Optics & Laser Technology 43 (2011) 537545

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Optics & Laser Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlastec

The use of exploratory experimental designs combined with thermal numerical modelling to obtain a predictive tool for hybrid laser/MIG welding and coating processes
Lyes Bidi a, Simone Mattei a,n, Eugen Cicala b, Henri Andrzejewski a, Philippe Le Masson c, Jeanne Schroeder d
a

quipe LTm, UMR 5209 CNRS-Universite de Bourgogne, 12 rue de la Fonderie 71200 le CREUSOT, France Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, e Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Politehnica University of Timisoara, Mihai Viteazu nr. 1, 300222 Timisoara, Romania nierie des MATe riaux de Bretagne LIMATB, Universite de Bretagne Sud, France Laboratoire dInge d partement Soudage, BP 40001 Saint Marcel 71328 Chalon sur Sa AREVA NP, Centre Technique, De one Cedex, France
b c

a r t i c l e in fo
Article history: Received 23 April 2010 Received in revised form 2 July 2010 Accepted 29 July 2010 Available online 26 August 2010 Keywords: Hybrid laser welding Experimental design Finite element method

abstract
While hybrid laser welding and coating processes involve a large number of physical phenomena, it is currently impossible to predict, for a given set of inuencing factors, the shape of the molten zone and the history of temperature elds inside the parts. This remains true for complex processes, such as the hybrid laser/MIG welding process, which consists in combining a laser beam with a MIG torch. The gains obtained result essentially from the synergy of the associated processes: the stability of the process, the quality of the seam realized, and the productivity are increased. This article shows how, by means of a reduced number of experiments (8), it is possible to predict the shape of the molten zone and the temperature eld inside parts, for a given window of inuencing factors. This method consists in combining the method of exploratory experimental designs with a numerical modelling of the thermal phenomena that occurs during the process, by using the heat equivalent source approach [14]. Two validations of this method have been carried out: the rst for a set of parameters inside the experimental design, and the other for a set of parameters that lies outside the experimental design, but inside the domain investigated. & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction By combining laser welding and arc welding, hybrid lasermetal inert gas (MIG) welding can offer many advantages over laser welding or arc welding alone. Some advantages are high productivity, low deformations, and prevention of porosity [56]. Thus, an increase in the number of manufacturers (in the transportation, nuclear power, and offshore platforms industries) are interested in its use. However, the hybrid welding process involves a larger number of physical phenomena than does each process alone. To provide adequate results, the numerical modelling of heat transfer requires an extremely accurate description of all the phenomena involved in welding: thermal, mechanical, and metallurgical. Therefore, the numerical modelling approach used in this work does not require the description of all the phenomena that occur in the weld pool: it consists in determining the heat sources that provide the predetermined geometrical characteristics of the fusion zone. This approach is called equivalent source approach [14]. The exploratory experimental designs method, however, is a powerful tool to determine the

inuence of several factors on chosen object functionsin this particular case, on the geometrical sizes of molten zones. Therefore, this article presents a methodology that provides a tool for the prediction of both molten zone geometry and temperature eld history inside welded parts. First, the exploratory experimental designs method is used [714]. This method allows, on the one hand, to better understand the coupled (or non-coupled) factors of inuence on the geometry of the fusion zone, and on the other, to identify, with a very restricted number of experiments (8), relations between these inuencing factors and the geometrical characteristics of the fusion zone. These characteristics are introduced as input data into the numerical model, which allows for computing, according to inuencing factors, not only the geometry of the molten zone, but also temperature elds inside parts for every set of process parameters.

2. Experimental design 2.1. Experimental set-up

Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 385 73 10 42; fax: +33 385 73 11 20. E-mail address: simone.mattei@u-bourgogne.fr (S. Mattei).

The test consists in the realization of a straight weld bead on a stainless steel plate, in plat position, with the laser/MIG welding

0030-3992/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2010.07.011

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process. The experiments were carried out using a TRUDISK 6002 laser with a maximum output power of 6 kW, and a FRONIUS Trans Puls Synergic 5000 MIG power source. A FRONIUS head design holds the laser and the MIG torch and provides the regulation of focus and distance between the thread and the spotlight. The head is secured to a 6 axes KUKA KR60 Robot (Fig. 1). We used plates of 200 mm 150 mm 20 mm stainless steel 304 L. The experimental conguration is shown in Fig. 2. 2.2. Characterization To validate the numerical and empirical models we used two means of characterization: macrographs of the weld cross-section and the visualization of the fusion zone on the surface during welding. Although the macrographs give important information inside the cross-section, they are not sufcient to completely characterize the fusion zone because they do not give information

on the direction of welding. The size and shape of the fusion zone have thus been investigated by means of a CMOS PHANTOM v4.0 high-speed digital camera, with a maximal acquisition frequency of 32 kHz. Moreover, visualization through high-speed camera also allowed for the observation of various phenomena, such as the transfer of material, the movements of the molten pool, etc. The molten pool visualizations were obtained by placing the camera perpendicular to the direction of welding, its optical axis at a 451 angle from the vertical axis of the laser beam, as specied in Fig. 3.

3. Empirical modelling The principle of experimental design is to realize several tests with given combinations of welding parameters, and, for each test, to characterize the variations in the dimensions of the molten zone. The realization of an experimental design allows us, on the one hand, to quantify the factors that affect objective functions chosen beforehand (molten zone geometry), so as to understand and control the process, and, on the other hand, to create a data base that contains the numerical values of the molten zone geometry in various combinations of welding parameters. 3.1. Inuencing factors Three sets of inuencing factors (IF) were studied: wire speed Swire, welding speed Sw, and surface power Psurf. For each parameter two levels were selected. Inuencing factors and their ranges of variation are specied in Table 1. The distance between the laser spot and the MIG (Dlm) remains constant and equal to 1.6 mm. 3.2. Object functions To characterize the fusion zone geometry, four object functions (OF) (Fig. 4) were chosen: three of them were obtained by crosssection macrographs, and the other one with fusion zone visualization during the welding:

Fig. 1. The experimental set-up.

   

Penetration P (mm), Deposit D (mm), Seam width W (mm), Length of the molten pool LM (mm).

Fig. 2. Experimental conguration.

The purpose of the design of the experiments is to determine the inuence of the operating parameters on chosen objective functions as well as the dependence of those parameters. For this every parameter is dened between two physical values to which the codied values + 1 and 1 are attributed (Eq. (2)). By building a set of combinations of the parameters, we dene a design of experiments conceptualized through a matrix of experiments (Table 2).
Table 1 Inuence factors and their variation domains. Inuence factors (IF) IF Wire speed, Swire [m min ] Welding speed, Sw [m min 1] Surface power, Psurf [W mm 2]
1

Variation domains [7.5; 10.5] [0.7; 1.3] [186; 279]

Fig. 3. Arrangement of the camera and the lighting.

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Fig. 4. Object functions (OF) characterized from macrographs (P, D, and W) and visualization (LM).

Table 2 Design matrix. Test IF (physical values) Swire [m/min] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7.5 10.5 7.5 10.5 7.5 10.5 7.5 10.5 Sw [m/min] 0.7 0.7 1.3 1.3 0.7 0.7 1.3 1.3 Psurf [W/mm ] 186 186 186 186 279 279 279 279
2

IF (codied values) Swire 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 1 +1 Sw 1 1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 +1 Psurf 1 1 1 1 +1 +1 +1 +1

OF P [mm] 3.33 2.85 2.28 1.65 3.82 3.07 2.43 2.08 D [mm] 2.02 2.43 1.39 1.57 2.13 2.28 1.24 1.74 W [mm] 9.06 10.07 8.05 7.86 8.58 9.36 8.16 8.35 LM [mm] 32.6 34.7 30.3 33.7 37.1 36.1 33.1 33.6

3.3. Design matrix The experimental design structure is a complete 23 test matrix (which contains all the possible combinations between the two values of the three analysed factors dened in Table 2). The analysis of this matrix allows us to make the following observations. First, for each inuence factor the codied values have been attributed ( + 1 for the maximum physical value, and 1 for the minimum value).The relation between the physical and the codied values is given by Eq. (2). Using the codied values instead of physical values is more practical [5,8]:

 On the one hand, the values of the coefcients of Eq. (1), 

calculated using experimental values, measure the effects of the factors on an objective function, On the other hand, thanks to the structure and to the properties of the matrix-program, the coefcients are numerically equal to one half of the effect of the factor on the objective function. Furthermore, using the codied values allows the structure of the matrix-program to remain unchanged and its analysis can be conducted in the same way regardless of the physical values of the factors, which allows us to generalize the procedure of construction and analysis of matrices-program.

For example, for P, the effects of the inuencing factors can be compared when their values vary between their lower and their superior values: the most inuential factor is Sw (P decreases by 1.15 mm). The inuences of Swire (range of variation 1.15) and Psurf (range of variation 0.32 m) are less important. In this case, one also notices that the interactions between inuencing factors have a weak effect on P. The welding speed, the surface power, and their interaction have the biggest effect on the molten pool length LM (Fig. 5d). The results of the design of experiments can also be formulated by laws. From experimental design results, we can determine empirical models (Eqs. (1a) to (1d)) that describe the evolution of every molten zone dimension as a function of welding parameters. These models enable us to estimate the object function values in the entire domain investigated without carrying out additional tests: P 2:68-0:578Sw -0:276Swire 0:161Psurf D 1:85-0:365Sw 0:155Swire W 8:680:581Sw 0:223Swire -0:223Swire Sw 0:223Sw Psurf LM 33:91:225Sw 1:075Psurf 0:75Swire Psurf 0:625Swire -0:4Sw Psurf 0:35Swire Sw 1:d 1:a 1:b 1:c

3.4. Results and analysis The results of the design of experiments can be visualized through Pareto histograms, which represent the amplitude of the effects of the inuencing factors on each object function. The Pareto histogram, presented in Fig. 5, shows the inuence of the chosen welding parameters and their interaction on the molten zone geometry: penetration (5a), deposit (5b), seam width (5c), and length of fusion zone (5d). It can rst be observed that penetration P, seam width W, and deposit D (Fig. 5ac) are strongly inuenced by the welding speed, but less by the wire speed.

The robustness of the experimental model is veried by comparing the measurements to the predicted values of penetration P (mm) given by the empirical model. The empirical model is then applied by replacing the physical values of the inuencing factors by their associated codied values. The connection between the physical values and the codied values of the inuencing factors is given by the following expression: Xicod Xiphys Xi0phys Iiphys i 1, 2, 3 2

with Iiphys: the interval of variation of the inuencing factor, Xi0phys: the central level of the inuencing factor.

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Fig. 5. Pareto histograms: (a) penetration, (b) deposit, (c) seam width, and (d) length of fusion zone.

Table 3 Comparison between calculated and empirical modelling. Test P [mm] Exp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3.33 2.85 2.28 1.65 3.82 3.07 2.43 2.08 Emp. 3.38 2.83 2.22 1,67 3.7 3.15 2.54 1.99 % 1.5 0.7 2.6 1.2 3.1 3.6 4.5 4.3 D [mm] Exp. 2.02 2.43 1.39 1.57 2.13 2.28 1.24 1.74 Emp. 2.06 2.37 1.33 1.64 2.06 2.37 1.33 1.64 % 1.9 2.4 4.3 4.4 3.2 3.9 7.2 5.7 W [mm] Exp. 9.06 10.07 8.05 7.86 8.58 9.36 8.16 8.35 Emp. 9.04 9.93 7.88 7.87 8.59 9.48 8.32 8.32 % 0.2 1.4 2 0.1 0 0.1 2 0.3 LM [mm] Exp. 32.6 34.7 30.3 33.7 37.1 36.1 33.1 33.6 Emp. 32.62 34.67 30.27 33.72 37.07 36.12 33.12 33.58 % 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

We determine the interval of variation for every inuencing factor based on the difference between the maximum and the minimum values chosen for the factor. These values circumscribe the range of variation of every inuencing factor, according to Table 1. The centre is situated in the centre of the range of variation. The codied values are always the values introduced into the models (1) to determine the estimated values of the objective functions P, D, W, and LM. In order to verify the robustness of the empirical model, the experimental values of P, D, W, and LM are compared to the values estimated through the empirical model for the 8 trials (Table 3).

We can observe (Fig. 6) a relative variation ranging between 1.1% and 3.1% between measurements and estimations. Therefore, it can be concluded that the empirical model is pertinent. Another type of comparison that can be carried out with experimental design is the iso-response. This graphical representation (Fig. 7) is helpful to choose different sets of working parameters for an pre-selected value of the objective function. For instance, using this graphical representation, to obtain a penetration P 2.4 mm and a length of the molten zone LM 33 mm we chose the set of welding parameters presented in Table 4.

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4. Numerical modelling At the same time as the realization of the design of experiments that allowed us to study the inuence of the chosen operating parameters on the molten zone, a numerical modelling of the welding conguration with hybrid laser/MIG process has been carried out. A thermal analysis allows us to predict the molten zone dimensions, for a given set of welding parameters. The thermal modelling is then validated by comparing the molten zone shape with measurements. The model is based on the nite element model approach [14]. The heat Eq. (3) is solved in a quasisteady state. Considering the symmetry of the problem, only one half of the part is modelled. A term of advection deriving from the relative speed Vs between the laser and the part is taken into account:

The boundary conditions are as follows (Fig. 8):

    

Heat ux for boundaries 3, 6, and 7 (4); Thermal insulation (symmetry) for 5; Convective ux for 2; Ambient temperature for boundary 1; Global heat transfer between the system considered and the surrounding media and heat ux for boundaries 4 and 8 (5).

A specic heat ux is selected to take into account the input energy of the part through the welding process. The equations governing this input are called equivalent heat source. 4.1. Choice of the equivalent heat source The choice of an appropriate heat source and its associated parameters is essential for a correct prediction of the molten zone shape. Our choice of equivalent heat sources is based on a combination of two types of heat sources. The rst type is a Gaussian source (6) that represents the energy contribution of the laser: !! A x2 y2 jL Psurf exp 6 2 2p 2r0 with Psurf the laser power, A the absorption, r0 the beam radius (see Table 5). The second type is a double-ellipsoid heat ux distribution proposed by Goldak et al. [1] ((7) and (8)), (Fig. 9); it helps describe the power distribution of the MIG source in the parts to be assembled:  2 p y 2 6 3Q 3 auf v 2 p e qf u, y, v ff e3b e3c u 4 0 7 af bcp p

rT cp T VS

@T rlT rT q @x

3 4 5

4 jimp hT T1 esT 4 T1 4 jG8 j hT T1 esT 4 T1

where q is the power per unit volume and j the power par unit surface.

4
Predicted Measurements

3.5 Penetration P [mm] 3 2.5 2 1.5 1

Table 4 Pair of parameters. Parameters Codied values 0.6 0.6 0.2 Physical values 9.9 0.82 223.2

4 5 Test No.

Fig. 6. Comparison between measurements and estimated values of penetration.

Sw [m min 1] Swire [m min 1] Psurf [W mm2]

Fig. 7. Iso-responses: (a) penetration P and (b) length of the fusion zone LM.

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qr u, y, v fr

p 6 3Q 3 au 2 3y2 3v2 r p e e b e c ar bcp p

u r 0

with af, ar, b, c the geometrical parameters of the source, and Q the power of the source. In Eq. (7) and in Eq. (8), entities ff and fr,

determine the fractions of the heat source, respectively, applied to the front and to the rear quadrants of the weld. A relationship exists between ff and fr, as seen in Eq. (9) described by Goldak et al. [1]: ff fr 2 9

For our analysis ff is equal to 0.8, so, fr is equal to 1.2. These values result from an analysis of the geometry of the fusion zone. The rst Eq. (7) describes the volume distribution of the power in front of the arc, whereas the second Eq. (8) represents the distribution behind the arc conveyed by the movements of the uid. The choice of heat sources is justied by the fact that the laser beam is used both to preheat the welding surface (surface heat source) and for the MIG removal of the melt (volumetric heat source). From the observations obtained by high speed camera visualization we can obtain important information such as the length of the fusion zone and the angle of the lling front a (Fig. 10). This angle is taken into account in the model, with a change of mark from (x, y) to (u, v). 4.2. An example of comparison between measurements and numerical modelling 4.2.1. Input parameters of the modelling To validate numerical modelling trial no. 2 was chosen. The input parameters are the working parameters and the parameters used for the heat distribution description (ar, af, b, and c). A sensitivity study of equivalent heat source parameters on the shape of the melting zone shows that the heat source parameter (af) has no inuence, thus we substituted a value equal to 1 for this parameter. The rst parameters are given in Table 3 and the second ones in Table 4. The others are determined using the empirical modelling (Eq. (1)). The empirical model gives LM, whose relation with ar is given by LMr0 Dlm ar 10

Fig. 8. Boundary conditions.

Table 5 Input working parameters. Parameters Laser power input, Psurf [W mm 2] Absorption A Beam radius r0 [mm] Welding speed, Sw [m min 1] MIG power, Q [W] MIG efciency, Z MIG 186 0.5 2.75 0.7 3210 0.9

Fig. 9. Goldaks double-ellipsoid heat ux distribution.

Fig. 11. Visualization of lling front and its modelling.

Fig. 10. Visualization of lling front and its modelling: (a) information issued from visualizations and (b) inclination of the lling front.

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This relation is illustrated in Fig. 11. W/2, provided by the empirical model, is selected as parameter b in the numerical model, and P corresponds to c. These values are given in Table 6.

4.2.2. Comparison between calculated values and measured values The dimensions of the fusion zone obtained by the thermal analysis have been compared to measured values in Table 7. As can be seen in Fig. 12, the calculated values, obtained from the numerical modelling, correlate well with experimental measurements.

Table 6 Fusion zone dimensions and heat source parameters. Heat sources parameters [mm] LMr0Dlm W/2 P ar b c 30.8 4.96 2.82

5. Coupling between empirical and numerical modelling 5.1. Principle of the coupling The previous paragraphs show that, based on an empirical model created through a limited number of experiments and on a numerical model based on the equivalent source approach, it is possible to determine the geometry of the molten zone for a set of working parameters included in the domain investigated. We will now show that those two approaches can be coupled to determine the shape of the fusion zone for a set of parameters, not experimentally tested, but belonging to the domain investigated. Moreover, the empirical model can be used as input data for the numerical modelling, thus providing information not only on the geometry of the molten zone, but also on the temperature gradients, without requiring additional testing. This approach is schematized in Fig. 13. 5.2. Validation of the coupled method To validate the coupled method we chose a set of parameters not included in the parameters tested. This set is given in Table 8. These parameters are used to calculate the geometrical characteristics of the fusion zone (OF) (Table 8) through the empirical model (Eqs. (1)). The IF and the OF values are then used in the numerical model, and the new calculated geometrical characteristics are obtained (Table 9). Finally, the experiment was carried out to compare the values calculated via numerical and empirical modelling to the experimental values. In Fig. 14 we observe the calculated and the observed fusion zones. Numerical values have been calculated with a MIG power of 3051 W, which corresponds to the value poof Swire given in Table 8.

Table 7 Comparison between calculated and measured values. Experimental Modelling % relative difference 3.5 1.4

Penetration P [mm] 2.8 Length of the melt pool LM [mm] 34.7

2.7 35.2

Fig. 12. Comparison between calculated and measured geometries of the molten zone.

Working parameters

Experimental Design
Sw, Swire, Psurf, Dlm

Estimation of geometrical characteristics of the molten zone

Empirical Modelling
Sw, Swire, Psurf, Dlm

ar = LM-r0-Dlm ; b = W; c = P

Numerical Modelling

Calculated geometry, temperature gradient, stresses, deformations...

Numerical Modelling
Fig. 13. Principle of the coupled method.

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Table 8 Input and output of the empirical modelling. IF (physical value) Swire [m/min] 9 Sw [m min] 1 Psurf [W mm 2] 210 IF (codied values) Swire 0 Sw 0 Psurf 0.48 Object function P [mm] 2.55 D [mm] 1.84 W [mm] 8.73 LM [mm] 32.3

Table 9 Comparison between experimentalempiricalnumerical values. Experimental value P [mm] D [mm] W [mm] LM [mm] 2.55 1.84 8.73 32.3 Empirical model 2.68 1.85 8.68 33.4 Numerical model 2.64 1.85 8.68 34.1

Moreover, the numerical modelling allowed us to access the temperature gradients inside the welded part (Fig. 15). This information can be used to calculate stresses, strains, and so on.

6. Conclusions and perspectives When using a complex welding process such as the hybrid laser/MIG process, knowing the geometry of the molten zone or the temperature gradients in the welded parts is extremely important. This information can be obtained through measurements, but the multiplication of experiments can soon prove to be very expensive. Furthermore, these temperature gradients and fusion zone geometries are very difcult to predict: indeed, there is no modelling that can completely describe all the phenomena that occur during the process. Nevertheless, we have shown that it is possible to predict the shape of the molten zone and the temperature eld, for a given window of inuencing factors, by using two combined approaches and a limited number of tests (8). An empirical approach and an equivalent source numerical approach were used. Two validations of this method are carried out: the rst for a set of parameters inside the experimental design, and the other for a set of parameters inside the investigated domain but outside the experimental design. The second validation is satisfactory. This method can therefore be a very useful tool to validate any welding process without carrying out a large number of experiments.

Fig. 14. Comparison between calculated and observed fusion zone.

Acknowledgement This paper summarizes the results of a research project supported by the Regional Council of Burgundy and AREVA NP.

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