlingen utvrderar resultaten av
dessa frsk, tgrder viktiga parametrar och visar resultaten av simuleringar fr att verifiera de
experimentella resultaten.


Avhandlingen avslutas med ett antal frslag fr att frbttra och optimera EXW processen. En av
dessa frbttringar r en modell fr att g metallplattor med ojmna ytor. En Al-Cu gemensamt
baserade p denna modell anvnds i ALMAHDI aluminium fabriken, ett stort fretag i sdra Iran
som producerar mer n 200.000 ton aluminium per r. Frbttrade metoder fresls ocks fr att g
med krkta ytor. Dessa metoder kan ha mnga olika tillmpningar i rrledningar i olje-och
gasindustrin, srskilt i vattnet rr.















6

Acknowledgements



The work described in this thesis was carried out at the School of Sustainable Development of Society
and Technology, Mlardalen University, Sweden.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Jafar Mahmoudi for his encouragement, guidance,
scientific help and unlimited support.

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Erik Dahlquist and Professor Jinyue Yan.

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Gholamhossein Liaghat from Tarbiat Modares
University, Professor Mohammad Mahjoob from Tehran University and Professor A. Darvizeh from
Gilan University in Iran for their scientific help.

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Adel Karim at Mlardalen University.

The author would like to acknowledge Professor Dobroshin from PATON institute in Ukraine, Mr.
Chavideh from Chime-Tec Company in Germany, ACECR, and the TDI organization in Iran for
help with experiments.










6

Acknowledgements



The work described in this thesis was carried out at the School of Sustainable Development of Society
and Technology, Mlardalen University, Sweden.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Jafar Mahmoudi for his encouragement, guidance,
scientific help and unlimited support.

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Erik Dahlquist and Professor Jinyue Yan.

I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Gholamhossein Liaghat from Tarbiat Modares
University, Professor Mohammad Mahjoob from Tehran University and Professor A. Darvizeh from
Gilan University in Iran for their scientific help.

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Adel Karim at Mlardalen University.

The author would like to acknowledge Professor Dobroshin from PATON institute in Ukraine, Mr.
Chavideh from Chime-Tec Company in Germany, ACECR, and the TDI organization in Iran for
help with experiments.










7

List of Publications

This thesis is based on the following papers and technical reports:

Appended Papers:

Paper 1:
Mohammad Tabatabaee, Jafar Mahmoudi and Gholamhossein Liaghat, An Applied Method for
welding Metals of Unequal Surface Area Using Explosive Energy, Submitted to International
Journal of Impact Engineering, ISSN: 0734-743X
Paper2:
Mohammad Tabatabaee, Jafar Mahmoudi and Gholamhossein Liaghat, Removing Leakage from oil
and gas low pressure Pipes and vessels by high energy explosive welding method, Scientific
Conference on Energy systems with IT in connection with the Energiting 2009, March 11-12 at
lvsj fair, Stockholm, ISBN number 978-91-977493-4-3.
Paper3:
Mohammad Tabatabaee, Jafar Mahmoudi and Gholamhossein Liaghat, Effect of Explosive Layer
thickness on detonation velocity in a high energy process, Submitted to High Energy Physics
Journal, ISSN: 1126-6708.

Report

Mohammad Tabatabaee, Impact wave process control in explosive welding application, Technical
report No. 3, 20 July 2008, Mlardalen University


Papers not appended:

Paper 4:
Mohammad Tabatabaee and Jafar Mahmoudi, Finite element simulation of explosive welding, The
49
th
Scandinavian Conference on Simulation and Modeling (SIMS2008), ISBN-13: 978-82-579-
46326
Paper 5:
Mohammad Tabatabaee and Jafar Mahmoudi, FEM method simulation for Aluminum - Iron -
Copper bonding using explosive welding method, IASTED International Conference on Applied
Simulation and Modeling, June 25, 2008, at Corfu, Greece. (ASM 2008), ISBN- 978-0-88986-748-
2
Paper 6:
Mohammad Tabatabaee and Jafar Mahmoudi, An advanced method for Aluminum - Iron - Copper
bonding using explosive welding method, SSSEC2008 conference, Stockholm, March 12-13, 2008
ISBN-978-91-977493-2-9
Paper 7:
Mohammad Tabatabaee and Jafar Mahmoudi, An advanced method of explosive welding
simulation, The 16
th
Annual (International) Conference on Mechanical Engineering, ISME2008,
May 14-16, 2008, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran







8

Nomenclature and abbreviations



Latin letters

P pressure
VD, Vd detonation velocity
Vp, Vf velocity of flyer plate
Vc, Vw collision velocity
Ei strain energy
Re Reynolds number
E Youngs modulus
C speed of sound
H hardness
A amplitude
T temperature
T thickness
Greek letters

initial angle
dynamic angle
wave length
tensile stress
density


Abbreviations

EXW explosive welding
BSEW bond strength explosive welded
WW welding window
SEM scanning electron microscope
UTS ultimate tensile stress
















8

Nomenclature and abbreviations



Latin letters

P pressure
VD, Vd detonation velocity
Vp, Vf velocity of flyer plate
Vc, Vw collision velocity
Ei strain energy
Re Reynolds number
E Youngs modulus
C speed of sound
H hardness
A amplitude
T temperature
T thickness
Greek letters

initial angle
dynamic angle
wave length
tensile stress
density


Abbreviations

EXW explosive welding
BSEW bond strength explosive welded
WW welding window
SEM scanning electron microscope
UTS ultimate tensile stress
















9

Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Sammanfattning .............................................................................................................................. 5
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 6
List of Publications ......................................................................................................................... 7
Nomenclature and abbreviations ..................................................................................................... 8
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 10
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 11
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2. Literature review ........................................................................................................................ 13
1.3. Motivation and objective ............................................................................................................ 14
1.4. Research approach ...................................................................................................................... 14
1.5. Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 15
1.6. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 15
1.7. Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................................. 16
2. Theory ................................................................................................................................... 17
2.1. Mechanism and set up ................................................................................................................ 17
2.2. The impact wave in explosive welding ...................................................................................... 18
2.3. Predicting the wavelength .......................................................................................................... 19
2.4. Bonding criteria .......................................................................................................................... 20
2.5. Welding window ........................................................................................................................ 21
2.6. Governing equations ................................................................................................................... 24
2.7. Testing methods .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.8. Simulation of the explosive welding process ............................................................................. 27
3. Experimental Data, Results and Calculations ....................................................................... 29
3.1. Experiment setup ........................................................................................................................ 29
3.2. Experimental Results .................................................................................................................. 33
3.3. Calculation, numerical and simulation results ............................................................................ 35
3.4. Test Results ................................................................................................................................ 40
4. Discussion and future work .................................................................................................. 45
4.1. Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 45
4.2. Future work ................................................................................................................................ 47
5. Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 49
5.1. Concluding remarks .................................................................................................................... 49
5.2. Practical Output .......................................................................................................................... 50
6. References ............................................................................................................................. 53
7. Papers summary .................................................................................................................... 55

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List of Figures

Figure 1. a) Basic set up for explosive welding [1] b) The explosive bonding process [4] ....... 17
Figure 2: Geometry of the process during the collapse [1] ............................................................... 17
Figure 3. Impact wave reflection [ 1] ................................................................................................. 19
Figure 4. Shape of the wave at the interface of the plates [ 1] ........................................................... 19
Figure 5. An example of a WW diagram in the Vc- plane .............................................................. 22
Figure 6. Determination of detonation velocity by Dutrich method [ 4] ........................................... 25
Figure 7. The chisel test [ 1]. ............................................................................................................. 26
Figure 8. Pressure simulation by AUTODYN software [ 34] ............................................................ 27
Figure 9. Setup for Fe-Fe welding ..................................................................................................... 29
Figure 10. Unequal surface area set up ............................................................................................. 30
Figure 11. Al-Cu vertical unequal surface area and dual method set up ........................................... 31
Figure 12. Set up for filling a small hole .......................................................................................... 31
Figure 13. Set up for welding on a curve .......................................................................................... 31
Figure 14. Set up for repairing a leak and filling a small hole in a pipe ........................................... 32
Figure 15. Dutrich method setup using a thin Aluminum plate ........................................................ 32
Figure 16. Dutrich method setup using a Brass plate ....................................................................... 32
Figure 17. Results of EXW on horizontal flat surfaces ..................................................................... 33
Figure 18. EXW of unequal surface areas ......................................................................................... 33
Figure 19. EXW tests for filling a hole .............................................................................................. 34
Figure 20. EXW with a detonator on a pipe for filling a small hole .................................................. 34
Figure 21. Dutrich method test results ............................................................................................... 34
Figure 22. WW for Cu-Fe joint .......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 23. Welding window for Fe-Fe joint ...................................................................................... 37
Figure 24. WW for Al-Cu joint .......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 25. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity ......................................... 41
Figure 26. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity in general ........................ 41
Figure 27. Chisel test for 2 types of weld .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 28. BSEW in width direction .................................................................................................. 42
Figure 29. BSEW in length direction ................................................................................................. 42
Figure 30. Metallographic results ...................................................................................................... 43
Figure 31. Results of simulation ........................................................................................................ 44
Figure 32. Bonded areas measured by ultrasonic test for Al-Cu joint ............................................... 46
Figure 33. A set up for filling a hole before welding ......................................................................... 50
Figure 34. AlCu joints transmit the electric power of anode rods in the aluminum factory ............ 51













10

List of Figures

Figure 1. a) Basic set up for explosive welding [1] b) The explosive bonding process [4] ....... 17
Figure 2: Geometry of the process during the collapse [1] ............................................................... 17
Figure 3. Impact wave reflection [ 1] ................................................................................................. 19
Figure 4. Shape of the wave at the interface of the plates [ 1] ........................................................... 19
Figure 5. An example of a WW diagram in the Vc- plane .............................................................. 22
Figure 6. Determination of detonation velocity by Dutrich method [ 4] ........................................... 25
Figure 7. The chisel test [ 1]. ............................................................................................................. 26
Figure 8. Pressure simulation by AUTODYN software [ 34] ............................................................ 27
Figure 9. Setup for Fe-Fe welding ..................................................................................................... 29
Figure 10. Unequal surface area set up ............................................................................................. 30
Figure 11. Al-Cu vertical unequal surface area and dual method set up ........................................... 31
Figure 12. Set up for filling a small hole .......................................................................................... 31
Figure 13. Set up for welding on a curve .......................................................................................... 31
Figure 14. Set up for repairing a leak and filling a small hole in a pipe ........................................... 32
Figure 15. Dutrich method setup using a thin Aluminum plate ........................................................ 32
Figure 16. Dutrich method setup using a Brass plate ....................................................................... 32
Figure 17. Results of EXW on horizontal flat surfaces ..................................................................... 33
Figure 18. EXW of unequal surface areas ......................................................................................... 33
Figure 19. EXW tests for filling a hole .............................................................................................. 34
Figure 20. EXW with a detonator on a pipe for filling a small hole .................................................. 34
Figure 21. Dutrich method test results ............................................................................................... 34
Figure 22. WW for Cu-Fe joint .......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 23. Welding window for Fe-Fe joint ...................................................................................... 37
Figure 24. WW for Al-Cu joint .......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 25. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity ......................................... 41
Figure 26. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity in general ........................ 41
Figure 27. Chisel test for 2 types of weld .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 28. BSEW in width direction .................................................................................................. 42
Figure 29. BSEW in length direction ................................................................................................. 42
Figure 30. Metallographic results ...................................................................................................... 43
Figure 31. Results of simulation ........................................................................................................ 44
Figure 32. Bonded areas measured by ultrasonic test for Al-Cu joint ............................................... 46
Figure 33. A set up for filling a hole before welding ......................................................................... 50
Figure 34. AlCu joints transmit the electric power of anode rods in the aluminum factory ............ 51













11

List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of papers ............................................................................................................. 15
Table 2. Specification of Fe-Fe horizontal setup ............................................................................... 29
Table 3. Specification of Al-Cu horizontal setup .............................................................................. 29
Table 4. Specification of Fe-Cu horizontal setup ............................................................................. 29
Table 5. Specification of Al-Cu, unequal surface area, horizontal set up .......................................... 30
Table 6. Specification of Al-Cu Vertical unequal surface area and dual method set up ................... 30
Table 7. Specification of Stage 3 experiments ................................................................................... 31
Table 8. Specification of experiments in Stage 4 ............................................................................... 31
Table 9. Specification of experiments in Stage 5 (Dutrich method) .................................................. 32
Table 10. Result of experiments described in Table 9 ....................................................................... 34
Table 11. Calculation for line (a-a) .................................................................................................... 35
Table 12. Calculation for line (f-f) ..................................................................................................... 35
Table 13. Calculation for line (g-g) ................................................................................................... 36
Table 14. Calculation for line (a-a) .................................................................................................... 36
Table 15. Calculation for line (f-f) ..................................................................................................... 37
Table 16. Calculation for line (g-g) ................................................................................................... 37
Table 17. Calculation for line (a-a) .................................................................................................... 38
Table 18. Calculation for line (f-f) ..................................................................................................... 38
Table 19. Calculation for line (g-g) ................................................................................................... 38
Table 20. Calculation of VD for different thicknesses of explosive material .................................... 40
Table 21. Results of testing on measuring detonation velocity for different kinds of explosive
materials ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Table 22. Results of mechanical test in width direction .................................................................... 42
Table 23. Results of mechanical test in length direction ................................................................... 42



























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13

1. Introduction

Impact mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with high rates of energy and load in
a very short time. This important process has applications in many different industries. One of the
most useful ways of producing high energy rate impacts is by use of explosive materials. A small
quantity of explosive material can shape a tank, build a large crankshaft, has the power to weld
many parts of a heat exchanger and improve the mechanical properties of a rail.
Explosive Welding (EXW) is one application of impact waves. The impact waves are of the tension
wave types that produce elastic and plastic deformations in the solid material. Explosive welding
and shaping occurs in the plastic deformation region. Measurement by ultrasonic and impact waves
is done in the elastic deformation region.
In EXW, an oblique impact occurs between two parts such that they behave like fluids and weld
firmly together. Because of the high velocity of impact, a jet is formed that cleans the two surfaces,
presses them together and produces a joint. This joint has an acceptable resistance that is equal or
greater than the resistance of the weaker plate.

1.1. Background
Explosive materials were first used in manufacturing shortly after the Second World War. However,
the first observations of their potential uses in manufacturing date back to the First World War. It
had been observed that a bullet did not only pierce metal but also welded to it. This phenomenon
was subsequently reproduced in the laboratory and applied commercially in industry. Advances in
the aerospace industry and the close tolerances necessary for manufacturing complex parts drove
the use of the EXW method on an industrial scale. By the mid 1950s, EXW was being applied in
manufacturing.
In the following years, it was quickly accepted that EXW methods could be applied to a number of
other industries. EXW processes were adapted and refined to serve the needs of the automotive,
shipbuilding, material processing, mining, and construction industries, among others. Over three
hundred joint between similar and dissimilar materials have been produced until now. The first
experiments with the EXW technique were carried out on horizontal surfaces, but many commercial
tests have subsequently been done on curved surfaces such as pipelines and heat exchanger
components.

1.2. Literature review
This section reviews research that predates this thesis.
One of the major reference works in this field is the book by Blazynski [1]. In the work, Blazynski
described clearly the method of explosive welding, explained wave phenomena and the overall
EXW procedure. The basic method is also described in the book by Crossland [2]. The PATON
Institute [3] and professor Darvizeh [4] have performed many EXW experiments. The fundamentals
of the EXW process have also been explained in a number of handbooks [5], [6] and [7] and the
mechanism of the wave interface has also been described in the literature [8], [9] and [10]. A
number of researchers consider EXW to be fundamentally a fusion welding process (Phillipchuk,
[11]) which relies on the kinetic energy at the interface. Crossland and Williams [12] look at the
method as a pressure weld process.
Otto and Carpenter [13] proposed that interfacial shear occurs during welding, and attributed the
weld to the result of heat generated by shearing at the boundary. The process reaches a very high
temperature at the interface, above the melting point of the welded parts, for a short period on the
order of microseconds. Onzawa [14] reached a similar conclusion in his study. He performed
14

interface observations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is generally accepted, based on
experimental data, that jet creation makes an important contribution to welding. The jet cleans the
surfaces by removing a thin layer of metals and other contaminants. The investigative solutions of
the pressure and jet velocity of the impact of liquid drops were found by Lesser [15] and Lesser and
Field [16], [17], and Field [18] provided the first photographic evidence of the effect. Wilson and
Bronzing [19] studied the waves that form in the interface. The theories proposed for the
mechanism of the wave formation can be classified as indentation mechanism, flow unsteadiness
mechanism, vortex shedding mechanism and stress wave mechanism (Reid, [20]. Bahrani and
Crossland [21], Bergman [22], Bahrani et al. [23] and Abrahamson [24] have worked on groups of
these categories. Another theory of wave formation was proposed by Hunt [25] and Robinson [26],
who suggested that the explosive welding wave forms when there is a velocity difference between
adjacent streams. The flow instability mechanism was described by Robinson, who proposed that
the waves are created behind the collision zone because of a velocity across the interface which
involves a jet. This is different to the flow instability mechanism expressed by Hunt. Cowan [27]
and Kowalik and Hay[28] pointed out the parallels between the waves in explosive welding and the
Von Karma's vortex generated by a barrier. A stress wave mechanism of wave formation was
proposed by El-Soky and Blazynslki. This wave formation mechanism was recognized by Plaksin
[29].
Lazari and Al-Hassani [30] studied the behavior of metal plates under explosive pressure using a
finite element method. They used the theory of virtual displacement of the Lagrangian deformation
to derive the equations of motion. Oberg [31] simulated the explosive welding process using
Lagrangian finite difference computer code. The process was also modeled by Akihisa [32]. Finally,
the results of simulation provided by Alhasani [33] and Akbari Mousavi [34], [35], have been
reviewed.

1.3. Motivation and objective

Application of explosive welding in industry is the main motivation:

The southern Iranian aluminum company ALMAHDI had a requirement for special copper-
aluminum joints with unequal surface areas. Joints they had made previously were unsatisfactory.
As a result of this thesis, more than 1000 successful EXW joints have been made and confirmed by
the factory. Another motivation for conducting this thesis was the problems faced by the oil and gas
industry in repairing and preventing the leakage in pipelines.

Improving some explosive welding method is the main objective of the project:

During the course of this research, many experiments have been performed on materials of various
types and shapes, and a number of new techniques have been applied to improving the EXW
process, including a new method for horizontal welding, a new method for curve welding, and a
useful curve of the velocity of explosive material versus its thickness.
1.4. Research approach



The main hypothesis of this thesis is that Materials can be bonded together by the high energy
transient pressure or impact waves produced by oblique collision at high velocity.
To test this hypothesis, explosive material was used to produce the high velocity or impact waves to
weld metals, a process called explosive welding.
14

interface observations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is generally accepted, based on
experimental data, that jet creation makes an important contribution to welding. The jet cleans the
surfaces by removing a thin layer of metals and other contaminants. The investigative solutions of
the pressure and jet velocity of the impact of liquid drops were found by Lesser [15] and Lesser and
Field [16], [17], and Field [18] provided the first photographic evidence of the effect. Wilson and
Bronzing [19] studied the waves that form in the interface. The theories proposed for the
mechanism of the wave formation can be classified as indentation mechanism, flow unsteadiness
mechanism, vortex shedding mechanism and stress wave mechanism (Reid, [20]. Bahrani and
Crossland [21], Bergman [22], Bahrani et al. [23] and Abrahamson [24] have worked on groups of
these categories. Another theory of wave formation was proposed by Hunt [25] and Robinson [26],
who suggested that the explosive welding wave forms when there is a velocity difference between
adjacent streams. The flow instability mechanism was described by Robinson, who proposed that
the waves are created behind the collision zone because of a velocity across the interface which
involves a jet. This is different to the flow instability mechanism expressed by Hunt. Cowan [27]
and Kowalik and Hay[28] pointed out the parallels between the waves in explosive welding and the
Von Karma's vortex generated by a barrier. A stress wave mechanism of wave formation was
proposed by El-Soky and Blazynslki. This wave formation mechanism was recognized by Plaksin
[29].
Lazari and Al-Hassani [30] studied the behavior of metal plates under explosive pressure using a
finite element method. They used the theory of virtual displacement of the Lagrangian deformation
to derive the equations of motion. Oberg [31] simulated the explosive welding process using
Lagrangian finite difference computer code. The process was also modeled by Akihisa [32]. Finally,
the results of simulation provided by Alhasani [33] and Akbari Mousavi [34], [35], have been
reviewed.

1.3. Motivation and objective

Application of explosive welding in industry is the main motivation:

The southern Iranian aluminum company ALMAHDI had a requirement for special copper-
aluminum joints with unequal surface areas. Joints they had made previously were unsatisfactory.
As a result of this thesis, more than 1000 successful EXW joints have been made and confirmed by
the factory. Another motivation for conducting this thesis was the problems faced by the oil and gas
industry in repairing and preventing the leakage in pipelines.

Improving some explosive welding method is the main objective of the project:

During the course of this research, many experiments have been performed on materials of various
types and shapes, and a number of new techniques have been applied to improving the EXW
process, including a new method for horizontal welding, a new method for curve welding, and a
useful curve of the velocity of explosive material versus its thickness.
1.4. Research approach



The main hypothesis of this thesis is that Materials can be bonded together by the high energy
transient pressure or impact waves produced by oblique collision at high velocity.
To test this hypothesis, explosive material was used to produce the high velocity or impact waves to
weld metals, a process called explosive welding.
15

The work described by this thesis includes studies of the process, review of previous work in the
field, design of experiments using different materials and shapes, manipulation and control of
parameters before and after welding, calculation of the weld parameters, process optimization,
simulation and comparison of the results. Following numerous experiments on different materials
with different geometries, such as horizontal and vertical alignment, different surfaces and curved
shapes, several methods for improving the process are proposed.

1.5. Limitations

EXW has several limitations in theory and in practice. Working with explosives is very dangerous
and the high levels of sound produced can be harmful to hearing. The plate surfaces must be clean
and the process is best performed in a vacuum. EXW is at present a manual process and has not
been automated. There are various analytical methods for calculating the process variables, and
many formulas are obtained empirically. Therefore, simulation and calculation of these methods is
very difficult. All of the experiments performed for this thesis were performed in a vacuum
chamber.

1.6. Methodology

This experimental work described in this thesis is divided into five stages:
Stage 1:
Study, calculation and experimental work on explosive welding together of horizontal surfaces of
equal surface areas and different materials such as Fe-Fe, Al-Cu and Fe-Cu
Tests are first performed on flat surfaces because EXW of flat surfaces is easier than on rods and
curved surfaces.
Stage 2:
Study, calculation and experimental work on explosive welding together of horizontal surfaces of
unequal surface areas and different materials such as Fe-Fe, Al-Cu and Fe-Cu
Here experimental tests (horizontal, vertical and dual method) are carried out on flat surfaces with
different dimensions.
Stage 3:
Study, calculation and experimental work on explosive welding of curved shapes
Tests are performed on curved surfaces based on the results from the tests on flat surfaces. A steel
rod is used at this stage.
Stage 4:
Study on explosive welding of cylindrical surfaces with different materials such as Fe-Fe, Al-Cu,
and Fe-Cu
Experiments are performed on cylindrical surfaces such as pipes and tubes.
Stage 5:
Control of explosive parameters (explosive materials process parameters, mechanical testing)
EXW parameters such as explosion velocity and flyer plate velocity are measured.
The work is presented in papers 1-7 and the areas covered are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of papers
Paper Area discussed Stages
6, 7 Horizontal EXW 1
5, 4, 7 EXW Simulation 1
1 EXW of unequal surfaces 2
2 EXW of curved shapes 3 and 4
3 Explosive materials 5
16

1.7. Thesis Outline
This thesis describes research during which more than 100 experiments were performed and the
results were applied in a large aluminum production company. There are at least 3 patentable
technologies described in the results. The thesis is organised as follows:

Part 1 Introduction: including background, objectives, motivation, limitations of the studies,
presentation of the methodology, formulation of the problem and outline of the thesis.
Part 2 Theory: including definitions and expressions used in the thesis, and presentation of theory
in preparation for the scientific discussion.
Part 3 Experimental Data and Results: including the experimental set up, results and test reports.
Part 4 Discussion: including discussion of results, calculations, and future work.
Part 5 Conclusions: including conclusions and practical output.
Part 6 References
Part 7 Summary of Papers























16

1.7. Thesis Outline
This thesis describes research during which more than 100 experiments were performed and the
results were applied in a large aluminum production company. There are at least 3 patentable
technologies described in the results. The thesis is organised as follows:

Part 1 Introduction: including background, objectives, motivation, limitations of the studies,
presentation of the methodology, formulation of the problem and outline of the thesis.
Part 2 Theory: including definitions and expressions used in the thesis, and presentation of theory
in preparation for the scientific discussion.
Part 3 Experimental Data and Results: including the experimental set up, results and test reports.
Part 4 Discussion: including discussion of results, calculations, and future work.
Part 5 Conclusions: including conclusions and practical output.
Part 6 References
Part 7 Summary of Papers























17

2. Theory

2.1. Mechanism and set up

Explosive welding occurs under oblique impact at high velocity. The explosive energy is used to
form a cold pressure weld. The basic setup for welding two plates is shown in Figure 1. The flyer
plate is mounted at a small angle to the parent plate which is held on an anvil which can be either a
metal plate or sand. The top surface of the flyer plate is covered with a layer or buffer, which may
be rubber or a thick coat of plastic. A layer of explosive material in the form of a sheet or powder is
laid on top of the buffer and it explodes from the lower edge. A specific distance - the stand-off
distance - and an initial angle between the flyer and parent plates are necessary for the flyer plate
to obtain the required acceleration. The impact angle (also called the collision or dynamic angle)
can be variable depending on the plate arrangement. In a parallel setup is zero and is constant,
but in an oblique and a curved set up, can vary during the process [4].

.


a b
Figure 1. a) Basic set up for explosive welding [1] b) The explosive bonding process [4]

The EXW process can be divided into three basic phases:
(I) Detonation of the explosive charge
(II) Acceleration and deformation of the flyer plate
(III) Collision of the plates
It is accepted that jet formation at the contact point is an essential condition for the welding. This jet
sweeps away the oxide films on the surfaces of the metals and forms a metallurgical bond that
causes the atoms of the two materials to meet at atomic scale distances. The pressure has to be
sufficiently high and last for a sufficient time for these inter-atomic bonds to be formed. The
velocity of the collision point V
c
sets the time available for bonding. The pressure also causes local
plastic deformation of the metals at the interface. The strength of the bond is stronger than the
strength of the weaker plate material, and the quality of the bond depends on careful control of
parameters such as surface grounding, plate separation and the detonation velocity V
d
(see Figure
2). The impact velocity V
p
and the dynamic angle determine the pressure and the shear stress at
the collision point.


Figure 2: Geometry of the process during the collapse [1]

The following equations can be derived from the geometry at the collision point (Figure 2):
18

sin

cos

2

sin
cos

2


2sin

2
cos

2

cos

2

sin

(1)

From the sine equations in triangle SBD we can write:

cos

2

cos

2

sin

(2)

(3)
Where

is the velocity of the flyer plate in relation to point s and

is the velocity of welding,

equal to the collision velocity

.
In a parallel set up =0 and

, and from the previous equations:

2 sin

(4)
The selection of parameters is based on the mechanical properties, density, and shear wave velocity
of each component, and many of these are determined experimentally. Considerable progress has
been made in setting up the optimum parameters required to produce an acceptable bond.
The parameters involved in the process (such as

, , etc.) are defined in a special

diagram called the Welding Window (WW) that has been proposed by various authors [36].

2.2. The impact wave in explosive welding

In EXW the pressure created in the region of the detonation front of the explosive charge is used to
provide rapid acceleration of the flyer plate to a high velocity prior to impact on the parent plate.
The flyer plate velocity depends on the amount of explosive charge and the stand-off distance. The
pressure produced in the detonation front transmits into the flyer plate as a stress compression wave.
When the compression wave reaches the back surface of the metal slab, it is reflected as a tension
wave, and the velocity of particles is doubled [1] (Figure 3a). The same phenomenon occurs at the
edges of the plates where the impact wave propagates horizontally. This edge effect creates
problems for the quality of welding at the edges.
The pressure waves in the flyer plate are oblique and when they are reflected from the back surface
of the plate, they give rise to both a dilatational wave and a shear wave (Figure 3b). Many authors
have written on this subject. Examples of their conclusions include:
a) A low stress wave transmits through the solid at the speed of sound, which can be readily
derived from the theory of elasticity [2].
18

sin

cos

2

sin
cos

2


2sin

2
cos

2

cos

2

sin

(1)

From the sine equations in triangle SBD we can write:

cos

2

cos

2

sin

(2)

(3)
Where

is the velocity of the flyer plate in relation to point s and

is the velocity of welding,

equal to the collision velocity

.
In a parallel set up =0 and

, and from the previous equations:

2 sin

(4)
The selection of parameters is based on the mechanical properties, density, and shear wave velocity
of each component, and many of these are determined experimentally. Considerable progress has
been made in setting up the optimum parameters required to produce an acceptable bond.
The parameters involved in the process (such as

, , etc.) are defined in a special

diagram called the Welding Window (WW) that has been proposed by various authors [36].

2.2. The impact wave in explosive welding

In EXW the pressure created in the region of the detonation front of the explosive charge is used to
provide rapid acceleration of the flyer plate to a high velocity prior to impact on the parent plate.
The flyer plate velocity depends on the amount of explosive charge and the stand-off distance. The
pressure produced in the detonation front transmits into the flyer plate as a stress compression wave.
When the compression wave reaches the back surface of the metal slab, it is reflected as a tension
wave, and the velocity of particles is doubled [1] (Figure 3a). The same phenomenon occurs at the
edges of the plates where the impact wave propagates horizontally. This edge effect creates
problems for the quality of welding at the edges.
The pressure waves in the flyer plate are oblique and when they are reflected from the back surface
of the plate, they give rise to both a dilatational wave and a shear wave (Figure 3b). Many authors
have written on this subject. Examples of their conclusions include:
a) A low stress wave transmits through the solid at the speed of sound, which can be readily
derived from the theory of elasticity [2].
19

b) At high pressure, as in a shock wave, the shear strength becomes negligible compared to the
pressure and the material behaves like a fluid [3].
c) El-Sobky and Blazynski [1] suggested a mechanism for the stress wave, represented in
Figure 3d. In their model, a single compression wave (symbolized by a full circle) is generated
at the collision point, while successive reflections from both the flyer and parent plate
(represented by the dashed circles) generate the wavy shape at the contact point that can be
seen under the SEM microscope.

a

b
c
d
Figure 3. Impact wave reflection [1]
a) Reflection of a compressive stress wave from back surface of the metal plate
b) Detonation of a layer of explosive in contact with a metal plate
c) Stress wave mechanism of surface wave formation
d) The wavy shape of the contact point

2.3. Predicting the wavelength
Figure 4 shows the shape of the impact wave at the interface of the plates. The wavelength can be
derived from this figure as follows:









Figure 4. Shape of the wave at the interface of the plates [1]


= C . A (7)

Where A is amplitude and C is a constant.

2A
x x
20

The plastic work

is therefore:

(8)

Where l is the length of the plate and Y is the ultimate yield point of the metal.
The kinetic energy can be expressed as:


1
2

(9)

where is the kinetic energy and is the thickness of the flyer plate.
The wavelength is obtained by equating the plastic work and the kinetic energy. The wavelength
can therefore be determined from Equations 4, 8 and 9we could:

(10)

k has been measured experimentally at 28, therefore:

2

(11)
In addition, we know from experimental data that is obtained as follows:

2 (12)



2.4. Bonding criteria

Previous experiments have shown that there are critical values for the geometry and the collision
parameters which have to be observed for successful welding. These are summarized below.

Velocity limit
Because a jet must be formed at the collision point, the collision angle is critical and it is a
function of

(the collision velocity). It has been shown experimentally that

and

(the velocity
of the flyer plate) must be less than the speed of sound in both metals. It is known that at supersonic
velocities, the dynamic pressure is not sustained for long enough to support the changes of inter-
atomic flow and stability in the collision area. As

is dependent on

and , it can be adjusted by

setting up an initial angle of obliquity (). The speed of sound provides an upper limit for

and

.
These velocities may be increased by increasing .

is assumed constant in the welding area in an

explosive welding process [10].

Collision angle ()
The collision angle must be between 5 and 25 [1].

5 25 (13)





20

The plastic work

is therefore:

(8)

Where l is the length of the plate and Y is the ultimate yield point of the metal.
The kinetic energy can be expressed as:


1
2

(9)

where is the kinetic energy and is the thickness of the flyer plate.
The wavelength is obtained by equating the plastic work and the kinetic energy. The wavelength
can therefore be determined from Equations 4, 8 and 9we could:

(10)

k has been measured experimentally at 28, therefore:

2

(11)
In addition, we know from experimental data that is obtained as follows:

2 (12)



2.4. Bonding criteria

Previous experiments have shown that there are critical values for the geometry and the collision
parameters which have to be observed for successful welding. These are summarized below.

Velocity limit
Because a jet must be formed at the collision point, the collision angle is critical and it is a
function of

(the collision velocity). It has been shown experimentally that

and

(the velocity
of the flyer plate) must be less than the speed of sound in both metals. It is known that at supersonic
velocities, the dynamic pressure is not sustained for long enough to support the changes of inter-
atomic flow and stability in the collision area. As

is dependent on

and , it can be adjusted by

setting up an initial angle of obliquity (). The speed of sound provides an upper limit for

and

.
These velocities may be increased by increasing .

is assumed constant in the welding area in an

explosive welding process [10].

Collision angle ()
The collision angle must be between 5 and 25 [1].

5 25 (13)





21

Pressure limit
A minimum impact pressure (

) is required to impart sufficient impact energy to produce a weld. It

has been suggested by Wylie et al. [1] that the impact energy required is related to the strain energy
and the dynamic yield strength of the flyer plate. The upper limit of the impact energy is determined
by the need to avoid excess heat and possible melting by viscous dissipation and the consequent
formation of weak layers. This upper limit depends to the lower melting point of the weld.



Stand-off
The stand-off distance must be sufficient to allow the flyer plate to accelerate to the required impact
velocity. The minimum stand-off distance has been empirically determined as half the thickness of
the flyer plate. An empirically determined formula for the suggested stand-off distance [1] is:

S=3 K Xe C/M (14)

Where S is the stand-off distance, K is between 4 and 7, depending on the impact velocity, M is the
flyer plate mass, C is the explosion mass and Xe is the thickness of explosive material.

Surface flatness
The flatness is very important in the EXW process. This is because imperfections in the surface
cause the jet to be concentrated at a point, which produces high temperatures at the contact points,
thereby preventing high quality welding. For a successful test, surface flatness in the range of 2 to 3
microns is sufficient.

Explosive material
High velocity explosive materials are not used in the EXW process because of the risk of damage to
the flyer plate during the test.

A special diagram called the welding window or weld-ability window is used to describe the state
of plates at the interface and in the weld area. The critical parameters used to establish a weld-
ability window are
The critical impact angle for jet formation
The collision velocity

The kinetic energy and impact pressure that is indicated by


2.5. Welding window

The welding window (WW) includes straight and curved regions. In order to draw the WW the
relationships between the initial conditions (the angles and and the characteristics of the
explosive) must be established. The WW lies within the boundaries of 7 parameters as shown in
Figure 5. The parameters , ,

,
,
,

and the properties of the material determine the WW.
This diagram can be drawn in both the

- and

- plane and displays an area within which the

weld is available. In this thesis the WW is drawn only in the

- plane.

22


Figure 5. An example of a WW diagram in the Vc- plane


Critical angle limit for jet formation [line a-a]
The most important condition for welding is jet formation. This must occur at the contact point for
successful welding to occur. Theoretically, jetting will occur if

remains subsonic. However, in

practice a minimum angle is necessary to satisfy the pressure requirements. Jetting occurs to the left
of the line a-a in Figure 5, which represents the critical angle
c
which is necessary for jetting.
Abrahamson suggests the following relationship between and

[24]:

= 10(

-5.5) (15)

Upper limit of

[line b-b]
Line b-b in Figure 5 describes the upper limit of

, which is predictable at 1.2 to 1.5 times the

speed of sound, and which also limits the other WW parameters.

Lower and upper limit of [lines c-c and d-d]
The lower and upper limits of the dynamic angle were experimentally obtained by Bahrani and
Crosslan [21]. They suggested a lower limit of between 2 and 3 and upper limit of 31 for in a
parallel geometry. Suggested minimum and maximum values of the initial angle in an inclined set
up are 3 and 18 respectively.


Lower limit of

[line e-e]
Equation 16 defines the lower limit of

for bonding as proposed by Simonov [10].

(16)

Cowan [27] defined the lower limit of

according to the fluid hypothesis as follows:

2
2
(17)
22


Figure 5. An example of a WW diagram in the Vc- plane


Critical angle limit for jet formation [line a-a]
The most important condition for welding is jet formation. This must occur at the contact point for
successful welding to occur. Theoretically, jetting will occur if

remains subsonic. However, in

practice a minimum angle is necessary to satisfy the pressure requirements. Jetting occurs to the left
of the line a-a in Figure 5, which represents the critical angle
c
which is necessary for jetting.
Abrahamson suggests the following relationship between and

[24]:

= 10(

-5.5) (15)

Upper limit of

[line b-b]
Line b-b in Figure 5 describes the upper limit of

, which is predictable at 1.2 to 1.5 times the

speed of sound, and which also limits the other WW parameters.

Lower and upper limit of [lines c-c and d-d]
The lower and upper limits of the dynamic angle were experimentally obtained by Bahrani and
Crosslan [21]. They suggested a lower limit of between 2 and 3 and upper limit of 31 for in a
parallel geometry. Suggested minimum and maximum values of the initial angle in an inclined set
up are 3 and 18 respectively.


Lower limit of

[line e-e]
Equation 16 defines the lower limit of

for bonding as proposed by Simonov [10].

(16)

Cowan [27] defined the lower limit of

according to the fluid hypothesis as follows:

2
2
(17)
23

Where Re is the Reynolds number, H is the Vickers hardness (

and F and B stand for flyer

and base plates respectively. The lower limit of

can be determined at the transition limit which

occurs at Re=10.6.

Lower limit of impact critical pressure (

) [line f-f]
Equation 18 shows the lower limit for welding of in radians, where H is the Vickers hardness in
N/m
2
and is the density in kg/m
3
.

=1.14

(18)
The equation simplifies to:

= cte (19)

Hardness is derived from tensile stress as follows [1]:

Hv=5 (20)

Wittman [7] also proposed a lower limit for

as follows:

(21)

Where
TU
is the ultimate tensile stress and C is the bulk sound velocity.
Equation 22 gives another formulation for the lower limit of

[4]:

(min)

(22)

Where A is a symbol for the plate with higher strength, yield stress and U is the speed of
sound in the metal. Equation 23 gives

for the plates with the same material:

(min)

(23)

Upper limit of

[line g-g]

Wittman gives the upper limit for welding as:

sin

(24)

Where t is the thickness of the flyer plate and k
3
is experimentally determined with

set to half the

compressive wave velocity C
f
.

Wittman also suggested the following experimental formula:

Sin /2=1/

(25)
24


2.6. Governing equations

The main governing equation for the EXW process is the equation of motion [37]:

(26)

A number of useful equations follow below.
The collision velocity, dynamic angle and thickness of flyer plate are related to each other as
follows:

f =f (,

, t) (27)

From plastic theory [37], the maximum pressure is expressed as:

P= C

(28)
Using the hydrodynamic method, the maximum pressure is:

(29)

Power in the EXW process is given by:

(30)


Where Ei is strain energy, and m1 and m2 are the masses of flyer and parent plates [38].
From equation 30,

is calculated as follows:

Opt.
=
C

=0.557C
0
(31)
Equation 32 is an experimentally determined formula that relates the flyer plate velocity to the
explosive velocity.

0.612 e/m
2e/m

(32)

Where e/m is the ratio of mass of the explosive material to the mass of the flyer plate and buffer


2.7. Testing methods

The main requirement to achieve the best quality welds is accurate calculation of EXW parameters.
These parameters can be estimated from theory and experimentally. The most important of these are

, , explosion power and explosion sensitivity. Some of the important parameters can only
be measured after welding. Other operations that are carried out after the welding process include
mechanical testing, metallographic testing, NDT testing, machining, stress relief, cutting and sizing.

24


2.6. Governing equations

The main governing equation for the EXW process is the equation of motion [37]:

(26)

A number of useful equations follow below.
The collision velocity, dynamic angle and thickness of flyer plate are related to each other as
follows:

f =f (,

, t) (27)

From plastic theory [37], the maximum pressure is expressed as:

P= C

(28)
Using the hydrodynamic method, the maximum pressure is:

(29)

Power in the EXW process is given by:

(30)


Where Ei is strain energy, and m1 and m2 are the masses of flyer and parent plates [38].
From equation 30,

is calculated as follows:

Opt.
=
C

=0.557C
0
(31)
Equation 32 is an experimentally determined formula that relates the flyer plate velocity to the
explosive velocity.

0.612 e/m
2e/m

(32)

Where e/m is the ratio of mass of the explosive material to the mass of the flyer plate and buffer


2.7. Testing methods

The main requirement to achieve the best quality welds is accurate calculation of EXW parameters.
These parameters can be estimated from theory and experimentally. The most important of these are

, , explosion power and explosion sensitivity. Some of the important parameters can only
be measured after welding. Other operations that are carried out after the welding process include
mechanical testing, metallographic testing, NDT testing, machining, stress relief, cutting and sizing.

25

Tests to be carried out before welding:

a) Measuring

and

Dutrich method
One of the easiest and oldest methods for measuring the detonation velocity is the Dutrich method.
In this method wire of length L with a detonation velocity

is held in contact at two different

points to an explosive material of unknown detonation velocity

. The distance between the

contact points is L
1
(shown in Figure 6). The middle of the wire is marked on a thin aluminum,
brass or lead plate. The explosive wave passes through both ends of the wire. They collide at a point
a distance L
2
from the middle of the wire. This collision creates a mark on the abovementioned
plate.

Figure 6. Determination of detonation velocity by Dutrich method [4]

The time that it takes for the explosive wave to travel from each contact point to the collision point
is the same.

t
1
=t
2


L
1
/ V
D
+ (L /2 L
2
)/ V
d
= (L /2) / V
d
+ L
2
/ V
d


L
1
/ V
D
=2 L 2 / V
d


V
D
= V
d
L
1
/ 2 L
2
(33)

L
1
, L
2
and

are known -

can therefore be calculated from equation 33.

Pin contactor method

can be measured using a complex recording system to record electrical pulses. In the EXW
process when the flyer and parent plates are parallel,

is equal to

. This provides the basis for

the pin contactor method.

Velocity probe method

and

can be calculated directly by using measuring probes to draw the location-time curve.
Each probe includes a closed-ended aluminum tube and a sensitive insulating wire. The voltage
variation after the explosion, caused by the decrease in the length of the insulating wire is measured
and indicated by oscilloscope.

Slanting wire method (for measuring

and )
26

This is a simple electrical method which is used to obtain contact parameters using electrical probes
and an oscilloscope.
Photographic method (for measuring

)
This method can be used to measure

continuously.
Radiography method (for measuring )
This is similar to the photographic method except in that it uses Xrays. Radiography can be used to
show the location and the moment of contact. The angle is therefore measured directly.

b) Measuring explosive power

Ballistic mortar method
In this method an explosive charge of 10 gram is used to fire a standard shot at the end of a
pendulum. The angle of recoil following the explosion is measured and used to calculate the
explosive power.

Trauzl method
In this method the explosive is placed in a cylindrical hole in a lead block. The remainder of the
hole is filled with sand. The explosive power can be calculated by measuring the increase in the
volume of the hole after detonation.

c) Measuring sensitivity

The sensitivity is used to determine the necessary load to initiate detonation. A small booster charge
is placed between the detonator and the main charge. The mass of the booster charge required to
initiate a stable detonation is used to calculate the sensitivity.

Tests to be carried out after welding

a) Primary tests
These including sizing, cutting, machining and stress relief.

b) NDT tests
Non destructive tests, including ultrasonic and radiography tests.

c) Mechanical tests

Impact resistance test
The impact test is used to check the strength of a weld under dynamic load.

Chisel or peel off test
This is a simple but very important test, and is illustrated in Figure 7. A chisel is used to try to
separate two the plates. Easy separation of the plates indicates incomplete welding.





Figure 7. The chisel test [1]
26

This is a simple electrical method which is used to obtain contact parameters using electrical probes
and an oscilloscope.
Photographic method (for measuring

)
This method can be used to measure

continuously.
Radiography method (for measuring )
This is similar to the photographic method except in that it uses Xrays. Radiography can be used to
show the location and the moment of contact. The angle is therefore measured directly.

b) Measuring explosive power

Ballistic mortar method
In this method an explosive charge of 10 gram is used to fire a standard shot at the end of a
pendulum. The angle of recoil following the explosion is measured and used to calculate the
explosive power.

Trauzl method
In this method the explosive is placed in a cylindrical hole in a lead block. The remainder of the
hole is filled with sand. The explosive power can be calculated by measuring the increase in the
volume of the hole after detonation.

c) Measuring sensitivity

The sensitivity is used to determine the necessary load to initiate detonation. A small booster charge
is placed between the detonator and the main charge. The mass of the booster charge required to
initiate a stable detonation is used to calculate the sensitivity.

Tests to be carried out after welding

a) Primary tests
These including sizing, cutting, machining and stress relief.

b) NDT tests
Non destructive tests, including ultrasonic and radiography tests.

c) Mechanical tests

Impact resistance test
The impact test is used to check the strength of a weld under dynamic load.

Chisel or peel off test
This is a simple but very important test, and is illustrated in Figure 7. A chisel is used to try to
separate two the plates. Easy separation of the plates indicates incomplete welding.





Figure 7. The chisel test [1]
27




Tensile tests
Including shear and tensile tests.

d) Metallographic tests

Metallographic tests are performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM is a useful
method for evaluating the quality of welding. Under SEM, a perfect weld has a uniformly wavy
geometry. Irregularities or cracks indicate problems with the weld.

2.8. Simulation of the explosive welding process

As most results of EXW have been obtained by explosive experiments, repetition of similar
experiments can be avoided by using modeling and simulation. In addition, result prediction,
parameter selection and wave distribution determination can be performed by simulation software.
The most important simulation software packages in impact mechanics are ABAQUS, ANSYS, LS-
DYNA, AUTODYN, RAVEN [39] and COMSOL [40]. Stress, strain, pressure, temperature
distribution, behavior of materials and displacement of energy can be simulated in two or three
dimensions. Figure 8 shows a 2D simulation of pressure distribution in an EXW process in
AUTODYN software.


Figure 8. Pressure simulation by AUTODYN software [34]

COMSOL software is used to check results in some sections of this thesis [40].












28













28













29

3. Experimental Data, Results and Calculations

3.1. Experiment setup
The set up has been done in 5 stages:
Stage 1: EXW experiments on horizontal and flat surfaces with different materials
The materials used and their specifications are listed in Tables 2, 3, and 4. The setup for an
experiment with a Fe-Fe joint is shown in Figure 9.

Fe-Fe

Table 2. Specification of Fe-Fe horizontal setup
No. Flyer plate Parent plate Stand-off . Explosive . V
D
Buffer Detonator
1 Fe-Su
8u Smm

Fe-Su
8u Smm

8mm 0 Ammonium-nitrate:
50 gr.
dynamite : 10 gr.
.8

1.2
2000

3000
Al
foil
1
2 Fe-Su
8u Smm

Fe-Su
8u Smm

2.Smm 4 dynamite : 40 gr. 1.5

4000

Al
foil
1


Figure 9. Setup for Fe-Fe welding

Al-Cu

Table 3. Specification of Al-Cu horizontal setup
Flyer plate Parent plate Stand-off . Explosive p V
D
Buffer Detonator
Al-Su
8u Smm

Cu-Su 8u
Smm

8mm 0 Ammonium-nitrate:
110 gr.
Dynamite: 40 gr.
.8

1.2
2000

3000
Al foil 1

Fe-Cu
Table 4. Specification of Fe-Cu horizontal setup
Flyer plate Parent plate Stand-off . Explosive V
D
Buffer Detonator
Fe-Su
8u Smm

cu-Su
8u Smm

8mm 0 Ammonium-nitrate :
50 gr.
Dynamite : 10 gr.
.8

1.2
2000

3000
Al foil 1

Stage 2: Experimental work on EXW experiments on unequal flat surfaces with different
materials
Horizontal, vertical and dual experiments were performed on unequal flat surfaces. These tests were
performed prior to the subsequent stage of welding on curved shapes because explosive welding on
cylindrical shapes is effectively welding on surfaces of unequal surface areas. The specifications of
the experiments are shown in Tables 5 and 6. Figures 10 and 11 show the experimental setups of the
different arrangements (horizontal, vertical and dual). In order to prevent problematic edge effects

when weld
in Figure 1

Horizonta

No. Flyer p
1 Al 30
100

2 Al 50
120


Vertical u

Flyer plate
Al 50
120

Al 50
120


ding unequa
10 and will b
al unequal s
plate Pare

Cu-
200

Cu-
200


nequal sur
Ta
Parent plat
Cu-100
200
10
Cu-100
200
10

al surfaces d
be explaine
surface are
Table 5. Sp
ent plate S
-100
0 10
-100
0 10
a


rface areas
able 6. Specificat
e Stand-of

different set
ed in subseq
eas (Al-Cu)
ecification of Al
Stand-off





Figure 10. U
a)
b)
(Al-Cu)
tion of Al-Cu Ve
ff . E


0


0
D
7
D
7
tups were u
quent section
)
-Cu, unequal su
Explos
0 Dynam
powde
75

0 Dynam
powde
75
Unequal surface
Al-Cu, unequal
Al-Cu, unequal
rtical unequal su
Explosive
Dynamite po
75

Dynamite po
75

used for som

ns.
urface area, horiz
sive .
mite
er

1.2
gr./
mite
er

1.2
gr./
e area set up
l surface area, ho
surface area, ho
urface area and
.
owder
owder
1.
gr

1.
gr

me experim
zontal set up
V
D

/

660
m/s
/

660
m/s
b
orizontal set up
orizontal set up
dual method set
V
D

.2
r./

.2
r./

660
m/s
660
m/s

ments. These
Buffer
0

1 mm
Paper
0 1 mm
Paper
(first test)
(second test)
t up
Buffer
00
00
1 mm
Paper

1 mm
paper

30
e are shown
Detonator
1
1



Detonator
2


2
0
n

when weld
in Figure 1

Horizonta

No. Flyer p
1 Al 30
100

2 Al 50
120


Vertical u

Flyer plate
Al 50
120

Al 50
120


ding unequa
10 and will b
al unequal s
plate Pare

Cu-
200

Cu-
200


nequal sur
Ta
Parent plat
Cu-100
200
10
Cu-100
200
10

al surfaces d
be explaine
surface are
Table 5. Sp
ent plate S
-100
0 10
-100
0 10
a


rface areas
able 6. Specificat
e Stand-of

different set
ed in subseq
eas (Al-Cu)
ecification of Al
Stand-off





Figure 10. U
a)
b)
(Al-Cu)
tion of Al-Cu Ve
ff . E


0


0
D
7
D
7
tups were u
quent section
)
-Cu, unequal su
Explos
0 Dynam
powde
75

0 Dynam
powde
75
Unequal surface
Al-Cu, unequal
Al-Cu, unequal
rtical unequal su
Explosive
Dynamite po
75

Dynamite po
75

used for som

ns.
urface area, horiz
sive .
mite
er

1.2
gr./
mite
er

1.2
gr./
e area set up
l surface area, ho
surface area, ho
urface area and
.
owder
owder
1.
gr

1.
gr

me experim
zontal set up
V
D

/

660
m/s
/

660
m/s
b
orizontal set up
orizontal set up
dual method set
V
D

.2
r./

.2
r./

660
m/s
660
m/s

ments. These
Buffer
0

1 mm
Paper
0 1 mm
Paper
(first test)
(second test)
t up
Buffer
00
00
1 mm
Paper

1 mm
paper

30
e are shown
Detonator
1
1



Detonator
2


2
0
n
31


Figure 11. Al-Cu vertical unequal surface area and dual method set up

Stage 3: EXW of curved metal plates
EXW experiments were performed on curved metal plates by applying the results of Stage 2. The
experiments are summarized in Table 7. Figure 12 shows the experimental setup for filling a small
hole in a plate and Figure 13 shows the experimental setup for welding on a curved surface.

Table 7. Specification of Stage 3 experiments
No. Flyer plate Parent plate Stand-off . Explosive V
D
Buffer Fig.
1 Cu -o. S 2S
2S mm
Fc -S Su
8u mm
Smm 0 Detonator
(0.7 gr.)
7000 m/s Mastic 12
2 Cu 0.5
thickness
25 mm
diameter
Fe-80 mm
diameter
Smm 0 Detonator
(0.7 gr.)

7000 m/s Mastic 13


Figure 12. Set up for filling a small hole


Figure 13. Set up for welding on a curve

Stage 4: EXW on cylindrical surfaces with different materials

EXW experiments were performed on pipes and tubes. The materials and physical specification of
the experiments are shown in Table 8. Figure 14 shows the setup used to fill a small hole to repair a
leak in a pipe.

Table 8. Specification of experiments in Stage 4
Flyer plate Parent plate Stand-off . Explosive V
D
Buffer Fig.
Cu 0.5 thickness
25 mm diameter
Fe 80-3 mm Pipe Smm 0 Detonator
(0.7 gr.)

7000
m/s
Mastic 14

32


Figure 14. Set up for repairing a leak and filling a small hole in a pipe
Key: 1-flyer plate Cu, 2-pipe Fe, 3-stand-off, 4-filler Fe, 5-detonator holder, 6- detonator

Stage 5: EXW Control parameters (explosive materials process parameters, test results)
The specification of experiments is shown in Table 9. Figures 15 and 16 show experimental setups
for measuring V
d
by the Dutrich method.

Table 9. Specification of experiments in Stage 5 (Dutrich method)
No. Wire
specification
Plate
specification
Explosive
thickness
Explosive
material
. L
1
L
1 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Al -6uu
1Su
u.Smm
8 mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3


1Summ 9Summ
2 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
8mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
3 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
10mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
4 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
12mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
5 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
15mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
6 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
20mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
*AZAR is an explosive mixture that includes TNT and ammonium nitrate.

Figure 15. Dutrich method setup using a thin Aluminum plate

Figure 16. Dutrich method setup using a Brass plate



32


Figure 14. Set up for repairing a leak and filling a small hole in a pipe
Key: 1-flyer plate Cu, 2-pipe Fe, 3-stand-off, 4-filler Fe, 5-detonator holder, 6- detonator

Stage 5: EXW Control parameters (explosive materials process parameters, test results)
The specification of experiments is shown in Table 9. Figures 15 and 16 show experimental setups
for measuring V
d
by the Dutrich method.

Table 9. Specification of experiments in Stage 5 (Dutrich method)
No. Wire
specification
Plate
specification
Explosive
thickness
Explosive
material
. L
1
L
1 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Al -6uu
1Su
u.Smm
8 mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3


1Summ 9Summ
2 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
8mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
3 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
10mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
4 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
12mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
5 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
15mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
6 Cortex 5gr/m
Vd=6500m/s
Br -4uu
1Su
Smm
20mm AZAR* 1.4
gr./cm
3

1Summ 9Summ
*AZAR is an explosive mixture that includes TNT and ammonium nitrate.

Figure 15. Dutrich method setup using a thin Aluminum plate

Figure 16. Dutrich method setup using a Brass plate




3.2.

Stage 1
The results


Stage 2
Figure 18
(horizontal






Stage 3
Figure 19 s
horizontal

Experim
s of explosiv
a
d

shows th
l, vertical an



shows the re
and curved
mental Res
ve welding


Fig



e results o
nd dual met
a
c
Figur


esults of ex
d shapes.
sults
on horizont
gure 17. Results



of explosiv
thod).




re 18. EXW of un
a, b) Resu
c, d) Resu
xplosive wel
tal and flat
b
e
of EXW on hori
a, b, c )Experim
d, e) Experime
f) Experiment

ve welding




nequal surface a
ults of Al-Cu joi
ults of Al-Cu join
lding for fil
surfaces are

izontal flat surfa
ments for Fe-Fe
ents for Fe-Fe w
ts for Fe-Fe weld

on materi




areas
nt in horizontal
nt in vertical and
ling a small
e shown in F
aces
welding
elding
ding

ials with u
b

setup
d dual method s
l hole using
Figure 17.
c
f
unequal sur
d
etup
g a detonato
33

rface areas


r charge on
3
s
n



Stage 4
Fig 20 sho


Stage 5
The results
the explosi
at the midd
aluminum





ws the resu

s of the expe
ion. The poi
dle point of
and brass p
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6



ult of an EXW

Figure 20
eriments are
int is marke
f the wire ac
plates.
a

Ta
Thicknes
material (
8
8
10
12
15
20
a
Figure 19. EXW
a) R
b) R
W test for f
0. EXW with a d
e summariz
ed by the ef
ccording to D

Figure 21.


able 10. Result o
s of explosive
(mm)


W tests for filling
Result of welding
Result of welding

filling a sma
detonator on a p
zed in Table
ffect of the e
Dutrich met



Dutrich method
a) Test on a thin
b) Test on a Bra
of experiments d
e L
2
m
met
-----
139
125
116
110
110
b
g a hole
for filling a sma
g with a detonato
all hole in a

ipe for filling a s
e10. Figure
explosion, s
thod. The e

d test results
n Aluminum plat
ass plate
escribed in Tabl
mark accordin
thod (mm)
-----------------
9.25
5
6
0
0
all hole
or on a curved sh
pipe.
small hole
21 shows th
showing the
xperiment i
b
te
le 9
ng to Dutrich
--------------

hape
he contact p
e length L2,
is performed
34
point after
and M is
d on both

4



Stage 4
Fig 20 sho


Stage 5
The results
the explosi
at the midd
aluminum





ws the resu

s of the expe
ion. The poi
dle point of
and brass p
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6



ult of an EXW

Figure 20
eriments are
int is marke
f the wire ac
plates.
a

Ta
Thicknes
material (
8
8
10
12
15
20
a
Figure 19. EXW
a) R
b) R
W test for f
0. EXW with a d
e summariz
ed by the ef
ccording to D

Figure 21.


able 10. Result o
s of explosive
(mm)


W tests for filling
Result of welding
Result of welding

filling a sma
detonator on a p
zed in Table
ffect of the e
Dutrich met



Dutrich method
a) Test on a thin
b) Test on a Bra
of experiments d
e L
2
m
met
-----
139
125
116
110
110
b
g a hole
for filling a sma
g with a detonato
all hole in a

ipe for filling a s
e10. Figure
explosion, s
thod. The e

d test results
n Aluminum plat
ass plate
escribed in Tabl
mark accordin
thod (mm)
-----------------
9.25
5
6
0
0
all hole
or on a curved sh
pipe.
small hole
21 shows th
showing the
xperiment i
b
te
le 9
ng to Dutrich
--------------

hape
he contact p
e length L2,
is performed
34
point after
and M is
d on both

4 35

3.3. Calculation, numerical and simulation results

Welding window
WWs are drawn for the experiments. Results of some sample calculations are shown below.
Cu-Fe (Tables 7 and 8)
Flyer plate: Cu 0 9

4900

Parent plate: Fe

000

Line a-a
Table 11 shows the results of calculations using Equation 15.


Table 11. Calculation for line (a-a)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Line b-b
From Section 2.5 we get:

4900 0

Line c-c
From Section 2.5 we get:
Line d-d
From Section 2.5 we get:
Line e-e
Equation 17 gives

as follows:

0

Line f-f
Equation 21 gives

as follows:

4 0

9
4900

00

Equation 22 gives

as follows:

min=0 40 0

For an increased safety margin the higher value (300 m/s) is used and

is calculated from
Equation 4. The results are shown in Table 12.


Table 12. Calculation for line (f-f)
3 5 10 20 30 40
5.7 3.52 1.72 0.86 0.57 0.44




36

Line g-g
Equation 25 gives

as follows:

The results are shown in Table 13.



Table 13. Calculation for line (g-g)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
------------- 12.25 7 .15 4.06 3.4 2.95 2.61

The WW for Cu- Fe is drawn using these results and is shown in Figure 22. The weld-able area is
indicated by the crosshatched area.





Figure 22. WW for Cu-Fe joint

Fe-Fe (Table 2)
Flyer plate: Fe

Parent plate: Fe

Line a-a
Table 14 gives the results of calculations using Equation 15.

Table 14. Calculation for line (a-a)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Line b-b
From Section 2.5 we get:

Line c-c
From Section 2.5 we get:
36

Line g-g
Equation 25 gives

as follows:

The results are shown in Table 13.



Table 13. Calculation for line (g-g)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
------------- 12.25 7 .15 4.06 3.4 2.95 2.61

The WW for Cu- Fe is drawn using these results and is shown in Figure 22. The weld-able area is
indicated by the crosshatched area.





Figure 22. WW for Cu-Fe joint

Fe-Fe (Table 2)
Flyer plate: Fe

Parent plate: Fe

Line a-a
Table 14 gives the results of calculations using Equation 15.

Table 14. Calculation for line (a-a)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Line b-b
From Section 2.5 we get:

Line c-c
From Section 2.5 we get:
37

Line d-d
From Section 2.5 we get:
Line e-e
Equation 17 gives

as follows:

=1460

Line f-f
Equation 21 gives

as follows:

=(

Vc is obtained from Equation 4 and the results are shown in Table15.


Table 15. Calculation for line (f-f)
3 5 10 20 30 40
5.1 3.18 1.55 0.77 0.51 0.4

Line g-g
Equation 25 gives

as follows:

These results are shown in Table 16.

Table 16. Calculation for line (g-g)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-------- 12.25 7 .15 4.06 3.4 2.95 2.61

The WW for Fe-Fe is drawn from these results (Figure 23) and the weld able area is indicated.





Figure 23. Welding window for Fe-Fe joint

Al-Cu (Tables 5 and 6)
Flyer plate: Al

38

Parent plate: Cu

Line a-a
Table 17 shows the results of the calculation using Equation 15.


Table 17. Calculation for line (a-a)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Line b-b
From Section 2.5 we get:

Line c-c
From Section 2.5 we get:
Line d-d
From Section part 2.5 we get:
Line e-e
Equation 17 gives

as follows:

=1466

Line f-f
Equation 22 gives

as follows:

= (

= (

Equation 22 gives

as follows:

min=

For greater safety we use

=200 and from Equation 4,

can be obtained. The results are shown in

table 18.

Table 18. Calculation for line (f-f)
3 5 10 20 30 40
3.8 2.34 1.14 0.57 0.38 0.29

Line g-g
Equation 22 gives

as follows:

The result is shown in Table 19.

Table 19. Calculation for line (g-g)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
---------- 12.25 7 .15 4.06 3.4 2.95 2.61
38

Parent plate: Cu

Line a-a
Table 17 shows the results of the calculation using Equation 15.


Table 17. Calculation for line (a-a)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Line b-b
From Section 2.5 we get:

Line c-c
From Section 2.5 we get:
Line d-d
From Section part 2.5 we get:
Line e-e
Equation 17 gives

as follows:

=1466

Line f-f
Equation 22 gives

as follows:

= (

= (

Equation 22 gives

as follows:

min=

For greater safety we use

=200 and from Equation 4,

can be obtained. The results are shown in

table 18.

Table 18. Calculation for line (f-f)
3 5 10 20 30 40
3.8 2.34 1.14 0.57 0.38 0.29

Line g-g
Equation 22 gives

as follows:

The result is shown in Table 19.

Table 19. Calculation for line (g-g)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
---------- 12.25 7 .15 4.06 3.4 2.95 2.61
39




Figure 24 shows the WW for Al-Cu drawn from these results. The weld able area is indicated.



Figure 24. WW for Al-Cu joint


Explosive material

EXW experiments (horizontal and vertical) are arranged in a parallel setup with =0 and

. By
considering WW curves, a suitable detonation velocity and collision angle can be obtained.

= 2500-6000 m/s = 25-10

= 6000, = 10
The ratio e/m can be calculated from Equations 4 and 32:

0.612

2
0.1


0.

where e is the explosive mass and m is the flyer plate mass.
For example, for an iron flyer plate weighing 100 grams, the explosive mass is estimated to be 80
grams.
An alternative calculation for

uses Equation 31 as follows:

= 0.557 C
0

= 0.5576000 = 3462 flyer plate Fe

= 0.557 4900 = 2822 flyer plate Cu

= 0.5576400 = 3692 flyer plate Al

can be calculated from

using Equation 18 as follows:

For Al with

=3692 1.1

.

=.09 radian =5.5

Stand-off distance
As described in Section 2.4, the stand-off distance is selected at half or equal to the thickness of the
flyer plate. The optimum energy for jet formation may be obtained by varying the stand-off
distance.

40

Calculation for Stage 5

is given by Equation 33 according to the results from Tables 9 and 10 as shown below.
L
1
=150 mm, L=950 mm, L
2
=139 mm,

=6500 m/s

L
1
/ 2 L
2

2


Table 20 shows the results of calculation of

for different thicknesses of explosive material.

Table 20. Calculation of VD for different thicknesses of explosive material
No. Thickness
(mm)
L
2
mark
(mm)
V
D

(m/s)
1 -------- 8 ------
2 139.25 8 3500
3 125 10 3900
4 116 12 4200
5 110 15 4500
6 110 20 4500

Table 21 shows the measured detonation velocities in tests with different explosive materials of
different thicknesses at high, medium and low explosion velocities.


Table 21. Results of testing on measuring detonation velocity for different kinds of explosive materials
Thickness of
explosion (mm)
High velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
Medium velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
Low velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
0 0 0 0
5 5000 2600 1500
10 7300 3800 2200
15 7500 4500 2700
20 7500 5000 2900
25 7500 5000 3100
30 7500 5000 3300
35 7500 5000 3300

Wavelength
Equations 11 and 12 give the wavelength and amplitude for a 3 mm Fe plate and a dynamic angle
=10.
2

2

Similarly, for a 5 mm Al plate and =6 we get
3.4. Test Results

Measuring explosive parameters before welding
Measuring

Figures 25 and 26 show the effect of the thickness of explosive material on detonation velocity as
recorded in Tables 20 and 21, found by the Dutrich method.
40

Calculation for Stage 5

is given by Equation 33 according to the results from Tables 9 and 10 as shown below.
L
1
=150 mm, L=950 mm, L
2
=139 mm,

=6500 m/s

L
1
/ 2 L
2

2


Table 20 shows the results of calculation of

for different thicknesses of explosive material.

Table 20. Calculation of VD for different thicknesses of explosive material
No. Thickness
(mm)
L
2
mark
(mm)
V
D

(m/s)
1 -------- 8 ------
2 139.25 8 3500
3 125 10 3900
4 116 12 4200
5 110 15 4500
6 110 20 4500

Table 21 shows the measured detonation velocities in tests with different explosive materials of
different thicknesses at high, medium and low explosion velocities.


Table 21. Results of testing on measuring detonation velocity for different kinds of explosive materials
Thickness of
explosion (mm)
High velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
Medium velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
Low velocity
explosion
V
d
(m/s)
0 0 0 0
5 5000 2600 1500
10 7300 3800 2200
15 7500 4500 2700
20 7500 5000 2900
25 7500 5000 3100
30 7500 5000 3300
35 7500 5000 3300

Wavelength
Equations 11 and 12 give the wavelength and amplitude for a 3 mm Fe plate and a dynamic angle
=10.
2

2

Similarly, for a 5 mm Al plate and =6 we get
3.4. Test Results

Measuring explosive parameters before welding
Measuring

Figures 25 and 26 show the effect of the thickness of explosive material on detonation velocity as
recorded in Tables 20 and 21, found by the Dutrich method.
41


0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
0 10 20 30
T mm
V
D


m
/
s

Figure 25. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity


Figure 26. Effect of explosive material thickness on detonation velocity in general
(High, medium and low explosive velocity)

Measuring explosive parameters after welding
Chisel test
Figure 27 shows the chisel test for peeling of the metal pieces.



Figure 27. Chisel test for 2 types of weld

Mechanical tests
Tables 22 and 23 show the results of mechanical tests - bond strength of explosive weld (BSEW) -
in two directions (width and length) for the two setups described in Table 6 and Figure 15. These
results are illustrated in Figures 28 and 29.



0
2000
4000
6000
8000
0 10 20 30 40
T mm
V
d

m
/
s
42





Table 22. Results of mechanical test in width direction
L mm 0 5 10 20 30 40 45 50
T(test1) kg/

0 7 18 18 18 18 7 0
T(test 2) kg/

15 18 18 19 18 17 18 14


Table 23. Results of mechanical test in length direction
L, mm 0 15 35 60 80 115 135 150
T(test1)
kg/

0 8 18 17 18 18 7 0
T(test 2)
kg/

16 18 18 19 18 18 17 15








Figure 28. BSEW in width direction
Series1. BSEW in simple setup in width direction of flyer plate
Series2. BSEW with groove in width direction of flyer plate





Figure 29. BSEW in length direction
Series1. BSEW in simple setup in length direction of flyer plate
Series2. BSEW with groove in length direction of flyer plate









0
10
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
B
S
E
W

K
g
/
m
m
2

Series1 Series2
Lmm
0
10
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
B
S
E
W

K
g
/
m
m
2

Series1 Series2
L mm
42





Table 22. Results of mechanical test in width direction
L mm 0 5 10 20 30 40 45 50
T(test1) kg/

0 7 18 18 18 18 7 0
T(test 2) kg/

15 18 18 19 18 17 18 14


Table 23. Results of mechanical test in length direction
L, mm 0 15 35 60 80 115 135 150
T(test1)
kg/

0 8 18 17 18 18 7 0
T(test 2)
kg/

16 18 18 19 18 18 17 15








Figure 28. BSEW in width direction
Series1. BSEW in simple setup in width direction of flyer plate
Series2. BSEW with groove in width direction of flyer plate





Figure 29. BSEW in length direction
Series1. BSEW in simple setup in length direction of flyer plate
Series2. BSEW with groove in length direction of flyer plate









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44

The simulations are performed for flat equal and unequal surfaces. Figure 31 shows a typical
simulation result for pressure distribution and temperature effects in unequal surfaces according to
the setup shown in Figure 18.




a


b

Figure 31. Results of simulation
a) Pressure contour in unequal surface welding
b) Temperature distribution during explosion








44

The simulations are performed for flat equal and unequal surfaces. Figure 31 shows a typical
simulation result for pressure distribution and temperature effects in unequal surfaces according to
the setup shown in Figure 18.




a


b

Figure 31. Results of simulation
a) Pressure contour in unequal surface welding
b) Temperature distribution during explosion








45

4. Discussion and future work

4.1. Discussion

Requirements for successful bonding
Suitable setups for successful bonding can be identified through tests to measure various variables.
Like a series of carriages that make up a train, a series of diagrams can be constructed, and the WW
in this composite diagram describes the test space where a successful weld can occur. In the
absence of this composite diagram, it is assumed that the most pertinent relationship is the one
between the pressure P, the impact velocity

, parent plate velocity

, and the effective strain. The

flyer plate attains its peak velocity at the collision point. On impact the velocity of the parent plate
at the collision point increases while the flyer plate velocity decreases. Under certain conditions, the
velocities of the flyer and the parent plate are the same. When the situation stabilizes at the collision
point and the pressure is high, inter-atomic bonding occurs.

Metallographic Tests
A fine structure was observed in most of the welding boundaries in SEM tests performed following
the EXW process. Nearly all the experiments with different shapes showed successful bonding.
Microstructure results of bonding are shown in Figures 30, which also shows the wavy pattern. In
the tests performed here, was measured at 0.7 mm and A was 0.14. These values confirmed the
results of the theoretical calculations in Section 3.3.

Chisel or Peel off Test
The bond strengths were measured by peel off and chisel tests. In some experiments, perfect results
were achieved (Figure 27), and there were no physical differences between the metals. The rupture
in these cases was in the weaker metal and away from the contact point. This was a confirmation of
the high quality of welding. Other experiments showed less impressive results, with joints that
separated easily (Figure 17a and c). This is likely to be for one of two main reasons - insufficient
explosive material or dirty surfaces.

Tensile Test
BSEW were measured in two directions in Stages 2 and 3. These tests showed that the bond
strengths were constant in the improved test with grooves throughout the contact surface according
to the setup shown in Figure 10b. In experiments using surfaces that lack grooves BSEW is very
low at the edges and increases towards the middle of the welding area. Figures28 and 29 show that
the strength reaches the maximum value within 1 to 1.5 times the thickness of the flyer plate from
the edge. In the second test the edges were uniform and produced suitable joints after jumping. This
method is unique and is suitable for jointing two metals with different surfaces and does not have
the edge strength problems seen in Figures 28 and 29.

Discussion of Stage 4 (removing leakage)
The setup is one of the main problems when plugging a hole to stop leakage. The problem is
particularly difficult when the weld has to be applied in a wet area. A simple package is therefore
very desirable. This package includes detonator, a piece of thin copper plate, a piece of mastic as
holder, a piece of iron as filler and small rods to provide the stand-off. Figure 19a shows a
horizontal set up with the parent plate on the ground, which acts as an anvil. Figure 19b shows a
curved set up with a rod as the parent plate. Figure 20 shows a curved set up with a pipe as the
parent plate. If the explosive is too high, the pipe may be damaged. A detonator has a small amount
46

of explosive material, is cheap, and is very useful for this application. The use of a detonator alone
is suitable for pipe applications and this is a good method for repairing leaks in metal pipes.
This method is not suitable for large holes and is used only for leakage and for low pressure liquid
pipes. Other methods of explosive welding are better suited to welding high pressure thin pipes.

Hardness test
In most experiments the hardness of the flyer plate is increased in a predictable manner because of
impact waves.

Discussion of Stage 5 (controlling the parameters), Dutrich method
Aluminum plates were used initially during these tests, but these damaged too easily because of
their small thickness. Although they could be replaced by thicker aluminum plates, 3 mm Brass
plates were used in subsequent experiments.
The Dutrich method is very simple, but an error is inherent in the test because the effect of the
detonator is not taken into account. In these experiments a detonator is used to initiate the
explosion. This influences the result of the test. The undesired effects can be minimized by placing
the detonator outside of the explosive material. The experiments show that most of the explosive
velocity of detonation is constant if there is more than 30 mm of explosive between the detonator
and the plate (Figure 25). This is an important result that should be taken into account in future
setups. 3 types of explosives are tested, and the results of Dutrich method testing on high, medium
and low velocity explosions are shown in Figure 26. This figure can be used to derive a formula for
the region where the detonation velocity is constant. It is divided to three parts (over 10 mm for
high velocity, over 20 mm for medium velocity and over 30 mm for low velocity).

Discussion of simulation
The simulations show 3D maps and profiles of a number of physical parameters, such as contact
pressure, shear stress, normal stress, plastic strain, effective strain, strain rate, internal energy,
kinetic energy, temperature, velocity of the flyer plate at the point of contact and the angle of
contact. Figure 31 shows the two important parameters of pressure and temperature. Plots of mesh
and material boundaries, and quantities as a function of time and distance for given coordinates are
also available. The maximum element size used is 1/35th (in 2D) of the maximum distance in the
geometry. In this case the element size used is 1/50. However, the maximum element size can be
explicitly specified in the Maximum element size edit field in the Custom mesh size area. A finer
mesh can also be created by selecting Custom mesh size and typing 0.01 in the Maximum element
size edit field. The mesh used here consists of 30758 triangular elements. The highest pressure
predicted is at the collision point and is on the order of 10
9
Pa (Figure 31). In the case of the AZAR
explosive with high detonation velocity (6600 m/s), the pressure wave makes a 30 angle with the
horizontal surface in the base plate. This is because the velocity of detonation is higher than the
speed of sound in the material. Shock waves reflected at the end of the plates produce scabbing and
spilling on the edges of metals. This phenomenon reduces the bond strength (BSEW) in the edges,
and is considered an important problem. Scabbing and spilling may be reduced by varying the
velocity of explosive charge and thereby regulating the welding, but the experiments show a
reduction in the strength of bonding in the edges when this is done, and formation of bonding in the
middle of welded metals (Figure 32). The simulation results confirm this and show that the highest
bond strength is in the middle of the plates (see Figure 31).




Figure 32. Bonded areas measured by ultrasonic test for Al-Cu joint

46

of explosive material, is cheap, and is very useful for this application. The use of a detonator alone
is suitable for pipe applications and this is a good method for repairing leaks in metal pipes.
This method is not suitable for large holes and is used only for leakage and for low pressure liquid
pipes. Other methods of explosive welding are better suited to welding high pressure thin pipes.

Hardness test
In most experiments the hardness of the flyer plate is increased in a predictable manner because of
impact waves.

Discussion of Stage 5 (controlling the parameters), Dutrich method
Aluminum plates were used initially during these tests, but these damaged too easily because of
their small thickness. Although they could be replaced by thicker aluminum plates, 3 mm Brass
plates were used in subsequent experiments.
The Dutrich method is very simple, but an error is inherent in the test because the effect of the
detonator is not taken into account. In these experiments a detonator is used to initiate the
explosion. This influences the result of the test. The undesired effects can be minimized by placing
the detonator outside of the explosive material. The experiments show that most of the explosive
velocity of detonation is constant if there is more than 30 mm of explosive between the detonator
and the plate (Figure 25). This is an important result that should be taken into account in future
setups. 3 types of explosives are tested, and the results of Dutrich method testing on high, medium
and low velocity explosions are shown in Figure 26. This figure can be used to derive a formula for
the region where the detonation velocity is constant. It is divided to three parts (over 10 mm for
high velocity, over 20 mm for medium velocity and over 30 mm for low velocity).

Discussion of simulation
The simulations show 3D maps and profiles of a number of physical parameters, such as contact
pressure, shear stress, normal stress, plastic strain, effective strain, strain rate, internal energy,
kinetic energy, temperature, velocity of the flyer plate at the point of contact and the angle of
contact. Figure 31 shows the two important parameters of pressure and temperature. Plots of mesh
and material boundaries, and quantities as a function of time and distance for given coordinates are
also available. The maximum element size used is 1/35th (in 2D) of the maximum distance in the
geometry. In this case the element size used is 1/50. However, the maximum element size can be
explicitly specified in the Maximum element size edit field in the Custom mesh size area. A finer
mesh can also be created by selecting Custom mesh size and typing 0.01 in the Maximum element
size edit field. The mesh used here consists of 30758 triangular elements. The highest pressure
predicted is at the collision point and is on the order of 10
9
Pa (Figure 31). In the case of the AZAR
explosive with high detonation velocity (6600 m/s), the pressure wave makes a 30 angle with the
horizontal surface in the base plate. This is because the velocity of detonation is higher than the
speed of sound in the material. Shock waves reflected at the end of the plates produce scabbing and
spilling on the edges of metals. This phenomenon reduces the bond strength (BSEW) in the edges,
and is considered an important problem. Scabbing and spilling may be reduced by varying the
velocity of explosive charge and thereby regulating the welding, but the experiments show a
reduction in the strength of bonding in the edges when this is done, and formation of bonding in the
middle of welded metals (Figure 32). The simulation results confirm this and show that the highest
bond strength is in the middle of the plates (see Figure 31).




Figure 32. Bonded areas measured by ultrasonic test for Al-Cu joint

47

4.2. Future work
This thesis considers the impact mechanics area in the explosive welding field in the plastic zone.
More complete studies are needed on explosive welding or impact waves in plastic and elastic
zones. The most important of these future studies are described below.

Future work on explosive welding

-Simulation and numerical study to predict, compare and control parameters and experimental
results.
-Underwater EXW experiments.
- EXW on pressurized pipes.
- EXW on large surfaces with unequal surface areas.
- EXW on special multilayer surfaces.
- Other applications of EXW such as special cladding and stress relief.

Future work on plastic zone of impact waves
- Forming and shaping of metals
- Deep drawing
- Powder metallurgy

Future work on elastic part of impact waves
- Ultrasonic waves
- Measurement by impact waves





























48
















































48
















































49

5. Conclusions
5.1. Concluding remarks

As described in this thesis, it is possible to join two or more metal parts using impact waves. When
explosive materials are used to generate the necessary impact, the process is called explosive
welding (EXW). This method does not require a heat source and no melt is created during the
process. The interface temperature throughout the process is lower than the melting points of either
material. EXW does not have the common problems of welding at the contact point and with
suitable control of the process parameters during the test, the welding is of the highest quality.
These process parameters are predictable and measurable. There are some limitations in EXW at
present and its use in mass production is still at a very early stage of research. This method covers a
multidisciplinary research area, many results have been reported, and many theoretical and
numerical methods have been invented in the last few decades. A number of numerical software
packages have been created to analyze the process but complete simulation of EXW process is not
yet possible.
The most important conclusions of this thesis are as follows:

Stage 1:
- The EXW joining of CuAl and Al-Al was successful and no fault was formed at the interface.
- A mixed explosion material with lower velocity for joining Al-Cu and Al-Al plates has been used
in the tests.
- The EXW joining of Fe-Fe was not successful at the first attempt, and the joint separated in the
peel off test. A satisfactory joint was obtained after cleaning the surfaces and replacing the
explosive material with a high velocity explosive material.
- For Fe-Fe joints, a medium or high velocity explosive material must be used.
- For Fe-Fe joints grinding the surfaces is recommended.
- For all types of joints stress relief is recommended.

Stage 2:
- The major result of these experiments was the discovery of a suitable solution for a uniform
contact in explosive welding of two metals with different surfaces. The solution to the problem was
the use of grooves on the flyer plates and jumping the edges during the test.
- An experimental distance to achieve uniform contact strength 1 to 1.5 t was confirmed.
- No joining fault was seen at the interface, and no melting voids or inter-metallic compounds were
observed in the SEM images. The joining of CuAl was successful after the explosive welding.
-The design of a successful vertical setup was another important result of these experiments. In this
set up there is no requirement for an anvil and the impact waves damped each other in the contact
zone. Another advantage of this method was savings in time and cost in comparison to the
horizontal set up.
- Simulation results confirmed the edge problem. The groove model is suggested according to
simulation results.
Stage 3:
- In curved welding it is best to place the explosion start point at the center of the flyer plate.
- It is possible to use the horizontal stand-off formula for the curved setup.
- In the curved setup the collision angle is variable, but if the flyer plate shape is changed to
resemble the parent plate, this angle remains constant and welding occurs as it does in the
horizontal set up.
- It is possible to use a detonator alone instead of explosive material for thin plates.

50



Stage 4:
-For repairing very thin pipes, a welding fixture must be used, but for pipes and vessels that are
more than 10 mm thick, a plate up to 5 mm thick can be used instead of a fixture.
-A new technique and a simple solution has been used to stop leaking in pipes. This method is
useful only for low pressure and small leaks.
- Primary mechanical tests such as peel off have been carried out.
- Both surfaces of the plates must be clean.
- A pressure test is recommended to check the reliability of the repaired leak.
- Suitable fillers must be used to fill the hole before welding. The setup must be arranged so that the
filler does not jump during the explosion. Figure 33 shows a useful set up for this operation. This
system is suggested for use when:

(34)

Where is the diameter of the hole and D is the diameter of the pipe.





Figure 33. A set up for filling a hole before welding
Stage 5:
- There is a relationship between the thickness of explosive material and the explosive velocity.
The experiments described here support this statement and confirm previously published results.
The velocity of material in the small layer is variable and there is a different curve for each material
and a minimum thickness to achieve constant velocity derived from this curve. In this research
work, a curve for AZAR explosive material was obtained by experiment using the Dutrich method,
and the results were applied in later experiments.
- Experiments show that high velocity explosive materials reach constant detonation velocity in a
thin layer. Figure 26 shows the relationship is as follows:

High velocity materials thickness>10

= constant
Medium velocity materials thickness>20

= constant (35)
Low velocity materials thickness>30

= constant

- In this thesis brass has been introduced as an alternative plate material for the Dutrich method.
- The location of the detonator can be changed to decrease the error when using the Dutrich
method. The smallest error was achieved when the detonator was placed outside the explosive
material.

5.2. Practical Output

Aluminum, copper, and steel are the most common metals used in high-current conductor systems.
Use of these metals in dissimilar metal systems often maximizes the effects of special properties of
each material. However, joints between incompatible metals must be electrically effective to
minimize power losses. Mechanical connections that include aluminum create high resistance
because of the presence of the self-healing oxide skin on the aluminum component. Because this
oxide layer is removed by the jet in EXW, the interface of an explosion-clad aluminum assembly
offers no resistance to the current.

50



Stage 4:
-For repairing very thin pipes, a welding fixture must be used, but for pipes and vessels that are
more than 10 mm thick, a plate up to 5 mm thick can be used instead of a fixture.
-A new technique and a simple solution has been used to stop leaking in pipes. This method is
useful only for low pressure and small leaks.
- Primary mechanical tests such as peel off have been carried out.
- Both surfaces of the plates must be clean.
- A pressure test is recommended to check the reliability of the repaired leak.
- Suitable fillers must be used to fill the hole before welding. The setup must be arranged so that the
filler does not jump during the explosion. Figure 33 shows a useful set up for this operation. This
system is suggested for use when:

(34)

Where is the diameter of the hole and D is the diameter of the pipe.





Figure 33. A set up for filling a hole before welding
Stage 5:
- There is a relationship between the thickness of explosive material and the explosive velocity.
The experiments described here support this statement and confirm previously published results.
The velocity of material in the small layer is variable and there is a different curve for each material
and a minimum thickness to achieve constant velocity derived from this curve. In this research
work, a curve for AZAR explosive material was obtained by experiment using the Dutrich method,
and the results were applied in later experiments.
- Experiments show that high velocity explosive materials reach constant detonation velocity in a
thin layer. Figure 26 shows the relationship is as follows:

High velocity materials thickness>10

= constant
Medium velocity materials thickness>20

= constant (35)
Low velocity materials thickness>30

= constant

- In this thesis brass has been introduced as an alternative plate material for the Dutrich method.
- The location of the detonator can be changed to decrease the error when using the Dutrich
method. The smallest error was achieved when the detonator was placed outside the explosive
material.

5.2. Practical Output

Aluminum, copper, and steel are the most common metals used in high-current conductor systems.
Use of these metals in dissimilar metal systems often maximizes the effects of special properties of
each material. However, joints between incompatible metals must be electrically effective to
minimize power losses. Mechanical connections that include aluminum create high resistance
because of the presence of the self-healing oxide skin on the aluminum component. Because this
oxide layer is removed by the jet in EXW, the interface of an explosion-clad aluminum assembly
offers no resistance to the current.



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53

6. References

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54

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54

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pp. 19531958.
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Braga and R. Pruemme. s.l. : J. Phys., 2003, Vol. IV.
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Antonio : Eighth International Conference on High Energy Rate Fabrication, 1984.
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Eighth International Conference on High Energy Rate Fabrication . pp. 7584.
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Akihisa, A.B.E. s.l. s.l. : JSME, 1997.
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variables and their influence on bond strength. s.l. : University of Manchester Institute of Science
and Technology (UMIST), 2001. GR/M10106/01.
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detonation velocity explosives. A.A. Akbari Mousavi, S.B. Burley and S.T.S. Al-Hassani. s.l. :
Int. J.Impact Eng., 2005, pp. 719734.
35. Finite element simulation of explosively-driven platenwith application to explosive welding.
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7. Papers summary

Paper 1:
An Applied Method for welding Metals of Unequal Surface Area Using Explosive Energy

The bond strength of explosive welding (BSEW) is very important in an explosive welding process.
This paper describes studies on impact waves and designs an applied technique for removing the
strength problem in the edges of Al-Cu welded plates to obtain a uniform welding. The results are
validated by tensile experiments and SEM microscopy. This method is suggested for explosive
welding in metals with unequal surface areas. Results of this research are applied in an aluminum
company.

Paper 2:
Removing Leakage from oil and gas low pressure Pipes and vessels by high energy explosive
welding method


This research suggests a simple technique for removing leaks in metal pipes. This method is
economical and easy to use for the maintenance of pipes and liquid vessels using explosive welding
process. The results are tested by the usual methods.

Paper 3:
Effect of Explosive Layer Thickness on Detonation Velocity in a high energy process


In this study the Dutrich method is used to measure the velocity of the explosion. This research
shows a relationship between the thickness of the explosive layer and the detonation velocity.
Above a certain thickness, the explosive velocity is constant. Derivation of this thickness is very
important in an explosive process, because it determines the minimum thickness of explosive
required to attain a constant velocity. At the end the paper a useful formula and some suggestions
for explosive velocity experiments are presented, which may improve the reliability of the Dutrich
method.