Communication is neither transmission of message nor message itself. It is the mutual exchange of understanding, originating with the reciever.

Communication needs to be effective in business. Communication is essence of management. The basic functions of management (Planning,Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed well without effective communication. Business communication involves constant flow of information. Feedback is integral part of business communication. Organizations these days are verly large. It involves number of people. There are various levels of hierarchy in an organization. Greater the number of levels, the more difficult is the job of managing the organization. Communication here plays a very important role in process of directing and controlling the people in the oragnization. Immediate feedback can be obtained and misunderstandings if any can be avoided. There should be effective communication between superiors and subordinated in an organization, between organization and society at large(for example between management and trade unions). It is essential for success and growth of an organization. Communication gaps should not occur in any organization.

Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company have to be communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business Communication is regulated by certain rules and norms. In early times, business communication was limited to paper-work, telephone calls etc. But now with advent of technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, satellite communication to support business communication. Effective business communication helps in building goodwill of an organization. Business Communication can be of two types: 1. Oral Communication - An oral communication can be formal or informal. Generally business communication is a formal means of communication, like : meetings, interviews, group discussion, speeches etc. An example of Informal business communication would be - Grapevine. Written Communication - Written means of business communication includes - agenda, reports, manuals etc.

2.

Effective Communication is significant for managers in the organizations so as to perform the basic functions of management, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling. Communication helps managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities. Communication serves as a foundation for planning. All the essential information must be communicated to the managers who in-turn must communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing also requires effective communication with others about their job task. Similarly leaders as managers must communicate effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve the team goals. Controlling is not possible without written and oral communication. Managers devote a great part of their time in communication. They generally devote approximately 6 hours per day in communicating. They spend great time on face to face or telephonic communication with their superiors, subordinates, colleagues, customers or suppliers. Managers also use Written Communication in form of letters, reports or memos wherever oral communication is not feasible. Thus, we can say that effective communication is a building block of successful organizations . In other words, communication acts as organizational blood.

The importance of communication in an organization can be summarized as follows:

1. 2. 3. Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the employees about the task to be done, the manner they are performing the task, and how to improve their performance if it is not up to the mark. Communication is a source of information to the organizational members for decision-making process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative course of actions. Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individuals attitudes, i.e., a well informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual. Organizational magazines, journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written communication help in moulding employees attitudes. Communication also helps in socializing. In todays life the only presence of another individual fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot survive without communication. As discussed earlier, communication also assists in controlling process. It helps controlling organizational members behaviour in various ways. There are various levels of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that employees must follow in an organization. They must comply with organizational policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus, communication helps in controlling function of management.

4. 5.

An effective and efficient communication system requires managerial proficiency in delivering and receiving messages. A manager must discover various barriers to communication, analyze the reasons for their occurrence and take preventive steps to avoid those barriers. Thus, the primary responsibility of a manager is to develop and maintain an effective communication system in the organization.

Communication Process
Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame. Thus, communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.

Communication Process

The main components of communication process are as follows: 1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Introduction: - 4 physical dimensions:

Just like the 4 dimensions of the physical world (yes, there are more than 4), there are 4 dimensions of human communication. To recap, 1st Dimension - a point, like this period. 2nd Dimension - a line, like this one_____, or area with length and width. 3rd Dimension - add vertical component - height, as in a cube or sphere. This is the one that is most familiar to us, especially for things up close. 4th Dimension - the space/time continuum. Space and time are inextricably linked - as in very long distances being measured in light-years. E=mc2 - When an object (composed of matter and having mass) travels toward the speed of light and beyond, it becomes less physical and more energy. (It will turn into pure energy when the velocity hits the speed of light squared). These dimensions apply directly to communication...

1st Dimension of Communication:- Internal dialog:

This is when we talk to ourselves - not out loud, but in our heads. It is our internal belief system that only we ourselves know about how we really feel about everything. If we say: "I know I can get this job," or "I can ace my P.E. exam," or "I bowl about a 240," - we will! That's because we can say with reasonable assurity that we can do those things within our abilities. Of course, the negative version of this works quite well, also. We sometimes keep ourselves from growing because we tell ourselves what we can and cannot do. "I can't figure this thing out," or "I'm not really a creative person - that's something you're either born with, or not," Saying these things can have a devastating effect! It is also the images we play in our heads like thinking what it'd be like if we move to a new city, or run into an ex- at our own wedding, or what we would do if the apartment caught on fire. In the 1st dimension, communication takes place instantaneously.

2nd Dimension of Communication:- One-to one:

Face to face interactions, such as talking with someone next to you. This form is limited to our senses - mainly the strength of our voices and ears. And, both parties need to be present for the message to be transferred. Once out of earshot, communication can no longer take place. Sign language, light, flag and smoke signals all fit in this category because one needs to be within visual range to get the message. With technology, messages can be transmitted and received over distances beyond the reach of our senses. Messages have to be written or recorded on some media (such as a letter or newspaper) to be physically taken to the other person either by foot, horseback, boat or carrier pigeon. At this point, time becomes an issue and messages are not always timely. With technologies such as the telegraph and telephone, the messages do not need a physical form, although the devices and wires do. Now, the proximity factor is no longer relevant - messages travel great distances at nearly light-speed.

3rd Dimension of Communication: - One-to-many:

From public speaking to rock concerts, these messages can be received by several listeners/viewers in one locale, such as a movie theater or stage, but only come from one entity that has control over the content. The receiver can choose only from what is available, and the communication is mostly one-way, except for audience reaction. With technology, one-to-many messages are broadcast by, radio, cable or satellite. In this dimension, one sender can transmit a message to many, many receivers simultaneously around the world. But without a live audience, the feedback is more removed, and therefore the communication is even more one-way. In the 3rd dimension, time and distance again are not a significant factor, but timing is everything. The receiver has to be at the concert or near a radio or in front of a TV to get the message. Even if you tape a show with your VCR and watch it later, you still have to coordinate the machine with the airing schedule determined by the sender.

4th Dimension of Communication. - Many-to-many:

These messages (you are reading on now) are now possible with the Internet. Now, we can send a message that anyone else can receive from just about anywhere and at anytime - 24 hours a day. No longer do we have to wait for a show to come on, or a book to be returned from the library. E-mail travels as fast as a telephone, and you don't have to be at your mailbox to receive (or send) it. Timing is controlled primarily by the receiver, not the sender. And the sender can post an essay on the Web at 4:00 in the morning (like this one).

The Internet and WWW represent the massest of all mass media. Perhaps the most important difference from other mass media is that the Internet is unmediated media. More specifically, it is self-mediated media. We can send or receive the information we want, when we want it - and every book is always on the shelf of the world's largest library. And, we all have a voice - a microphone or billboard to share our thoughts to the world. In the 4th dimension, time, distance and physical space are irrelevant, and now, timing is no longer necessary. Furthermore, even the physical form of the media is reduced to (almost) pure energy. Not only can previously physical objects appear in front of us instantly (14.4 's might suggest otherwise!!) - we ourselves can be non-physically teleported to anywhere in the world where there is a WebCam running and see live images of Amsterdam or Santa Cruz. Ultimately, it is our choice of when and where to go - and these decisions are made at the fastest speed in the universe - the speed of thought.

Essentials of effective communication [check out d link]

http://www.slideshare.net/namitasingh/essentials-of-effective-communication

Channels of communication
In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. Downward Upward Lateral Diagonal External Downward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the managers to transmit workrelated information to the employees at lower levels. Employees require this information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers. Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes -

Providing feedback on employees performance

Giving job instructions Providing a complete understanding of the employees job as well as to communicate them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization. Communicating the organizations mission and vision to the employees.

Highlighting the areas of attention. Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples of downward communication. In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers must:

Specify communication objective Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unambiguous. Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right form

Upward Flow of Communication: Communication that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication. It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use upward communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors. The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the downward communication. It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the decision-making process. Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels. The managers get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for improving things. Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc. Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational member. The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows: It is time saving.

It facilitates co-ordination of the task.

It facilitates co-operation among team members.

It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.

It helps in solving various organizational problems.

It is a means of information sharing

It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts within a department.

1.

2.

Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart. For instance To design a training module a training manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task. External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and external groups such as suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To raise capital the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man as we know is a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend to develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of organization. Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization is facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-confidence due to which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and favour some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the formal channel of communication in that case. Generally during breaks in cafeteria,the subordinates talk about their superiors attitude and behaviour and exchange views w ith their peers. They discuss rumours about promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at times.

Examples of Grapevine Network of Communication

1. 2. Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumour is spread that this much profit is there and on that basis bonus is declared. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may have friendly relations with each other.

Pros and Cons of Grapevine Communication Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours. Thus, it does not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of communication and is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking rather than working. The grapevine leads to make hostility against the executives. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative information about the high level people of the organization.

A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize them. At the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine.

Chapter 2
Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and trust.

Advantages of Oral Communication

There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal. There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously
taken.

The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay. Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts. Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be put to
an end by talking them over.

Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy. Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees. Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very
organized.

Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized as
written communication.

Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long
speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.

Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady. There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials. It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience. Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work

Written communication has great significance in todays business wor ld. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate.

Advantages of Written Communication

Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for running of an organization.

It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is required.

It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it is impossible to fix and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to acknowledge.

Written communication is more precise and explicit.

Effective written communication develops and enhances an organizations image.

It provides ready records and references.

Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records

Disadvantages of Written Communication

Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.

Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clear their doubts, the response is not spontaneous.

Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending of message takes time.

Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organizations reputation.

Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.

Non verbal Communication

What is Non Verbal Communication ?
It is communication of feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body movements / gestures / eye contact, etc. The components of Non Verbal Communication are:

Kinesics: It is the study of facial expressions, postures & gestures. Did you know that while in Argentina to
raise a fist in the air with knuckles pointing outwards expresses victory, in Lebanon, raising a closed fist is considered rude?

Oculesics: It is the study of the role of eye contact in non verbal communication. Did you know that in the first
90 sec - 4 min you decide that you are interested in someone or not. Studies reveal that 50% of this first impression comes from non-verbal communication which includes oculesics. Only 7% of comes from words that we actually say.

Haptics: It is the study of touching. Did you know that acceptable level of touching vary from one culture to
another? In Thailand, touching someone's head may be considered as rude.

Proxemics: It is the study of measurable distance between people as they interact. Did you know that the
amount of personal space when having an informal conversation should vary between 18 inches - 4 feet while, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people should be around 10-12 feet?

Chronemics: It is the study of use of time in non verbal communication. Have you ever observed that while AN
employee will not worry about running a few minutes late to meet a colleague, a manager who has a meeting with the CEO, a late arrival will be considered as a nonverbal cue that he / she does not give adequate respect to his superior?

Paralinguistics: It is the study of variations in pitch, speed, volume, and pauses to convey meaning.
Interestingly, when the speaker is making a presentation and is looking for a response, he will pause. However, when no response is desired, he will talk faster with minimal pause.

Physical Appearance: Your physical appearance always contributes towards how people perceive you.
Neatly combed hair, ironed clothes and a lively smile will always carry more weight than words.

Chapter 3

Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is usually defined by communication scholars in numerous ways, usually describing participants who are dependent upon one another. It can involve one on one conversations or individuals interacting with many people within a society. It helps us understand how and why people behave and communicate in different ways to construct and negotiate a social reality. While interpersonal communication can be defined as its own area of study, it also occurs within other contexts like groups and organizations. Interpersonal communication is the process that we use to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings to another person. Our interpersonal communication skills are learned behaviors that can be improved through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection.

Interpersonal communication includes message sending and message reception between two or more individuals. This can include all aspects of communication such as listening, persuading, asserting, nonverbal communication, and more. A primary concept of interpersonal communication looks at communicative acts when there are few individuals involved unlike areas of communication such as group interaction, where there may be a large number of individuals involved in a communicative act. Individuals also communicate on different interpersonal levels depending on who they are engaging in communication with. For example, if an individual is communicating with a family member, that communication will more than likely differ from the type of communication used when engaged in a communicative act with a friend or significant other. Overall, interpersonal communication can be conducted using both direct and indirect mediums of communication such as face-to-face interaction, as well as computer-mediated-communication. Successful interpersonal communication assumes that both the message senders and the message receivers will interpret and understand the messages being sent on a level of understood meanings and implications.

Johari Windows
The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated above, divides personal awareness into four different types, as represented by its four quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Let's describe mine: 1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself, and that you know about me. For example, I know my name, and so do you, and if you have explored

some of my website, you know some of my interests. The knowledge that the window represents, can include not only factual information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors, wants, needs and desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. When I first meet a new person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large, since there has been little time to exchange information. As the process of getting to know one another continues, the window shades move down or to the right, placing more information into the open window, as described below. 2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that I am unaware of. So, for example, we could be eating at a restaurant, and I may have unknowingly gotten some food on my face. This information is in my blind quadrant because you can see it, but I cannot. If you now tell me that I have something on my face, then the window shade moves to the right, enlarging the open quadrant's area. Now, I may also have blindspots with respect to many other much more complex things. For example, perhaps in our ongoing conversation, you may notice that eye contact seems to be lacking. You may not say anything, since you may not want to embarrass me, or you may draw your own inferences that perhaps I am being insincere. Then the problem is, how can I get this information out in the open, since it may be affecting the level of trust that is developing between us? How can I learn more about myself? Unfortunately, there is no readily available answer. I may notice a slight hesitation on your part, and perhaps this may lead to a question. But who knows if I will pick this up, or if your answer will be on the mark. 3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that I know about myself, that you do not know. So for example, I have not told you, nor mentioned anywhere on my website, what one of my favorite ice cream flavors is. This information is in my "hidden" quadrant. As soon as I tell you that I love "Ben and Jerry's Cherry Garcia" flavored ice cream, I am effectively pulling the window shade down, moving the information in my hidden quadrant and enlarging the open quadrant's area. Again, there are vast amounts of information, virtually my whole life's story, that has yet to be revealed to you. As we get to know and trust each other, I will then feel more comfortable disclosing more intimate details about myself. This process is called: "Self-disclosure." 4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither I know about myself, nor you

know about me. For example, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt to understand its significance, a new awareness may emerge, known to neither of us before the conversation took place. Being placed in new situations often reveal new information not previously known to self or others. For example, I learned of the Johari window at a workshop conducted by a Japanese American psychiatrist in the early 1980's. During this workshop, he created a safe atmosphere of care and trust between the various participants. Usually, I am terrified of speaking in public, but I was surprised to learn that in such an atmosphere, the task need not be so daunting. Prior to this event, I had viewed myself and others had also viewed me as being extremely shy. (The above now reminds me of a funny joke, which I cannot refrain from telling you. It is said that the number one fear that people have is speaking in public. Their number two fear is dying. And the number three fear that people have, is dying while speaking in public.) Thus, a novel situation can trigger new awareness and personal growth. The process of moving previously unknown information into the open quadrant, thus enlarging its area, has been likened to Maslow's concept of self-actualization. The process can also be viewed as a game, where the open quadrant is synonymous with the win-win situation. Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of human interaction. The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-disclosure, a give and take process between me and the people I interact with. Typically, as I share something about myself (moving information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. For example, you may respond to my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting me know what your favorite ice cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built, kinds of information in your hidden quadrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so be careful on how much you eat! We believe disclosure to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets after reading Freud. However, Anita Kelly recently wrote that self-disclosure of personal secrets has its dangers. We are often better off not telling secrets regarding our sexual behavior, mental health problems or large-scale failures. "If you give people information about yourself, you give them power over you," she says. Monica Lewinsky's disclosure to Linda Tripp and the ensuing scandal that enveloped President Clinton is a case in point. Be

forewarned that most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties. People also misjudge how others respond to secrets. Sometimes you get negative feedback. For example, a women who reveals that she was raped may be seen in the future as a victim, or by men as damaged goods. Now, if you must tell your secret to someone, chose that person very carefully. Chose someone whose response will give you some insight into your problem. Unfortunately, such a person is often hard to find. So if you cannot find anyone appropriate, consider this: that keeping secrets is healthy and tasteful, because it is a way of managing your identity, and indicates you are secure and have self-control. But it takes energy, because you have to be on constant guard not to accidentally reveal something that is potentially damaging. As ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively invite others to comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback from students on the quality of a particular lecture, with the desire of improving the presentation. Active listening skills are helpful in this endeavor. On the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the parts of ourselves that we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind quadrant contains behavior, feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, but which others can see. Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, impotence, unworthiness, rejection, guilt, dependency, ambivalence for loved ones, needs to control and manipulate, are all difficult to face, and yet can be seen by others. To forcibly reveal what another wishes not to see, is "psychological rape," and can be traumatic. Fortunately, nature has provided us with a variety of defense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as denial, ignoring, rationalizing, etc. The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also reveal difficulties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to communicate via the open quadrants. On the simplest level, difficulties may arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor grammar or choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing something that was in your blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct it immediately, or perhaps on a more long term approach take a course in reading and writing. On a deeper level, you may be in a group meeting, and while you secretly sympathize with the minority viewpoint, you voted with the majority. However, blind to you, you actually may be communicating this information via body language, in conflict with your verbal

message. On an even deeper level, you in an interaction with others, may always put on a smiling, happy face, hiding all negative feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you may be signaling to your friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus, your communication style may seem bland or distant.

Transactional Analysis[ I hav mentioned 2 answers for dis.study wic ever u feel is easy]
What is Transactional Analysis[1] Transactional Analysis (TA) is a personality and psychotherapy for personal growth. It has wide applications in Clinical Psychology, organizations and education also. Dr.Eric Berne, the originator of TA, considers a transaction as the unit of social intercourse. A transaction consists of a transactional stimulus (TS) and a transactional response (TR). TS is the behavior (verbal or nonverbal) produced by one person in acknowledgement of the presence of others when two or more people encounter each other. TR is the response to TS by another person. Ego States In his encounters with his clients, Dr. Berne understood that there exist three distinct states in all people. People change from one state to another in the course of their transactions. This change can be easily noticed by the manners, appearances, words, gestures, and tones. The three distinct states called the ego states are the Parent ego state, the Adult ego state, and the Child ego state. The Parent ego state is produced by the playback of recordings in the brain of unquestioned or imposed external events perceived by the person before his social birth i.e., before the age of 5 years. This ego state consists of NO's, DONT's, HOW -TO's and the facial expressions, tone of voice, manners etc. of the person's parents. In other words, this ego state consists of the "taught - concepts" of life.

The Child ego state is the response the little person produced to what he saw, heard, felt and understood. Most of these are feelings because the child has not developed verbal responses at that time. In other words, this ego state may be considered the collection of "feltconcepts" of life. The Parent ego state begins with the biological birth of the individual and extends up to and age of five years. The Child ego state also starts with the physical birth and continues to develop until the social birth (around the age of five). The Adult ego state develops after both the Parent and the Child ego states have began to develop. This state begins to develop from about ten months of age. The function of this state is to update both Parent data and Child data by continuous examination of these data with respect to actual reality. Thus only those taught concepts and felt-concepts applicable and appropriate to the present are accepted. Thus the Adult state is said to be the "thought-concepts" of life. Fig -1 PAC System

Berne opines that the recordings in the brain that causes the ego states cannot be erased at all, but "we can choose to turn these recordings off". Berne represents the ego states as circles and represents TS and TR by arrows drawn from the respective ego state of the first person to that of the second person.

Types of Transactions Berne identifies two types of transactions: 1. Complementary Transactions

Complementary transactions Examples of Complementary Transactions Parent-Parent, Adult-Adult, Child-Child, ChildParent, Parent-Child, Child-Adult, Adult-Child, Adult-Parent, Parent-Adult First Rule of Communication We have the first rule of communication in TA : "When TS and TR on the P-A-C diagram make parallel lines, the transaction can go on indefinitely."

Fig 2. Parent-Parent Transaction (Complementary Transaction)

2. Crossed Transactions
Examples of Crossed Transactions Adult-Adult and Parent-Child; AdultAdult and Child-Parent; Parent-Child and Parent-Child; Child-Parent and Child-Parent Second Rule of Communication Here we have the second rule of communication in TA: "When TS and TR in the P-A-C diagram cross each other, communication stops." Fig.3 Parent-Child and Child-Parent (Crossed Transaction)

Duplex Transaction

There can be implied communications along with the primary communications. Eg., "Where did you hide the can-opener?" Here the main stimulus is Adult-Adult. But the word hide has an implied stimulus elicited from the Parent of the communicator to the Child of the receiver. This type of communication is called duplex transaction. The duplex transaction (the implied TS or TR) in the transactional diagram is represented by broken arrows.

Fig.4 Adult-Adult with Parent-Child and Child-Parent (Duplex Transaction)

Personality and Psychopathology According to P-A-C system There are two ways in which people differ according to TA. This is either due to contamination or exclusion.
In contamination, the P-A-C system overlaps. For example, when Parent and Adult overlap, we have a Parent contaminated Adult. This results inPrejudice. When Adult and Child overlap, we have a Child contaminated Adult. This condition causes delusion.

Fig.5 Contaminated Adult (Prejudice and Delusion)

In exclusion, the communication from one of the P, A, or C is cut off. For example, when Child is cut off, the person cannot play at all and is very rigid and serious, causing neurotic behavior. When the Parent is cut off, the person does not have any conscience at all. If his Adult is also contaminated with Child, the person will be psychopathic.

Fig.6. PAC system with Child cut-off

According to this system, psychosis results when the Adult is completely blocked from Parent and Child. This is called decommissioned Adult. If the blocking out of Adult is periodic, the result is ManicDepressive personality.

Fig.7. The Decommissioned Adult ( Psychosis)

[2] Dis is d other 1

Transactional Analysis (or TA as it is often called) is a model of people and relationships that was developed during the 1960s by Dr. Eric Berne. It is based on two notions, first that we have three parts or 'ego-states' to our 'personality, and secondly that these converse with one another in 'transactions' (hence the name). TA is a very common model used in therapy and there is a great deal written about it.

Parent, Adult and Child

We each have internal models of parents, children and also adults, and we play these roles with one another in our relationships. We even do it with ourselves, in our internal conversations.

Parent There are two forms of Parent we can play. The Nurturing Parent is caring and concerned and often may appear as a mother-figure (though men can play it too). They seek to keep the Child contented, offering a safe haven and unconditional love to calm the Child's troubles. The Controlling (or Critical) Parent, on the other hand, tries to make the Child do as the parent wants them to do, perhaps transferring values or beliefs or helping the Child to understand and live in society. They may also have negative intent, using the Child as a whipping-boy or worse. Adult the Adult in us is the 'grown up' rational person who talks reasonably and assertively, neither trying to control nor reacting aggressively towards others. The Adult is comfortable with themself and is, for many of us, our 'ideal self'. Child There are three types of Child we can play. The Natural Child is largely un-self-aware and is characterized by the non-speech noises they make (yahoo, whee, etc.). They like playing and are open and vulnerable. The cutely-named Little Professor is the curious and exploring Child who is always trying out new stuff (often much to their Controlling Parent's annoyance). Together with the Natural Child they make up the Free Child. The Adaptive Child reacts to the world around them, either changing themselves to fit in or rebelling against the forces they feel.

Communications (transactions)
When two people communicate, each exchange is a transaction. Many of our problems come from transactions which are unsuccessful.

Parents naturally speak to Children, as this is their role as a parent. They can talk with other Parents and Adults, although the subject still may be about the children. The Nurturing Parent naturally talks to the Natural Child and the Controlling Parent to the Adaptive Child. In fact these parts of our personality are evoked by the opposite. Thus if I act as an Adaptive Child, I will most likely evoke the Controlling Parent in the other person. We also play many games between these positions, and there are rituals from greetings to whole conversations (such as the weather) where we take different positions for different events. These are often 'pre-recorded' as scripts we just play out. They give us a sense of control and identity and reassure us that all is still well in the world. Other games can be negative and destructive and we play them more out of sense of habit and addiction than constructive pleasure.

Conflict
Complementary transactions occur when both people are at the same level (Parent talking to Parent, etc.). Here, both are often thinking in the same way and communication is easier. Problems usually occur in Crossed transactions, where each is talking to a different level. The parent is either nurturing or controlling, and often speaks to the child, who is either adaptive or natural in their response. When both people talk as a Parent to the others Child, their wires get crossed and conflict results. The ideal line of communication is the mature and rational Adult-Adult relationship.

So what?
Being a Controlling Parent invites the other person into a Child state where they may conform with your demands. There is also a risk that they will be an Adaptive 'naughty child' and rebel. They may also take opposing Parent or Adult states. Be a Nurturing Parent or talking at the same level as the other person acts to create trust. Watch out for crossed wires. This is where conflict arises. When it happens, first go to the state that the other person is in to talk at the same level. For rational conversation, move yourself and the other person to the Adult level.

Styles of Communication

Every time we speak, we choose and use one of four basic communication styles: assertive, aggressive, passive and passive-aggressive. Assertive Communication The most effective and healthiest form of communication is the assertive style. It's how we naturally express ourselves when our self-esteem is intact, giving us the confidence to communicate without games and manipulation. When we are being assertive, we work hard to create mutually satisfying solutions. We communicate our needs clearly and forthrightly. We care about the relationship and strive for a win/win situation. We know our limits and refuse to be pushed beyond them just because someone else wants or needs something from us. Surprisingly, assertive is the style most people use least. Aggressive Communication Aggressive communication always involves manipulation. We may attempt to make people do what we want by inducing guilt (hurt) or by using intimidation and control tactics (anger). Covert or overt, we simply want our needs met - and right now! Although there are a few arenas where aggressive behavior is called for (i.e., sports or war), it will never work in a relationship. Ironically, the more aggressive sports rely heavily on team members and rational coaching strategies. Even war might be avoided if we could learn to be more assertive and negotiate to solve our problems. Passive Communication Passive communication is based on compliance and hopes to avoid confrontation at all costs. In this mode we don't talk much, question even less, and actually do very little. We just don't want to rock the boat. Passives have learned that it is safer not to react and better to disappear than to stand up and be noticed. Passive-Aggressive Communication A combination of styles, passive-aggressive avoids direct confrontation (passive), but attempts to get even through manipulation (aggressive). If you've ever thought about

making that certain someone who needs to be "taught a thing or two" suffer (even just a teeny bit), you've stepped pretty close to (if not on into) the devious and sneaky world of the passive-aggressive. This style of communication often leads to office politics and rumour-mongering.

Chapter 4 Communication Barriers

Communication is a process beginning with a sender who encodes the message and passes it through some channel to the receiver who decodes the message. Communication is fruitful if and only if the messages sent by the sender is interpreted with same meaning by the receiver. If any kind of disturbance blocks any step of communication, the message will be destroyed. Due to such disturbances, managers in an organization face severe problems. Thus the managers must locate such barriers and take steps to get rid of them. There are several barriers that affects the flow of communication in an organization. These barriers interrupt the flow of communication from the sender to the reciever, thus making communication ineffective. It is essential for managers to overcome these barriers. The main barriers of communication are summarized below.

Following are the main communication barriers:

1. Perceptual and Language Differences: Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around him. All generally want to receive messages which are significant to them. But any message which is against their values is not accepted. A same event may be taken differently by different individuals. For example : A person is on leave for a month due to personal reasons (family member being critical). The HR Manager might be in confusion whether to retain that employee or not, the immediate manager might think of replacement because his teams productivity is being hampered, the family members might take him as an emotional support. The linguistic differences also lead to communication breakdown. Same word may mean different to different individuals. For example: consider a word value. a. b. c. What is the value of this Laptop? I value our relation? What is the value of learning technical skills?

Value means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown occurs if there is wrong perception by the receiver. 2. Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to control this information flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result communication is less effective. Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveler may pay attention to one NO PARKING sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior is engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains him his problem, the superior may not get what he is saying and it leads to disappointment of subordinate. Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be achieved within a specified time period, the failure of which has adverse consequences. In a haste to meet deadlines, the formal channels of communication are

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shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not completely transferred. Thus sufficient time should be given for effective communication. Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical distractions are also there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also affects communication in a meeting. Similarly use of loud speakers interferes with communication. Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication. If the receiver feels that communicator is angry he interprets that the information being sent is very bad. While he takes it differently if the communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message is interpreted to be good and interesting). Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the hierarchy in an organization (i.e. more the number of managerial levels), more is the chances of communication getting destroyed. Only the people at the top level can see the overall picture while the people at low level just have knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge about other areas. Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One cant always retain what is being told specially if he is not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication breakdown.

Overcoming communication Barrier

here are a lot of communication barriers faced these days by all. The message intended by the sender is not understood by the receiver in the same terms and sense and thus communication breakdown occurs. It is essential to deal and cope up with these communication barriers so as to ensure smooth and effective communication.

As, in the previous section we have discussed the major barriers of communication. Lets talk about how to overcome these barriers of communication.

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Eliminating differences in perception: The organization should ensure that it is recruiting right individuals on the job. Its the responsibility of the interviewer to ensure that the interviewee has command over the written and spoken language. There should be proper Induction program so that the policies of the company are clear to all the employees. There should be proper trainings conducted for required employees (for eg: Voice and Accent training). 2. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided. 3. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source. 4. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between listening and hearing. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker. 5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body language. He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good. 6. Simple Organizational Structure: The organizational structure should not be complex. The number of hierarchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span of control within the organization. Simpler the organizational structure, more effective will be the communication. 7. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to prioritize their work. They should not overload themselves with the work. They should spend quality time with their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively. 8. Give Constructive Feedback: Avoid giving negative feedback. The contents of the feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered constructively. Constructive feedback will lead to effective communication between the superior and subordinate. 9. Proper Media Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc. 10. Flexibility in meeting the targets: For effective communication in an organization the managers should ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipping the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet their targets.

Listening
Listening is a significant part of communication process. Communication cannot take place until and unless a message is heard and retained thoroughly and positively by the receivers/listeners. Listening is a dynamic process. Listening means attentiveness and interest perceptible in the posture as well as expressions. Listening implies decoding (i.e., translating the symbols into meaning) and interpreting the messages correctly in communication process. Listening differs from hearing in sense that:

Hearing implies just perceiving the sounds while listening means listening with understanding whatever you are listening.
Both the body as well as mind is involved in listening process.

Listening is an active process while hearing is a passive activity. Hearing is an effortless activity while listening is an act requiring conscious efforts, concentration and interest. Listening
involves both physical and psychological efforts. Effective listening requires both deliberate efforts and a keen mind. Effective listeners appreciate flow of new ideas and information. Organizations that follow the principles of effective listening are always informed timely, updated with the changes and implementations, and are always out of crisis situation. Effective listening promotes organizational relationships, encourages product delivery and innovation, as well as helps organization to deal with the diversity in employees and customers it serves. To improve your communication skills, you must learn to listen effectively. Effective listening gives you an advantage and makes you more impressive when you speak. It also boosts your performance.

Effective Listening Skills

Discover your interests field. Grasp and understand the matter/content. Remain calm. Do not loose your temper. Anger hampers and inhibits communication. Angry people jam their minds to the words of others. 4. Be open to accept new ideas and information. 5. Jot down and take a note of important points. 6. Work upon listening. Analyze and evaluate the speech in spare time. 7. Rephrase and summarize the speakers ideas. 8. Keep on asking questions. This demonstrates that how well you understand the speakers ideas and also that you are listening. 9. Avoid distractions. 10. Step into the shoes of others, i.e., put yourself in the position of the speaker and observe things from his view point. This will help creating an atmosphere of mutual understanding and improve the exchange of ideas in communication process. 1. 2. 3.

Characteristics of Good and Effective Listener

Good and effective listener tries to give maximum amount of thought to the speakers ideas being communicated, leaving a minimum amount of time for mental exercises to go off track. A good listener: 1. 2. Is attentive- Good listener must pay attention to the key points. He should be alert. He should avoid any kind of distraction. Do not assume- Good listener does not ignore the information he considers is unnecessary. He should always summarize the speakers ideas so that there is no misunderstanding of thoughts of speakers. He avoids premature judgements about the speakers message. Listen for feelings and facts- Good listener deliberately listens for the feelings of the speaker. He concentrates totally on the facts. He evaluates the facts objectively. His listening is sympathetic, active and alert. He keenly observes the gestures, facial expression and body language of the speaker. In short, a good listener should be

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projective (i.e. one who tries to understand the views of the speaker) and empathic (i.e. one who concentrates not only on the surface meaning of the message but tries to probe the feelings and emotions of the speaker). Concentrate on the other speakers kindly and generously- A good listener makes deliberate efforts to give a chance to other speakers also to express their thoughts and views. He tries to learn from every speaker. He evaluates the speakers ideas in spare time. He focuses on the content of the speakers message and not on the speakers personality and looks. Opportunizes- A good listener tries to take benefit from the opportunities arising. He asks Whats in it for me?

To conclude, effective listening enhances the communication quality. It makes all attentive. It encourages optimistic attitude, healthy relations and more participation. It leads to better decision- making in an organization. Effective listening is directly related to our ability to do team work. It must be noted that We listen at about an efficiency rate o f 25 percent maximum, and we remember only about 50 percent of what is delivered during a ten minute speech/lecture/communication.

Types of listening
Here are six types of listening, starting with basic discrimination of sounds and ending in deep communication.

Discriminative listening
11. Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences. 12. We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early, and later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages. This is one reason why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language. 13. Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is experiencing. 14. Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.

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Comprehension listening

16. The next step beyond discriminating between different sound and sights is to make sense of them. To comprehend the meaning requires first having a lexicon of words at our fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax by which we can understand what others are saying. 17. The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication, and an understanding of body language helps us understand what the other person is really meaning. 18. In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a long spiel. 19. Comprehension listening is also known as content listening, informative listening and full listening.

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Critical listening

21. Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and approval.

22. This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.

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Biased listening

24. Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear, typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on thestereotypes and other biases that they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

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Evaluative listening

26. In evaluative listening, or critical listening, we make judgments about what the other person is saying. We seek to assess the truth of what is being said. We also judge what they say against our values, assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy. 27. Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to persuade us, perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs. Within this, we also discriminate between subtleties of language and comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we weigh up the pros and cons of an argument, determining whether it makes sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to us. 28. Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening.

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Appreciative listening

30. In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

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Sympathetic listening

32. In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys.

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Empathetic listening

34. When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are feeling. 35. In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.

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Therapeutic listening

37. In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with the speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker understand, change or develop in some way. 38. This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems from listening and also to help the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by some cathartic process. This also happens in work situations, where managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.

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Dialogic listening

40. The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through' and 'logos' meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening mean learning through conversation and an engaged interchange of ideas and information in which we actively seek to learn more about the person and how they think. 41. Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening'.

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Relationship listening

43. Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other has to say when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather boring. 44. Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.

Listening Tips
Usually it is important to paraphrase and use your own words in verbalizing your understanding of the message. Parroting back the words verbatim is annoying and does not ensure accurate understanding of the message. Depending on the purpose of the interaction and your understanding of what is relevant, you could reflect back the other persons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Account of the facts. Thoughts and beliefs. Feelings and emotions. Wants, needs or motivation. Hopes and expectations.

Dont respond to just the meaning of the words, look for the feelings or intent beyond the words. The dictionary or surface meaning of the words or code used by the sender is not the message. Inhibit your impulse to immediately answer questions. The code may be in the form of a question. Sometimes people ask questions when they really want to express themselves and are not open to hearing an answer. Know when to quit using active listening. Once you accurately understand the senders message, it may be appropriate to respond with your own message. Dont use active listening to hide and avoid revealing your own position. If you are confused and know you do not understand, either tell the person you dont understand and ask him/her to say it another way, or use your best guess. If you are incorrect, the person will realize it and will likely attempt to correct your misunderstanding. Active listening is a very effective first response when the other person is angry, hurt or expressing difficult feelings toward you, especially in relationships that are important to you. Use eye contact and listening body language. Avoid looking at your watch or at other people or activities around the room. Face and lean toward the speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate. Be careful about crossing your arms and appearing closed or critical.

Chapter 5
What is Report Writing ?
A report can be defined as a testimonial or account of some happening . It is purely based on observation and analysis. A report gives an explanation of any circumstance. In todays corporate world, reports play a crucial role. They are a strong base for planning and control in an organization, i.e., reports give information which can be utilized by the management team in an organization for making plans and for solving complex issues in the organization. A report discusses a particular problem in detail. It brings significant and reliable information to the limelight of top management in an organization. Hence, on the basis of such information, the management can make strong decisions. Reports are required for judging the performances of various departments in an organization. An effective report can be written going through the following steps1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Determine the objective of the report, i.e., identify the problem. Collect the required material (facts) for the report. Study and examine the facts gathered. Plan the facts for the report. Prepare an outline for the report, i.e., draft the report. Edit the drafted report. Distribute the draft report to the advisory team and ask for feedback and recommendations.

The essentials of good/effective report writing are as follows1. 2. Know your objective, i.e., be focused. Analyze the niche audience, i.e., make an analysis of the target audience, the purpose for which audience requires the report, kind of data audience is looking for in the report, the implications of report reading, etc. 3. Decide the length of report. 4. Disclose correct and true information in a report. 5. Discuss all sides of the problem reasonably and impartially. Include all relevant facts in a report. 6. Concentrate on the report structure and matter. Pre-decide the report writing style. Use vivid structure of sentences. 7. The report should be neatly presented and should be carefully documented. 8. Highlight and recap the main message in a report. 9. Encourage feedback on the report from the critics. The feedback, if negative, might be useful if properly supported with reasons by the critics. The report can be modified based on such feedback. 10. Use graphs, pie-charts, etc to show the numerical data records over years. 11. Decide on the margins on a report. Ideally, the top and the side margins should be the same (minimum 1 inch broad), but the lower/bottom margins can be one and a half times as broad as others. 12. Attempt to generate readers interest by making appropriate paragraphs, giving bold headings for each paragraph, using bullets wherever required, etc.

Report structure
What follows is a generic structure for reports. Using this structure will help to give your report the correct level of formality; it will also help to ensure that you do not leave out anything important. However, the actual structure required by your discipline may not be exactly what is represented here - you should check with your lecturer. A report should generally include the following sections. (Sections marked with an asterisk (*) are essential: others are optional depending on the type, length and purpose of the report.)

Letter of transmittal Title page* Table of contents List of abbreviations and/or glossary Executive summary/abstract Introduction* Body* Conclusion* Recommendations Bibliography Appendices

Letter of transmittal
(only if specified by your lecturer) This is a letter to the person who commissioned the report, in which you effectively hand over your work to that person. Include: a salutation (eg. Dear Ms Podolinsky) the purpose of the letter (eg. Here is the final version of the report on Underwater Welding which was commissioned by your organisation.) the main finding of the report any important considerations an acknowledgement of any significant help an expression of pleasure or gratitude (eg. Thank you for giving us the opportunity to work on this report.)

Title page
This must contain: the report title which clearly states the purpose of the report full details of the person(s) for whom the report was prepared full details of the person(s) who prepared the report the date of the presentation of the report

Table of Contents
(usually only if the report is longer than, say, ten pages)

This is a list of the headings and appendices of the report. Depending on the complexity and length of the report, you could list tables, figures and appendices separately. Make sure the correct page numbers are shown opposite the contents. Up-to-date word processing packages can generate a table of contents for you.

Abbreviations and/or glossary

If necessary, you should provide an alphabetical list of the abbreviations you have used in the report, especially if they may not be familiar to all readers of the report. If you have used a lot of technical terms, you should also provide a glossary (an alphabetical list of the terms, with brief explanations of their meanings).

Acknowledgements (if appropriate)

This is a short paragraph thanking any person or organisation which gave you help in collecting data or preparing the report.

Abstract (Summary or Executive Summary)

An abstract is quite different from an introduction. It is a summary of the report, in which you include one sentence (or so) for every main section of your report. For example, you can include: the context of the research the purpose of the report the major findings (you may need several sentences here) the conclusions the main recommendations

Write the abstract after you have written the report.

Introduction
Give enough background information to provide a context for the report. State the purpose of the report. Clarify key terms and indicate the scope of the report (ie what the report will cover).

Body
The content of the body depends on the purpose of the report, and whether it is a report of primary or secondary research. A report of primary research (based on your own observations and experiments) would include:

Literature review (what other people have written about this topic. See our webpage for hints on writing a literature review). The literature review should lead towards your research question.

Method (summarises what you did and why). Use the past tense. Findings or results (describes what you discovered, observed, etc, in your observations and experiements). Use the past tense. Discussion (discusses and explains your findings and relates them to previous research). Use the present tense to make generalisations.

A report of secondary research (based on reading only) would include: Information organised under appropriate topics with sub-headings. It is unlikely that your report will discuss each source separately. You need to synthesise material from different sources under topic headings. Analysis/discussion of the sources you are reporting.

Conclusion
Sum up the main points of the report. The conclusion should clearly relate to the objectives of your report. No surprises please! (that is, dont include new information here.) Recommendations (if appropriate) These are suggestions for future action. They must be logically derived from the body of your report.

Bibliography
(See our page on Using References for more information).

Appendices
An appendix contains material which is too detailed, technical, or complex to include in the body of the report (for example, specifications, a questionnaire, or a long complex table of figures), but which is referred to in the report. Appendices are put at the very end of the report, after everything else. Each appendix should contain different material. Number each appendix clearly.

Parts of a business letter

The various parts of a business letter include: Date line Appears two to six lines below the last line of the printed letterhead. The date should be written out in this form:

January 1, 2006. Reference line Appears on a new line below the date. The reference line contains a numerical file number, invoice

number, policy number, or other reference information.

Special mailing notations Inside address Attention line

Special notations such as "confidential" should appear two lines below the date.

Includes addressee's title and full name, business title, business name, and full address. If the letter is not addressed to any specific person, skip one space after the inside address and add,

"Attention: ." You can make the letter go to the attention of a department. Salutation One line after the attention line or the inside address: Dear , Ladies and Gentlemen, Dear Sir or Madam,

Dear company name. Subject line Message Gives an overview of what the letter is about. Can be used in place of a salutation.

The body of your letter with paragraph breaks, optional indentions for paragraphs, bullet lists, and number lists. Appears two lines below the last line of the message. Either left justified or five spaces to the right

Complimentary close of center. Signature block

Justified with the complimentary close with options of typed name and title, signature, or just signature. The initials of the typist appear left-justified two spaces below the signature block. Located with the identification initials or in place of them with the notation enc, encl, enclosures

Identification initials Enclosure notation (3), or 3 encs. Copy notation Postscript

Left-justified two lines below identification initials with the notation cc: person's full name or initials.

Two spaces below the last text on the page. Includes P.S. and then a short sentence.

Informal Report Writing Informal reports include various types of documents that are considered distinct from a formal report. The main difference between a formal and informal report is that informal reports usually do not need an abstract or references. They are usually too short to require them. Informal reports usually contain only one or two pages of text. A one-half page abstract for a two-page lab report is neither concise nor necessary. Similarly, references are usually not needed because the introduction and discussion sections are too brief.

For d other topics frm dis chap plz check d link given below
http://www.brazosport.edu/sites/CurrentStudents/Faculty/DianeRuscito/Documents/Business%20Corr%20C omm/Chapter9_LectureNotes.pdf http://stacienaczelnik.hubpages.com/hub/How-to-Write-a-Bad-News-Business-Letter