Application Note

Step and Touch Voltage Measurements According to VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 AND IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 AND 81.2-1991

Authors Lutz Hulka | lutz.hulka@omicron.at Markus Ptter | markus.puetter@omicron.at Date Jul 15, 2010 Related OMICRON Product CPC 100 Application Area Grounding System Analysis Version v1.0 Document ID ANP_10001_ENU

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Contents
1 Using This Document ............................................................................................................................3 1.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards ...............................................................................3 1.2 Safety Measures .............................................................................................................................3 1.3 Conventions and Symbols Used ....................................................................................................3 1.4 Related Documents ........................................................................................................................4 Step and Touch Voltage Measurements .............................................................................................5 2.1 Introduction to Measurement According to VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 .....................5 2.2 Introduction to Measurement According to IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 .....................6 2.3 Connecting the Measurement Setup ..............................................................................................6
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 Recommended Current Range Settings ........................................................................................... 6 Estimating the Open-Line Voltage .................................................................................................... 7 Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power Lines ........................................................................ 8

2.4 2.5 2.6

Reduction Factor ......................................................................................................................... 10 Performing Measurements .......................................................................................................... 10

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.6.1 2.6.2 Measurement Principles ................................................................................................................. 10 Measurement Procedure ................................................................................................................ 12 Measurement According to VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999............................................... 13 Measurement According to IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 ............................................... 14

Interpretation of Measurement Results ....................................................................................... 13

Please use this note only in combination with the related product manual which contains several important safety instructions. The user is responsible for every application that makes use of an OMICRON product.

OMICRON electronics GmbH including all international branch offices is henceforth referred to as OMICRON. OMICRON 2010. All rights reserved. This application note is a publication of OMICRON. All rights including translation reserved. Reproduction of any kind, for example, photocopying, microfilming, optical character recognition and/or storage in electronic data processing systems, requires the explicit consent of OMICRON. Reprinting, wholly or in part, is not permitted. The product information, specifications, and technical data embodied in this application note represent the technical status at the time of writing and are subject to change without prior notice. We have done our best to ensure that the information given in this application note is useful, accurate and entirely reliable. However, OMICRON does not assume responsibility for any inaccuracies which may be present. OMICRON translates this application note from the source language English into a number of other languages. Any translation of this document is done for local requirements, and in the event of a dispute between the English and a nonEnglish version, the English version of this note shall govern.

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Using This Document

This Application Note provides detailed information on how to measure the step and touch voltages according to the VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 and IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 international standards safely, properly and efficiently. The AN CP0502 Application Note describes step and touch voltage measurements using the OMICRON electronics measurement setup consisting of the CPC 100 test system, the CP CU1 coupling unit, the CP GB1 grounding box and the CP AL1 FFT voltmeter. Reading the AN CP0502 Application Note alone does not release you from the duty of complying with all national and international safety regulations relevant to working with the CPC 100 and the CP CU1. The regulation EN 50191 "The Erection and Operation of Electrical Test Equipment" as well as all the applicable regulations for accident prevention in the country and at the site of operation has to be fulfilled.

1.1

Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards

Working on overhead lines is extremely dangerous. The step and touch voltage measurements described in this Application Note must be carried out only by qualified, skilled and authorized personnel. Before starting to work, clearly establish the responsibilities. Personnel receiving training, instructions, directions, or education on the measurement setup must be under constant supervision of an experienced operator while working with the equipment. The step and touch voltage measurements must comply with the relevant national and international safety standards listed below: EN 50191 (VDE 0104) "Erection and Operation of Electrical Equipment" EN 50110-1 (VDE 0105 Part 100) "Operation of Electrical Installations" IEEE 510 "IEEE Recommended Practices for Safety in High-Voltage and High-Power Testing" LAPG 1710.6 NASA "Electrical Safety" Moreover, additional relevant laws and internal safety standards have to be followed.

1.2

Safety Measures
Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the CPC 100 User/Reference Manual and CP CU1 Reference Manual carefully and observe the application specific safety instructions in this Application Note when performing measurements to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards.

1.3

Conventions and Symbols Used

In this document, the following symbols indicate paragraphs with special safety relevant meaning. Symbol Description Equipment damage or loss of data possible.

Personal injury or severe damage to objects possible.

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1.4

Related Documents
The following documents complete the information covered in this Application Note: Title CPC 100 User Manual CPC 100 Reference Manual Description Provides basic information on the CPC 100 test system and relevant safety instructions. Provides detailed hardware and software information on the CPC 100 test system including relevant safety instructions. Provides information on the CP CU1 coupling unit and the CP GB1 grounding box including typical application examples. Provides detailed hardware and software information on the CP AL1 FFT voltmeter.

CP CU1 Reference Manual

CP AL1 User Manual

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Step and Touch Voltage Measurements

In different countries, states and utilities, different rules and regulations apply to step and touch voltage measurements. For information on whether or not and how the measurement is to be performed, refer to the relevant standards. The following figure shows the possible scenarios of the touch voltage hazard.

<2m

1m

1m

1m

Figure 1: Touch voltage hazard scenarios

This Application Note describes the step and touch voltage measurements according to the VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 and IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 standards.

2.1

Introduction to Measurement According to VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999

Note: This excerpt from the above standard is for reference only. Reading this Application Note does not release you from the duty of reading and observing the standard. For the decision whether step and touch voltage measurements have to be performed, the grounding current is of major importance. The grounding current is the maximum fault current through the earth for the maximum fault duration assuming the protection works properly. The grounding current depends on the neutral-point connection and is to be calculated from the grids impedance. The VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 standards specify when the touch voltage measurement is not required. According to the standards, the touch voltage need not be measured if: The substation is a part of a global grounding system (as defined in the standard). A set of measures described in Appendix D of the standard is applied, e.g. insulation of metal parts or their protection against touch.

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 The whole systems grounding voltage is less than two times the allowed touch voltage for the maximum possible fault current into ground. The systems grounding voltage limit depends on the fault duration as shown in Table 1: System's grounding voltage vs. fault duration on page 6. Systems Grounding Voltage Limit in Volts 160 200 250 300 440 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Fault Duration tF in Seconds 10 1.1 0.72 0.64 0.49 0.39 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.08 0.04
Table 1: System's grounding voltage vs. fault duration

In all other cases, the touch voltage measurement is recommended. The touch voltage measurement is usually performed on the periphery of a grounding system, i.e. on the fence of a substation and additional peripheral grounding points such as the first tower of a power line or other grounding systems singularities.

2.2

Introduction to Measurement According to IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.21991

Note: This excerpt from the above standard is for reference only. Reading this Application Note does not release you from the duty of reading and observing the standard. According to the IEEE 81.2-1991 standard, more extensive measurements including the touch voltage measurement should be performed if the calculated ground potential rise (GPR) exceeds a value of 25 kV. Because this limit seems quite high compared with the specifications in the CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 standard, OMICRON electronics recommends to evaluate the object under test carefully. Particularly, if areas are involved where people are likely to be, it is a good idea to measure the touch voltage if the criterion of the CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 is met. According to the IEEE 81-1983 standard, the expected touch voltages can alternatively been read from a contour map generated from extensive step voltage measurements in all directions.

2.3
2.3.1

Connecting the Measurement Setup

Recommended Current Range Settings The highest current range allowed by the open-line voltage (see 2.3.3 Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power Lines on page 8) provides the best measurement accuracy. However, depending on the length of the power line under test, this setting may result in the CPC 100 overload due to low driving voltage. As a rule of thumb, the current range required for the power line length is given in

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Table 2: Recommended current range settings on page 7. Set the current range switch of the CP CU1 to the value according to the table. Line Impedance 01.6 0.88 4.040 > 16 Line Length 02 km/01.5 miles 110 km/0.55 miles 550 km/330 miles > 20 km/15 miles Range Current 100 A 50 A 20 A 10 A Compliance Voltage 50 V 100 V 250 V 500 V

Table 2: Recommended current range settings

2.3.2

Estimating the Open-Line Voltage Before connecting the CP CU1 to overhead lines or power cables (further on referred to as power lines), estimate the open-line voltage as follows. Follow the instructions below exactly and sequentially to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards. In addition to the following safety instructions, observe the safety rules in the CPC 100 User/Reference Manual and CP CU1 Reference Manual.

To estimate the open-line voltage: Caution: Before grounding a power line, make sure that the line is not powered with the life-dead-life test as follows: Using a certified voltage tester approved for the voltage tests, verify on a life system that the tester is operational, on the line to be unpowered that it is dead and on a life system again that the tester is still working. When grounding a power line, observe the five safety rules in the CP CU1 Reference Manual.
1.

2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Switch off, short-circuit and ground the power line on both sides using an installed grounding switch or, if no grounding switch is available on site, using grounding cables (further on, the grounding switch or these extra grounding cables are referred to as grounding switch). Make sure that the connection to ground at the far end of the power line is not removed during the complete test procedure. In addition to the grounding switch, ground the line at the near end using a grounding set consisting of three cables rated for the maximum short-circuit current possible on the line. This connection is called working ground further on. Open the grounding switch at the near end of the power line and measure the current through the working ground using a clamp-on ammeter on all three phases. Close the grounding switch. Calculate the estimated open-line voltage after removal of the grounding cables as follows:

(1) or (2)

where is the estimated open-loop voltage in volts, is the highest measured current in amperes, is the constant of a typical overhead line per wire

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and

and

is the length of the line in km and miles respectively.

Caution: If the estimated open-line voltage is > 500 V, stop. The measurement is not possible due to high-voltage hazard. Try to take parallel lines out of service. 250500 V, the measurement is possible only in the 10 A range. 100250 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A or 20 A range. 50100 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A, 20 A or 50 A range. < 50 V, the measurement is possible in all current ranges.
7.

If the current range allowed by the estimated open-line-voltage is lower as the current range set according to Table 2: Recommended current range settings on page 7, set the current range switch of the CP CU1 to the value allowed by the open-line voltage.

Caution: During the grounding switch at the near end of the power line is open, the area around the CP GB1 in the range of 5 m/15 ft and around the CP CU1 in the range of 2 m/5 ft is a dangerous zone due to high-voltage and mechanical hazards. Do not enter the dangerous zone. Keep the grounding switch open for a time as short as possible.

Caution: If you see or hear anything uncommon in the test equipment, e.g. noise of electrical discharge or lightening of surge arrestors, close the grounding switch before touching the measurement setup. 2.3.3 Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power Lines If the estimated open-line voltage (see 2.3.2 Estimating the Open-Line Voltage on page 7) allows measurement in the current range you want to use, connect the measurement setup to an overhead line or a power cable leading from the substation under test as follows:
1. 2.

Make sure that the grounding switch at the near end is closed. Connect the CP GB1 to ground using the delivered cable near the place where the connection to the line is made. Make sure that the grounding stud is in good condition, clean and free of oxidation. Caution: Depending on the type of grounding points in the substation, the appropriate connection set and socket clamp have to be used. Connecting socket clamps of one type to a grounding point of another system is highly dangerous on both the connection of the grounding set to the CP GB1 and the connection of the CP GB1 to the grounding point in the substation. The 16 to 20 mm socket clamps are designed and tested for fault currents up to 26.5 kA, the 25 mm (1 inch) socket clamp for fault currents up to 30 kA, both for a maximum duration of 100 ms. On locations where higher fault currents are possible, the CP CU1 and the CP GB1 must not be used.

Disconnect the grounding cables from the ground (the grounding switch at the near end is closed!) and connect them to the CP GB1 line studs. 4. Position the CP CU1 at a minimum distance of 5 m/15 ft from the CP GB1.
3.

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Position the CPC 100 at a minimum distance of 5 m/15 ft from the CP CU1 and 10 m/30 ft from the CP GB1. 2 Ground the CP CU1 using a cable of at least 6 mm cross-section close to the CPC 100 and the position of the operator. Connect the CP CU1 with the CP GB1. 2 Ground the CPC 100 using a cable of at least 6 mm cross-section close to the position of the operator. Connect the CP CU1 with the CPC 100. Mark the area around the CP GB1 in the range of at least 5 m/15 ft and around the CP CU1 in the range of at least 2 m/5 ft as dangerous zone. Open the grounding switch and read the voltmeter on the CP CU1 front panel from outside of the dangerous zone.

Figure 2: Connecting the measurement setup below shows the measurement setup connected to an overhead line.

CPC 100

CP CU1

CP GB1

Figure 2: Connecting the measurement setup

Caution: If the voltmeters reading is

12.

> 500 V, stop. The measurement is not possible due to high-voltage hazard. 250500 V, the measurement is possible only in the 10 A range. 100250 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A or 20 A range. 50100 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A, 20 A or 50 A range. < 50 V, the measurement is possible in all current ranges.

If the open-line voltage allows measurement in a higher current range as already set on the CP CU1, set the current switch of the CP CU1 to the minimum of the current range set according to Table 2: Recommended current range settings on page 7 and the current range allowed by the open-line voltage. If the open-line voltage allows measurement, proceed as described in 2.5 Performing Measurements on page 10.

Caution: Make sure that the grounding switch is always closed when no measurement is performed and especially when the wiring is modified or the current range switch of the CP CU1 is set.

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2.4

Reduction Factor
Due to the inductance of the feed-in line, a considerable part of the current injected into the ground does not flow back through the ground but through the ground wire or the line shield. This current has to be subtracted from and, consequently, the ground impedance is given by

(3)

This effect is compensated by the reduction factor r as defined in the CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 standard. A field in the XML template allows setting the reduction factor between 0.01 and 1.00 (1.00 means no current compensation). However, the IEEE standards do not explicitly recommend using the current reduction factor in this way because it can considerably influence the overall results. For 110 kV overhead lines, the standard gives typical values of r = 0.98 for steel ground wires and down to 0.60 for steel/aluminum ground wires. For current feeding via power cables, the r factor can be as low as 0.01. The effect of the current can be eliminated by disconnecting the line shield or the ground wire of the feed-in line. If the disconnection is not possible, it is recommended to measure the current with a clamp-on ammeter and to calculate the reduction factor as

(4)

2.5

Performing Measurements
To measure step and touch voltages, a current is forced to flow into the ground, usually by connecting one pin of the CP CU1 current output to the ground system and the other pin to a remote grounding system far away from the system under test typically by using a shut-down overhead line or power cable. After then, the voltages arising in and around the test object are measured.

2.5.1

Measurement Principles If an object to be touched is in the range of 2 m around the test object, measure the touch voltage between two hand electrodes. If no object to be touched is in this range, measure the touch voltage between a hand and a foot electrode placed in a distance of 1 m from the test object (see Figure 3: Touch voltage Measurement on page 11). There are two ways to perform this measurement. In one approach the voltage measurement is done with the CPC 100 using the V1 AC input and the "Step & Touch Voltage" template. According to the other method, the CPC 100 and the CP CU1 are used just for current injection and the voltage in and around the substation is measured with the CP AL1 FFT voltmeter. In this case, the CPC 100 and the CP CU1 generate currents with a frequency 20 Hz below and 20 Hz above mains frequency in an endless loop, requiring no communication between the generating and measuring units. This method uses the "Step & Touch Voltage with CP AL1" template but you must enter the results into the Microsoft Excel worksheet manually. The big advantage of the latter method is that no wired connection between the generating and the measuring unit is needed, which is especially in large substations a crucial issue. Note: When using the CP AL1 for voltage measurement, it is a good idea to start generating current with the CPC 100 and the CP CU1 exactly at an even minute because of the following time scheme. During the first 20 seconds current is generated followed by a 100 seconds break to let the transformers and mains fuse cool down. Consequently, the generating sequence is restarted exactly at every even minute, which is helpful information on the measurement side. Note: Connect the electrodes to the CPC 100s V1 AC input using a twisted cable.

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to CPC 100 V1 AC input (use twisted cable)

Figure 3: Touch voltage Measurement

Note: The touch electrode shall have a pointed end to safely break through the coat of paint. According to the CENELEC HD 637 S1:199 standard, the foot electrode shall have a size of 400 2 cm . The electrode has to be pressed against ground with a force of at least 500 N (approx. 50 kg). The foot electrode shall have good contact with ground. On dry soil or concrete, place the foot electrode onto a wet fabric or the like. The OMICRON foot electrodes are water cans equipped with a standard conform electrode. Their empty weight for transportation is only about 6 kg while filled with water their weight is about 25 kg each. According to the test probe method defined in the IEEE 81.2-1991 standard, the voltage drop is measured close to objects in a distance of 1 m from the object using a 0.30.6 m (12 ft) long test probe (wholly driven into the soil) of 1216 mm (0.5 inch) diameter. If this voltage divided by a hypothetical human body resistance of 1 k stays under the critical body current limit described in 2.6.2 Measurement According to IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 on page 14 no further measurements are required. If the above criterion is not met, a higher resistance could be taken into account; it could be measured using the so-called footprint method. However, it seems to be possible to combine the two measurements and to directly measure the current over a 1 k resistance simulating the human body and two footprint electrodes according to the standard. The two electrodes shall have a surface 2 area of 200 cm each and a weight of at least 20 kg. They shall be placed 0.5 m from each other and 1 m in front of the test object. The soil under the electrodes shall be soaked with salty water to obtain worst-case conditions. Therefore, the CENELEC methods can be applied accordingly. For the measurements with a foot electrode, the CENELEC standard recommends to take into account additional resistances as shown in Figure 4: Measurement with foot electrode on page 12. The human body is to be represented by a resistance of 1 k switched in parallel to the voltage input during the measurement. In areas where people usually wear shoes, the shoe resistance can be simulated by an additional resistance of 1 k switched in series to the ground electrode. In areas such as public baths where no shoe wearing is expected, this additional resistance must not be used.

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Rbody

1 k

Rshoe

1 k

1m

Foot electrode

Figure 4: Measurement with foot electrode

The adapter for the CP AL1 allows switching in these resistors if applicable. Alternatively, use a ground rod driven at least 10 cm into the soil connected without additional resistances to get an overview of the touch potential. If the allowed touch voltage is not exceeded using this method, it can be expected that the footprint method will not yield results above the limits. For the step voltage measurement, use the foot electrodes of 200 cm each in a distance of 1 m from each other and measure the voltage between them.
2

2.5.2

Measurement Procedure The measurement procedure is controlled by templates available on the CPC Explorer CD-ROM shipped with the CP CU1 or in the customer area of the OMICRON electronics Web site. For detailed information on the templates and instructions how to use them, refer to the CP CU1 Reference Manual. Using the CPC 100 Sequencer test card, the test procedure runs without user interaction. After wiring the measurement setup to the power line, configure the CPC 100 as described in the CP CU1 Reference Manual for the CP CU1s current range set by the current range switch. Caution: The configured current range must not exceed the limit by the open-line voltage.

The further procedure depends on the measurement method (see 2.5.1 Measurement Principles on page 10). If you measure the voltage with the CP AL1 FFT voltmeter (recommended), use the "Step & Touch Voltage with CP AL1" templates and proceed as follows:
1. 2.

3.

4.

Choose the template for the mains frequency and the optimum current range (e.g. "Step & Touch Voltage with CP AL1 and CU1 20A 50Hz.xmt") and open the template. Start the test exactly at an even minute and check whether the current really flows without causing an overload. Lock the keyboard using the key on the front panel if you leave the device uncontrolled and make sure the dangerous zone around the CP CU1 and the CP GB1 is protected against passerby. Measure the step and touch voltages in around the station using the CP AL1 and write down (or type directly into the Microsoft Excel worksheet) the results for the frequencies 20 Hz below and 20 Hz above the mains frequency. To read out the amplitude, set the cursor of the CP AL1 to these frequencies manually. It is helpful to know that the generation starts always exactly at an even minute. Enter the results into the Microsoft Excel template. When entering the possible ground fault current of the station under test, the possible touch voltages are calculated.

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If you perform the measurement without the CP AL1 FFT voltmeter, use the "Step & Touch Voltage" templates and proceed as follows:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Choose the XML template for the mains frequency (e.g. "Touch Voltage CU1 60Hz.xmt" for the 60 Hz mains frequency) and open the template. Select the Enter Location Here card from the template. Select Save as Default to reuse this card later on. Place the test probes as described above. Start the test card for the current test point. Rename the test card with the name of the location. Add one Sequencer test card for every test point you want to measure. Proceed with step 6 as long as you want to measure more points. Save the test procedure as a file on the CPC 100. Note: It is recommended to save at most 15 test cards in one file. Download the test file(s) from the CPC 100 to the PC using CPC Explorer. Load the test file(s) into the Microsoft Excel "Touch Voltage" template. The touch voltage values for the entered fault current are calculated. Note: If there are more files, load one after another.

2.6
2.6.1

Interpretation of Measurement Results

Measurement According to VDE 0101/CENELEC HD 637 S1:1999 The touch voltage automatically calculated in the template is given by

(5) where is the touch voltage in volts is the measured voltage in volts is the grounding current of a worst case fault in the substation in amperes is the output current of the CP CU1 in amperes is the reduction factor The touch voltage (depending on the expected fault duration) is assessed as tolerable if the calculated value is below the limit given in Table 3: Allowed touch voltage vs. fault duration on page14. The value of the maximum fault duration can be entered under the assumption that the protection is working properly. If the resulting touch voltage is below the limit given in the table, the standard is met.

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Fault Duration tF in seconds 10 1.1 0.72 0.64 0.49 0.39 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.08 0.04
Table 3: Allowed touch voltage vs. fault duration

Allowed Touch Voltage VTp in volts 80 100 125 150 220 300 400 500 600 700 800

2.6.2

Measurement According to IEEE 80-2000, 81-1983 and 81.2-1991 The touch voltage automatically calculated in the template is given by

(6) where is the touch voltage in volts is the measured voltage in volts is the grounding current of a worst case fault in the substation in amperes is the output current of the CP CU1 in amperes is the reduction factor The assessment whether a touch voltage is permissible or not is a fairly complicated process. For relatively low touch voltages, simple formulas can be used to do the assessment. The equations below use the Dalziels formulas for the body current. The Biegelmeier's curve is more complex and therefore not used here. However, when the results approach the limits, it is a good idea to refer to the IEEE 80-2000 standard for details. Two formulas for the touch voltage limit depending on the body weight are given below. If the following criteria are met, no further calculations are required.

(7) for body weight of 50 kg (8) for body weight of 70 kg

and is the touch voltage limit in volts for body weight of 50 kg and 70 kg respectively is the maximum fault duration in seconds assuming the protection is operational.

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If one of the above limits is exceeded, the additional resistances of the soil can be taken into account in two ways. The first method calculates the touch voltage limits using the specific ground resistance and the factor of the protective surface layer, if applicable. The second method is based on the footprint resistance measurement.

To calculate the touch voltage limit, the specific ground resistance has either to be measured as described in the CPC 100 Reference Manual or found in the relevant literature. The touch voltage limit is given by (9) for body weight of 50 kg (10) for body weight of 70 kg where and is the touch voltage limit in volts for body weight of 50 kg and 70 kg respectively is the coating factor is the resistivity of the surface material in m is the duration of shock current in seconds For the coating factor , refer to the IEEE 80-2000 standard; protective surface layer is involved, . is affected by the coating, too. If no

Alternatively, the footprint resistance can be measured as follows. Two electrodes with a diameter of 16 cm each weighted with at least 20 kg each shall be used. They shall be placed 0.5 m from each other and 1 m in front of the test object. The soil under the electrodes shall be soaked with water and the electrodes shall have a conducting medium between each electrode and ground, such as conductive rubber pad, a sponge fastened to the foot electrode and wetted in a salt solution, or steel wool soldered to the metal disk to obtain worst-case conditions. Then a current is fed into ground (6A AC output using the Quick test card) and voltage, current and impedance Z are measured. The absolute value Z in can be used as in the formulas below.

(11) for body weight of 50 kg (12) for body weight of 70 kg where and is the touch voltage limit in volts for body weight of 50 kg and 70 kg respectively is the footprint resistance as measured above is the duration of shock current in seconds

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OMICRON is an international company serving the electrical power industry with innovative testing and diagnostic solutions. The application of OMICRON products provides users with the highest level of confidence in the condition assessment of primary and secondary equipment on their systems. Services offered in the area of consulting, commissioning, testing, diagnosis, and training make the product range complete. Customers in more than 130 countries rely on the company's ability to supply leading edge technology of excellent quality. Broad application knowledge and extraordinary customer support provided by offices in North America, Europe, South and East Asia, and the Middle East, together with a worldwide network of distributors and representatives, make the company a market leader in its sector.

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