16th Century Jewelry, I

Written by Melissa Barton

You've just finished sewing your dream outfitmaybe it's Tudor, or 1550s Florentine, or a gorgeous black velvet Spanish gownand it fits perfectly, but something seems to be missing. Accessories take an outfit from costume to clothing, and jewelry played a huge role in the opulent look of middle-class and noble 16th century clothing for both men and women. Portraits show many kinds of jewelrynecklaces, carcanets or collars, bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants worn on the clothing or in hair, beaded hat bands, rings, beaded aiglets, and beaded girdles. In addition to jewelry, pearls, beads, and jewels in settings were frequently sewn to clothing, hats, and headdresses. While some types of 16th century jewelry require serious metalworking skills or advanced faux techniques in polymer clay and other materials, a huge range of beautiful and authentic jewelry can be made using basic beadwork techniques, supplemented with carefully chosen costume jewelry. RESEARCHING 16TH CENTURY JEWELRY

Pendant of Venus and Cupid Astride a Sea Monster c. 1580, Italian or German, Metropolitan Museum of ArtPhotograph by Unforth on Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0 But where to find inspiration? Unfortunately, surviving pieces of jewelry are few and far between, and tend to be brooches, rings, or other metal pieces, not the beaded jewelry so commonly seen in portraits. Beaded jewelry, typically strung on silk thread, tended to end up broken or recycled into newer styles. Extant pieces provide valuable information about styles of beads, shapes of pearls, and types of precious and semiprecious stones used in the 16th century, even when the actual pieces are too complex to reproduce easily. Many museums now provide access to photographs of collections online, including 16th century jewelry. Books are also a great source of photographs of extant jewelry. There are even photo pools on Flickr just for pictures of historical jewelry.

One of the most famous collections of extant 16th and early 17th century jewelry is the Cheapside Hoard, a merchant's stock of jewelry and loose gemstones found in London, England. These pieces of gold, enamel, and gemstone jewelry were affordable middle-class jewelry at the time, although today they would be quite expensive. Most of the Cheapside Hoard would be difficult to replicate, but it gives an idea of the materials used, as well as guide when shopping for costume jewelry.

Design for an oval pendant jewel; a ruby, four sapphires and pearls, Hans Holbein the Younger, 1532-43 Period texts can also provide useful information, from recipes for fake pearls (with ingredients like boiled slugs) to jewelry designs.

The most valuable research resource for 16th century jewelry, however, is portraiture. Painters of the period copied jewelry with meticulous care (and perhaps some artistic license), and high-resolution photographs are now easier to obtain than ever. There are limitations, of coursepaintings rarely show clasps, and one has to guess at many of the stones. Comparison with extant pieces and period texts can help narrow down the possibilities. For example, square, faceted black stones are typically table-cut diamonds set into a closed setting. Blue stones are likely to be sapphires. Extant jewelry suggests that the pearls so abundantly depicted in portraiture were probably much more irregular and less well-matched in color and shape than as paintedgood news for the modern pocketbook! Jewelry styles in the 16th century varied widely according to time and place. Even within a single country, styles could be very regionalFlorence and Venice, for example, had very different clothing and jewelry styles. German jewelry tended to be heavier and involve more metalwork (although garments could be heavily embroidered with beads). English jewelry evolved from heavy carcanets, necklaces, and girdles made from set jewels and double strings of pearls to be more delicate, with open collars and necklaces made by stringing small beads in networks and other designs. FLICKR JEWELRY POOLS Paternoster Ladies Ancient, Medieval and Renaissance Jewelry Pool Historical Jewelry: Renaissance to Victorian/Edwardian Pool

Regional Styles

ENGLAND You can't go wrong with a string of pearls in England (and most of the rest of Europe), and it almost can't be too long. Portraits show a simple pearl rope as the most common piece of jewelry for women from Elizabeth I down to the well-off middle class. While pearl strands today often have protective knots between the pearls, in the 16th century, the pearls were either simply strung together or separated with smaller seed pearls or small metal beads. A long rope of pearls looped two or three times around the neck could be pinned up to the side with a decorative brooch.

Anne Boleyn, Queen Consort of Henry VIII of England, 1533-36

The "Darnley Portrait" of Elizabeth I of England, 1575

A carcanet (collar) with a pendant combined with a necklace that dipped into the square neckline of the dress was a common style for English women through much of the 16th century. These may have been separate pieces or connected by a single clasp in back. The pendant always hung from the collar, and could be an initial, a cross, or an oblong, typically studded with gems and often decorated by pendant pearls. The carcanet was often strung with a double row of pearls separated by stones in settings, while the necklace could be the same style or a single strand of pearls. The necklace could be complemented by a brooch in a similar style pinned to the center of the neckline. Women wore bead girdles worn throughout the 16th century, often in the same style as the carcanets. The girdles followed the waistline of the dress, often with a long end or ends that dangled in front.

Jane Seymour, Third wife of Henry VII, Hans Holbein the younger, 1536-1537

The Cholmondeley sisters and their swaddled babies, 1599-1603

While earrings do not appear frequently in English portraits, large pearl drops strung on gold hoops were the earring equivalent of the string of pearlspopular in a wide range of times and places. While men wore less jewelry than women, there are examples of men wearing necklaces in portraits, as well as chains of office, jeweled hats, and earrings. A large pearl drop earring strung on a hoop, or a plain gold hoop, was occasionally worn, typically by younger, more fashionable men. Necklaces, generally looped only once or twice, were composed of metal beads, set stones and pearls, and were less ostentatious than women's necklaces. Like earrings, these seem to appear most often in portraits of fashionable men.

Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford and 1st Duke of Somerset, c1540's

Detail of rings worn by Mary Nevill or Neville, Baroness Dacre, in a double portrait with her son Gregory Fiennes, 10th Baron Dacre

ITALY Regional fashion was particularly pronounced in Italy. Fashions of Florence and Venice were quite different from each other in the 16th century, so this is only a general overview of some Italian jewelry styles. As with the rest of Europe, pearls were the number one stone, used in everything from simple short necklaces to pearl collars and drop earrings. In Florence necklaces tended to be shorter, almost as short as collars, but made from a single strand of beads, typically pearls. These short necklaces could have jeweled pendants. As well as pearls, they could include other stones pearls and coral being a popular combinationor be made of metal filigree. Double-loop necklaces were also worn, with the shorter loop close around the neck and the longer hanging over the bodice. These were still shorter, on average, than English necklaces.

Picture of a girl with a book, Angelo Bronzino, 1545

Maria de' Medici. (Daughter of Cosimo I), Angelo Bronzino, 1551

One early 16th century Venetian portrait (below, left) shows a simple short necklace of bicone beads (perhaps silver or black in color) separated by groups of pearls in two strands. Longer double-loop necklaces, sometimes pinned up to the bodice in the middle with a brooch, also remained popular in Venice.

Portrait of a Ventian Woman, Albrecht Drer, 1505

Tiziano Vecellio (Titian), 1560-65: Portrait of Lavinia, his daughter

Earrings appear fairly commonly in both Venetian and Florentine portraitslarge drop pearls were popular, but several other styles were also worn, including chandelier-style earrings with multiple pendant pearls. Girdles were also a popular accessory and could be very elaborate, made of jeweled gold beads, pearls, cameos, and other expensive materials.

Lucrezia Panciatichi, 1540, Angelo Bronzino

Portrait of a woman, 1550-1555, Angelo Bronzino

FRANCE French jewelry was most similar to English, with multiple strands of pearls, heavily jeweled carcanets, and long necklaces draped over the shoulders and pinned to the bodice with brooches. As in England, fashionable men sometimes wore necklaces, and jeweled clothing and hats were popular with both sexes.

Charles IX of France by Francois Clouet

Anna d'Este, post 1550

Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of France and Navarre, 1570, Francois Clouet

GERMANY AND THE LOW COUNTRIES Jewelry in Germany and the Low Countries tended to be heavier and involve more metalwork and enameling than in other parts of Europe. Large chains, numerous rings, brooches, and wide gold collars with jewels were all popular beadwork was mostly reserved for clothing. Some beaded jewelry was still wornone Dutch portrait shows a plain necklace of round coral beads on a young girl, perhaps worn for its protective qualities.

Portrait of a lady and her daughter, detail 15301545, Bartholomaus Bruyn the elder

Portrait of a lady, 1545, Christoph Amberger

Anna von Minckwitz, Lucas Cranach the younger, 1543

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL The love of pearls may have been even stronger in Spain than in the rest of Europe, due to their association with purity and Catholic modesty. Pearl cauls, aiglets, girdles, carcanets, and of course necklaces all appear frequently in paintings, often with black velvet. Jewels in settings were often sewn to clothing and hats, as in England and France, and much of the jewelry shown in portraits is in similar styles. Portuguese jewelry shared aspects of both French and Spanish styles.

Isabella of Portugal, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, 1548, Titian

Elisabeth de Valois, third wife of King Philip II of Spain, eldest daughter of King Henry II.

of France and Catherine de Medici, Sofonisba Anguissola, 1566

Of course, this is only a brief overview of some of the many styles of 16th century jewelry! Since there are so many options, it's best to look for extant pieces and portraits from your specific place and period of interest for more inspiration.

Gold and agate (a coloured mineral stone) were used to make these pieces of jewellery.(Indus valley)

Renaissance Jewelry
Introduction
Half way through the 15th century general art styles changed in Italy. Artists started to draw inspiration from the Ancient Greek and Roman world. Funded by the royal families from the extremely wealthy Italian cities many artists were able to devote their lives to their personal development of skill and style. The classical influence was not as much a copying of techniques, but more a general style which was derived from ancient sculptures. Jewelry wasn't influenced directly; hardly any ancient jewelry was known in those days apart from the surviving cameos which had remained fashionable objects throughout the Middle Ages. Ancient techniques like filigree or delicate, all gold jewelry weren't revived but rather, it was the classical and mythological themes that provided the link with the ancient world. The Biblical themes from the Middle Ages never lost their popularity throughout the Renaissance and continued to provide depictions for jewelry. From Italy the style spread north gradually over the 16th century, slowly replacing the Gothic style of the Middle Ages.

Styles & Techniques

A new art style was obvious in painting and sculpture and it is through these two art forms that jewelry was influenced most. Many great artists of the Renaissance started off their careers in goldsmith workshops to learn about accuracy of line and clarity of style[1]. This caused a close relation between painter/sculptors and goldsmiths and probably explains the excellent depiction of jewelry in Renaissance portraits. These paintings allow us to form an unprecedented insight of the jewelry that was produced during this period besides the study of the few surviving pieces. The European nobility found itself in need of vast sums of money to fund their numerous wars and jewelry was considered as portable wealth. The numerous descriptions of pawned items provide another good source for the jewelry history researcher who tries to get a good idea of the jewelry of the time. Surviving pieces show extraordinary craftsmanship but, as mentioned, it is from paintings and designs that we start to realize the full splendor of Renaissance jewelry. Goldsmiths became masters of certain techniques within their trade and specialism became a virtue. It wouldn't have been uncommon for a jewelry item to be designed by a painter, cast and shaped by one goldsmith, engraved and enameled by another and then set with gemstones by yet another specialist. Apart from difficulties attributing a jewelry item to one workshop it even is hard to divide Renaissance jewelry into well defined groups according to production areas. Goldsmiths were employed from abroad and the international availability of printed jewelry designs caused a blend of jewelry styles to occur all over Europe.

Pendant designs by Hans Holbein. c. 153243

The change in jewelry design gradually spread from Italy to France and then to Germany and England following the new style of painting and sculpting over the first half of the 16th century. Miniature sculpture in jewelry is a very evident consequence of the influence of the greater arts on jewelry design. Another important aspect in the change and spread of jewelry styles was the fact that painters started to produce engraved designs for jewelry which could be printed and consequently spread in large numbers over the whole of Europe. Many of these designs have survived the last 500 years and show close relations to the mannerist art style. When the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian I married Bianca Maria Sforza from Milan in 1494 his court opened up to the Italian arts. The spread of the Renaissance through the Holy Roman Empire was a slow and gradual event and Gothic jewelry continued to be popular until deep in the 16th century. That said, the German masters adopted the

Renaissance style halfway through the century and their cities became important production centers which attracted goldsmiths and designers from all over Europe. Augsburg eventually became one of the premier jewelry manufacturing cities. Thanks to Benvenuto Cellini's 'The treatises of Benvenuto Cellini on goldsmithing and sculpture' we have a comprehensive understanding of the techniques used by Renaissance goldsmiths. Cellini has done an excellent job describing in detail the methods available to the goldsmith of the time. Reading his treatise is highly recommended for those who wish to understand goldsmithing in the 16th century. It covers the art of niello, filigree work, enameling, stone setting, foiling, diamond cutting, casting, gilding and many other aspects of the goldsmith's trade. A new enamel technique was invented by the beginning of the 17th century: that of mail en rsille. During this time a few new decorative styles emerged as well. Designs became more naturalistic and patterns by the arrangement of gemstones started to dominate. The Renaissance started to give way to the Baroque.

Materials
The influx of gemstones into Europe was greater than ever in the 16th century. Vasco Da Gama had found a direct sea route to India on his adventure around the Cape of Good Hope over the years 1497-1499. This route allowed European merchants to start obtaining gems in India directly, an event which caused the influx of diamonds to increase immensely. Lisbon replaced Venice as the main trading center for Indian gems. Bruges had been the main diamond cutting center in the 15th century but by 1500 the sea arm leading to its port silted and the diamond cutting industry moved house to Antwerp. The industry prospered there until 1585 when the city became entangled in the 80 Years War between the Spanish sovereign Philip II and the revolting Dutch city states. The Spanish occupied Antwerp in that year and the Dutch navy blocked the sea access to the city, crippling Antwerp's international trade. A large number of diamond cutters moved further north to Amsterdam which became, and remained, the diamond cutting center of Europe until the 20th century. We should not forget to mention Paris, where a community of diamond cutters was active as well. The most common diamond cut was the table cut until, in the early 17th century, the rose cut became popular. The Renaissance also saw the return of the art of cameo cutting.

Colored stones remained very popular as well with sapphire, ruby and emerald being the most sought after stones. Apart from Lisbon, Barcelona became an important trading center of colored stones following the plundering of South America by the Spanish and Portuguese. At first burial sites and temples were the main source of precious stones,silver and gold but by the mid 16th century the Spanish had located the Emerald deposits in Colombia and established mines. The Portuguese further occupied Sri Lanka, establishing direct access to the corundum deposits on the island. Burmese rubies were highly prized because of their supreme color. Pearls were extremely popular and were mainly obtained from the Persian Gulf. Imitation gem production flourished. Glass stones, foiling and the production of doubletswere common practice. Imitation diamonds made of glass, rock crystal or colorless zircon from Sri Lanka entered the market as well. In Venice the production of imitation pearls became enough of an issue that the legislators of the city put severe sentences on the practice: 10 years exile and the loss of the right hand.

Types of jewelry

Designs for Jeweled Initial Letters by Hans Holbein. c. 1532 43

The most important jewelry item from the Renaissance was the pendant. It replaced the Medieval brooch as being the most common jewel and was worn on a necklace, long gold chain, fixed to the dress or on a chain worn on the girdle. The pendants were often designed to be seen from both sides with their enameled backs equally impressive as their jewel encrusted fronts. From the late 15th century functional pendants like tooth and ear-pick pendants are encountered as well. Devotional pendants remained in fashion depicting Biblical scenes in miniature sculptures or the sacred monogram with the letters IHS, believed to have come from the Greek word for 'Christ'. Pendants featuring the bejeweled initials of the wearer and his or her partner or other loved one are often encountered in designs as well but few have survived to the present day. These jewels were so personal that they were often destroyed after their wearer died. Pendants featuring portraits painted in enamel, as well as depicted by cameos were very popular, as were Arabesque motifs, fruit, foliage, scrolls and putti. Mythological subjects like nymphs, satyrs and fantasy beasts like dragons became popular next to the already popular Biblical depictions. The stories from sea-faring adventurers triggered a fashion for jewelry with ships, mermaids and sea monsters. Rings continued to be worn on all five fingers and even on more than one joint in the medieval fashion. They usually were gem set and were ornamented more profusely than ever before. Hidden spaces under the bezel of the rings allowed scented materials to be hidden in an attempt to cover up the bad odors that were the result of bad hygiene. The hand wearing the ring could be brought up to the nose whenever a smell became too much to bare. Rings have been encountered with compasses and sun dials in them and later in the 16th century actual clocks had been incorporated in them.

The first portable time piece had been developed somewhere around 1500 but watches as such didn't exist yet. The time pieces were incorporated in existing jewelry such as rings,pomanders and pendants. The pomander was another jewelry item that was used to obscure bad hygiene, loaded with a scented gum or perfume. The situation was so bad that people used flea-furs, the skin of a fret or mink, hoping that any fleas would prefer the furry skin over their own body. In this time of splendour even these flea furs were subject to ornamentation as can be seen in the right hand of the Lady portrayed on the right. The painting has been attributed to an English painter and is dated around 1595. Dress jewels started to appear all over the bodice of dresses rather than just on the edges as had been the fashion in the Middle Ages. Aiguillettes, clasps, gold trinkets and clusters of stones or pearls were attached all over the dresses of the European nobility. As a matter of fact, just about everything that could be jeweled was submitted to gemstone and gold encrusting. Earrings made their comeback after disappearing for a while over the Middle Ages. They were often simple pear shaped pearls or jewelled drops that were either suspended from a pierced ear or tied around the ear. Single jeweled letters, blackamoors or (fantasy) sea creature earrings have been encountered as well. From the early 17th century we see a more geometric design and the length of the earrings increased. A new sight on the heads of the later Renaissance ladies were aigrettes.

A look into Renaissance fashion

Early Renaissance by paintings

c. 1450

1465-66

c. 1470

From the second half of the 15th century on the bulky head dresses from the Middle Ages gave way to carefully fashioned hair, decorated by strings of pearls andferronieres. New dress fashions with receding necklines caused the return of the necklace which had disappeared from female necks over the Middle Ages. In the portraits depicted around this text these changes are nicely illustrated. Necklines recede further as time progresses and the head ornaments become more delicate.

c. 1475 ca 1490 c. 1493

High Renaissance by paintings

The English Court under Henry VIII

This portrait of the infamous British King illustrates some types of jewelry that were very typical for the first half of the 16th century. Let's start with the hat jewels that Henry is wearing. The soft velvet hats were in fashion throughout Europe and were often decorated with one or more badges that ranged from simple buttons to complex jewels. The most typical hat jewelry was a gold, circular medallion depicting Biblical or Mythological scenes. Cameos were very popular as well. From the hat down we encounter a heavy gold collar set with pearls and diamonds from which a chain is suspended holding a round pendant set with precious stones forming a cross. The chain matches his bejeweled clothing. Matched sets of jewels and clothing forming parures were much loved in the Renaissance and records of just about every sovereign owning a few of these parures have been found. On both his index fingers he wears a Henry VIII. c. 1539-1540 ring, set with a faceted stone.

These three portraits of Mary Wotton, Lady Guildenford on the left, her husband, Sir Henry Guildenford in the middle and Jane Seymour, Henry VIII's third wife on the right provide an insight of the fashion amongst English nobles at the end of the 1520's. The ladies still wear a bulky Medieval head dress but their dresses are up to date with a low square neckline. Lady Guildenford wears a short necklace with a pendant, rings and has long gold chains running along the bodice of her dress in the same fashion as her necklace. Lady Seymour is wearing a parure that matches her dress. Sir Guildenford has an emblem as his hat jewel and wears a heavy collar featuring a pendant. (click on the images to enlarge them and use your browser's back button to return)

This a portrait of Anne Cleves, Henry's fourth wife, painted around 1539-1540 which shows her wearing an elegant parure. Her head is covered in a coif which has an unusual pendant fixed to its left side, hanging down her left ear. The rims of her coif are jewelled in the northern fashion. Her short necklace is formed of gem centred flowers of white enamel, matching the border of her dress. A gem set cross pendant is suspended from it. She further wears a long chain of heavy links which goes around her neck twice. Several rings adorn her hands.

Around the middle of the 16th century the square low cut dresses gave way to a new fashion of high collared ones. An intermediate example can be seen on the left where Elizabeth Seymour displays a more simple but by no means less elegant dress with affixed gold pendant, a necklace and several rings.

1540-1541

The English Court under Elizabeth

The era of Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603) saw a different fashion. Men had been wearing just as many, or perhaps even more jewelry than women under Henry VIII but this now changed. Elizabeth was very fond of jewelry and this shows in the many portraits that have been produced of her. Following her example women started to wear far more elaborate jewelry than men. Dresses were now closed at the neck with high collars. Necklaces were worn over the dress and adorned with large pendants. On the image on the left a 27 year old Elizabeth is wearing a rather modest outfit with a few aiguillettes as the only dress jewels.

1560

Here, some 15 years later she is dressed in a far more elaborate dress, has her hair adorned with pearl strings and is wearing similar but very long pearl strings around her neck falling down the bodice of the dress. A large pendant with a huge ruby is suspended from her girdle.

c.1575

On this portrait it is obvious how fond Elizabeth was of jewelry. She is covered in large diamonds, rubies, pearls and gold.

1585

The Spanish Court under Philip II

Philip II of Spain illustrates the sober way of fashion that was common among the men of Spain. His daughter, Catalina Micaela wears a more elaborate parure of necklace and belt, strings of pearls and rings. Around 1600 laws were put in place by Philip III, the successor of Philip II which restricted jewelry for women and prohibited the manufacture of jewelry with relief for all purposes other then church plate.

France

A portrait of Francis I (reigned from 1515 until 1547), the contemporary of Henry VIII and dressed in a very similar way with a velvet hat featuring hat jewelry in the form of a badge and pearls and a bejeweled outfit. Francis loved jewelry and actually started the concept of 'Crown jewels' in 1530 when he ruled that certain pieces would be inalienable heirlooms to his successors. This only concerned gemstones so resetting was still possible. Other monarchs followed his example in the years after his reign. Francis though, found himself having to pawn off most of his jewelry and by the end of his life the majority of his collection was tied up as collateral.

Son of Francis I, Henry II is a sovereign said to have disliked jewelry. During his reign France got entangled in a long period of war and disruption and consequently jewelry took a fall. Perhaps ironically, we find him here depicted in painted enamel on gilded copper.

On the right we see Elizabeth of Austria, Queen of France for the short period of four years between 1570 1574. This portrait was painted around 1571 and shows her wearing a jeweled dress set with rubies, diamonds and pearls.

See also

Mughal Jewelry ~ Royal and antique jewelry of North India

This Mughal bracelet consists of miniature portrait paintings of Mughal emperors and empresses Source: Attribution: Walters Art Museum, CC-BY-SA-3.0, via Wikimedia Commons (Public Domain US)

About Mughal jewelry

Five centuries ago, India was under the Mughal rule and influence. The Mughal royalty were known to be the ambassadors of architecture, arts, food, clothing and of course, jewelry. During the Mughal rule, jewelry-making was given utmost importance. This art gave birth to unique jewelry pieces studded with chunky gemstones and enamelled with motif designs. Many royal family members and people of high ranks proudly displayed such jewelry right from jeweled turbans and head-jewelry to thick-set toe-rings. Mughal jewelry gained immediate popularity due to its ornate patterns and imperial look. After the Mughal era ended, most of the royal jewelry are now preserved in Indian museums. Years later, Mughal jewelry retained its lost glory thanks to the release of the movie 'Jodhaa Akbar' (2008) which is about romance between a Mughal emperor Akbar and a Rajput princess Jodhaa. This film showcased the magnificent jewelry worn by the leading pair which got noticed by both the common people and the jewellers. Now, many jewelry stores are stocked with splendid Mughal-styled jewelry. Apart from North India, Mughal jewelry is also popular in several other states of India. Though Mughal jewelry are produced with a modern twist to their look, it still laid emphasis on stonework and enamelling and stayed true to its roots.

This is an ivory-based miniature portrait painting of Mumtaz Mahal, to whom Taj Mahal, the world famous monument is dedicated. Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

A historic recount of Mughal jewelry

The Mughal rule began in India during the 16th century and subsequently, the art of jewelry-making flourished throughout this era. Wearing expensive jewelry marked one's position. The emperors and empresses as well as courtiers and other people of high ranks were adorned with heavy jewelry beset with huge stones and beads. Various jewellers were hired privately to create magnificent jewelry pieces for the royal family and other important people. Rajasthan, the north-west state of India, served as an exclusive hub for jewelry-making. The Mughal royalty often formed alliances with the Rajput rulers and married Rajput princesses. As a result, the Mughal jewelry was further influenced by the Rajputs and thus began the fine combination of Rajput quaint craftsmanship and

Mughal delicate artistry. Some Mughal jewelry pieces were also influenced by the 17th century European Renaissance fashion.

The map of Mughal India in 1605 Source: Charles Joppen(Historical Atlas of India) via Wikimedia Commons (Public Domain US)

An impact of Mughal jewelry on India

The Mughal emperors conquered most of India and as a result, their influence extended to other regions other than North India. The typical Mughal style is visible in the jewelry of those places which are today known as Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. The popularity of Mughal jewelry reached its zenith that its trademark enamelling and stonework were adopted by other Indian regions for their regional jewelry. The most notable jewelry largely influenced by the Mughals are the Nizam jewelry of Andhra Pradesh in South India, which are now exhibited at the museum in the same state.

Important precious gemstones used in Mughal jewelry

Gemstones 1 Diamond (cut or uncut) Emerald (cut or uncut) Ruby (cut or uncut) Kundan

2 3 4

Gemstones 5 6 7 8 9 10 Polki Jade Pearls Tourmaline Topaz Quality beads

Though there are many more gemstones to name, the above mentioned gemstones are frequently used in Mughal jewelry.

The artwork of Mughal jewelry

Mughal jewelry is a marriage of Indian intricacy and Middle Eastern elegance. With the union of Indian gold work and Middle Eastern floral designs, Mughal jewelry acquired eminence in the entire field of jewelry-making. Heavy stonework and elaborate enamelling are two major features that epitomized this jewelry and made it distinctive from other Indian jewelry. Its base is mainly made of gold. Gold-plated silver and other metallic bases are the other affordable alternatives. Several large precious and semi-precious gemstones are incorporated into the jewelry pieces.Enamelling is a time-consuming process which produces stunning floral finish on both sides of the jewelry pieces. Birds, flowers andpaisley are the most common designs used in this jewelry technique. In India, the enamelling process is known as meenakari and stone-setting is called jadau. Other unique forms of Mughal craftsmanship included filigree and thewa.

Mughal turban ornament made of gold and precious gemstones Source: va_va_val, CC-BY-SA 2.0, Wikimedia Commons via Flickr.com

Mughal hair ornament made of gold and embellished with gemstones and beads Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

A sneak peek into the list of jewelry pieces worn by the Mughal royalty

Turban-ornaments and head-jewelry

The emperors worn silk turbans sequined with decorative drooping feather-like ornaments. These turban ornaments are cast in enamelled gold and are augmented with precious gemstones and pearls.

The empresses also wore feather-like ornaments on their wide silk crowns. In their spare times at palaces, the royal ladies wore dainty head-jewelry that hanged downwards on one side of their foreheads. The head-jewelry are made of either gold or silver and decorated with precious gemstones and quality beads

Mughal gold earrings strewn with gemstones, premium beads and long strings of tiny pearls Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

Earrings, ear-studs and earring-strings

The Mughal emperors and courtiers wore ear-studs or small round earrings made of pearls or gemstones. The empresses wore exquisite long earrings which could be termed today as chandelier earrings. These stunning earrings are beautifully crafted out of fine enamelled gold or pure silver and are featured with multiple large gemstones, pearls and premium beads. Pretty strings attached to the earrings were fastened to the hair of royal ladies with help of tiny hooks. Some Mughal earring-strings are so long, thick and large that they almost covered the whole ear.

Mughal nose-ring crafted out of gold and studded with various precious gemstones Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

Nose-rings

Indian women have developed a special liking for this unique ornament that adorned their noses thanks to the astounding introduction by the Mughals. Nose-rings are produced out of fine gold or silver. Nose rings varied from cute and tiny nose pins studded with minuscule gemstones or pearls to huge circular nose-rings covered with several gemstones, pearls and quality beads. Like earrings, this jewelry piece also have long strings joined to it and fastened to the hair with the help of tiny hooks

Mughal necklace made of gold and embellished with pearls and precious gemstones. Source: Sodabottle, CC-BY-SA-3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Necklaces and chains

The Mughal emperors and empresses wore a number of necklaces and chains, mostly strewn with pearls, gemstones and quality beads. Necklaces and chains ranged from thin ornaments with enamelled pendants to heavy ornaments with glittering gemstones. Gemstones and premium beads are featured prominently on these ornaments to bestow its wearers with a bejewelled look.

Bangles and bracelets

What set these bangles apart from other Indian bangles are its unique shape and prominent stonesetting. Bracelets are created in a circular shape that two ends (clasps) touched each other. These wrist ornaments are mostly produced with enamelled gold elaborated with intricate floral designs and squat gemstones.

Mughal ring made of jade and decorated with precious gemstones and gold filigree Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

Mughal thumb-ring made of garnet studded with diamonds and gold filigree Source: val_val_val, CC-BY-SA-2.5, Wikimedia Commons via Flickr.com

Rings and hand-ornaments

The Mughal emperors gave plenty of emphasis in wearing several rings, made of pure gold or enamelled gold or jade. Some Mughal rings are so huge that it covered almost two or three fingers. The ring-centerpieces are either circular or square in shape and embedded with bulky gemstones. Some rings, particularly thumb-rings, designed for royal ladies had tiny mirrors installed for them to admire their reflections.

Hand-ornaments are string-like jewelry pieces that covered the entire hands of empresses and stretched either from rings or bangles or both.

Mughal armlet made of gold and studded with precious gemstones Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

Armlets

The armlets worn by royal ladies are as equally alluring as other jewelry pieces. They are adjustable either with clasps or strings. They appeared in pure gold or enamelled gold and are studded with many gemstones and pearls.

A waist belt - this jewelry-piece is a fusion of authenticity of temple jewelry of South India and antiqueness of Mughal jewelry. Source: wiki_wiki_whaat, CC-BY-SA-2.5, Wikimedia Commons via Flickr.com

Waist-belts and hip-chains

The waist-belts are chiseled out of gold to don the waists of emperors and empresses. Assorted gemstones and pearls are implanted on these jewelry pieces. Hip-chains are created out of gold and adorned with gemstones or pearls to decorate the hips of empresses. Trinkets are added to these ornaments for an impressive look.

Mughal gold plated silver anklet Source: Hiart(Own work), Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication

Anklets and feet-ornaments

Mughal anklets worn by royal ladies are made of silver or gold-plated silver. Some anklets appeared sans gemstones yet intricately carved with pretty designs all over them and some anklets are covered with many gemstones or trinkets. Feet ornaments consisted of pretty strings strewn with tiny trinkets, small gemstones or pearls attached to anklets. Toe-rings made of minuscule gemstones are also fastened to the anklets through the jewelled strings.

Jade scabbard with gold filigree in the shape of a royal horse Source: va_va_val, CC-BY-SA-2.5, Wikimedia Commons via Flickr.com

Other Mughal jewelled possessions

Great is the Mughal royalty's fondness for enamelling and stonework that they ordered for the intricate craftsmanship of their swords, thrones, utensils, cases, weapons and several other things. The Mughal possessions are made of enamelled gold, jade and ivory as well as are embellished with precious and semi-precious gemstones.

History[edit]
The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked.

Early history[edit]

The first signs of jewellery came from the people in Africa. Perforated beads suggesting shell jewellery made from sea snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southern Russia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen. In October 2012 the Museum of Ancient History in Lower Austria revealed that they had found a grave of a female jewellery worker forcing archaeologists to take a fresh look at prehistoric gender roles after it appeared to be that of a female fine metal worker - a profession that was previously thought to have been carried out exclusively [19] by men.
[6]

Egypt[edit]

Amulet pendant (1254 BC) made fromgold, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian, 14 cm wide.

An Egyptian 18th dynasty pharaonic era princess' crown.

The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years [20] ago. The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. In Predynastic Egypt jewellery soon began to symbolise power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods. In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass, along with precious gems. The colour of the jewellery had significance. Green, for example, symbolised fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the countrys borders, many other materials for jewellery were found in [citation needed] or near Egypt.

Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women [20] wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.

Europe and the Middle East[edit]

Mesopotamia[edit]

Pair of Gold Hair Ornaments, Mesopotamian, circa 2000 BC (Isin-larsa period). Decorated with granulation andcloisonn.Walters Art Museum collections.

By approximately 5,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Mesopotamia. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 29002300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabicontained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand [21] necklaces, and cylinder seals. Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, [22] such as cloisonn, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree. Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery: 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five.

1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device. 1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli beads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp.
[23]

Greece[edit]

Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BC.

The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl, and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different materials were soon used.

Pendant with naked woman, made fromelectrum, Rhodes, around 630-620 BC.

Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the Evil Eye or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold andsilver with ivory and gemstones, bronze and clay copies were made also.

Ancient Greek jewellery from 300 BC.

They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two halves were then joined together, and wax, followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive. Numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one [24] example ever found anywhere else.

These Hellenistic bracelets from the 1st century BC show the influence of Eastern cultures. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

Rome[edit]

Roman Amethyst intaglio engraved gem, c. 212 AD; later regarded as of St. Peter.

Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was the brooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphiresand Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Romanruled England, fossilisedwood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants that could be filled with perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the Evil Eye given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with an engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal documents, a practice that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring [20] countries and tribes.

Middle Ages[edit]

Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothque nationale de France.

6th century bronze eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonn fibula from Guadalajara,Spain, using glass-paste fillings in imitation of garnets.

Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills. The Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and, to a lesser extent, signet rings, are the most common artefacts known to us. A particularly striking Celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Sane are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins), bracelet, gold earrings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and [25] buckle. The Celts specialised in continuous patterns and designs, while Merovingian designs are best [26] known for stylised animal figures. They were not the only groups known for high quality work. Note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship [20] burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England are a particularly well-known example. On the continent, cloisonn and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period.

Byzantine wedding ring.

The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however, Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Woman's jewellery had some peculiarities like kolts that decoratedheadband. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with [27] its owner.

Renaissance[edit]

Sardonyx cameo.

The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade led to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is the Cheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel, iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghan lapis lazuli, Persianturquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in box-bezels on enamelled [28] rings. Notable among merchants of the period was Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France in the 1660s. When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleons rule, jewellers introduced parures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch, and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleons wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly.

Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought. The period also saw the early stages ofcostume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearls or conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers, a practice which continues to this day.

Romanticism[edit]

Mourning jewellery in the form of a jetbrooch, 19th century.

Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the publics fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith Franoise Dsire Froment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert, and it allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing [29] a state of mourning at the death of a loved one. In the United States, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln. Later, it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern production studio had been born and was a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage.

This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West. Collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists led toShakud plaques set into Filigree frames being [30] created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885). Perhaps the grand final and an appropriate transition to the following period were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Faberg, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Faberg eggsand jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmiths art.

Art Nouveau[edit]
In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style and the closely related German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan Modernisme, Austro-Hungarian Sezession, Italian "Liberty", etc. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including bassetaille, champleve, cloisonn, and plique--jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette. Ren Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognised by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werksttte provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co. and the British arts & crafts movement of Charles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamels played a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable design feature. The end of World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober style developed.
[31]

Art Deco[edit]
Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the GermanBauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the German Elizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. It is based on the basic shapes.

Asia[edit]

Royal earrings, India, 1st Century BC.

In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a [32] history of over 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan. Early jewellery making inChina started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread of Buddhism around 2,000 years ago.

China[edit]
The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they [6] assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty. The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BC show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine, hundreds of years before [33] the first mention of such equipment in the west.

Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)

`Xin' Shape Jewellery from Ming Dynasty Tombs, (13681644)

In China, the most uncommon piece of jewellery was the earring, which was worn neither by men nor [citation needed] women. Amulets were common, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. Dragons, Chinese symbols, and phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves found [34] by archaeologists contain decorative jewellery.

Indian subcontinent[edit]
The Indian subcontinent (encompassing India, Pakistan and other countries of South Asia) has a long jewellery history, which went through various changes through cultural influence and politics for more than 5,000-8,000 years. India has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and Mahabharata times. Because India had abundant amount of jewellery resources, it prospered financially through export and exchange with other countries. While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms [32] for some 5,000 years. One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization(encompassing present-day Pakistan and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through the family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads from a young age. Persian style also played a big role in Indias jewellery. Each stone had its own characteristics related to Hinduism. Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In present-day India, bangles are made out of metal or [35] glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and womens hair. The beads were about one millimetre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand. Kada is a special kind of bracelet and is widely popular in Indian [36] [37] culture. They symbolizes animals like peacock, elephant etc.

According to Hindu belief, gold and silver are considered as sacred metals. Gold is symbolic of the warm sun, while silver suggests the cool moon. Both are the quintessential metals of Indian jewellery. Pure gold does not oxidise or corrode with time, which is why Hindu tradition associates gold with immortality. Gold imagery occurs frequently in ancient Indian literature. In the Vedic Hindu belief of cosmological creation, the source of physical and spiritual human life originated in and evolved from a golden womb (hiranyagarbha) or egg (hiranyanda), a metaphor of the sun, whose light rises from the primordial [38] waters.

Antique Pearl & Gold Nose Ring, India, 19th century

The Mughal reign was the most significant period of time in relation to jewellery. A lot of jewellers prospered from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Jewellery had great status with Indias royalty; it was so powerful that they established laws, limiting wearing of jewellery to royalty. Only royalty and a few others to whom they granted permission could wear gold ornaments on their feet. This would normally be considered breaking the appreciation of the sacred metals. Even though the majority of the Indian population wore jewellery, Maharajas and people related to royalty had a deeper connection with jewellery. The Maharaja's role was so important that the Hindu philosophers identified him as central to the smooth working of the world. He was considered as a divine being, a deity in human form, whose [39] duty was to uphold and protect dharma, the moral order of the universe.

A Navaratna ring.

Navaratna (nine gems)is a powerful jewel frequently worn by a Maharaja. It is an amulet, which comprises diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, cats eye, coral, and hyacinth (red zircon). Each of these stones is associated with a celestial deity, represented the totality of the Hindu universe when all nine gems are together. The diamond is the most powerful gem among the nine stones. There were various cuts for the gemstone. Indian Kings bought gemstones privately from the

sellers. Maharaja and other royal family members value gem as Hindu God. They exchanged gems with people to whom they were very close, especially the royal family members and other intimate allies. Only the emperor himself, his intimate relations, and select members of his entourage were permitted to wear royal turban ornament. As the empire matured, differing styles of ornament acquired the generic name of sarpech, from sar or sir, meaning head, and pech, meaning fastener. India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. Historically, diamonds have been given to retain or regain a lovers or rulers lost favour, as symbols of tribute, or as an expression of fidelity in exchange for concessions and protection. Mughal emperors used the diamonds as a means of assuring their immortality by having their names and wordly titles inscribed upon them. Moreover, it has played and continues to play a pivotal role in Indian social, political, economic, and religious event, as it often has done elsewhere. In Indian history, diamonds have been used to acquire military equipment, finance wars, foment revolutions, and tempt defections. They have contributed to the abdication or the decapitation of potentates. They have been used to murder a representative of the dominating power by lacing his food with crushed diamond. Indian diamonds have been used as security to finance large loans needed to buttress politically or economically tottering regimes. Victorious military heroes have been honoured by rewards of diamonds and also have been used as ransom payment for release from imprisonment or [40] abduction. Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are used, and jewellery is [34] commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.

North and South America[edit]

Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and the Aztecs, Mixtecs, Mayans, and numerous Andean cultures, such as the Mochica of Peru, created beautiful pieces of jewellery. With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, [41] small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture.

Moche ear ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru

Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers from Quetzal birds and others. In general, the more jewellery an Aztec noble wore, the higher his status or prestige. The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be nearly completely covered in jewellery when making public appearances. Although gold was the most common and a popular material used in

Aztec jewellery, jade, turquoise, and certain feathers were considered more valuable. In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used [20][29] gem-encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices. Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making were the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze, and copper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish headdresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so they made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore [34] expensive jewellery in the Maya region, much the same as with the Aztecs. In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells [43] with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.

[42]

Native American[edit]
Main article: Native American Jewelry

Bai-De-Schluch-A-Ichin or Be-Ich-Schluck-Ich-In-Et-Tzuzzigi (Slender Silversmith) "Metal Beater," Navajosilversmith, photo by George Ben Wittick, 1883

Native American jewellery is the personal adornment, often in the forms of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, pins, brooches, labrets, and more, made by the Indigenous peoples of the United States. Native American jewellery reflects the cultural diversity and history of its makers. Native American tribes continue to develop distinct aesthetics rooted in their personal artistic visions and cultural traditions. Artists create jewellery for adornment, ceremonies, and trade. Lois Sherr Dubin writes, "[i]n the absence of written languages, adornment became an important element of Indian [Native American] communication, conveying many levels of information." Later, jewellery and personal adornment [44] "...signaled resistance to assimilation. It remains a major statement of tribal and individual identity." Metalsmiths, beaders, carvers, and lapidaries combine a variety of metals, hardwoods, precious and semi-precious gemstones, beadwork, quillwork, teeth, bones, hide, vegetal fibres, and other materials to

create jewellery. Contemporary Native American jewellery ranges from hand-quarried and processed stones and shells to computer-fabricated steel and titanium jewellery.

Pacific[edit]
Main article: Jewellery in the Pacific Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headdresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to [45] paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.

A modern opal bracelet

Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 19th century, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the [46] most profitable stones in the Pacific. The New Zealand Mori traditionally had a strong culture of personal adornment, most famously the hei-tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone, nephrite, or bowenite. Nowadays a wide range of such traditionally inspired items such as bone carved pendants based on traditional fishhooks hei matau and othergreenstone jewellery are popular with young New Zealanders of all backgrounds for whom they relate to a generalized sense of New Zealand identity. These trends have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional Mori culture and arts. Other than jewellery created through Mori influence, modern jewellery in New Zealand is multicultural [45] and varied.
[47]

Prehistory and Ancient History

Year

General History

Discoveries & Jew

Circa 110.000BC Circa 98.000BC Circa 73.000BC Circa 38.000BC Circa 28.000BC

Archaeological finds in Morocco tell u served as amulets

decorative objects; the oldest jewelr

Purposely drilled shells from Israel a

Purposely drilled shells from South A

Animal teeth and bone beads found

Fossil shell and ivory beads found in Gravettian culture)

Badarian culture in Egypt (c. 4500BC to 3250BC). Domestication of animals. Sedentary settlements. Social differentiation by burying prominent people in different areas of cemeteries.

Circa 4400BC

The ancient Thracian civilization pro

goldobjects. They were discovered a

invention of the wheel (circa 5000BC), presumably first for pottery purposes

Circa 4000BC

Uruk Period in Sumer (4100BC2900BC)

Badarian Culture in Egypt starts usin glazed steatite beads

Circa 3600BC

Naqada culture in Southern Egypt im starts using symbols.

tools. Jewelry made of gold, lapis, a

Nephrite jade used for weapons and

Circa 3500BC

First Cuneiform script in Sumer followed by the Naqada culture starting to use symbols (3300BC) that will evolve into the Egyptian hieroglyphs

Ancient faience found in Nile Valley

Circa 3200BC

Dynastic period in Egypt; King Meni unifies Upper and Lower Egypt

Circa 3000BC

Lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise, gre the Egyptians

Dynastic periods in Sumer (2900BC2334BC), Early Bronze Age in Sumer

Chasing and Repouss in Egypt (1st

Soldering in Egypt & Mesopotamia (3

Circa 2800BC Circa 2700BC Circa 2500BC

First known instance of glass produc

Use of jet beads during Bronze Age

Bronze Age on Crete; Minoan civilisation's uprise Great pyramid of Gizeh (2560 BC) built

Earliest examples of granulation at U Casting of gold in Egypt

Circa 2000BC Circa 1895BC

Minoan goldsmiths use foilbacked st

Rise of Babylon in Sumer

Earliest known examples of granulat Khnumet (12th Dyanasty)

Circa 1500BC

Jet is mined in England like stone)

Glass begins to be shaped while mol Art of lost wax casting developed in

Jadeite in use by the Olmecs of Mex

Circa 1230BC

Earliest known examples of true cloi

Chavn culture in Peru using sheet g

Circa 1100BC

Phoenician sailors establish a trading network throughout the Mediterranian

The ancient Greeks start making inta Great's conquests (4th century BC)

the glyptographytechniques spread t

Iron hand tools e.g., chisels, saws invented during the early Iron Age

Circa 800 BC

Etruscan civilisation established in modern day Tuscany

Diamonds known in India, exported

Circa 700 BC

Etruscans bury the ashes of their the Sapphires used by Etruscans Nimrud (Iraq)

gifts, Fibulasand armillas are among

Earliest use of beaded wire; linked c

Circa 600 BC

First electrum coins used in Lydia (Anatolia, Turkey)

Amber used by the Etruscans

First documented use of red garnets mineralogy text

Circa 300 BC

Alexander the Great conquest into Asia, the Arabic Peninsula and Egypt (334BC - 323BC)

Greek Theophrastus (c.372-287 BC) Fibulas are worn by Romans

Armillas are given to Roman soldiers

Circa 200 BC

Peridot mined on island of Zabargad

Tourmaline curvette cameo of Alexa India, carved 3rd or 2nd C BC

Clay furnaces and blowpipes used to Peru and Ecuador

Circa 100 BC

Earliest ornamental use of red spine AD

by Romans; blue spinel found in Eng

Julius Ceasar completes his conquest of Europe to the Rhine (Alesia, 52 v.Chr)

Circa 50BC

Octavian (later: Emperor Augustus) conqueres Egypt (Battle of Actium, 30BC)

79AD

The Vesuvius eruption

Pompeii and Herculaneum are buried

Elder dies, being be too close of a w

Earliest known champlev enamels, of 19th C

Cats eye chrysoberyl known in Rom

Circa 100AD

Venice becomes center for glass-ma (10AD-1100AD)

South American Indians in Choc re (first 3 centuries AD)

Diamonds as octahedra (natural crys (through 3rd century AD)

Middle Ages

Year

General History

Discoveries & Innovations

Jewelry History

Circa

Germanic tribes invade the Roman Empire, the

400

Migration period starts

Byzantine Emperor Justinian takes up laws

529

regulating the wearing and usage of jewelry in a new set of laws, later to be called the Justinian Code

548

The San Vitale is completed in Ravenna

570

The prophet Muhammad is born, by the end of his life in 632 a large Islamic state has been established

Circa 600

Earliest evidence of metaldrawplate u sage in the Western world

King Raedwald of East Anglia receives a burial at Sutton Hoo with extraordinary jewelry by his side.

Mining of red spinel begins in Badakshan, Afghanistan

Circa 800

Charles the Great is crowned Emperor

between 750 and 950 AD

In choosing a court style Charles picks theRomanesque style after Byzantine exampe

Cloisonn enamel finds its way into the workshops of Byzantine goldsmiths

962

The crowning of Otto I

marks the beginning of theHoly Roman Empire

The loot of the first crusade containing incredible amounts of

1096

The first crusade is launched

precious stones and gold is transported from the Holy Land to Northern Europe

A distinct Arabic style emerges in jewelry of the Islamitic world

Circa 1100

Chinese originate the concept of pearl culturing (1100-1300?)

Circa 1140

The Gothic period in art history starts (lasts until the 16th century)

1180

The goldsmiths of London start a guild

1234

Laws regulating the wearing of jewelry are instated in Aragon

1250

Earliest record of plique jour

1284 First record of The Horners Co., London

The Gothic style starts to influence jewelry

French laws regulatic the wearing of jewelry are instated (1283)


1290

Earliest extant example of bassetaille enamel (in Italy)

1330

Earliest evidence of diamond cutting (the point cut) in Venice

1400

Ferronieres come into fashion during the 15th century

1433

Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy is born (dies 1477). He is believed to have owned the Florentine Diamond

1450

The table cut for diamonds is introduced (c.)

1471

Albrecht Drer is born (dies 1528)

The first French cut diamonds are

cut during the 15th century

1477

1st diamond engagement ring given to Mary of Burgundy by Emperor Maximilian I

1496

Leonardo da Vinci designs a rolling mill

Renaissance
Year General History Discoveries & Innovations Jewelry History

Benvenuto Cellini is born in Italy, describesplique jour process in 'Treatises' in 1568

1500

Rose cuts for diamonds begin to appear

Probierbchlein (Little Book of Assays) published,

1520

becomes important guide to assaying of metals

1526

The first mention of the Agra Diamond in history

Spanish conquistadores send Colombian eme ralds back to Spain

1530

Arabesque style becomes popular inRenaissance scroll work

Spanish conquistadores findplatinum in South America

1550

First European lab for smelting ores to test for gold

Silver found in the New World on Roanoke Island, VA; settlement evacuated 1586

1580

1589

The Beau Sancy diamond is first mentioned in history

Colorless zircons mined in France

1590

1598

Edict of

Nantes issue d Circa 1600

Human hair first worn in memorial jewels

The Baroque Period starts

Baroque
Year General History Discoveries & Innovations

Jewelry History

1601

Word 'tortoiseshell' coined (OED)

The Tower (London) records from this year show the Sancy Diamond being purchased by King James I of Britain

1605

Jean Baptiste Tavernier starts his journey that brings him to Golconda, during the rest of his life he visits the area several times, bringing back diamonds of all sizes like the Le Grand Cond, the Tavernier Blue and many others

1638

1640

Jean Berain is born (dies 1711)

First record of goldstone (aventurine glass) in Murano Italy

1644

Earliest known use of silvertopped yellow gold for diamonds

1650

Great Mogul diamond is discovered in India (c.)

Mary Stuart is born, later the Queen of England, Mary

1662

II, the first documented owner of the Holland diamond

Jean Baptiste Tavernier sells the Tavernier Blue to Louis XIV

1669

Flint glass (high lead content) developed by Englishman George Ravenscroft

1675

En tremblant settings appear

Huguenots leave France, massive emigration of craftsmen to the Netherlands, Austria, Germany and England

Edict of Nantes revoked byLouis XIV

1685

The Hortensia Diamond is mentioned in an inventory of the French Crown Jewels ofLouis XIV

1691

The Peruzzi cut, early version of 58-facet (square) brilliant, is developed

1700

1703

Tourmaline first identified

Georgian Period
Year General History Discoveries & Innovations

Jewelry History

Christopher Pinchb eck develops an alloy of copper and zinc

1720

1722

The Dresden Green (worlds largest green diamond) first reported in The London Post Boy

Diamonds and ame thysts (1727) discovered in Brazil (c.)

1725

1728

Robert Adam is born (dies 1792)

1730

Georges Frdric Strass becomes famous forpaste jewelry (c.)

1735

Topaz discovered in Minas Gerais (c.)

Johann Wolfgang vonGoethe is born in Germany (dies

1749

in 1832) Roman Vincent Jeuffro y is born in France (dies in 1826)

1753

Giacomo Raffaelli is born in Italy (dies 1836)

1760

Eugnie diamond is discovered in Brazil

American goldsmith Paul Revere begins making jewelry (c.)

George III becomes King of Britain

Lava cameos carved in Italy for tourists visiting Pompeii ruins

James Tassie develops vitreous glass pastefor 'cameos'

1763

Josiah Wedgwood introduces fine ceramic known as jasperware in plaques with relief decoration resembling cameos, mounted incut steel, manufactured by Matthew Boulton beginning in 1773

1764

Die stamping machine patented by John Pickering, adapted for inexpensive jewelry in 1777

1769

1774

Louis XVI

becomes king of France

American Revolution begins, Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence, 1776

Micromosaics first exhibited in Rome The Baroque Period ends (c.)

1775

Caesars Ruby (carved rubellite tourmaline) presented to Catherine the Great of Russia

1777

Azim-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Arcot presents Queen Charlotte of Britain a gift: five diamonds of which two are the Arcots

1780

Burmese jadeite im ported into China

1781

William Asprey establishes Asprey

French scientist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier succeeds

1782

in meltingplatinum fro m it's ore using pure oxygen

Spinel first recognized as a distinct mineral

1783

1784

Benedetto Pistrucci is born (dies 1854)

1785

Eye miniatures popularized by Prince George of England Nizam Ali Kahn of the Deccan presents theHastings Diamond as a gift to King George III

Marc tienne Janety, goldsmith to Louis XVI of France, crafts a sugar bowl out of platinum

1786

1787

Earliest documented hairwork in U.S.

French Revolution begins, ends 1799

Chrysoberyl identifi ed as mineral species by German geologist A. G. Werner

1789

George Washington, elected first President of the USA. He dies in 1799.

Brazilian chrysoberyls in Portuguese jewelry, last 18th C Titanium discovere d by British clergyman Wm. Gregor, isolated 1910

1791

1793

Seril Dodge of Providence, RI,

advertises offering of jewelry items made to order, sells business to half-brother Nehemiah. 1796 1795

Diamonds begin to be set ' jour' (c.)

Napoleonic Wars. They end in 1815

Amethysts discover ed in the Ural Mountains in Russia

1799

Alessandro Volta invents the first battery, the Volta Pile

Wollaston & Smithson Tennant begin collaboration, create commercial grade platinum, they discover platinum family of metals:palladium a nd rhodium in 1802;iridium and osmium, 1803

1800

Thomas Jefferson elected President of the USA

Jem Belcher wi ns his national boxing title

E. Hinsdale establishes first American factory for the manufacture of fine jewelry in Newark, NJ

1801

Robert Hare of Philadelphia invents oxyhydrogen ('gas') blowpipe

Recognition

of tourmaline fami ly

Niobium discovered by British chemist Charles Hatchett

The Regent Diamond is set in Napoleon's ceremonial sword which he carried to his

1804

coronation Royal Ironworks of Berlin opens, jewelry production starts in 1806 Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of France

George III declared insane;Regenc y Period begins in Britain

1811

1812-1815 War between Great Britain and the USA

1812

18131815 Prussian War of Liberation against Napoleon

1813

Berlin iron jewelry made in Germany as patriotic gesture during War of Liberation: "ich gab gold fr Eisen" (I gave gold for iron)

Kingdom of France (Bourbon

Fortunato Pio Castellani established workshop in Rome, begins study of granulation in ancient gold work in 1827

1815

Dynasty) restored, Louis XVII becomes King

1819

The Gas Blowpipe' by E.D. Clarke is published

Platinum discovere d in Russian Ural mountains

Ancient gold work discovered inEtruscan excavati ons

George III of Great Britain dies, George IV becomes king

1820

Tourmalines discovered in Maine, mines opened from 1822 (c.)

Pin making machine for straight pins

1824 Charles X becomes king of France

patented in England by L.W.

Wright, by J. Howe in the USA in 1832

Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geierstein is published, describing opal as 'misfortune stone'

Andrew Jackson elected President of the USA

1829

French hallmark for doubl d'or (rolled gold) introduced

by Paris Mint

Louis-Philippe I becomes king of France

Indian Rubber elastic first appears in Women's clothing

1830

George IV of Great Britain dies, William IV becomes king

Godey's Ladies Book first published Claw/coronet setting of the Middle ages revived

Emerald discovered in Ural Mountains, an important source of emeralds in Europe in the 19th century

Bailey and Kitchen opens shop (Bailey, Banks & Biddle in 1878

1831

Bailey and Kitchen opens shop (Bailey, Banks & Biddle in 1878

1832

Alexandrite discove red in Ural Mountains in an emerald mine, named after Czar Alexander II

1834

Edmund Davey discovers and identifies acetylene

1836

USA Patent Act passed. U.S. Patent office issues Patent Number 1

Early Victorian (Romantic) period

Year

General History

Discoveries & Innovations

Louis J.M. Daguerre perfectsdaguerreotype photograp hic process

Enameled g

Victoria; Or

buckle mot

1837

The telegraph is patented by Cooke and Wheatstone, improved by Samuel Morse, first message sent 1844

Charles Lew 1853

New York C

Victoria becomes Queen of Great Britain

Falize open

Charles Goodyear invents and patents (1844) vulcanized rubber; displays products at Crystal Palacein 1851

1839

Patek, Czap Norbert de

Electroplating commercialized, patented by Elkingtons of Birmingham. Large scale jewelry manufacturing begins in the USA

Process for permanently foiledpastes discover ed

Scottish mo

1840

popularized

the century

Steam power first used for diamond cutting in Amsterdam Repouss and machine stamping replace cannetille (c.)

Algerian Kn

Victoria weds Prince Albert

1841

Duty on im gemstones

1842

British kite-

Gutta-percha introduced in Paris Excavations of ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh begin

1843 1846 1847

Garrard bec

Riker, Tay &

become Rik

Cartier foun

Gold discovered in California Thomas H Lowe of Birmingham introduces rolled gold plating process (a.k.a. gold filled) to Providence, RI, manufacturers

1848

Caldwell an

Balmoral Castle in Scotland purchased by Queen Victoria

Co., Philade

The safety pin invented and patented by W. Hunt Gold electroplating patented Opals first discovered in Australia, the first with play of color in 1863

1849

California Gold Rush High tariff placed on foreign goods imported into the USA

Tube shaped ('trombone') safety catch patented by Charles Rowley of Birmingham, England

Brooches w introduced

1850

Garnet-glas

First international exhibition, the Great

Gold and diamonds first discovered in Australia Hard rubber (vulcanite) patented by Nelson Goodyear

Artificial av

1851

Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, held at the Crystal palace in London

Crystal Pala

Edward Mo ofTiffany &

Louis Napoleon becomes Napoleon III, beginning of the French Second Empire

1852

Machine for heat-pressing bog oak patented

Tiffany & C

English ster

Commodore Matthew Perry sails the American fleet into

Demantoid garnet discovered in Ural Mountains, identified as greenandradite in 1864, named demantoid in 1878

1853

Japan; opens East-West trade relations Crystal Palace exhibition held in New York, modeled

after London Exhibition

Process for

Results of first commercially successful aluminum reduction process published by Henri Ste. Claire Deville

1854

Use of 15-, in England

Samuel Pecks patent for shellac composition daguerreotype cases

Paris Exposition Universelle,aluminum articl es first exhibited

R.W. Bunsen begins using gas-air burner that is his namesake Patents for Bois durci, Parkesine and artificial coral issued

Theodor Fa Pforzheim,

1855

First alumin

Wm. Perkin accidentally discovers the first synthetic aniline (coaltar) dye, mauve

1856

Furnace to melt platinum and it's alloys developed by Henri Ste. Clair Deville

1857

Financial 'Panic of 1857' affects all of U.S. industries

Snake chain making machine patented in the USA

1858

First attempted laying of a transatlantic cable

Boucheron

Comstock Lode silver discovered in Nevada Jewels of Queen Ah-Hotep of Egypt discovered

1859

Construction of the Suez Canal begins

First attem

USA, not su

Jewelry Wo

English patent for machine to manufacture stamped settings (collets) for stones granted to

Henry D. M

1860

diamond-cu

standards f

Frenchmen Bouret and Ferr

cut, 1872-7

Emperor Ma Maximilian

Diamondsa

Fouquet op workshops

Ernest Gaill

Mid Victorian (Grand) Period

Year General History Discoveries & Innovations

Fortunato P Wearing of 1880

to son Augu

U.S. Civil war begins (1861-1865); Lincoln inaugurated

jewelry requ

1861

Prince Consort Albert dies; Victoria enters prolonged period of mourning

Archaeologi Exhibition.

1862

International Exhibition held in London

by Castellan

Reverse inta Exhibition

Japanese decorative arts exhibited for the first time in the West

Edward, Prince of Wales, marries Alexandra of Denmark

1863

Castellani cl

ofplique jo

1865

Sapphires found in Missouri River in Montana

The Idol's E

recorded his

London 1866

Benoitons b

Egyptian Re Exposition,

for his jewe

First authenticated diamond, the 'Eureka', discovered in South Africa

1867

Paris International Exhibition

Parisian firm

ofplique jo

Celluloid, the first successful semi-synthetic thermoplastic,

Gorham Mfg thousand

1868

invented in USA by John Wesley Hyatt; commercial production begins in 1873

adoptssterli

First transcontinental railroad from Omaha to San Francisco

Henry D. Mo

Suez Canal opened

largest foun

Diamond Rush begins in South Africa with the discovery of theStar of Africa

cut to 11,70

1869

American H

merges with Horological

become The

Fall of the French Empire Start of a recession in Europe that lasts throughout the decade

Diamonds discovered in Kimberley, South Africa Japanese craftsmen introduce metal-working techniques and designs to the West

Influx of Eu

into the USA

1870

Peter Carl F business

Jewelers' Ci

published Fe

1872

International Exhibition

Opals discovered in Queensland,

Celluloid com

held in London

Australia Ferdinand J Herpers of Newark, NJ, patents six prong setting for diamond, introduced as the Tiffany setting by Tiffany & Co. in 1886

trade name

Henry D. Morse and Charles M. Field obtain British and U.S. (1874, 1876) patents for steamdriven bruting (diamond cutting) machines

1873

Universal Exhibition held in Vienna

Gold discovered in Black Hills of Dakota Territory Patents for artificial coral, tortoiseshell, amber, jet (celluloid)

1874

Deadwood, Dakota

Giuliano ope

Arthur Laze

1875

Co.of Londo

The Celluloi

production i

Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia Wearing of swords banned in Japan Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India

1876

Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone

Alessandro Exposition

on Etruscan

Advent of bottled oxygen (liquefied and compressed) Successful experiments with chemical manufacture of very small rubies and sapphires in Paris, published by Frmy

1877

Aucoc buys

changes it's

Patent for platinum-tipped prongs for setting diamonds earring covers for diamond earrings patented Tiffany diamond discovered in South Africa

Tiffany & Co

1878

encrusted m

theJapanesq

Unger Bros.

manufacture

Paris exposition Universelle

T.A. Edison patents incandescent light bulb Hiddenite, green variety ofspodumene, found in North Carolina, USA

1879

Gem expert

Tiffany & Co

Cecil Rhode

Company in 1880

Rational Dress Society founded in Great Britain

Consolidate

Mass produc

Switzerland

Manufacture

Child & Chil

First electrically lit theatre, The Savoy, opens in London

1881

1882

Blue sapphires discovered in Kashmir, N. India

1883

Metropolitan Opera House opens in New York City

1884

Sotirios Bulg Italy

Late Victorian (Aesthetic) Period

Year General History

Discoveries & Innovations First appearance of Genevasynthetic ruby

1885

Carrera y C

Tiffany sett introduced Richard W.

1886

Statue of Liberty dedicated

company to

to sell jewe

Hall-Hroult process for refiningaluminum developed; first commercial production in Switzerland, value drops

Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee

Celluloid photographic film invented by Hannibal W. Goodwin Gold extraction by cyanide process Invented by John Stewart, Macarthur and the

1887

Forrest brothers Black opals discovered in NSW, Australia; commercial mining atLightening Ridge begins in 1903

Tiffany & C Jewels

The Belais brothers of New York begin experimenting with alloys forwhite gold (c.). David Belais introduces his formula to the trade in 1917 (18k Belais)

Birmingham

Silversmith

manufactur

George Eastman introduces the first commercial box camera, the Kodak

C.R. Ashbe

1888

London, the

jewelry ma

Paris Exposition Universelle - Eiffel Tower constructed

Tiffany & C Exposition

1889

Sapphire's found in Dry Cottenwood Creek, Montana

jewels by P

Ren Boivin

Gibsons Gibson Girl appears in humor magazine Life

1890

1891

The marking of foreign

Frmy publishes experiments with

imports with the name of the country of origin in English required by the enactment of the McKinley Tariff Act, October, 1890

ruby synthesis, drawings of synthetic-set jewelry Power driven bruting (girdling) machine for cutting diamonds patented in England

Patent for artificial horn (celluloid)

First commercial opal mine opened in Australia

Vogue mag

1892

Marcus & C

established

Cultured pearls first developed by K. Mikimoto in Japan; first spherical pearls grown 1905

1893

World's Colombian Exposition in Chicago

'Platingeld' introduced, used for simulated gold and platinum chains

Excelsior Diamond is found in South Africa

Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope Parlor ('peepshow') opens in New York City

Screw back earring finding for unpierced ears patented Cross & Bevean, UK, issued patent for cellulose acetate

1894

Blue sapphires discovered in Yogo Gulch, Montana Bonzano Creek Gold Rush in Klondike, Yukon, Canada The wireless telegraph invented by Guglielmo Marconi (first transatlantic wireless signal in 1901)

Sigfried (ak Nouveau

Paris galler

American Consuelo Vanderbilt marries the British Duke of Marlborough

Ren Laliqu

1895

gallery and 145 pieces

Artistes Fra

Daniel Swa

factory in T

1897

Queen Victoria's Diamond

Casein plastics marketed in

Boston and

Jubilee

Germany

founded

Lacloche Fr

Alaska Gold Rush Commercial sapphire mining begins in Rock Creek, Montana Commercial tourmaline mining begins in San Diego County CA

1898

Spanish-American War

Diamond su

1899

Boer war in South Africa starts, lasts until 1902

prices for D (c.)

Aigrettes re

Edwardian Period (Belle poque)

Year General History Discoveries & Innovations

Tiffany & C

iris corsage

Oxyacetylene torch invented by Edmund Fouch The diamond saw is invented by a Belgian working in the USA. (c.) Synthetic rubies exhibited at Paris Exposition

blue sapph

Boucheron,

1900

other Frenc

Nouveau je

The Kalo Sh

Welles in C

Paris Exposition Universelle

in 1905, clo McKinley's

USA official

Queen Victoria dies, Edward VII becomes King

Gustav Stic periodical,

McKinley assassinated. Theodore Roosevelt becomes President

Lever safety catch for broochespatented by Herpers Brothers of Newark

1901

Tiffany & C

Exposition,

Pan American Exposition held in Buffalo NY

on exhibitio

Flame fusion process for synthesizing rubies presented in Paris by Verneuil, published and patented in 1904

1902

Vienna Secession Exhibit Edward VII coronation

Pink variety of spodumene,kunzite, discovered in California, identified by and named afterGeorge Frederick Kunz

Joseph Ass diamonds

Process for setting Rhinestones or metal in celluloid patented

Cartier ope

Wiener We Austria by Hoffman

1903

Black opals commercially mined at Lightning Ridge, NSW, Australia

Faberg op

'gentleman

Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis New York City subway opens Construction on the Panama Canal begins

1904

Verneuil publishes & patents flame fusion process

Louis Comf

the first tim

Marshall Fie

craft shop f

(closed 195

Georg Jens

Copenhage

First spherical pearls grown in Japan by Mikimoto Cullinan diamond discovered in South Africa, presented to Edward VII on 1907

Forest Craf

Grand Rapi

1905

Albert Einstein proposes his theory of relativity

The Kalo Sh Chicago

Henri Matis

exhibit at S

San Francisco earthquake and fire Finland is the first country to grant women's suffrage

National St

1906

requiring m

Van Cleef &

Benitoite discovered in California, declared official state stone in 1985

First exhibi

Suffragettes demonstrate for the right to vote in London

Paris, inclu

1907

Georges Br

Blue Verneuil sapphire becomes available

Tiffany & C

with Louis C

First spherical cultured pearlspatented by Mikimoto (first grown in 1905, American patent granted in 1916)

Couturier P

Chichi', intr

the vertical

1908

Synthetic spinel accidentally produced by flame fusion process Henry Ford introduces the first mass-produced automobile, the Model T

A British ge

annual mee

of Goldsmit

First course

Leo H. Baekeland patents first entirely synthesized plastic,Bakelite

Copyright symbol introduced for printed works

1909

The Wright brothers begin large scale manufacture of the airplane (first flight 1903, patented in 1906

Synthetic color change corundumfirst created

Cartier New

Edward VII dies, George V becomes king of Great Britain

France clas 1912

Eugene Morehouse invents the 'bullet' safety catch for brooches, patented for B.A. Ballou & Co. in 1911

metal, new

1910

First major American women's suffrage parade held in New York City, demonstration in

Suffragette

violet (first

popular in B

Washington DC in 1913

The Hope D

1911

George V Coronation

Synthetic blue sapphires are patented in the USA by Verneuil

Evalyn Wal

George V h

Imperial St

Cartier intr diamonds

1912

Oscar Heym issued

New hallma

World War I begins First ship though Panama Canal, completed in 1913

The first U.

1914

Edna Wollm

Platinum is

during wart

Panama-Pacific Exposition held in San Francisco Panama-California Exposition held in San Diego

U.S. patent #1165448 granted to Karl Richter of Pforzheim, Germany, for a white gold alloy ofgold, nickel and pallad ium

1915

David Belai

The USA enters the War The Russian Revolution begins

formula for

1917

known as 1 public sale

Cartier des

World War I ends Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia become the Republic of Czechoslovakia

Polish chemist J. Czochralskis pulling method for gemstone synthesis is published

1918

First regular airmail service, between Washington DC and New York City begins, New York to San Francisco in 1921

The 'Modern Era'

Year

General History

Discoveries & Innovations

Marcel Tolk

detailing th 1919 Ideal cut

modern bri

following sc

and develo

Buccellati e

Prohibition in the USA The Nineteenth Amendment, giving women the right to vote, is ratified

1920

First regular radio programs begin broadcasting in Pittsburgh

Art Deco je

1922

Howard Carter discovers King Tutankhamen's tomb in Egypt

Yard. found

Synthetic pearl essence for simulated pearls invented, called H-scale

1923

Egyptologist Caroline R Williams discovers the granulationtechnique used by ancient goldsmiths

1924

1925

Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et

Synthetic spinel, inadvertently produced by flame fusion process

Jensen is a

Paris expos

Industriels Modernes is held in Paris

in 1908, now in worldwide use

Firm of Trif

established The first injection molding machine patented by Eckert and Ziegler in Germany

1926

Charles Lindbergh flies solo nonstop New York to Paris Motion picture with sound first publicly shown (Al Jolson in 'the Jazz Singer')

Cellulose acetate, trade name Lumarith, introduced by Celluloid Corp.

1927

Cartier patents spring system for double clip brooch

Schiaparell in Paris

1928

Paul Flato o

The Great Depression begins with stock market crash

Traber & Ho agreement

1929

Black, Star

Corp., until

Ernest Opp

1930

Chrysler Building completed in NYC

De Beers, c Paris

Formation o

The 'Duette' pin back mechanism for double clip brooches patented by U.S. costume jewelry manufacturer Coro

1931

Empire State building becomes New York's tallest

William Spr

workshop in

Robert M. S

14k gold re decision of

Franklin D. Roosevelt elected President of the USA

1932

Goldsmiths

Harry Wins

business in

1933

Construction begins on

The invisible setting (serti

Lost wax pr

Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco (completed in 1937)

invisible) patented by Cartier and Van Cleef & Arpels (introduced in USA in 1936)

1910 reintr

jewelry cas

models (c.)

Prohibition repealed Gold taken out of circulation Century of Progress World Fair opens in Chicago

Diamond Pr

Diamond Tr

Synthetic emeralds (Igmerald) developed by IG-Farben, Germany, first seen by gemologists

Salvador Dali exhibits surrealist paintings in New York City

Ernest Opp

1934

Consolidate

Patent for the clip back earringfinding for unpierced ears granted to Eugene Morehouse for B.A. Ballou

Van Cleef &

"LudoFlexib

French luxury cruise ship Normandie arrives in New York

D. Lisner &

jewelry, the

1935

phenolic pla

U.S. Works Progress Administration inaugurated

The Jewele Keystone

Keystone to

George V dies, succeeded by George VI BBC inaugurates television service; general broadcasting begins in U.S. in 1941

1936

Invisible setting (serti invisible) introduced by Van Cleef & Arpels

Life Magazine founded by Henry Robinson Luce

The International Exhibition of Arts and Techniques in Modern Life held in Paris

Du Pont de Nemours & Co. introduces acrylic plastic, trade name 'Lucite'; also patents nylon fiber

Van Cleef a

contract' br

1937

Duchess of Arpels and

First feature-length animated film, Walt Disney's 'Snow White and

Boucheron,

Double pronged hinged (dress) clip introduced (c.)

colored gol

the Seven Dwarfs'

exposition

Paul Flato o

establishme

First comm

syntheticem

Carroll Cha

World War II begins in Europe The New York World's Fair, titled 'The World Of Tomorrow' opens

term 'Chath in 1963) The House Co., Black,

1939

Worlds fai

Gone With The Wind premiers

Ballou, Mar York

Van Cleef &

Verdura op Village

Sam Krame

1940

France falls under German occupation

Hydrothermal synthetic quartz produced by AT&T Bell labs, USA

The Bank o The Greek apprantice

10% luxury

The USA enters the War with the Japanese bombing

20% in 194

Jean Schlum

1941

of Pearl harbor First U.S. television broadcasting begins

Joins Tiffan

Craft Horizo Handicraft

for crafts in

Rationing of consumer products (sugar, coffee, gasoline) begins in the U.S.

Polyethylene formulated by Earl S. Tupper and DuPont, Tupperware introduced in 1946

Use of plati

1942

White meta

sterling silv

in costume

Postal zones added to addresses of large cities in USA

1943

Luxury tax USA

1944

Sugilite discovered by Ken-ichi Sugi

World War II ends Roosevelt dies, Harry Truman becomes President of the USA

Suzanne Be

1945

Belperron w

Mexican go

United Nations is formed, holds first session in 1946

sterling silv

First Nation

studioartist 1946

Opal doublets first made in Australia, triplets around 1960

Modern Art

Jerry Fels f

Angeles, CA

David Webb in 1963

Synthetic star corundum becomes available, production by Linde from the USA

Couturier Christian Dior introduces 'The New Look'

Synthetic s

Synthetic Rutile introduced as a diamond simulant

first marke

Copyright laws re-enacted by U.S. Congress, expanded to include illustrations of merchandise and designs for art works

Costume je

1947

abandoning mark

copyrights,

Metalsmith

veterans be

Jewish State of Israel declared, admitted to U.N. in 1949

1948

De Beers D

Truman elected to full term as President of the USA

'a diamond

German Federal Republic (West Germany) proclaimed

Harry Wins

1949

his 'Court o

York, it tou

Israel admitted to UN

Marshall Fie

metalware

1950

Fifties jewe

1951

Color television introduced in the USA

The Metal A Francisco

George VI of Britain dies; succeeded by Elizabeth II Dwight D. Eisenhower elected President of the USA

1952

Strontium Titanite is introduced as a diamond simulant

Italian Jewe

in New York

Marilyn Monroe sings 'Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend' in 'gentlemen Prefer Blondes'

1953

Mamie Eise

to Inaugura

De Beers in

Internation 1954

diamond-se

First succes

diamonds a

patented in

produced in

Swarovski C

1955

Atomically generated power first used in the USA

borealis' co

crystal in co a diamond

Strontium t

1956

Julius Cohe

Jean Schlum

1957

USSR launches first 'Sputnik' satellite on Oct. 4

1958

Universal Exhibition opens in Brussels, Belgium

Chatham introduces Flux Meltsynthetic Ruby

Opal triplets first made (c.) Process for synthetic diamondspatented in the USA Synthetic overgrowth of emerald on goshenite succesfull: Leichleitner emeralds enter the market in small numbers

John F. Kennedy elected President of the USA Birth control pills introduced to the public

1960

Both the Soviets and the USA put the first men in space

Internation

1961

(1890-1961

U.S. Nation requiring a

1962

Laurence G

Hatton Gar Kennedy assassinated. Lyndon Johnson becomes

The term: C used

1963

President U.S. Post Office introduces the ZIP code

David Webb

1964

Vietnam War begins

Commercial production of Gilson Flux melt Emeralds starts

Hydrothermal emeralds become commercially available. Production by Flanigen/Quintesse/Linde from the

1965

USA 1966

Black, Star

Gorham Co

1967

Tanzanite discovered in Tanzania

1968

YAG becomes commercially available

1969

U.S. moon landing Woodstock Music festival

Cubic Zirconia skull melt process patented, CZs commerciallt marketed in 1976

1972

Richard Nixon re-elected

Gilson produces synthetic opal and synthetic turquoise

The term R

Synthetic alexandrite first marketed by Creative Crystals from the USA

1973

Synthetic citrine (hydrothermal) becomes commercially available Chatham introduces flux melt synthetic blue sapphire Tsavorite garnet discovered in Kenya

1974

Nixon resignsas a result of Watergate (1973)

1975

GGG becomes commercially

available

Synthetic amethyst (hydrothermal) becomes commercially available

U.S. bicentennial The microprocessor is introduced; Apple II personal computer, 1977

1976

National St

CZ commercially marketed.

the marking

meaning ex

1977

Joel Arthur

opens JARw

Marina Bulg 1986

1978

Milan:Marin

Main pipe of the Argyle Diamond Mine in Australia discovered, mining company commissioned in 1985

1979

Sugilite, named after Professor Ken-ichi Sugi, begins appearing on the market (discovered 1944)

Gem quality red beryls in Wah Wah Mountains, Utah

1985

De Beers and Sumimoto start synthetic diamond production

1987

Tourmalines discovered in ParabaBrazil

1989

Flux melt spinel becomes commercially available

Diffusion treated sapphires are brought on the market for the first time (c.)

1990

Synthetic forsterite is produced as a peridot simulant by Mitsui Mining, Japan

1992

Sythetic moissanite become commercially available, produced by C3 Inc. USA

1997

Signet Ring

A signet ring is any ring engraved with a monogram, coat of arms or other symbol or set with an intagliogem that is engraved with a monogram, coat of arms or other symbol. Throughout history signets were used as seal rings to seal letters with the mark of the sender - in wax - in order to serve as an authentication mark.

At a time when only a few could write, seals which bore a distinguishing mark or badge - equivalent to a signature - that could be impressed on wax or clay, so as to stand out in relief as a mirror image, were essential for rulers, government officials and all engaged in business, to authenticate documents and establish the ownership of property. For convenience they were worn as rings on the finger, ready for use when needed.
[1]

Historical overview
Year Location/Era

Sign Cylinder Seals

c. 3200 BC

Mesopotamia

Cylinder seal of the priest-king Uru Larrieu

c. 2000 BC

Bronze Age

Bronze Age Rings

Most commonly made wi These rings flipped over necessary.

hieroglyphs on the rever

Ancient Egypt

Scarab ring or carved intaglio.

Egyptian Signet Ring c. 1500-1400

c. 1800 BC

Collection

Scarab of Amunhotep I. Steatite, glazed, 7/16 x 11/16 in. (1.1 x 1.8 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 44.123.142. Creative Commons-BY-NC

Inscription on an Egyptian Signet Collection

c. 1500 BC

Ancient Egypt

A stirrup-shaped ring ma

The top was engraved w

Signet Ring Bearing the Name of Amunhotep II, 1450-1425 B.C.E. Silver, Other (Central design): 1/2 x 1/2 in. (1.3 x 1.3 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 37.726E. Creative Commons-BY-NC

Ring of Ramesses IV, ca. 1152-11

Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin W Commons-BY-NC

This style ring also serve style until c.300 BC.

Egyptian signet rings con

Signet Ring, ca. 664-404 B.C.E. G

Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin W Commons-BY-NC

c. 1400-1300 BC

Middle East Greece

Signet rings were used in

Persia as a signature equ

Signet rings of gold, silve began to appear.

c. 600 BC

Gold hoop, flat bezel, engraved seal or engraved gemstone

natural motifs and depict

c. 10th century BC, Greece. Getty Images

The signet style ring from

and thrives there. Again,

decoration to a figural m

Etruscan c. 450-300 BC Victoria &

c. 650 400 BC

Etruscans

Etruscan c. 450-300 BC Victoria &

c. 500 BC

Rome

Romans wore symbolic r

Senators: iron Rings so

Large, ornate and with the seal engraved in a gemstone

Ambassador senators: G

Later all senators wore g

Engraved Carnelian Signet Ring c.4th Century BC, Victoria & Albert Museum

Helenistic Period

Rings were worn as a sig

were given as a mement

Signet Italy c. 350-250 BC - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Roman Knights and Patri

Later soldiers and born f

Signets were tossed into

symbol on the selected r c. 300 BC contemplated action.

omen - either good or ba

Freedmen wore silver rin breaking the law.)

wore blackened gold so t

Signet Italy c. 350-250 BC - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Iron rings were worn as mourning.

Hannibal defeats the Rom gathered from the dead

c. 216 BC

not as wealth but proof o

Romans began to wear g their rings safe.

called dactyliotheca ring

c. 1st Century AD

Roman Empire c. 100-200 AD, Vic

Portraits of poets and ph

depictions of rulers, gods

Roman Empire c. 100-200 AD, Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

aspects of their daily life carvings of this period.

Roman Empire c. 100 AD, Victoria

These signets started ou on the middle finger.

were worn on the thumb

Christians were restricte

wear one signet for use i c. 3rd Century AD

Men were allowed one si These signets were only

peaceful and quiet lifesty

debauchery were forbidd c. 400-1100 Byzantine Period

Gem engraving was a los

return to carving symbol became the fashion.

7th Century Signet - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

6th - 7th Century Signet - Victoria

7th Century Signet - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

11th Century Signet - Victoria & A

Severe and roughly engr symbols of Christianity.

Often the bezel was of a

9th Century Signet - Victoria & Alb

When a carved gem is fo

usually a gem recycled fr

After the fall of Rome ma

Dark Ages

longer practiced. Ring m a portrait or inscription.

basic monogramswith th

c. 1100-1200

England

Mint marks on coins wer

local magistrate's signet

Rings were the most com

Medieval period, consequ

survived for us to study.

Middle Ages

c. 1200-1400

Rings became increasingly more ornately decorated and were sometimes used as a messenger's credential.

Collection of rings from Europe c. Collection

They were worn on every

lower joint and often wor

There were rings designe

a result, they were quite

Red and blue stones wer color foil-backed crystal

gem or the reverse paint

would not fade when pre

Diamonds were set most cut.

and were not widely use

Until c.1350 c. 1350 1400

Lombardic script, a roun

lettering up until about 1

The junction between the

often adorned with small

c. 1350 - 1500

Gothic script, a spiky sty most engraving.

Engraved Ring from the Second Quarter of the 15th Century from the Victoria & Albert Museum

Renaissance

Landowners, merchants

use seals to make an im

their contracts and docum finger or thumb.

were popular for that pu

Signet Ring with Scissors Symbolic of a Tailor

c. 1400-1600

c. 1475-1525, German - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Signet Ring c.1500-1600 Victoria & Signet Ring with Initial W c. 1450-1550, English - Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Heraldic Signet Ring c.1600-1650, Collection.

Heraldic themes became backings.

rings were made in gilt b

Signet Ring c.1554-75 Victoria & A

Wearing rings in Europe wear what metals.

unsuccessful attempts w

Seals mounted not on a

c. 1600

appear. They could be w popularity.

necessaries and began

Used as an ornamental piece, sometimes with a faux cameo or intaglio.

Wealthy and prominent p

c. 1700

gems that had been crea

the Renaissance and the

Miniature versions of anc

by a new generation of R

engravers inspired by th theme of the day.

portraits of the famous a

Jasperware Intaglio c. 1780-1800, English. Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Only the very wealthy co

replicas of engraved gem c. 1791

Tassie using a custom gl imaginable.

called Tassies and were

Tassie Ring c. 1788 Victoria & Albert Museum Collection

Desire for intaglios from

were still available for pu

The signets of this era ha theme. Pride of heritage

19th Century

with coats of arms or he

Initials carved in hardsto

mid 19th century. Pio Ca

a return to classical them

Signet Ring with Reddish Orange Carnelian Intaglio of a Regal Lion with Scroll Motif Shoulders, Mid Victorian.

Signet Ring with Neo-Classical Mo Lazuli and a Cryptic Insignia.

Designed as a simple gold band with initials or monogram on the flat bezel.

Although rarely used for signet ring continued to gentleman.

20th Century

Treasury of the World. Jewelled Arts of India in the Age of the Mughals 7 August 2009 - 29 November 2009 The exhibition in the Concert Hall of the Winter Palace (Room N 190) is organized by the Collection of Al-Sabah, DarAl-Asar Al-Islamia, the National Council for Culture, Arts and Literature of the State of Kuwait and the National Museum of Kuwait together with the State Hermitage, was opened. The exhibition takes place in the Hermitage under the patronage of His Highness Sheikh Sabah Al-AhmadAl-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir of Kuwait. This grand event in the cultural life of St Petersburg shall become an important milestone on the way of further cooperation of both countries. The exhibition includes more than four hundred pieces of jewellery of the Mughals epoch coming from the private collection of Sheikh Nasser Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabahand his spouse Sheikha Hussah Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah.This remarkable collection is a result of profound infatuation of the Al-Sabah couple for the Islamic art: in 1983 it was given for preservation to the National Museum of Kuwait. Islam penetrated into western regions of India already in the 8th century and from the beginning of the 13th century all Northern India appeared to be under the reign of Delhi sultanate - a large

Muslim state that was ruled by Turki and Afghan dynasties but mainly with Hindu population. Due to mutual influence of native and foreign cultures Hindu-Muslimculture is beginning to form during the period of Delhi sultanate. In 1526 Fergana Emir Babur by capturing the throne of Delhi became the founder of a new Indian dynasty that went down in history under the name of the Mughals. The name mughals derives from incorrectly interpreted by the Europeans Persian word Mughal - that was how the Persians called the Turkic people that inhabited the area below Amu-Darya also including the Mongols. However, Zahir adDin Muhammed Babur(1526-1530), the descendant of Timur on his fathers side and of Genghis Khan on his mothers side did not assign himself to the Mongols. The Mughals brought highly developed culture, refined and dainty etiquette to India; Persian language became the language of the court and of the official life of the state. Synthesis of Indian and Persian cultural traditions that had outlined earlier reached its peak by the second quarter of the 17th century. During the first 150 years of existence of the Mughals state arts underwent rapid upsurge. Indeed, development of jewellery reaches its stunning peaks; that was greatly supported by the artistic workshops created under the court of Akbar and existed till the end of the 17th century. Thirteen sections of the Treasury of the World. Jewelled Art of India in the Age of the Mughals exhibition do not only give an idea about those amazing and at times unique monuments of jewellery but also get acquainted with different ways of stone and metal bracing and working. A cup made from rock crystal stands out among varied in form and purpose articles of the end of the 16th - 17th centuries from nephrite, cornelian, rock crystal, ivory with inlaid gold. Miniature pictorial images of faces and feathers of kingfisher are included in the design of its inner surface as well as the earliest example of dagger haft in a form of a horse head on a long neck that was so widely spread in the Mughal period. Golden hookah on a stand, perfect in its combination of volumes and the most subtle and harmonious patterns, is a real masterpiece. Dagger scattered with almost 2,400 stones stuns by its luxurious finishing while preserving its functionality and combat characteristics - it is, indeed, nearly the most refined piece of work of the kind. It relates to the group of articles that were mostly created between 1600 and 1640 and their most bright feature is a solid band or channel setting of stones sunk in all over golden surface, covered with thin engraved pattern of creeping leaves and sprouts. Achievements of Indian craftsmen in the art of enamel are remarkable even though it is not the original craft of India and it was introduced by European jewellers. In the 16th century enamel production spread all over India. At the beginning Indian form often blended with European decoration and range of colours. But very soon Indian enamel craftsmen created their own wide palette where the most famous colours were snow-white, playing with tints of ruby red, and deep emerald green. Enamels are included in luxurious decoration of a large group of weapons created in the same stylistic traditions as the articles of other types of applied art. Miniature cups of strict, perfect contours and vessels repeating various natural forms, rings for archery extraordinarily laconic in their artistic design as well as bright and puffy figures of birds on rings and pendants are made of ivory, emerald, rock crystal, chalcedony, nephrite.

Articles with relief carving and first of all carved emeralds as well as articles from nephrite of different shades, agate, rock crystal are various. For many thousands of years India was the only supplier in the world of decorations made from magnificent and sometimes enormous emeralds with fine carved plant patterns. At the same time craftsmen were not just striving to conceal defects of stone but to emphasize its splendour, beauty. And this is important principled position of Indian jewellery in whole - not to expose stone to forcible cutting but to reveal its natural charm. Handle of the baton, consisting of immensely beautiful Burman uncut rubies with a knob in a form of a dragon head, and case for amulets tavis, complex cutting of which originates in the form of the same name of a natural quartz crystal with two peaks, are remarkable. A separate section is made up by the collection of gems containing inscriptions with names and years of reign of rulers mostly of the Mughals dynasty. Such inscriptions were usually engraved on spinel, less frequently on emeralds and other stones. The spinel that belonged in the 15th century to Timuriud Ulugbek is a rightful pride of the collection of Al-Sabah, it ranks second in the world by the number of inscriptions on it, namely, six. The same number of inscriptions is only on the spinel from the necklace of the Queen of England, while the only possessor in the world of the stone with seven inscriptions is the National Treasury of Iran. Various illustrated material posted not only on the walls of the room but also in the displaycases introduces the presented exhibits into real context of its time, supplementing and expanding immediate impressions of the viewers. The exhibition curator is Olga Deshpande, the head of the Far East Sector of the State Hermitage. The exhibition is accompanied by academic illustrated catalogue and booklet (the author of the text is Olga Deshpande).

The Collection of Jewellery of the Mughals Epoch The State Hermitage, the Jewellery Gallery, the Golden Storeroom. The collection of Indian jewellery items of the prime epoch of the reign of the Mughals dynasty dated back to the end of the 16th - beginning of the 18th centuries numbers in total approximately thirty articles. Most part of them was listed in the inventory of Catherine II at the second half of the 18th century but then their Indian origin had been forgotten and until the middle of the 20th century they were considered to be Iranian. Most part of these golden articles decorated with precious stones and splendid enamel was brought to St Petersburg by the Iranian Embassy at the beginning of 1741. The history of that embassy was not easy - in winter 1738-1739 the ruler of Iran Nadir-Shah Afshar (17361747) undertook a campaign to India and in March 1739 he captured Delhi - the capital of the Mughals. The treasury of the Mughals that had been collected for two centuries ended up in the hands of Nadir-Shah. In October 1739 while he still was in Dehli,Nadir-Shah sent two embassies with great gifts to announce his victory. One embassy went to Istanbul the second went to St Petersburg. That last embassy was on its way for two years since it was travelling on 14 elephants that were also intended as a gift. The inventory of gifts remained from that time, it included 22 articles and only seventeen were preserved till our time: these are jugs for rose water, trays, bottles and a unique table-stand by artist Siturama. They are all made from gold

and are literally strewed with precious stones and covered by beautiful many-coloured enamel. There is no such collection of vessels of various forms and of trays in any other museum of the world. It should be added that in accordance with the inventory 15 finger rings were brought. It was possible to identify only one of them - inside there is an inscription The Second Sahibkiran (sahibkiran is a person during the birth of whom celestial bodies were in extremely favourable combination). It appeared that these words were a part of official titulary of Shah Jahan(1628-1658) that proved Indian origin of these articles since bracing technique for precious stones is absolutely identical for the whole group of the monuments. The remaining Indian jewellery articles of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries are weapons (most of which are daggers with richly decorated hafts) that came to the Hermitage from the arsenal of Tsarskoe Selo.

Handle for a staff Late 16th - first half of the 17th centuries Larger view

Pendant Late 16th - first quarter of the 17th centuries Larger view

Water-pipe reservoir and stand (hookah) Late 16th - early 17th centuries Larger view

Finger ring First quarter of the 17th centiry(?) Larger view

Dish First quarter of the 17th centiry Larger view

Box 1630s-1640s Larger view

Box (detail) 1630s-1640s Larger view

Locket from the scabbard of a katar dagger 1615-1620 Larger view

Dagger and scabbard 1615-1620 Larger view

Pendant with cameo portrait of the Emperor Shah Jahan 1650s (obverse) 19th century (reverse) Larger view

Necklaces

Contents
[hide]

1 Introducti on 2 Antiquity 3 Dark Ages 4 Middle Ages 5 Renaissan ce 6 18th Century 7 19th Century 8 20th Century 9 Notes

10 Sources

Introduction
Necklaces have existed since our ancestors began to walk upright on the earth. Our desire to adorn ourselves has been evident since ancient times with Paleolithic and Neolithic necklaces made from shells, bones, teeth and claws found at sites of archaeological explorations. As our sophistication and knowledge grew so did the variety of materials and the level of detail and design used in jewelry. The Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, virtually all civilizations, had unique methods for designing and making jewelry, moving from simple strungbead arrangements to more elaborate combinations of materials and patterns.

Antiquity
Ancient Egyptians favored a "broad collar" comprised of beads strung in vertical, parallel rows fashioned in a bib-like shape, tied with acord at the back. Heavy funerary collars were created from metal sheet and chased with talismanic Egyptian motifs. Strings of beads tied in the back with a cord were worn choker style and pectorals designed as large emblematic motifs were inlaid with faience andgemstones.

Gold Repouss Bula Pendant Necklace c.400-350 B.C.

Trustees of the British Museum.

The Minoan civilization stamped out gold beads to create many different forms of jewelry. Necklaces and pendants featured beads decorated with complexgranulation and repouss. An Egyptian influence was evident in their choice of pectorals and the motifs that they created and adorned with an expert use offiligree. Large gold disks with repouss animals were often suspended from the pectorals. The Minoans were also clever chain weavers and, as a result, chains began to be worn as necklaces in their own right without the addition ofcharms, pendants or other symbolic motifs.

The Etruscans were the ancient world's most accomplished goldsmiths. Fabulous necklaces included the art of chain making further embellished with a myriad of repouss beads with intricate granulated designs. When discovered centuries later, jewelers tried in vain to emulate the fine work of the unparalleled civilization. The techniques they used for accomplishing such incredible granulated designs frustrated generations of jewelers who strove tirelessly to recreate the magic.

Classical Greek necklaces linked together repouss motifs sometimes decorated with filigree and granulation and suspending hollow forms such as amphorae, flower buds, beads, flowers and human heads. Medallions with elaborate designs were suspended from chains featuring these incredible repouss motifs along with swags of chain.

Discussing jewelry from the Hellenistic period under the rule of Alexander the Great, J. Anderson Black explains in A History of Jewelry: Five Thousand Years:

Rather than imposing their old designs on the newly-conquered territories, the Greeks absorbed what was best from the art of each nation and evolved a hybrid. This was undoubted the richest period for jewelry and goldwork in the history of the Aegean world. For one thing gold was more readily available both from deposits in Asia and Egypt, and from looted treasures which could be broken up and the metal re-used.[1]

Their interpretation of Etruscan design adapted the strap necklace but replaced the pendants with more geometric forms abandoning the Etruscan figurative motifs. More gemstones were being used and chains included finials and gold, glass and gemstone beads.

Roman Amethyst, Emerald, Blue Glass and Gold Necklace c.3rd Century.
Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Roman jewelry design was of Hellenistic origin until the 2nd century A.D. when Roman jewelers began to use the technique of opus interrasile resulting in an open work pattern in metal. They also took the art of niello and applied it to jewelry. Romans were responsible for adding a good deal of color to jewelry using colored stones polished en cabochon. Chains suspended coins and medallions and included colored stones and segments pierced with the opus interrasile technique.

Early celtic necklaces included torcs of twisted rod or ribbon held in place by a simple clasp. Trade with other parts of the world brought them beads made from faience and amber which they fashioned into necklaces. Similar to a pectoral was the Irish gorget, designed as a broad crescent cut from sheet metal and enhanced by repouss work and finished with large disk-shaped terminals.

Scandanavian Jewelry c. 6th century featured elaborate and intricate abstract themes which included their use of a technique called "chip cutting" which involved chiseling glimmering facets onto gold surfaces. Combining this with filigree and repouss resulted in a heretofore unseen style. With the passing of time, simpler geometric designs emerged.

Antiquity

c. 4000-3000 BC Ur

c.2600 BC Ur

c. 2613-2494 BC Egypt

Late Prehistoric Beads from Ur (Iraq) c.4000 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Lapis and Gold Beads, Ur c.2600 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

4th Dynasty Bead Collection c.2613-2494 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Simple bead strands of stone and glazed composite material.

Gold beads added to simple bead strands.

Gold beads included in more elaborate bead strands.

c. 2323-2150 BC Egypt

c. 2200 BC Minoan/Crete

c. 1991-1783 BC Egypt

Trustees of the British Museum.

Egyptian Broad Collar c.2020 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Egyptian Blue Glazed Pectoral BC.

Broad Collar Rows of nearly vertical tubular beads with the lowest row suspending drops

Gold elements: discs, cylinders, bicones and globs.

Pectoral large, often trapezoidal, pendant suspended from a string of beads. This

shaped like leaves or mummiforms.

evolved to become the cartouche. Bright colors and bold shapes were common.

'c. 2000-1600 BC Minoan

c. 15th Century BC Minoan/Mycenaen

c. 9th Century BC Greece

Minoan Lapis Lazuli, Carnelian and Gold "Breast" Bead Necklace c.1700-1500 BC.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Minoan Gold Chain with Repouss Pendants c.1700-1500 BC. Stamped from sheet: rows of beads and designs in gold, some with granulation, (including scrolls, leaves, flowers and fruit) were mass produced.

Late Cypriot Gold and Glazed Composition Necklace c.1550-1050 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

High quality gold jewelry with stone inlay. Casting, repouss prod uced beads of many shapes. Heavy embossed collars were made of gold plaques.

Lotus flowers, lilies, chains and animals made of gold were common themes.

c. 8th-7th Century BC Etruscan

Greek Necklace with Chain, Beads and Pendants c.8th century BC.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Helenistic Gold Necklace with Square Pendants. c. 500 BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Bulla, Gold and Plasma Bead Necklace c.5th-2nd Century BC.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Swiveling scarabs were soon replaced with seals carved in rock crystal and amber.

Bulla necklaces with large disks decorated with embossed motifs (popular in 7th cen. Again in 4th cen.)

Beads of glass or faience with gold, silver or electrum were worn in strands.

Mesh chains with granulated and plain gold beads.

Embossed pendants with geometric motifs. Pectorals with geometric patterns.

Large pendants surmounted by a tubular element for stringing included flowers, anchors, amphorae and mellons.

Gold strapwork necklaces with looped chains suspending various pendants.

c. 6th-5th Century BC Greece

Helenistic Strap Necklace Bronze Italic Pendant c.700Suspending a Fringe of Seed 900 BC. Shaped Pendants. c.300BC. Trustees of the British Museum.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Etruscan Woven Necklace with Festoon Suspended Pendants and Scarabs c.500 BC.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Gold was scarce so many jewels were made in silver and bronze. All styles: earrings, bracelets, rings, necklaces etc.

Festoons linking numerous elements to form a necklace.

Strap Necklace: many fine chains linked together suspending a fringe of pendants.

Long linked chains with animal head terminals, sometimes with glass beads.

c. 300 BC Italy

c. 4th-1st Century BC c. 4th-1st Century BC Helenistic Celtic

Italian Chain with Lion Head Terminals and Hook and Eye Clasp c.300 BC.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Emerald, Garnet and Gold Helenistic Necklace c.200 BC.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Gold Alloy Torc with Loop Terminals and Twist Design c.75 BC.
Trustees of the British Museum.

Use of color in jewelry became increasingly important to the Greeks.

The use of a clasp composed of a ring and a hook began to replace ribbon or string for tying a necklace onto the neck.

Gemstones or colored glass were added to gold necklaces.

Torcs designed as an open ring with decorative terminals or twisted ring with loop terminals.

Necklaces were worn close around the neck and tied at the back with a ribbon.

Often multiple necklaces were worn together.

c. 1st - 3rd Century AD Roman

Roman Emerald and Gold Necklace c.2nd-3rd Century.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Medusa Gold Necklace c.200 AD.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Hercules Knot Emerald and Gold Necklace c. 2nd-3rd Century.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Link chains with stone beads. Hook and eye clasp.

Wheel motif pendants and finials.

Colored gem cabochons in wide bezels, with pearls and gold links.

Dark Ages

Beresford Hope Reliquary Cross Pendant In Gold, Silver Gilt and Enamel c.800-900.
Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

During the Dark Ages the tribes of Europe (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, AngloSaxons and Lombards) employed their highly skilled armorers as jewelers. All the techniques of the earlier civilizations were known to these craftsman but it was their use of inlaid colored gemstones in a cloisonn fashion that set them apart. They rivaled even the Egyptians when creating mosaic stained glass window-style jewels. The jewelry extant from that period survived as a result of being buried with the owner therefore our knowledge is limited, but Celtic style torc necklaces seemed to have prevailed.

Middle Ages
The Byzantine era and Middle Ages present a unique problem for those who study the history of jewelry; the long standing tradition of burying jewelry along with the deceased ended and with it went an invaluable source of information for the historian. We do know that much of the jewelry produced during that period was religious in nature. Opus interrasile, filigree and cloisonn enamel were popular techniques used to enhance the many designs made possible by the abundance of gold available. Intricate pendants, necklaces composed of openwork disks and medallions all mixed with beads and pearls formed the necklaces popular at the time. Niello and enamel replaced colored stone inlay for design accents and color.

The Langdale Rosary Composed of Enameled Gold Beads c.1500.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

The poor economy and style of fashions drove jewelry in England and France out of favor during the 11th and 12th centuries. High collared, layered tunics left little room for decorative jewelry therefore spare, functional jewelry,brooches, buckles and belts, prevailed. During the 13th century it was illegal for commoners to wear gold, silver and gemstones. Royal jewelry from the period included cruciform pendant necklaces, rosaries and elaborately decorated emblematic collars often suspending symbolic medallions. The Gothic era of the 14th and 15th centuries saw England following the French in passing a law forbidding commoners to adorn themselves with precious jewelry. Few necklaces from this era have survived and little information is available regarding their style or use.

Innovation marked the 15th century with technically more sophisticated stonecutting, en ronde bosse enameling and a sense of jewelry as a fashion item rather than simply an indicator of rank. Necklaces were predominant at the time due to the extreme decolletage being displayed. Secular jewelry included strands of pearls and gemstones, pendants and heavy, highly decorated collars. The more transcendent

religious jewelry included elaborate reliquary pendants with incredible detail and intricately constructed locket compartments, cruciform pendants and ornate rosaries worn as necklaces.

c. 15th Century Europe

c. 16th Century Europe

Portrt einer Dame by Franko-flmischer Meister c.1410.

Portrait of Knigin Eleonore von Frankreich (1498-1558) by Joos van Cleve c.1530.

Portrait of Erzherzogin Magdalena (1532-1590), Brustbild by Giuseppe Arcimboldo c. 1563.

Collars of elaborate, entwined openwork and naturalistic designs with jewels and enamels (like those of the late medieval times)

Long ribbons supporting a pendant functioned as necklaces.

Later, high collars and ruffs necessitated long necklaces that could be worn over the clothing.

Necklaces were worn singly or in groups. Deep dcolletage in northern Europe kept

Distribution of engraved printed designs created uniformity of style in

Higher necklines

pushed necklaces up against the base of the neck.

necklaces popular. Parures that featured necklaces as a central component became essential.

the late 16th century. Delicate, openwork motifs with a central gemstone predominated.

Simple necklaces with beads and pearls suspended pendants.

Renaissance

Enamel on Gold Salamander Pendant with Baroque Pearl Body c. Late 16th Century.
Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

The Renaissance period brought about great advances in art and architecture that spilled over to the goldsmith's art. Medallions and pendants produced with this new level of sculptural artistry enhanced by enamel, baroque pearls and carved gemstones were also created with a thematic emphasis on religion. Jewelers began to travel and circulate pattern books making it difficult to definitively pinpoint a particular goldsmith's creations and causing prototypical designs to dominate. Repeated shapes, themes and techniques appear throughout Europe. Delicate chains with and without pendants and

chokers of pearls and beads were worn by women and heavier chains set with gemstones were favored by both men and women. Massive chains whose links were weighed individually were worn by men to serve as a way to transport their wealth with the "measured" links being readily available for use as currency. Later in the period the theme for pendants and necklaces shifted away fromenseigne medallions and religious iconography to mythological creatures. Women began to display more jewelry than men.

Pearls had long been available in Europe but in the mid-16th century, due in large part to the extensive travel and trade by European explorers, they became available in much larger quantity than ever before. The result was a fashion for pearl necklaces of great length, sometimes wound around the neck several times or swagged and pinned in place across the bodice.

The seventeenth century saw the development of technology that would enable gemstones to be faceted. Necklaces were constructed threading precious stones in their settings together with ribbon. This was the germination of the necklace known as the rivire. More elaborate necklaces featured a series of cluster pendants suspended from a chain or cord and tied around the neck.Memento mori jewelry with coffins, skulls, skeletons and other macabre themes made an appearance at this time.

17th Century Europe

Bow Necklace, Enamel, Table-Cut Enamel, Table-Cut Seventeenth Century Spanish Gold, Diamonds, Pearls and Crystal and Pearl Enamel and Green Glass Necklace. Sapphires. Necklace. c.1600, Italy. Victoria & Albert Museum Collection. Victoria & Albert Museum c.1660, Italy.
Victoria & Albert Museum Collection. Collection.

Dcollets return. More widespread use of faceted gemstones becoming the focus of the piece.

Linear necklaces with closed collets.

Short bow motif neclaces. Most important were pearl necklaces. Enamel Floral Necklace, Table-Cut Emeralds and Pearls. c.1666-1669.
Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Italian Gold, Enamel, Emerald and Pearl Necklace c.1620, Sicily.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

18th Century
Diamonds were the premier gem of the first half of the eighteenth century. This fascination with diamonds arose from the newly developed ability to facet them thereby more efficiently reflecting and refracting light. Diamonds were more brilliant than ever before. Daytime diamond wear was now permissible, but the more extravagant jewels were still reserved for evening and candle light. Diamonds were set in silver with closed backs until mid-century when open back settings came on the scene. Flowers and bows were the prevalent theme and parures were all the rage with a magnificent necklace as the centerpiece. Cameos were employed in jewelry making at unprecedented levels. They could be found in tiaras, necklaces, brooches, bracelets, rings, virtually every type of jewelry and accessoire imaginable.

During the latter half of the eighteenth century colored stones came back into style. Rivires linked together long lines of individually set stones, sometimes diamonds, but often colored stones. The popularity of the rivire has never been seriously challenged; a classic on into the twenty-first century.

18th Century Europe

Amethyst, Crystal and Gold Necklace c.18th Century.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Opaline Paste and Silver Necklace c.1760.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Portuguese White Topaz Necklet c.1780-1800.

Deep dcollet, short necklaces worn tightly around the neck. Wide gem-set bands, sometimes with a bow or cross pendant. En Esclavage openwork band suspending festoons and pedants. Pendants were detachable for versatility. Necklaces were tied in elaborate bows at the back by ribbons run through looped terminals. The use of ribbons made necklace lengths variable/adjustible.

Rivire line of gemstones (usually graduated) in plain collets. Sometimes suspending a large diamond pendant.

Daytime necklaces were less precious, nighttime was reserved for diamonds. Silver mounts with closed backs for diamonds and gold mounts for colored gems. Foil lining provided uniform coloring for gemstones.

Enamel, Marcasite and Silver Necklace c. 1730.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Late 18th Century Europe

Gold backings for silver necklaces to prevent tarnish on skin. Open backed collets. Metal spring ring clasps began to replace ribbons for closures.

Amethyst Riviere with Silver Collets and Gold Backings.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

19th Century

Berlin Ironwork Necklace c.1820.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

An interesting development c.1804 was the manufacture of Berlin ironworkjewelry. First produced at the Royal Prussian Foundry, black enameled pieces with geometric wire patterns were created. These works quickly morphed into the neo-classical style

that was so popular throughout Europe. Necklaces featuring repouss medallions depicting classical scenes were suspended or interspaced by fine chainwork. Napoleon captured Berlin and confiscated the molds making it extremely difficult to determine the origin of ironwork - French or German? The Germans used the iron jewelry to turn the tables on Napoleon by donating their jewels in exchange for iron jewelry to fund their fight for independence. The public had a love affair with the delicate iron tracery and the the material remained in use throughout a switch to realistic design and a revival of Gothic themes.

Castellani Gold and Carved Carnelian Scarab Necklace.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

The fall of Napoleon led to relative poverty in France resulting in a brief period were the style was no jewelry at all. When French jewelers finally went back to work diamonds were out of favor as modestly priced colored stones were preferred. Cannetille parures set with colored stones in realistic floral motifs were all the rage. The archaeological discoveries throughout the world would fuel a European wide style that referenced ancient civilizations along side the fashion for more romantic jewels in the Renaissance and Gothic styles. Necklaces featured micro-

mosaic and pietra dura plaques connected by chainwork, whole suites of cameos, beautiful bead and wirework designs and fabulous enameled pendants in the Renaissance style.

Mourning jewelry items included pendants and neckchains carved from Whitbyjet, and woven from human hair. Sentimental lockets and medallions proclaiming "Forget Me Not" were suspended from chains. New methods for mass producing fashion jewelry were being developed in England. Electro-plating, faux gemstones, stamping, and other techniques created jewelry at a faster pace and for more consumers than at any time in history. Silver discoveries made this metal more available and affordable and millions of silver jewelry items were produced quickly as a result of the mass production capabilities in England.

A backlash to the over produced poorly stamped jewelry in the latter half of the nineteenth century resulted in a new aesthetic and philosophy seeking to revive the crafts, Art Nouveau. The free flowing "whiplash" designs of Art Nouveau were employed in making incredible pendants and necklaces decorated by a veritable rainbow of colorful enamels, employing various enamel techniques including plique-a-jour and all manner of interesting if not valuable gems. Themes from nature especially flowers, insects and birds as well as fantastic mythological creatures and female figures combined with a multitude of creatures are the signature designs of the period.

19th Century Europe

c. 1795-1815 Europe

French Gold Sautoire c.1795.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Emerald and Diamond Necklace Attributed to Nitot. c.1806.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

French Pietra Dura Necklace en Esclavage. c.1810.

Dcollet still the fashion. Lighter, flatter more linear necklaces. Broad use of cameos and intaglios. Rivires were still popular now connected by links instead of ribbon. Clusters of stones with a central motif linked by fine gold chains to matching graduating smaller motifs.

Long necklaces draped sash-like over one shoulder diagonally across the body. Semi-precious daywear gems, precious in the evening.

Italian Micromosaic Necklace en Esclavage.c.1810.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

c. 1815-1837 Europe

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Turquoise and Pearl Necklace c.1820.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Floral Seed Pearl Motif Necklace. c.1820.

Amethyst and Gilt Cannetille Necklace. c.1800-1850.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Necklaces were shorter with largegirandole, pendelo que and cross motif detachable pendants.

Repouss decorative elements with colored gemstones.

Dcollet became a straight across and off the shoulder. For day wear a ruff or collar was added for modesty.

Polychrome enamel designs often used instead of gemstones.

Colorful foiled gems mounted incannetille.

Parures were a fashion necessity.

c. 1837-1859 Europe -Romantic Period

Turquoise Encrusted Snake Necklace. c. 1835-40.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Quatrefoil Garnet Necklace c.1843

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

French Garnet Fringe Pendant Necklace c.1835

Daywear concealed nearly all of a womans body.

Nighttime straight across dcollet was still in vogue.

Large bodice ornaments nearly replaced necklaces altogether.

Short necklaces were worn at the base of the neck with naturalistic designs: fruit, flowers and serpents.

Amethyst and Enamel on Gold Grape Cluster

Pearl and Turquoise Necklace c.1860.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Necklace, c.1850.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

c. 1860-1885 Europe - Grand Period

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Wedgewood Medallion Necklace c.1870.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Tiger Claw and Gold Necklace c.1865.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Cameo Necklace, John Brogden c.1867.

Tiffany & Co. Japonesque Necklace c. 1880.

Trustees of the British Museum.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Carved Jet Mourning Necklace c.1870.

Renaissance Revival Citrine and Hessonite Garnet Diamond and Enamel Necklace.
Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Necklaces were popular again and for evening wear the dcollet was

Archeological styles, with ancient techniques, were used

Renaissance and Gothic revival styles with elements from

very deep.

to design short necklaces, with a chain or a band foundation, suspended numerous pendants all around, usually in a fringe.

architecture and sculpture were combined with symbolism and heraldry and decorated with polychrome enamels.

Souvenier jewelry included mounted hummingbird heads, teeth, animal claws, shells, tortoise shell pique,micromosaic s, carved cameos and lav a jewelry.

c. 1885-1901 Europe - Fin-de Sicle

Late Victorian Cushion-Cut Late Victorian Diamond and DiamondRivire, Converts to Half Pearl Fringe Necklace. Bracelets. Photo Courtesy of Christie's.
Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

A Pair of Diamond and Platinum RsilleCollars by Cartier.

Diamonds discovered in South Africa provided ample stones to make magnificent creations with emphasis on intrinsic value over design.

Rivires were extremely popular and were made of large fine quality diamonds, mounted in open collets with a gallery. Often convertible to bracelets and other items.

The bust, underscored by an uplifting corset, became the focal point of feminine fashion. Covered to the neck in the daytime and displaying a deep dcollet in the evening. Choker: Very wide and snuggly fitted to the

individual neck.

Rsille: necklaces of finely netted meshwork set with diamonds. Collier de Chien: Wide with a plaque on a ribbon or multiple rows of pearls. Continuous lines of articulate plaques.

Fringe necklace: At the base of the neck (below the choker) designed as a series of pendants suspended like fringe and usually could double as a tiara with the addition of a framework. Chaumet Diamond and Pearl Collier de Chien, c.1905.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

20th Century

Belle Epoque Diamond and Pearl Necklace c.1910.

Christie's.

At the turn of the twentieth century, newly delicate styling was made possible by the use of platinum in combination with diamonds. Evolving alongside Art Nouveau this new aesthetic became known as Edwardian (or Belle Epoque in France). Pendants of incredible detail and airiness suspended from equally fine chains were in vogue. Chokers and colliers de chien were often combined withsautoirs and longchains. Incredible, intricate, garland design necklaces completely encrusted with diamonds glimmered under the electric lights of evening.

As World War I ramped up, Art Nouveau fell out of favor and, at the conclusion of the war, Edwardian was gone as well. Once the dust cleared, a demand for a more ostentatious style of jewelry arose. Combining this new demand with the popular Cubist movement in the arts resulted in the distinctive geometric jewelry we call Art Deco. Necklaces were made of platinum and decorated by round brilliant and emerald-cut diamonds with colored stones providing contrast, often calibr-cut to create delicate outlines. Long sautoirs, infinite strands of pearls and ngliges adorned the neck and provided elongated decoration on the new dropped waist straight silhouette.

The retro period saw the return to the use of gold in jewelry. Bold highly polished mechanical links in rose, yellow and green gold made distinctive collars encircling the neck. Post World War II once again saw platinum come into vogue. The rivire was restyled to include new diamond shapes such as the pear and marquise. These chokers were often set all around with diamonds and suspended diamond or pearl pendants. Pearl necklaces were another favorite during this period and they were most often composed of double strands of graduated pearls. Bead necklaces in all types of gem material were considered appropriate for day wear. Gone was the parure but matching necklace and earring suites had stepped in to take their place.

The design and composition of necklaces may change with fashion and fad but necklaces are never out of style for long. One of the earliest adornments that our ancestors chose to flaunt continues to be one of the most popular today. From collars and chokers to delicate chains and pendants to ropes of beads, virtually all types of necklaces can be found in today's ever changing jewelry wardrobe.

Edwardian and Belle Epoque c. 1900-1915 Europe

Edwardian Pearl, Enamel and Diamond Bow and Foliate Motif Choker.
Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Edwardian Diamond and Ruby Lavallire.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Edwardian Diamond and Mulit-Strand PearlCollier de Chien.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Edwardian Diamond Trefoil Nglige.

Belle Epoque Diamond and Pearl Foliate Motif Necklace.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Edwardian Diamond Lavallire

Edwardian: Belle Epoque:

Sautoirs complimented the new straight shift dress designs c.1910.

"S curve silhouette with prominent bustline an deep dcollet.

Ropes or bands of seed pearls with tassels or pendants.

Diamonds & platinum Lacy and delicate scalloped necklaces featured:

Geometric styling. Often with detachable pendants and could be worn short or long or converted to bracelets.

Swags. Garlands. Flowers. Bows & Ribbons. Rsille or Draperie de dcollet(Collar that flowed downward from the neck)

Collier de chien:

Plaque with pearls or ribbon. Black velvet ribbon with lacy diamond applique.

Often more than one necklace at a time was worn: Collier de chien, Lavallire,Nglig e, Scalloped/swag necklaces andRivires.

Band of pearls or pale gemstones.

Long strands of pearls worn in multiples.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Belle Epoque Floral and Foliate Motif Diamond Necklace.

Art Nouveau and Arts & Crafts c. 1900-1915 Europe

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Peridot Necklace, Ashbee c.1903.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Arts & Crafts Enamel and Sterling Silver Necklace, Horner.

Victoria & Albert Museum Collection.

Pearl and Opal Necklace, Knox c.1902.

Art Nouveau Enamel Peacock Necklace.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Lalique Enamel and Lucien Gautrait Enamel and Diamond Thistle MotifPlaque Sapphire Feminine Profile de Cou. and Peacock Pendant Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Necklace, c.1900.

Materials selected to compliment the design.

Jewels inspired by nature. Birds, flowers, animals and the feminine form. Design more important that intrinsic value.

Central enamel and gem-set plaque on multi-strand pearl choker.

Horn. Agate. Enamel. Opals, moonstones, pearls and other pale gems preferred.

Lavallire and en esclavage designs dominated.

Art Deco c. 1920-1940

Art Deco French Emerald and Diamond Fringe Necklace, c.1925.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Art Deco Diamond Pendant Necklace, c.1925.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Cartier Art Deco Diamond Necklace, c.1925.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

CartierArt Deco Pearl and Onyx Sautoir, c.1925.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Art Deco Pearl and Diamond Sautoir .

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Mauboussin Tutti Frutti Sautior, c.1927.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Art Deco Burma Ruby and Diamond Necklace, c.1930.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

LaCloche Freres Art Deco Aquamarine and Diamond Necklace/Tiara, c.1930

Art Deco Carved Emerald Intaglio and Diamond Necklace, c.1925.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Art Deco Diamond Collar, c.1930.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Cartier Art Deco Rock Cartier Art Deco Star Ruby, Crystal, Onyx and Diamond Diamond and Enamel Collar, Necklace, c.1930. c.1935.
Photo Courtesy of Christie's. Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

1920s

1930s

Strait shifts, short skirts, masculine hair styles all remained in vogue after the war.

Shapelier fashions required shorter necklaces.

Low backed evening gowns required pendants suspended from the clasp.

Sautoirs with long lines swinging freely very geometric, and convertible.

Graduated festoon collars. Monochromatic /diamond only necklaces.

Egyptian, Oriental and Indian motifs.

Bold gemstone combinations, vivid colors with extreme contrasts.

c.1935 colored gem cabochons became the focus.

Rock Crystal and Black Onyx.

Burmese rubies were especially popular due to the fact that they

Emeralds, Rubies and

Sapphires together.

dazzled under electric light.

New diamond cuts/shapes and calibrcut gemstone combinations. Art Deco Aquamarine and Diamond Pendant Necklace.
Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Retro c. 1940s

Retro Snakelink Necklace with Diamond-Set Scroll Motifs.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Retro Tubogas Gold Collar.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Retro Scroll Motif Gold Necklace.

Retro Gold Tubular Fringe Necklace.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Van Cleef & Arpels PassePartout Necklace.

Retro Gold Scallop Motif Necklace.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Thin, low carat gold jewelry:

Gold often supplied by customer.

Scarcity of fine gems resulted in the use of:

Fashion: tailored severe suits and practical dresses.

Recycled gems from older jewelry. Synthetic rubies. Large gemstones such as aquamarine, amethyst and topaz.

Flexible/convertibl e snake chain, gas-pipe and hollow designs with applied/removable motifs were very popular.

Wartime ban on platinum. Gold use was restricted.

1950s

Diamond Baguette Swag Motif Necklace, c.1955.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Diamond Detachable Foliate Diamond Fringe and Ribbon Cascade Necklace, c.1955. Motif Necklace, c.1950s.
Photo Courtesy of Christie's. Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Tiffany & Co. Gold Necklace, c.1950s.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Van Cleef & Arpels Columbian Emerald and Diamond Necklace and

Gold Fringe Collar, c.1950s60s.

Photo Courtesy of Lang Antiques.

Photo Courtesy of Christie's.

Earrings, c.1950.

Prosperous post war period, luxury in vogue again.

Platinum, palladium and white gold. Diamonds as the primary gem were sometime punctuated by rubies, emeralds and sapphires.

Channel-setting popular with baguettes forming lines and outlines.

Feminine puffed skirts with narrow waistlines with emphasis on the bust-line.

Gold was woven into textile-like patterns and designs with small diamond accents.

Shorter Necklaces with curving flowing lines often asymmetrical.

Lavish diamond rivieres supported fringes, festoons and drops.

Pearl necklaces were back, singly, in pairs and festooned with diamond accents.

Notes

A History of Jewellery
Ancient world jewellery

Collar known as The Shannongrove Gorget, maker unknown, Ireland, late Bronze Age (probably 800-700 BC). Museum no. M.35-1948. Victoria & Albert Museum, London. Jewellery is a universal form of adornment. Jewellery made from shells, stone and bones survives from prehistoric times. It is likely that from an early date it was worn as a protection from the dangers of life or as a mark of status or rank. In the ancient world the discovery of how to work metals was an important stage in the development of the art of jewellery. Over time, metalworking techniques became more sophisticated and decoration more intricate. Gold, a rare and highly valued material, was buried with the dead so as to accompany its owner into the afterlife. Much archaeological jewellery comes from tombs and hoards. Sometimes, as with the gold collars from Celtic Ireland which have been found folded in half, it appears people may have followed a ritual for the disposal of jewellery.

Medieval jewellery 12001500

Pendant reliquary cross, unknown maker, about 1450-1475. Museum no. 4561-1858. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. The jewellery worn in medieval Europe reflected an intensely hierarchical and status-conscious society. Royalty and the nobility wore gold, silver and precious gems. Humbler ranks wore base metals, such as copper or pewter. Colour (provided by precious gems and enamel) and protective power were highly valued. Until the late 14th century, gems were usually polished rather than cut. Size and lustrous colour determined their value. Enamels - ground glasses fired at high temperature onto a metal surface - allowed goldsmiths to colour their designs on jewellery. They used a range of techniques to create effects never since surpassed. Some jewels have cryptic or magical inscriptions, believed to protect the wearer.

Renaissance jewellery

Ring, maker unknown, setting 15th century, centre 2nd century BC-1st century BC. Museum no. 724-1871. Victoria & Albert Museum, London

Renaissance jewels shared the age's passion for splendour. Enamels, often covering both sides of the jewel, became more elaborate and colourful. Advances in cutting techniques increased the glitter of stones. The enormous importance of religion in everyday life could be seen in jewellery, as could earthly power - many spectacular pieces were worn as a display of political strength. The designs reflect the new-found interest in the classical world, with mythological figures and scenes becoming popular. The ancient art of gem engraving was revived. The inclusion of portraits reflected another cultural trend - an increased artistic awareness of the individual.

17th-century jewellery

Necklace with Sapphire Pendant, bow about 1660, chain and pendant probably 18-1900. Museum no. M.95-1909. Victoria & Albert Museum, London By the mid-17th century, changes in fashion had introduced new styles of jewellery. While dark fabrics required elaborate gold jewellery, the new softer pastel shades became graceful backdrops for gemstones and pearls. Expanding global trade made gemstones ever more available. Advances in cutting techniques increased the sparkle of gemstones in candlelight. The most impressive jewels were often large bodice or breast ornaments, which had to be pinned or stitched to stiff dress fabrics. The swirling foliate decoration of the jewels shows new enthusiasm for bow motifs and botanical ornaments.

18th-century jewellery

Sword, mark of James Morisset, 1798-9. Museum no. 274-1, 2-1869. Victoria & Albert Museum, London The end of the previous century had seen the development of the brilliant-cut with its multiple facets. Diamonds sparkled as never before and came to dominate jewellery design. Frequently mounted in silver to enhance the stone's white colour, magnificent sets of diamond jewels were essential for court life. The largest were worn on the bodice, while smaller ornaments could be scattered over an outfit. Owing to its high intrinsic value, little diamond jewellery from this period survives. Owners often sold it or re-set the gems into more fashionable designs.

19th-century jewellery

Spray ornament, maker unknown, about 1850. Museum no. M.115-1951. Victoria & Albert Museum, London The 19th century was a period of huge industrial and social change, but in jewellery design the focus was often on the past. In the first decades classical styles were popular, evoking the glories of ancient Greece and Rome. This interest in antiquities was stimulated by fresh archaeological discoveries. Goldsmiths attempted to revive ancient techniques and made jewellery that imitated, or was in the style of, archaeological jewellery.

There was also an interest in jewels inspired by the Medieval and Renaissance periods. It is a testament to the period's eclectic nature that jewellers such as the Castellani and Giuliano worked in archaeological and historical styles at the same time. Naturalistic jewellery, decorated with clearly recognisable flowers and fruit, was also popular for much of this period. These motifs first became fashionable in the early years of the century, with the widespread interest in botany and the influence of Romantic poets such as Wordsworth. By the 1850s the delicate early designs had given way to more extravagant and complex compositions of flowers and foliage. At the same time, flowers were used to express love and friendship. The colours in nature were matched by coloured gemstones, and a 'language of flowers' spelt out special messages. In contrast with earlier periods, the more elaborate jewellery was worn almost exclusively by women.

Arts & crafts jewellery

Pendant-brooch (detail), designed by C.R. Ashbee and made by the Guild of Handicraft, about 1900. Museum no. M.31-2005. Victoria & Albert Museum, London Developing in the last years of the 19th century, the Arts and Crafts movement was based on a profound unease with the industrialised world. Its jewellers rejected the machine-led factory system - by now the source of most affordable pieces - and instead focused on hand-crafting individual jewels. This process, they believed, would improve the soul of the workman as well as the end design. Arts and Crafts jewellers avoided large, faceted stones, relying instead on the natural beauty of cabochon (shaped and polished) gems. They replaced the repetition and regularity of mainstream settings with curving or figurative designs, often with a symbolic meaning.

Art Nouveau jewellery and the Garland style 18951910

Hair ornament, made by Philippe Wolfers, 1905-7. Museum no. M.11-1962. Victoria & Albert Museum, London The Art Nouveau style caused a dramatic shift in jewellery design, reaching a peak around 1900 when it triumphed at the Paris International Exhibition. Its followers created sinuous, organic pieces whose undercurrents of eroticism and death were a world away from the floral motifs of earlier generations. Art Nouveau jewellers like Ren Lalique also distanced themselves from conventional precious stones and put greater emphasis on the subtle effects of materials such as glass, horn and enamel. However, the style's radical look was not for everyone or for every occasion. Superb diamond jewellery was made in the 'garland style', a highly creative re-interpretation of 18th- and early 19th-century designs.

Art Deco jewellery to the 1950s

Commemorative Brooch, 1937. Museum no. M.115-1993. Victoria & Albert Museum, London Although buffeted by cycles of boom, depression and war, jewellery design between the 1920s and 1950s maintained both innovation and glamour. Sharp, geometric patterns celebrated the machine age, while exotic creations inspired by the Near and Far East hinted that jewellery fashions were truly international. New York now rivalled Paris as a centre for fashion, and European jewellery houses could expect to sell to, as well as buy from, the Indian subcontinent. Dense concentrations of gemstones are characteristic of Art Deco jewellery. From about 1933 gold returned to fashion, partly because it was cheaper than platinum. Artists and designers from other fields also became involved in jewellery design. Their work foreshadows the new directions jewellery would take.

Contemporary jewellery

Brooch, designed and engraved by Malcolm Appleby, made by Roger Doyle, 1975. Museum no. M.314-1977. Victoria & Albert Museum, London Since the 1960s the boundaries of jewellery have been continually redefined. Conventions have been challenged by successive generations of independent jewellers, often educated at art college and immersed in radical ideas. New technologies and non-precious materials, including plastics, paper and textiles, have overturned the notions of status traditionally implicit in jewellery. Avant-garde artist-jewellers have explored the interaction of jewellery with the body, pushing the boundaries of scale and wearability to the limits. Jewellery has developed into wearable art. The debate on its relationship to Fine Art continues.

Related content

Arm Ring of an African Leader South Asian jewellery reading list

In Conversation: Dorothy Hogg, Artist in Residence News from the past: Oral history at the V&A MA in History of Design History of the V&A and the Schools of Design study guide Development of the William and Judith Bollinger Jewellery Gallery, 2008

More

Related images from the collections

Search the Collections home

Club to Catwalk: London Fashion in the 1980s

10 July 2013 - 16 February 2014. Discover the creative explosion of London fashion in the 1980s in a major exhibition at the V&A. Through more than 85 outfits, Club to Catwalk: London Fashion in the 1980s showcases the bold and exciting new looks by the most experimental young designers of the decade, including Betty Jackson, Katharine Hamnett, Wendy Dagworthy and John Galliano. Visit the V&A exhibition Club to Catwalk: London Fashion in the 1980s

Shop online
Traditional Jewellery: In Nineteenth-Century Europe (Hardback)

Although less well-known today, European jewellery - jewellery worn with traditional or national costume - was highly fashionable in nineteenth-centur Buy now

Event - Susan Rumfitt: Love and Sentiment in Jewellery

Mon 10 February 2014 10:30

Uncovering the hidden meanings behind jewels and gemstones from the Renaissance to the end of the nineteenth century, jewellery expert Susan Rumfitt will deal with the allegorical interpretation of love, featuring cupid, the lovers knot and various symbols co