1

Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)

Overview
Introduction to Direct Digital Synthesis
Approaches to DDS
Pulse output DDS
ROM lookup table
2
2
Overview
Advanced techniques: Bandpass signal
generation
Sources of spurious signals and their effects
Techniques used to minimize spurious
signals
Generation of Random Sequences
Summary and Future Trends
3
Introduction to DDS
Direct digital synthesis (DDS) is the process
of generating deterministic communication
carrier/reference signals directly in discrete
time with the use of digital hardware
Discrete time signals are then converted
into analog signals (for transmission) using
a D/A converter
4
3
Need for DDS systems
Overcome the limitations of analog
synthesis
Speed, precision, size, flexibility, stability,
and ease of implementation
Compatible with and desirable for
todays high speed digital
communication technology
5
Early DDS Systems
First DDS designs date back to the early 70s
Tierney et. al. developed a technique for
generating audio signals
Used a Read Only Memory (ROM) to store
sine waves
Stored values were used to drive a D/A
followed by analog interpolation filter
6
4
Early DDS Systems
Roke Manor laboratories in 1981 of the
then Plessey companys prototype DDS
Occupied several complete boards of logic laid
out on the bench
Clocked at 10MHz
Output frequency of up to 3MHz
Spurious responses about 40 dB below the
desired output
7
Modern DDS Systems
Gained importance in the early 80s with the
widespread use of digital communication systems
Have incorporated a lot of changes and
improvements making them a practical
alternative to analog signal sources
GHz frequencies possible, spurs of -60 to -80 dB
or lower
8
5
Analog Generation Techniques
Direct Analog Synthesis (DAS)
Generate frequencies by mixing frequencies
from different crystal and/or using their
harmonics
Ideal situation with tuning capabilities of LC
oscillator and stability and purity of a crystal
oscillator
9
Characteristics
Advantages
High purity, low spurious content: better
than -80 dB
Fast switching: .1 - 20 s
Disadvantages
Bulky, expensive, high power consumption
Not suitable for portable equipment
Used in medical and radar imaging,
spectroscopy and frequency hopping
systems
10
6
Analog Generation Techniques
11
) (t x
in
Phase
Detector
Loop Filter
Output
Voltage Controlled
Oscillator
Reference
signal
Amplifier
Gain =
Phase Locked Loop
Analog Generation Techniques
Advantages of PLL
fine frequency resolution
low levels of spurious outputs, though not as low
as DAS
comparatively low cost
Disadvantages
slow switching times due to loop filter settling
time
12
7
Digital Signal Generation
Output is smooth when a frequency change is
executed, no transients
Possible to achieve continuous phase frequency
switching
Crucial to frequency hopping spread spectrum systems
Switching frequencies less than 1 s possible
13
Comparison of DDS with Analog Generation
DDS overcomes most problems of DAS and
PLLs
Superior in terms of precision, stability,
ease of implementation, flexibility, and size
14
8
Properties of DDS
Precision
Accurately set the output frequency
significant for narrowband modulation formats
Analog systems have poor frequency
resolution
Stability
DDS system parameters and output
frequency does not vary with time
15
DDS Features
Ease of implementation
Basic structure easy to realize with ROM,
clock, and DAC
Implemented in hardware, software, or
combination of both
Easier to interface with computers for
control
16
9
DDS Features
Possible to predict the performance of the
digital components
Size
DDS for sub Hz resolution can be implemented as a
fraction of the size of an analog synthesizer
Disadvantages
Spurious frequency components in the output
signal
Bandwidth of the output signal
17
Basic Approaches to DDS
Pulse output DDS
Generates square, sawtooth, and pulse waveforms
ROM lookup table
Standard method
Can generate sinusoidal as well as arbitrary
waveforms
18
10
Approach 1: Pulse Output DDS
One of the simplest forms of DDS
Used to generate pulse, sawtooth, or
rectangular waveforms
Use these basic waveforms to
generate sinusoidal or other waveform
19
Pulse Output DDS
Frequency word A
r
added to accumulator
once every clock period T
clk

Accumulator overflows and counter resets
on the average once every 2
N
/A
r
clock
periods
Pulse: carry output of the accumulator
Rectangular waveform: MSB of the
accumulator
Sawtooth: output of the accumulator
20
11
Pulse Output DDS
21
Accumulator
Output
2
N
-1
Carry
output
nT
MSB
O/P
Frequency Word F
r
Pulse output
N - Bit Adder
Output
Input
N - Bit
Storage
Register
F
clk
Clock
Square wave output
B
A
A+B
MSB
Carry
S(n)
Sawtooth Waveform
nT
nT
2
r
out clk
N
F F
A
=
Calculation of Output Frequency
Accumulator overflows and counter resets
on the average once every 2
N
/A
r
clock
periods.
Repetition interval is 2
N
/A
r
(1/F
clk
)
Frequency is F
clk
A
r
/ 2
N
22
12
Calculation of Output Frequency
Frequency resolution is the smallest
possible change of A
r,
i.e., A
r
=1
Frequency resolution
AF= F
clk
/ 2
N
Output frequency will always be multiples
of F
clk
/ 2
N
23
Approach 2: ROM Lookup Table
Sine values are stored in a ROM and
periodically output through a D/A
converter
Contents of N bit accumulator is
incremented by A
r
every clock cycle
Output of the accumulator used to
increment the address lines of the ROM
24
13
ROM Lookup Table
Frequency of the output waveform can be
varied by changing A
r

Output resolution can be increased by
increasing the number of bits in the
accumulator
It is possible to generate arbitrary
waveforms
25
Disadvantages of ROM Lookup Table
Approach
Highest output frequency is a
fraction of the clock frequency
Spurious components in the
output in the absence of a very
large ROM
26
14
ROM Lookup Table
27
Phase
Increment
Value
Clock F
clk
2
F
F
N
clk r
out
A
=
2
N
clk F
F = A
ROM
Lookup
Table
D
A
C

Filter/
Amplifier
W s N

P
h
a
s
e

I
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t

R
e
g
i
s
t
e
r

A
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
o
r

N

b
i
t
s

B = N-W

A
r
F
out
na

Definitions of Variables
F
clk
= Clock frequency
F
out
= Output frequency
AF = Frequency resolution
N = Number of bits in the accumulator
W = Number of bits used to address the ROM (W
s N)
A
r
= Phase increment step size (number added to
the accumulator every clock cycle)
na = width of the ROM (ROM has 2
na

quantization levels)
28
15
Modulation
Phase modulation (hence frequency
modulation) can be directly included in the
DDS operation through dynamic changes in
the phase increment step size.
29
Example Product: AD9953
30
65 MHz output possible with support for
FSK, QPSK, DQPSK, 16-QAM, and D16-QAM modulations
16
Example Product: AD9830
31
Need for Phase Truncation

Design DDS for: F
out
= 2.5MHz, AF = 1Hz
F
clk
should be 10MHz (F
out
s F
clk
/4)
N = log
2
(F
clk
/AF)=24
Size of ROM = 2
24
or 16 Mbytes (or 4Mbytes if
only 1/4 cycle stored)!
W bits, (W < N, MSBs) are used to address the
ROM
32
2
F
F
N
clk r
out
A
=
2
N
clk F
F = A
Basic formulas:
17
Effect of Phase Truncation
33
Accumulator
Output
Address Lines of
ROM
Angle
(Degrees)
000 00 45
001 00 45
010 01 135
011 01 135
100 10 225
101 10 225
110 11 315
111 11 315
A
c
c
u
m
u
l
a
t
o
r

S
i
z
e

N
=
3
,

R
O
M

S
i
z
e

W
=
2

Summary of the Approaches
Approach Advantages Disadvantages
Pulse output
DDS
Simple design
Can generate basic
waveforms like sawtooth,
square, and pulse waveforms
Need additional circuitry
to generate standard
communication
waveforms
ROM lookup
table
Best for generating
arbitrary waveforms
Spurious components
due to phase truncation
34
18
Bandpass Signal Generation
Used to generate waveforms above Nyquist
frequency
Sampled signals replicate at multiples of the
sampling frequency (F
out
nF
s
)
To obtain output frequencies beyond the Nyquist
frequency, the replicated images can be filtered
to extract the desired image
35
Bandpass Signal Generation
Digital bandpass signal can be obtained by
zero padding by N-1 and bandpass filtering
36
f
s
0 -f
s

Filter
Response
19
Bandpass Signal Generation
Roll off in the amplitude of replicated images
follows the sin(x)/x function due to finite width
pulses
Spurious harmonics generated by DAC are
generally much lower in amplitude
37
f
s
0 -f
s
Nf
s
-Nf
s

Disadvantages of Bandpass DDS
Spurious components inherent in DDS signals
do not decay according to the sin(x)/x function
Due to non-linear phase truncation and timing
jitter
38
20
Disadvantages of Bandpass
DDS
Spurious signals make it harder to separate
the desired signal at frequencies higher than
the Nyquist frequency
Higher output frequencies require higher
quality DACs
39
Sources of Error in DDS Signals
Errors are injected into the system at
various points
Causes spurious components in the output
spectrum
40
Accumu-
lator
ROM
Lookup
Table
DAC
E E
P
1
(n)
Timing Jitter
P
2
(n)
Phase
Truncation
P
3
(n)
Amplitude
Truncation
DAC Non-
linearities
E
P
4
(n)
21
Effects of Phase Truncation
Phase truncation causes phase modulation
with a periodic sawtooth waveform
Most of the time, the DDS is putting out a
frequency that is biased
On particular clock pulses, the ROM input
does not advance
ROM causes the D/A converter to deliver the same
voltage as on the previous clock cycle
41
Effects of Phase Truncation
Thus the phase is held back by 2t /2
W
radians
before continuing to creep forward as before
42
time
p
h
a
s
e

Ideal change in
phase
Actual change in
phase
0
2t
22
Effects of Phase Truncation
Extent of the spurs depend on the values of
N, W, and A
r

The first harmonic is generally the strongest
Spurs move closer to the fundamental as W
decreases or amount of phase truncation
increases
Harder to filter out the spurs close to the
fundamental

43
Phase Truncation Spurs
Output can be expressed as a series of
rectangular pulses
Compute the Fourier transform of these
pulses
44
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
radians
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
Can get very
tedious
We will look at
some basic
analysis
23
Phase Truncation Spurs
45
0 000 00 0
1 001
2 010 01 t/2
3 011
4 100 10 t
5 101
6 110 11 3t/2
7 111
A
r
=1, N=3, Y = 2
3
=8
W = 2, B = N-W = 1
2
( ) sin
2 2
r
W B
m
y m
t | A |
(
=
|
(

\ .
Output of DDS
can be expressed
as
Phase Truncation Spurs
46
2 2
( ) sin sin
2 2 2 2
2 2
sin ( )
2 2
r r
W B N B B
B
r
N B
m m
y m
m
s m
t t
t

| A | | A |
( (
= =
| |
( (

\ . \ .
| | A
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
where ( ) 1
2 2
r r
B B
m m
s m
A A
(
= s
(

2 2 2 2
( ) sin ( ) cos
2 2 2
B
r r
N N N
m m
y m s m
t t t A A
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
24
Phase Truncation Spurs
Largest spurious amplitude


Detailed calculation of spurious
components requires further analysis
47
2 2 2 2
( ) sin ( ) cos
2 2 2
B
r r
N N N
m m
y m s m
t t t A A
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Desired Output Spurious Component
2 2 2
2 2
B
sp
N W
A
t t
s= =
Timing Jitter
Even in the absence of phase
truncation (N = W), periodicities
appear in signal depending on the
value of A
r
48
25
Timing Jitter
49
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14,
first period second period
N=4, A
r
= 2
0, 6, 12, 2, 8, 14, 4, 10, 0, 6, 12, 2, 8, 14, 4, 10, 0,
first
period
second
period
third
period
fourth
period
fifth
period
N=4, A
r
= 6
Accumu-
lator
Values
Perfectly
equal
periods
Different
period
lengths
Location of Spurs
Time period of spurious components due to
periodic jitter alone


Example: N=4, A
r
= 6, W = 4, T
out
= 16/6T
clk

three periods of the fundamental output
needed to return to the original state
50
) 2 , gcd(
2
N
r
N
clk
spur
T
k T
A
=
k is any integer
gcd = greatest common divisor
26
Example contd.
Will create a harmonic at 1/3 of the
fundamental
Verify from formula:
Period of spurs = 2
4
/gcd(6,16)T
clk
= 16/2 = 8T
clk
=
3*T
out

Thus spur frequency at 1/3 fundamental and
their harmonics exist
51
Location of Spurs
Component at 1/3 fundamental at 0.125 visible
52
Desired
1/3 desired
frequency
Folded Spectrum
27
Tertiary Periodicities
Presence of a combination of the above
three sources of errors could cause additive
periodicities which could result in strong
spurs
53
Tertiary Periodicities
In the presence of more than one
independent set of periodicities, the
least common multiple (lcm) of the
independent periodicities is another
spur frequency
Spurs at a particular frequency can be
more pronounced than the others
54
28
Tertiary Periodicities
Spurs due to phase truncation and timing
jitters can superimpose and cause stronger
spurs
Example: F
clk
= 1, N = 5, A
r
= 7, na = 32, F
out
=
0.2188
Figure(1): W = 5, spur due to timing jitter
alone at k*0.0312

Figure(2), W = 4, spur enhanced by phase
truncation = 0.2812 = 9*0.0312
55
Tertiary Periodicities
56 Figure (1)
Desired
Spurs due to
timing jitter
Figure (2)
Phase truncation
spur superimposed
on spur due to
timing jitter
Desired
29
Errors From D/A Converter
Inherent non-linearities
Difficult to manufacture high speed
D/A converters that are accurate
Difficult to predict and quantify the
errors accurately unlike the digital
sections of the DDS
57
Errors From D/A Converter
Experimental findings
as a rule of thumb, when number of
D/A converter bits (D
a
) is greater than
seven, spurious outputs decrease by
6dB per each additional bit used
58
30
W/na Ratio
59
00
01
10
4
3



1
2





11
Sampling and
quantizing a sine
wave for W = 3
Output of the ROM (na = 3)
corresponding to the 8
sampling points
0 0 0 6
0 0 0 5
0 0 1 7
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 1 2
0 1 0 3
0 0 1 4
W/na Ratio
Choosing the right W/na ratio is very
important
For W = 3, only four distinct levels are present
na = 2 bits will suffice
na = W-1 or W-2 is optimum depending on
whether the entire sine wave or 1/4 of it is
stored in the ROM
60
31
Example
For W = 11, 1024 distinct levels are present
na has to be at least 10 bits to avoid repetition
of values
If only 1/4 of the cycle is stored, na has to be at
least 9 bits
61
Use of DDS in Digital
Communication
Used to generate signals for paging radios,
mobile telephones, and multi-mode radios
Spread spectrum frequency hopping systems
require fast switching with good spectral purity
Used for creating custom and arbitrary
waveforms
Essential for software radios
62
32
Use of DDS in Digital
Communication
Digitally generated signals with the help of
multirate filters can be used to perform
digital modulation and pulse shaping
63
Techniques for Suppressing
Spurs
Use of hybrid systems (PLL filtering of
harmonics)
DDS-PLL systems
ROM compression techniques
Taylor series expansions
Trigonometric expansions
Sunderland, Hutchison etc.
64
33
Techniques for Suppressing Spurs
Randomization (all harmonics reduced)
E.g, Wheatleys procedure
PN sequence
Generation of random sequences
Error shaping through error feedback
65
Hybrid Systems
DDS systems make a trade off between the
bandwidth and spectral purity
If F
clk
is reduced, Nyquist frequency is reduced,
hence reducing the bandwidth
Lower clock frequencies allow higher resolution
and better spectral purity for a given number of
bits in the accumulator (N) and a given ROM size
66
34
Hybrid Systems
ROM lookup table DDS
High switching frequencies
Low power consumption, small size
Resolution can be increased by increasing N
However, for same spectral purity, size of ROM
needs to be increased
67
DDS - PLL System
PLL
Relatively high switching time between
output frequencies
Consume more power
Larger in size
Very good spectral characteristics at the
output
68
35
Phase Locked Loop
Synchronizing circuit
Synchronize output of a system with
reference frequency
Phase error at a minimum when system
is in lock
If phase error builds up, control
mechanism acts to reduce phase error
69
PLL Components
70
) (t x
in
) (t x
vco
Phase
Detector
Loop Filter
Output
Voltage Controlled
Oscillator
Reference
signal
Amplifier
Gain =
) (t e
d
) (t x
in
) (t e
vco
36
PLL Operation
71
)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( t t f A t x
c c in
| t + =
)] ( 2 sin[ ) ( t t f A t x
c v vco
u t + =
Phase Detector Model
)] ( ) ( sin[ ) ( t t A A t e
v c d
u | =
Low Pass
Filter
(gain = 2)
) (t x
in
) (t x
vco
) (t e
d
) (
1
t e
d
)] ( 2 sin[ )] ( 2 cos[ ) (
1
t t f t t f A A t e
c c v c d
u t | t + + =
Phase Error
Phase error, (t) = |(t) - u(t)
To uniquely identify the phase, output of
phase detector has to be an odd function of
the phase error
VCO output has to be in phase quadrature
to the PLL input
72
37
DDS - PLL System
Complementary characteristics of DDS and
PLLs led to development of hybrid
structures
Retain the good qualities of DDS as well as PLLs
Filtered output of DDS is used to generate
the reference frequency for the PLL
73
DDS - PLL System
) (t x
in
74
) (t x
vco
) (t e
d
DDS
Phase
Detector
Loop Filter
Output
Voltage Controlled
Oscillator
Reference
signal
Amplifier
Gain =
) (t x
in
) (t e
vco
Bandpass
Filter
Optional
Divider/
Interpolator
38
DDS - PLL System
Optional divider may be used to divide the DDS
output to improve its noise and spurious
characteristics
Output of the PLL F
out
is related to the reference
frequency F
ref
as: F
out
= N F
ref
Output frequency can be varied by changing F
ref

of DDS
75
DDS - PLL System
Advantages
Has very high resolution and high switching
speeds
Spectral purity of the output is largely
defined by the spectral purity of the PLL
subsystem
Higher than that of the DDS sub-system
76
39
DDS - PLL System
Disadvantages
More complex and bulkier than
individual systems
PLL has some finite settling time
77
Randomization
Spurs occur because of periodicities in
the output signal
Adding minimal noise can destroy the
periodicities
The spurs are minimized at the cost of
generating a much higher noise floor
78
40
Randomization
Optimal procedures do not increase the
total energy contained in the spurs
Wheatleys procedure
Sub-optimal procedures can increase the
total noise energy
Using Pseudo Noise (PN) sequences to remove
periodicities
79
Randomization
Randomization is done by changing one or
more bits of
Frequency setting word ( A
r
)
Output of the accumulator
Output of the ROM
80
41
Wheatleys Procedure
81
Accumulator
Random
Number
Generator
ROM
N W na
+
-
DAC
X
2
N

N
Z
2
Overflow
] 1 , 0 [ A e
r
X
Wheatleys Procedure
Optimal Procedure
At each overflow of the accumulator, add a
random number to accumulator and subtract
previous value of
Average of X(i) X(i 1) = 0
No net noise added
Average output frequency does not change
Not easy to implement in high speed logic
82
42
Effect of Wheatleys Procedure
83
Basic DDS Wheatleys Procedure
Effect of Wheatleys Procedure
F
clk
= 1, N = 9, W = 5, A
r
= 7, F
out
=
0.0137
Wheatleys procedure shows a few dB
improvement
Noise floor is generated
Better improvements can be seen on larger
systems and longer runs
84
43
Use of Random Sequences
Dithering
Minimizing spurious components in DDS
signals
Spread spectrum systems
Spread data in direct sequence
spread spectrum systems
85
Use of Random Sequences
Choose the carrier frequency for
frequency hopping spread spectrum
systems
Scramble data for security and bit
synchronizers
86
44
Generation of Random Sequences
PN sequence
Maximal length sequence
properties and generation
Gold codes
Generation and properties
87
Types of Random
Sequences
An ideal binary random sequence
Infinite sequence of independent, identically
distributed, random variables each taking on
values 0 or 1 with probability 0.5
Pseudo-noise (PN) sequences
Finite length sequences, which closely
approximate an ideal random sequence
88
45
Applications of PN
Sequences
Spread Spectrum Systems
Users share the same frequency band
Separated from each other by using
different spreading codes
properties of the codes determine
how well the user's are separated
89
Applications of PN
Sequences
Data scramblers
At transmitter multiply the PN sequence by
the data to randomize data and help maintain
synchronization
Also used for security purposes, where the
PN code is not universally known
90
46
Generation of PN Sequences
91
y(n)
z
-1

X(n)
y(n-1)
y(n-2) y(n-m)
h
1
h
2

h
m-1

h
m

Binary Digital Linear Feedback Shift Register

=

+ =
m
k
k
k
Z h D h
1
1 ) (

=
=
m
k
k
k n y h n y
1
) ( ) (
z
-1

z
-1

Generation of PN Sequences
Different sets of h gives rise to different
connection polynomial h(D)

m = degree of the polynomial
State of the PN sequence generator is defined
as the contents of the shift register
s(n) = [y(n-1) y(n-2) ....... y(n-m)]
92

=
=
m
k
k
k n y h n y
1
) ( ) (

+ =
m
k
k
k
Z h D h
1
1 ) (
47
Maximal Length Sequences
Sequences have the maximum possible period ( N
= 2
m
-1)
Shift register will generate a maximal length
sequence only if its connection polynomial h(D) is
primitive
A necessary but not sufficient condition for a
connection polynomial h(D), of degree m, to be
primitive is that it be irreducible
93
Maximal Length Sequences
A polynomial is said to be irreducible if it
cannot be factored into the product of
polynomials with binary coefficients and
degrees of at least 1
h(D) = 1 + D + D
4
is irreducible
h(D) = 1 - D
4
is reducible
94
48
Properties of Maximal
Length Sequences
Different settings of h gives rise to different
kinds of sequences
Maximal length sequences are common
Number of 1s in a period of the sequence is
2
m-1

Number of 0s in a period of the sequence is
2
m-1
-1
95
Properties of Maximal
Length Sequences
In a period of the sequence, there should be
Sequence of consecutive m 1s, and (m-1) 0s
2
m-k-2
sequences of consecutive k 1s and 0s, for 1 s k s m-2
No sequences of consecutive (m-1) 1s or consecutive m 0s
Periodic autocorrelation function
R(n) = 1, for n = 0
R(n) =1/m, otherwise
96
49
Gold Codes
Constructed by forming the modulo-2 sum
of two preferred maximum sequences of
equal length
97
pn sequence
generator 1
pn sequence
generator 2
Code 1
Code 2
Code 3
Clock
Gold code generator
Gold Codes
Preferred m-sequences are maximum length
sequences that have certain specific
desirable correlation properties
Though constructed from a maximal
sequence code, it is not a maximal sequence
code
98
50
Properties of Gold Codes
A different Gold code is generated by
shifting the one of the sequence
relative to the other
Gold codes allow construction of families of
2
m
-1 codes from pairs of m stage shift
registers
99
Properties of Gold Codes
Gold code are useful because of the large number of
codes they supply although they require only one
pair of feedback tap sets
Multiple register gold code generator can
generate
(2
m
- 1)
r
non- maximum length sequences
m maximum length sequences
r = number of registers, m = register length
100
51
Properties of Gold Codes
Gold codes can be chosen so that over a set
of codes available from a given generator,
the cross-correlation between the codes is
uniform and bounded
m odd: maximum value of the cross correlation
function between any pair of Gold sequences is R
max

= \(2 N)
m even: R
max
= \(N)
101
ROM Compression
Techniques
Main sources of spurs in output signal -
phase truncation
Values stored in ROM are repeated at the
input to the D/A converter
Impractical to have a very large sized ROM
102
52
ROM Compression Techniques
Solution: Compress more information in
ROM and use that information to
generate a more perfect sine wave
Most techniques based on interpolation
of the sine wave
Simple compression approach
Store only sine wave
103
Sampling the Sine Wave
1/4 of the sine wave stored and replicated
with sign inversion
Sine wave has to be sampled correctly to
exploit symmetry
104
1 2
3 4
| A
4
3
1
2
| A
N
2
2t
= | A
53
ROM Compression
Techniques
Taylor Series Expansion
Use of trigonometric identities
Hutchison Algorithm
Sunderland Algorithm
105
Taylor Series Expansion
If u is any angle and Au is a small
increment then

If Au is sufficiently small, the higher order
terms can be ignored
If sin(u
1
) and sin(u
2
) are stored in the
ROM, in-between values can be
generated using the Taylor series
106
...
! 3
) )( cos(
! 2
) )( sin(
) cos( ) sin( ) sin(
3 2
+
A

A
A + = A +
u u u u
u u u u u
54
Taylor Series Expansion
Series expansion can be implemented in a
dedicated DSP, FPGA, or combinatorial logic
up to desired number of terms
107
Using W = 2 bits, N =
12, and two terms of
the series expansion,
results in remarkable
improvements
Effect of Increasing the Number of
Terms in the Series Expansion
108
4

t
e
r
m
s

7

t
e
r
m
s

55
Effect on the Frequency Spectrum
109
Desired Output
Desired Output
Use of Trigonometric Identities
Use trigonometric identities to interpolate
between two values of the sine function
Most of these methods work well only if the
increment from the known angle is very
small
Need additional circuitry to perform
interpolation
110
56
Hutchison Algorithm
Partition the values of the sine function (of the
first quadrant) into coarse ROM and fine ROM
Coarse ROM contains values of sine function for a
certain number of angles at a fixed step size
Fine ROM has values of sine function for angles in
between those contained in the coarse ROM
111
Hutchison Algorithm
Any angle u can be decomposed as u ~ a+b
sin(a) is contained in the coarse ROM and sin(b) is
contained in fine ROM
sin(u ) = sin(a) cos(b) + cos(a) sin(b)
Example
Coarse ROM has sine values from 0
0
- 90
0
in steps of 10
0
Fine ROM has values from 1
0
- 9
0
To evaluate sin(55), a = 50, b = 5
112
57
Sunderland Algorithm
Partition the values of the sine function (of
the first quadrant) into 3 sub-ROMs
Any angle u can be decomposed as u ~ a+b+c
sin(u ) = sin(a+b)cos(c) + cos(a+b)sin(c )
= [sin(a) cos(b) + cos(a) sin(b) ]cos(c)
+ [cos(a) cos(b) - sin(a) sin(b) ] sin(c )
113
Sunderland Algorithm
Modification to allow two ROMS (or one
ROM with phase shift)
If b and c are sufficiently small
sin(u ) ~ sin(a) + b cos(a) + c cos(a) - b c sin(a)
114
58
Error Shaping to Reduce Phase Truncation Error
Resembles approach used in Sigma-Delta
Converters
Create a feedback loop for the truncation
error in the DDS so that the quantization error
avoids the band of interest

115
Model for Phase Quantization
116
+
+
N bits
W bits
n
+ -
-n
Phase Quantization Process
ACC
u u= ACC + n

59
DDS with Error Feedback
117
Phase
Quantization
+
+ -
G z
-1
+
ACC
N bits
u
-n
W bits
u
z
= n
z
(1-Gz
-1
) +ACC
z
Note the noise is being filtered by this term
Example Output
118
Taken from: Lionel Cordesses, Direct Digital Synthesis: A tool for Periodic Wave Generation (Part 2)
IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, Sept. 2004, pp. 110-117.
Note that the noise is now
high pass and can be
removed by subsequent
filtering
F
s
= 44,100
A
r
= 1,657
N=16
W=5
G=1

60
Extension to High Frequency Signal Generation
Replace 1-G by a more complex notch filter

119
1-G = 1 - (1-b)z
-1
(1-b)z
-2
- z
-3
b= -2cos[2t(2F
0
/F
s
)]
A
r
= 12.249 for this example
Other parameters same as previous
Summary
DDS systems rapidly gaining importance
Digital communication and software radios
Advantageous in terms of size, switching frequency,
resolution, stability and accuracy
Available as convenient ASICs
120
61
Summary
Various techniques used to generate DDS
signals
ROM lookup table most commonly used
Techniques used to minimize spurs
Hybrid architectures, randomization, ROM
compression
121
Summary
Applications
digital communication systems, spread spectrum
systems, digital modulation, and pulse shaping
Future Trends
Higher clock speeds
Lower spur levels
122
62
References
Dixon, Robert C, Spread spectrum systems with commercial
applications,Third edition,Wiley Interscience, 1994
Gilmore Robert, Kornfeld, Hybrid PLL/DDS frequency
synthesis, Proceedings RF Technology Expo. 90, pp. 419 -
436, January 1990
Goldberg, Bar-Giora DDS part 1, Reviewing various
techniques for synthesiszing signals, Microwaves and RF, pp.
181 - 185, May 1996
Goldberg, Bar-Giora, DDS part 2, Enhancing the
performance of DDS signal sources, Microwaves and RF, pp.
110-116, June 1996
123
References
Goldberg, Bar-Giora, Digital techniques in frequency synthesis,
McGraw-Hill, 1996
Henry T. Nicholas, III, Henry, Samueli, An analysis of the output
spectrum of direct digital frequency synthesizers in the presence
of phase-accumulator truncation, 41st Annual Frequency Control
Symposium, 1987
Tierney, Joseph., Rader, Charles M., Gold, Bernard., A digital
frequency synthesizer, IEEE Transactions on Audio and
Electroacoustics, vol. AU-19, no. 1, pp. 48 - 57, March, 1971
Viterbi, Andrew, J., CDMA, Principles of spread spectrum
communication, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc, Reading, MA,
1995
Wheatley, lll, C E., Spurious suppression in direct digital
synthesizers, Proceedings 35
th
Annual Frequency Control
Symposium, pp. 428 - 435, May 1981
124
63
References
Lionel Cordesses, Direct Digital Synthesis: A tool
for Periodic Wave Generation (Part 2) IEEE Signal
Processing Magazine, Sept. 2004, pp. 110-117.
J. Vankka, A Direct Digital Synthesizer with a
tunable error feedback structure, IEEE Trans. on
Communications, Vol. 45, no. 4, pp416-420,
1997.


125
Backup Slides

126
64
Example Modulation
Modulation Binary
Symbol
Phase LUT
Address
BPSK 0 0 0

1 2
N-1

QPSK 00 /4
N
2
8
1
|
.
|

\
|

01 7/4
N
2
8
7
|
.
|

\
|

10 3/4
N
2
8
3
|
.
|

\
|

11 5 /4
N
2
8
5
|
.
|

\
|


127
Example MSK
Modulation Binary
Symbol
Frequency LUT Address
Accumulator
MSK 0 f
0
R
b
/4 r = r
0
r
0
/(4K)

1 f
0
+ R
b
/4 r = r
0
+ r
0
/(4K)



128
Where r
0
is the default accumulator value,
f
0
is the output wave frequency,
R
b
is the symbol rate, and
K is the number of cycles per symbol (f
o
/ R
b
).
r must be an integer, and so
r0
must be an integer multiple of 4K.
MSK signal is filtered through a Gaussian filter to create GMSK.
65
BPSK Example 1
N W r na f
o
(kHz) f
clk
(kHz) K R
b
(ksps)
6 6 4 6 2.5 40 2 1.25

129
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
x 10
-5
Frequency (Hz)
1.E-06
1.E-05
1.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1.E+00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Eb/No (db)
B
E
R
Theoretical BER
Actual BER
Example from Tom Rondeau and Bin Lee
BPSK Example 2
N W r na f
o
(kHz) f
clk
(kHz) K R
b
(ksps)
10 9 8 8 2.5 320 2 1.25

130
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
-4
Frequency (Hz)
1.E-05
1.E-04
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1.E+00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Eb/No (db)
B
E
R
Theoretical BER
Actual BER
66
Basic Approaches to DDS
Impulse response of a filter
Impulse response of an IIR filter with poles on the
unit circle for sinusoidal generation
Impulse response of a FIR filter for pulse
generation
131
Approach 3: Impulse Response of a Filter
132
IIR filter that has poles placed on the
unit circle at e
je
0

0
t
e
e
je

e
-je

1
0 1
1 2
1 2
( )
1
a a Z
H z
b Z b Z

+
=

67
Filter Coefficients
Output frequency e
0
Cosine wave: h(n) = cos(e
0
T) u(n)
a
0
= 1, a
1
= cos(e
0
T)
b
1
= 2cos(e
0
T), b
2
= -1
Sine wave: h(n) = sin(e
0
T) u(n)
a
0
= 0, a
1
= sin(e
0
T)
b_1 = 2cos( e
0
T), b
2
= -1
133
Effect of Coefficient Quantization
Implemented as recursive filter on a DSP
Accuracy of output frequency e
0

dependent on the accuracy of filter
coefficients
depends on accuracy of cos(e
0
T)
difficult to implement in finite precision arithmetic
134
68
Effect of Coefficient Quantization
Uniform quantization of filter coefficients
Possible to obtain only certain output frequencies
(pole locations)
Pole locations more closely spaced around t/2
radians than in the regions corresponding to 0 and t
radians
135
Re
-0.5 -1.0
Z plane
Im
0 rad. t rad.
0 0.5 1.0
Direct Form
Implementation (3 bits
+ sign bit)
Calculation of VCO Phase
136
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
vco d d
e t e t f t e f t d
+

= - =
}
If f(t) is the impulse response of the loop
filter
Output frequency of VCO e
vco
(t)
) ( 2 t e K
dt
d
vco d
t
u
= = frequency output VCO
K
d
= VCO constant with units Hertz/volt
69
Calculation of VCO Phase
137
) ( 2 t e K
dt
d
vco d
t
u
= = frequency output VCO
Substituting for e
vco
(t), we get
t u | t
t t
t t t u
d d t f A A K
d d t f e K
d e K t
t
v c d
d
t
d
t
vco d
) ( )] ( ) ( sin[ 2
) ( ) ( 2
) ( 2 ) (
=
=
=
} }
} }
}
+

+


Calculation of VCO Phase
138
t u | u d d t f G t
t
) ( )] ( ) ( sin[ ) ( =
} }
+

v c d
A A K G t 2 = Define
Relationship between |(t) - u(t) does not
depend on the carrier frequency f
c

70
Analysis of Linear Model
If phase error is small, a linear approximation can
be made
139
) ( ) ( )] ( ) ( sin[ t t t t u | u | ~
t u | u d d t f G t
t
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( =
} }
+

Taking the Laplace transform
| |
s
s F
s s s
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( O u = O
Analysis of Linear Model
140
) (
) (
) (
) (
1
) (
) (
) (
s GF s
s GF
s H
s
s F
G
s
s F
G
s
s
+
=
+
=
u
O
= H(s) function transfer PLL
Relating phase error to input phase
) (
) ( 1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
s GF s
s
s H
s
s s
s
s
+
= =
u
O u
=
u
+
71
Steady State Phase Error
Using final value theorem for Laplace
transform
Steady state phase error
141
) ( ) (
lim lim
0
s sA t a
s t
=
( )
) (
) (
) ( 1 ) ( ) (
2
0
0 0
lim
lim lim
s GF s
s
s
s H s s s A
s
s s
ss
+
u =
u = + = +

Steady State Phase Error
142
Assuming phase deviation of the form
0
2
2 ) ( u t t | + A + = ft Rt t
f Rt
dt
d
A + =
|
t 2
1
Corresponding frequency deviation in
Hertz is
If R=0 and Af 0, frequency step is
applied
72
Steady State Phase Error
First order system (F(s)=1)
For R=0 and Af 0
Perfect second order system

Imperfect second order system

143
G
f
ss
A
= +
t 2
s
a
s F + =1 ) ( 0 = +
ss
a s
a s
s F
+
+
= ) (
G
f
ss
A
= +
t

2
Costas Loop
144
Demodulated
Output
Voltage Controlled
Oscillator
Amplifier
Gain =
Low Pass
Filter
) (t x
in
) (
,
t x
I vco
) (t e
) (t y
I
Loop
Filter
Low Pass
Filter
90
0

) (
,
t x
Q vco
) (t y
Q
73
Costas Loop Operation
145
| | ) ( 2 cos ) ( ) ( t t f t m A t x
c c in
| t + =
m(t)=message signal
| | ) ( ) ( cos ) ( ) ( t t t m A t y
c I
u | =
| | ) ( ) ( sin ) ( ) ( t t t m A t y
c Q
u | =
| | ) ( 2 cos ) (
,
t t f t x
c I vco
u t + =
| | ) ( 2 sin ) (
,
t t f t x
c Q vco
u t + =
Costas Loop Operation
146
| |
| | BPSK NRZ for ) ( ) ( 2 sin
2
1
) ( ) ( 2 sin ) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 2
t t A
t t t m A
t y t y t e
c
c
Q I
u |
u |
=
=
=
e(t) = Loop control signal
Assuming phase error is small
| | ) ( ) ( ) (
2
t t A t e
c
u | ~
Operation similar to
basic PLL
74
Example DDS Chip
147
Example: Two DDS Chips

148
AD9830 50-MHz C-DDS.
AD9850 125 MHz C-DDS
http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/30-3/single_chip.html
75
Comparison of DDS Chips
Feature/Specification AD9850 AD9830
Maximum clock frequency 125 MHz 50 MHz
Maximum output Nyquist-frequency bandwidth 62.5 MHz 25 MHz
Frequency tuning word resolution 32 bits 32 bits
Phase tuning word resolution 5 bits 12 bits
Supply voltage +3.3 V or +5 V +5 V
Power dissipation @ max. operating conditions 155/380 mW 265 mW
Worst-case narrowband SFDR (50-kHz window)
@ max. clock
72 dBc 72 dBc
Wideband SFDR (Nyquist) @ 20-MHz Aout 58 dBc 50 dBc
Wideband SFDR (Nyquist) @ 40-MHz Aout 54 dBc N/A
Control interface Parallel/serial Parallel
Unique additional features
Internal high-speed
comparator registers
Two frequency four
phase registers
Package style 28-pin SSOP 48-pin TQFP
Price (100s) $14.55 $11.70
149
Pulse Shaping
Used to minimize intersymbol
interference (ISI) and bandwidth
Nyquist Criteria
Intersymbol interference can be eliminated
by using special pulse shapes
Magnitude of the impulse response of the
pulse shaping filter should be zero at
multiples of the sampling interval
can satisfy the Nyquist criteria
150
76
Pulse Shaping
h
p
(kT
s
) = C, k = 0
= 0, k = 0
k is an integer, T
s
is the sampling interval
h
p
can have any non-zero value between the sampling
intervals
Infinitely long pulse shapes can satisfy the
Nyquist criteria
151
Sampling Points
time
C
T
s

4 positive pulses
Raised Cosine Filter
152

Satisfies the Nyquist criteria for
eliminating ISI commonly used in
pulse shaping
Ideal raised cosine pulse
Infinite duration in time domain
Practical applications
77
Raised Cosine Filter
153

Results in side lobes in the
frequency spectrum
Interpolating at the final stage
minimizes the computation up
stream in the processing.
Raised Cosine Filter
154
Impulse response
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
A
2
0
0
0
) 4 ( 1
) 2 cos(
2
) 2 sin(
2 ) (
t f
t f
t f
t f
f t h
e
t
t
t

78
Frequency Spectrum
155
1 ) ( = f H
e
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
A
f
f f
2
) | (|
cos 1 2 / 1
1
t
= 0
|f | < f
1

f
1
s |f | s B
|f | > B

f
A
= B - f
0
, f
1
= f
0
- f
A
, r = f
A
/f
0

f
o
= 6dB Bandwidth of the raised cosine filter
B = absolute bandwidth of the filter
r = roll off factor determines the width of the
transition band in the frequency spectrum
r = 0, pulse becomes rectangular in the frequency
domain