THE

ARGUMENTATIVE
INDIAN
f

WRITINGS ON INDIAN
HISTORY, CULTURE
AND IDENTITY


AMARTYA SEN
WINNER OF THE NOBEL PRIZ. E IN ECONOMICS
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
WRITINGS ON
INDIAN HISTORY,
CULTURE AND IDENTITY
AMARTYA SEN
FARRAR, S TRAU S AND GIROUX NEW YORK
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
Choice of Techniques
Collective Choice and Social Welfare
On Economic Inequality
Poverty and Famines
ChoiceJ Welfare and Measurement
ResourcesJ Values and Development
Commodities and Capabilities
On Ethics and Economics
Inequality Reexamined
Development as Freedom
Rationality and Freedom
The Argumentative Indian
Farrar Straus and Giroux
I9 Union Square West, New York Iooo3
Copyright 2005 by Amartya Sen
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Originally published in 200 5 by Penguin Books Ltd., Great Britain
Published in the United States by Farrar, Straus and Giroux
First American edition, 2 o o 5
Earlier versions of some of the essays in this book have appeared in the following
publications: The New York Review of Books, Essays 5, 8, I3 ; as Our Culture, Their
Culture (Calcutta: Nandan, I996), Essay 6 (abridged earlier version}; The New
Republic, Essays 6 (abridged earlier version), I2; Daedalus, Essay 7; Financial Times,
Essay 9; Kaushik Basu and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Unravelling the Nation:
Sectarian Confict and India's Secular Identity (Delhi: Penguin, I996}, Essay I4; Little
Magazine, Essay I 5.
The publishers are grateful for permission to reproduce the following illustrations:
Tagore and Gandhi at Santiniketan, Akg-Images; 'Xuanzang [Hiuan-tsang] return
ing to China with Sanskrit manuscripts from India in 645 AD', Fujita Museum of
Art, Osaka; 'rjuna hits the target', British Library, London.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sen, Amartya.
The argumentative Indian : writings on Indian history, culture and identity I by
Amartya Sen.- Ist American ed.
p. em.
Includes index.
ISBN-I3: 978-o-3 74-I0583-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-Io: o-374-I0583-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
I. India-Civilization. I. Title.
DS423 .S33 8 200 5
954-dc22
www.fsgbooks. com
3 5 7 9 IO 8 6 4 2
2005049460
To my sister Supurna Datta
Contents
Preface
Diacritical Notation for Sanskrit Words
PART ONE
Voice and Heterodoxy
I. The Argumentative Indian
2. Inequality, Instability and Voice
3
. India: Large and Small
4
The Diaspora and the World
PART TWO
Culture and Communication
5 . Tagore and His India
6. Our Culture, Their Culture
17
717
3
34
45
73
I2I
7 Indian Traditions and the Western Imagination I
39
8. China and India I 6 I
PART THREE
Politics and Protest
9 Tryst with Destiny
Io. Class in India
Y
I93
204
CONTENTS
II. Women and Men 220
I2. India and the Bomb 25 1
PART FOUR
Reason and Identity
.IJ.
The Reach of Reason 273
I4. Secularism and Its Discontents 294
r
s
.
India through Its Calendars 3 17
I6. The Indian Identity 3 34
Notes 3 57
Index of Names
393
General Index 401
Vlll
Preface
These essays on India were written over the last decade - about half
of them over the last couple of years. The frst four, which make up
the frst part of the collection, introduce and explain the principal
themes pursued in this book, related to India's long argumentative
tradition.
India is an immensely diverse country with many distinct pursuits,
vastly disparate convictions, widely divergent customs and a veritable
feast of viewpoints. Any attempt to talk about the culture of the coun
try, or about its past history or contemporary politics, must
inescapably involve considerable selection. I need not, therefore,
labour the point that the focus on the argumentative tradition in this
work is also a result of choice. It does not refect a belief that this is
the only reasonable way of thinking about the history or culture or
politics of India. I am very aware that there are other ways of
proceeding.
The selection of focus here is mainly for three distinct reasons: the
long history of the argumentative tradition in India, its contemporary
relevance, and its relative neglect in ongoing cultural discussions. It
can in addition be claimed that the simultaneous fourishing of many
different convictions and viewpoints in India has drawn substantially
on the acceptance - explicitly or by implication - of heterodoxy and
dialogue. The reach of Indian heterodoxy is remarkably extensive and
ubiquitous.
Consider the politically charged issue of the role of so-called
'ancient India' in understanding the India of today. In contemporary
politics, the enthusiasm for ancient India has often come from the
Hindutva movement - the promoters of a narrowly Hindu view of
IX
PREFACE
Indian civilization - who have tried to separate out the period pre
ceding the Muslim conquest of India (from the third millennium BCE
to the beginning of the second millennium CE). In contrast, those who
take an integrationist approach to contemporary India have tended
to view the harking back to ancient India with the greatest of suspi
cion. For example, the Hindutva activists like invoking the holy
Vedas, composed in the second millennium BCE, to defne India's 'real
heritage' . They are also keen on summoning the Ramaya1a, the great
epic, for many different purposes, from delineating Hindu beliefs and
convictions to fnding alleged j ustifcation for the forcible demolition
of a mosque - the Babri masj id - that is situated at the very spot
where the ' divine' Rama, it is claimed, was born. The integrationists,
by contrast, have tended to see the Vedas and the Ramaya1a as
unwelcome intrusions of some specifc Hindu beliefs into the con
temporary life of secular India.
The integrationists are not wrong to question the factional nature
of the choice of 'Hindu classics' over other products of India's long
and diverse history. They are also right to point to the counterpro
ductive role that such partisan selection can play in the secular, multi
religious life of today's India. Even though more than 8o per cent of
Indians may be Hindu, the country has a very large Muslim popula
tion (the third largest among all the countries in the world - larger
than the entire British and French populations put together) , and a
great many followers of other faiths: Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Parsees
and others.
However, even after noting the need for integration and for a multi
cultural perspective, it has to be accepted that these old books and
narratives have had an enormous infuence on Indian literature and
thought. They have deeply influenced literary and philosophical
writings on the one hand, and folk traditions of storytelling and crit
ical dialectics on the other. The difficulty does not lie in the impor
tance of the Vedas or the Ramaya1a, but in the understanding of their
role in Indian culture. When the Muslim Pathan rulers of Bengal
arranged for making good Bengali translations of the Sanskrit
Mahabharata and Ramaya1a in the fourteenth century ( on which see
Essay 3 ), their enthusiasm for the ancient Indian epics reflected their
X
PREFACE
love of culture, rather than any conversion to Hinduism. , It would be
as difficult to ignore their general importance in Indian culture ( on
some allegedly 'secular' ground) as it would be to insist on viewing
them through the narrow prism of a particularly raw version of Hindu
religiosity.
The Vedas may be full of hymns and religious invocations, but they
also tell stories, speculate about the world and - true to the argumen
tative propensity already in view - ask difficult questions. A basic
doubt concerns the very creation of the world: did someone make it,
was it a spontaneous emergence, and is there a God who knows what
really happened? As is discussed in Essay I, the Rigveda goes on to
express radical doubts on these issues: 'Who really knows? Who will
here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
. . . perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not - the one who looks
down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows - or perhaps he does
not know.' These doubts from the second millennium BCE would recur
again and again in India's long argumentative history, along with a
great many other questions about epistemology and ethics ( as is dis
cussed in Essay I) . They survive side by side with intense religious
beliefs and deeply respectful faith and devotion.
Similarly, the adherents of Hindu politics - especially those who are
given to vandalizing places of worship of other religions - may take
Rama to be divine, but in much of the Ramaya1a, Rama is treated pri
marily as a hero - a great 'epic hero' - with many good qualities and
some weaknesses, including a tendency to harbour suspicions about
his wife Sita's faithfulness. A pundit who gets considerable space in
the Ramaya1a, called Javali, not only does not treat Rama as God, he
calls his actions 'foolish' ( 'especially for' , as Jivali puts it, 'an intelli
gent and wise man' ) . Before he is persuaded to withdraw his allega
tions, Javali gets time enough in the Ramaya1a to explain in detail
*As is also discussed in Essay 3 , the frst translation of the Upaniads - the most
philosophical part of the Vedic Hindu literature - that caught the attention of
European intellectuals was the Persian translation produced in the seventeenth century
by the Moghal prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son (and legitimate heir) of Emperor
Shah Jahan and of Mumtaz Mahal (the beautiful queen on whose tomb the Taj Mahal
would be built). Dara was killed by his more sectarian brother, Aurangzeb, to seize the
Moghal throne.
XI
PREFACE
that 'there is no after-world, nor any religious practice for attaining
that', and that 'the injunctions about the worship of gods, sacrifce,
gifts and penance have been laid down in the sastras [scriptures] by
clever people, j ust to rule over [other] people. ' : The problem with
invoking the Ramaya1a to propagate a reductionist account of Hindu
religiosity lies in the way the epic is deployed for this purpose - as a
document of supernatural veracity, rather than as 'a marvellous para
ble' ( as Rabindranath Tagore describes it) and a widely enjoyed part
of India's cultural heritage.
The roots of scepticism in India go back a long way, and it would be
hard to understand the history of Indian culture if scepticism were to
be j ettisoned. Indeed, the resilient reach of the tradition of dialectics
can be felt throughout Indian history, even as conficts and wars have
led to much violence. Given the simultaneous presence of dialogic
encounters and bloody battles in India's past, the tendency to concen-,
trate only on the latter would miss something of real signifcance.
It is indeed important to understand the long tradition of accepted
heterodoxy in India. In resisting the attempts by the Hindutva activ
ists to capture ancient India as their home ground ( and to see it as the
unique cradle of Indian civilization) , it is not enough to point out that
India has many other sources of culture as well. It is necessary also to
see how much heterodoxy there has been in Indian thoughts and be
liefs from very early days. Not only did Buddhists, Jains, agnostics and
atheists compete with each other and with adherents of what we now
call Hinduism (a much later term) in the India of the frst millennium
BCE, but also the dominant religion in India was Buddhism for nearly
a thousand years. The Chinese in the frst millennium CE standardly
referred to India as 'the Buddhist kingdom' (the far-reaching effects
of the Buddhist connections between the two largest countries in the
world are discussed in Essay 8 ). Ancient India cannot be ftted into the
narrow box where the Hindutva activists want to incarcerate it.
It was indeed a Buddhist emperor of India, Ashoka, who, in the
third century BCE, not only outlined the need for toleration and the
richness of heterodoxy, but also laid down what are perhaps the old
est rules for conducting debates and disputations, with the opponents
*See Essays I and 3 for fuller discussions of these and other examples of ancient
scepticism and dialogic combats.
xu
PREFACE
being 'duly honoured in every way on all occasions' . That political
principle fgures a great deal in later discussions in India, but the most
powerful defence of toleration and of the need for the state to be equi
distant from different religions came from a Muslim Indian emperor,
Akbar. This was of course much later, but those principles of religious
toleration, enunciated in the 1 590s, were still early enough at a time
when the Inquisition was in full swing in Europe.
The contemporary relevance of the dialogic tradition and of the
acceptance of heterodoxy is hard to exaggerate. Discussions and argu
ments are critically important for democracy and public reasoning.
They are central to the practice of secularism and for even-handed
treatment of adherents of different religious faiths (including those
who have no religious beliefs) . Going beyond these basic structural
priorities, the argumentative tradition, if used with deliberation and
commitment, can also be extremely important in resisting social
inequalities and in removing poverty and deprivation. Voice is a cru
cial component of the pursuit of social justice.
It is sometimes asserted that the use of dialectics is largely confned
to the more affluent and more literate, and is thus of no value to the
common people. The elitism that is rampant in such a belief is not
only extraordinary, it is made more exasperating through the political
cynicism and impassivity it tends to encourage. The critical voice is
the traditional ally of the aggrieved, and participation in arguments is
a general opportunity, not a particularly specialized skill (like com
posing sonnets or performing trapeze acts) .
Just before the Indian general elections in the spring of 2004, when
I visited a Bengali village not far from my own home, I was told by a
villager, who was barely literate and certainly very poor: 'It is not very
hard to silence us, but that is not because we cannot speak. ' Indeed,
even though the recording and preservation of arguments tend to be
biased in the direction of the articulations of the powerful and the well
schooled, many of the most interesting accounts of arguments from
the past involve members of disadvantaged groups (as is discussed in
Essays r and 2) .
The nature and strength of the dialogic tradition in India is some
times ignored because of the much championed belief that India is the
land of religions, the country of uncritical faiths and unquestioned
Xlll
PREFACE
practices. Some cultural theorists, allegedly 'highly sympathetic', are
particularly keen on showing the strength of the faith-based and unrea
soning culture of India and the East, in contrast with the 'shallow
rationalism' and scientifc priorities of the West. This line of argument
may well be inspired by sympathy, but it can end up suppressing large
parts of India's intellectual heritage. In this pre-selected 'East-West'
contrast, meetings are organized, as it were, between Aristotle and
Euclid on the one hand, and wise and contented Indian peasants on
the other. This is not, of course, an uninteresting exercise, but it is not
pre-eminently a better way of understanding the 'East-West' cultural
contrast than by arranging meetings between, say, Aryabhata (the
mathematician) and Kaurilya ( the political economist) on the one
hand, and happily determined Visigoths on the other. If the immediate
motivation for this book is social and political understanding in India,
it has, I believe, some relevance also for the way the classifcation of the
cultures of the world has become cementedinto a shape that pays little
or no attention to a great deal of our past and present. :}
The four essays in Part I outline the nature, reach and relevance of
the argumentative tradition in India. This includes, as is particularly
discussed in Essays I and 2, the part that pluralism and the dialogic
tradition play in supporting democracy, secularism and the pursuit of
mathematics and science, and the use that can be made of dialectics in
seeking social j ustice, against the barriers of class, caste, community
and gender. Essay 3 discusses the relevance of a capacious under
standing of a large and heterodox India, contrasted with the drasti
cally downsized view of the country that appeals to some religious
activists, who combine it with a severely miniaturized understanding
of Hinduism. t These discussions have relevance, as is discussed in
Essay 4, for the way Indian identity can be understood, and the diag
nostic issues are relevant not only for Indians in India but also for the
large ( at least 20 million strong) Indian diaspora across the world.
*I was impressed to fnd, on arriving at Harvard in the late r9 8os, that all books on
India in the bookshop of the famous 'Harvard Coop' were kept in the section called
'Religions' .
tin my Foreword to the reissue of my grandfather K. M. Sen's book on Hinduism
(London: Penguin Books, 2005) , I discuss the different ways in which that capacious
religion can be seen.
XIV
PREFACE
The essays in Part II deal with the role of communication in the
development and understanding of cultures. The discussions in Essays
5 and 6 try to follow and to develop the insights on this subj ect that
emerge from the works of the visionary poet and writer Rabindranath
Tagore and the great flm director Satyajit Ray. The emergence of dif
ferent versions of 'imagined India' in Western perceptions is investi
gated in Essay 7, along with the impact that these misconceptions, in
turn, have had on the way Indians have tended to see themselves in the
colonial or post-colonial period. Essay 8 is devoted to examining the
close and extensive intellectual relations ( covering science, mathemat
ics, engineering, literature, music, and public health care and admin
istration) that China and India had - along with religion and trade -
for a thousand years, beginning in the early part of the frst millen
nium, and the lessons that emerge from all this for contemporary
China and India.
Part III is concerned with the politics of deprivation (poverty, class
and caste divisions, gender inequality) and with the precariousness of
human security in the subcontinent as a result of the development of
nuclear weapons in India and Pakistan. Essays 9-1 2 investigate what
has happened and is happening right now, and what issues can appro
priately be taken up for critical examination.
The role of reasoning in the identity of Indians is the subj ect mat
ter of the last part of the book, which begins with an essay on the
reach of reasoning, including a rejection of the often-aired claim that
analytical reasoning and critique are quintessentially 'Western' or
'European' traditions. The contribution that reasoned assessment can
make to the troubled world in which we live is also examined. Essay
14 subjects the debates on secularism to critical scrutiny, which has
implications for the way Indians can see themselves in a multi
religious and multicultural India. India's multicultural history is
wonderfully reflected in the profusion of the well-designed and
well-developed calendars that exist, each with a long history. This is
the subj ect matter of Essay r 5 . That essay also discusses how these
calendrical variations have allowed agreement on a 'principal merid
ian' for India - fxed at Ujj ain - from the ffth century CE onwards,
which still serves as the basis of 'Indian standard time' - an odd fve
and a half hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (though it was fxed
XV
PREFACE
rather earlier than the GMT was born) . The fnal essay is based on the
Dorab Tata Lectures I gave in 2ooi, on the Indian identity, and it
returns briefy to the very general issues taken up at the beginning of
the book.
I have benefited from the comments and suggestions of many
friends and colleagues, and their contributions are acknowledged
individually in some of the essays. For the book as a whole, I have also
greatly benefted from many helpful suggestions from Sugata Bose,
Antara Dev Sen, Jean Dreze, Ayesha Jalal, Martha Nussbaum, V. K.
Ramachandran, Kumar Rana and Emma Rothschild. In addition I
would like to thank, for advice and comments, Montek Singh
Ahluwalia, Sudhir Anand, Pranab Bardhan, Kaushik Basu, Homi
Bhabha, Akeel Bilgrami, Gayatri Chakravarti Spivak, Nimai
Chatterj i, Deependranath Datta, Supurna Datta, Meghnad Desai,
Nabaneeta Dev Sen, Krishna Dutta, Nathan Glazer, Sulochana
Glazer, Craig Jamieson, Armando Massarenti, Patricia Mirrlees,
Pranati Mukhopadhyaya, Siddiq Osmani, Mozaffar Qizilbash,
Anisur Rahman, Andrew Robinson, Indrani Sen, Arjun Sengupta,
Jagdish Sharma, Robert Silvers, Rehman Sobhan, Leon Wieseltier and
Nur Yalman. I must also record my appreciation of the in

piration
provided by the analyses of parts of the corpus of Sanskrit literature
by Sukumari Bhattacharji and the late Bimal Matilal.
I would also like to express my appreciation of the general guidance
I have received from discussions on the structure and content of the
book with my editor, Stuart Proffitt, at Penguin. He has also made a
number of important suggestions on individual articles. I would also
like to acknowledge gratefully the extremely helpful copy-editing
done by Elizabeth Stratford. For excellent research assistance I am
much indebted to Rosie Vaughan at the Centre for History and
Economics in Cambridge. Finally, I am grateful for the j oint support
from the Ford Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation and the
Mellon Foundation in meeting some of the material costs of my
research on this and related subjects.
I end with three fnal remarks. First, since this is a collection of
essays ( eight new ones and eight previously published) , there are some
overlaps between them, particularly involving empirical illustrations
(though they often illustrate different points) . I have eliminated some
XVI
PREFACE
overlaps, but others could not be dropped without making the indi
vidual essays incoherent or obscure. I have tried to give cross
references when they could help. Immediately relevant references are
given in the footnotes; other citations are in the Notes at the end of
the book.
Second, even though I have had to use diacritical marks for the
English spelling of Sanskrit words, I have invoked them in extreme
moderation ( see the explanations on pp. xix-xx) . I have used none for
some Sanskrit words and names that are by now commonly used in
English, such as Raj a, Rani, Rama, Krishna, Ashoka, Brahmin, Vedas,
Vedantic or Tantric, not to mention the word Sanskrit itself.
The fnal remark concerns the style of writing. The book aims to
be, at one level, an academic study done by a detached observer, but
at another level I am caught within the domain of my subj ect matter.
As an involved Indian citizen, who is very concerned with Indian cul
ture, history and politics - and also with general life in India - it is
hard for me to refer to Indians as 'they' rather than 'we' . So, 'we' it
has been, not the distant 'they'. Further, given my sense of subconti
nental identity, particularly with Bangladesh (from where my family
comes) , the domain of personal affiliation has sometimes been wider
than that of India alone. I need not apologize for this, but the reader
is entitled to an explanation of my departure from academic imper
sonality.
XVll
AMARTYA SEN
IJ August 2004
Diacritical Notation for
Sanskrit Words
!ongcr vovcls havc bccn dcnorcd bya baronrop. a asinfather, 1 as
in police, and u as in rule. Kcgarding sibilanrs, s srands Ior rhc un-
aspirarc, as in sun, vhcrcas rhc corrcsponding aspirarc sound is
shovn as ' as in shun, and rhc srrongly palaral s as , as in shanti
achicvcdrhroughplacingonc`sronguc onrhc uppcrpalarcj .
KcrroHcx consonanrs i nrhc so-callcd 'r group` havc bccn shovn
virh a dor bclov, such as, h,q,h and 1, in conrrasrvirhdcnralr,
rh, d, dh and n, vhich arc uncncumbcrcd. 1har disrincrion, vhich is
nor caprurcd vcll in Lnglish bur is guirc crirical in Sanskrir, can bc
illusrrarcd virh rhc diIIcrcncc bcrvccn rhc rcrroHcxt in tiny and rhc
!ralian-inspircd dcnral r in pasta. 1hc unaspirarcd ch as in China in
Lnglishis shovn, in linc virh rhc srandard diacrirical convcnrion, by
rhcunadorncdc, asin!ralianpronunciarionvhcncis Iollovcdbyan
coran i c. g. cento) , virhirs aspirarcvariarionbcingshovnvirhch.
!havccschcvcdsomcoIrhcorh

r disrincrions, shovingIorcxam-
plcrhcSanskrir scmivovclrhi simplyasri, asinRigveda rarhcrrhan
rhc morc ausrcrc rcndcringinrhcIorm oI gveda) . 1hc nasalizarion
symbols uscdhcrcarc. rhcgurrural n asinanga) , rhcpalarali as in
jiana) , rhc rcrroHcx1 as in vana) , rhc dcnraln as in nava) andrhc
labialm as inmantra) . 1hc somcvhar varying usc oIrhc nasalizing
anusvara isdcnorcdbyr, asinahirsa.
As is cxplaincd in rhc !rcIacc, ! havc virhhcld diacrirical marks
alrogcrhcr Ior rhosc Sanskrir vords or namcs vhich havc bccomc
Iamiliar cxprcssions in Lnglish, suchas Kaj a, Kani, Kama, Krishna,
Ashoka, Aryan, rahmin, 1anrric, Vcdanric or Ior rhar marrcrj
Sanskrir.
717
DIACRITICAL NOTATION FOR SANSKRIT WORDS
All rhis involvcs somc shorrcurs, bur rhc long rourc vould havc
bccn unduly prorracrcd Ior a book rhar is aimcd ar conrriburing ro
public discussion. Also, diacrirical marks arc rcscrvcd Ior Sanskrir
vords only,and!havcnoruscd rhcm ar allIorvords in rhcmodcrn
!ndianlanguagcs,suchasIindiorcngali.
77
PART ONE
Voice and Heterodoxy
I
The Argumentative Indian
!rolixiryisnor alicnrousin!ndia.Vcarcablcroralkarsomc lcngrh.
Krishna Ncnon`s rccord oIrhc longcsr spccch cvcr dclivcrcd ar rhc
\nircdarions ninc hoursnon-sropj , csrablishcdhalIa ccnruryago
vhcn Ncnon vas lcading rhc !ndian dclcgarionj , has nor bccn
cguallcd by anyonc Irom anyvhcrc. rhcr pcaks oI loguaciousncss
havc bccnscalcd byorhcr!ndians.Vc dolikcrospcak.
1hisis nora ncvhabir.1hc ancicnr SanskrircpicsrhcRmaya1a
andrhcMahabharata, vhich arc Ircgucnrly comparcdvirh rhc Iliad
andrhcOdyssey, arccolossallylongcrrhanrhcvorksrharrhcmodcsr
Iomcrcouldmanagc. !ndccd,rhcMahabharata aloncis abourscvcn
rimcs as long as rhc Iliad and rhc Odyssey pur rogcrhcr. 1hc
Ramaya1a andrhcMahabharata arcccrrainlygrcarcpics.!rccallvirh
much j oy hov my ovn liIc vas vasrly cnrichcd vhcn ! cncounrcrcd
rhcmhrsrasarcsrlcssyoungsrcrlookingIorinrcllccrualsrimularionas
vcll as shccr cnrcrrainmcnr. urrhcyprocccdIromsrorics ro srorics
vovcn around rhcir principal ralcs, and arc cngagingly Iull oI
dialogucs, dilcmmas and alrcrnarivc pcrspccrivcs. And vc cncounrcr
masscs oI argumcnrs and counrcrargumcnrs sprcad ovcr inccssanr
dcbarcsand dispurarions.
Dialogue and Signifcance
1hcargumcnrsarcalso,oIrcncnough,guircsubsranrivc.!orcxamplc,
rhc Iamous Bhagavad Gita, vhich is onc small sccrion oI rhc
Mahabharata, prcscnrsarusslcbcrvccnrvoconrrarymoralposirions
- Krishna`s cmphasis on doing onc`s dury, on onc sidc, and Arjuna`s
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Iocus on avoiding bad conscgucnccs andgcncraring good oncsj , on
rhc orhcr. 1hc dcbarc occurs on rhc cvc oI rhc grcar var rhar is a
ccnrral cvcnr inrhc Mahabharata. Varching rhcrvo armics rcadying
Iorvar,proIounddoubrs abourrhccorrccrncssoIvharrhcyarcdoing
arc raiscd byArjuna,rhc pccrlcss andinvinciblcvarrior in rhc army
oIrhcj usrandhonourablcroyalIamilyrhc !apqavasj vhoarcabour
rohghrrhcunjusrusurpcrsrhcKauravasj . Arjunagucsrionsvhcrhcr
irisrighrrobcconccrncdonlyvirhonc`sduryropromorcaj usrcausc
and bcindiIIcrcnrrorhcmiscryandrhcslaughrcr - cvcnoIonc`skin
- rhar rhc var irsclI vould undoubrcdly causc. Krishna, a divinc
incarnarioninrhcIorm oIahumanbcing inIacr,hcis alsoArjuna`s
chariorccrj , argucs againsr Arj una. Iis rcsponsc rakcs rhc Iorm oI
arricularingprinciplcsoIacrion - bascdonrhcprioriryoIdoingonc`s
dury - vhich havc bccn rcpcarcd again and again in !ndianphiloso-
phy.KrishnainsisrsonArjuna`sduryrohghr,irrcspccrivcoIhis cval-
uarionoIrhcconscgucnccs.!ris aj usrcausc, and, asavarrioranda
gcncral on vhom his sidc musr rcly, Arjuna cannor vavcr Irom his
obligarions,nomarrcrvharrhcconscgucnccsarc.
Krishna`s hallovingoIrhc dcmands oIduryvins rhc argumcnr, ar
lcasr as sccn in rhc rcligious pcrspccrivc. !ndccd, Krishna`s convcr-
sarions virh Arjuna, rhc Bhagavad Gtta, bccamc a rrcarisc oIgrcar
rhcological imporranccinIinduphilosophy, Iocusingparricularlyon
rhc 'rcmoval` oIArjuna`s doubrs. Krishna`s moral posirion has also
bccn clogucnrly cndorscd by many philosophical and lircrary com-
mcnrarors acrossrhcvorld, suchasChrisrophcr!shcrvoodand1.S.
Llior. !shcrvood inIacr rranslarcdrhc Bhagavad Gita inro Lnglish. '
1hisadmirarionIorrhc Gita, andIorKrishna`sargumcnrsi nparricu-
lar, has bccn a lasring phcnomcnon in parrs oI Luropcan culrurc. !r
vasspccracularlypraiscdinrhc carlynincrccnrhccnrurybyVilhclm
von Iumboldr as 'rhc mosr bcauriIul, pcrhaps rhc only rruc philo-
sophical song cxisring in any knovn ronguc` . ` !n a pocm in Four
Quartets, IliorsummarizcsKrishna`svicvinrhcIormoIanadmon-
ishmcnr.'AnddonorrhinkoIrhcIruiroIacrion.I !arcIorvard. ` Llior
- - ---
- - - .
cxplains. 'or Iarc vcll, / urIarcIorvard,yyag,
And ycr, as a dc

arc in
_
r

;; rvo rcaso

ablc sidcs, rhc

cpic Mahabharata irsclI prcscnrs, scgucnrially, cach oI rhc rvo con-
rrary argumcnrs virh much carc and symparhy. ' !ndccd, rhc rragic
4
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
dcsolarion rhar rhc posr-combar and posr-carnagc land - largcly rhc
!ndo Gangcric plain - sccms ro Iacc rovards rhc cnd oI rhc
Mahabharata can cvcn bc sccn as somcrhing oI a vindicarion oI
Arjuna`sproIounddoubrs.Arjuna`sconrraryargumcnrsarcnorrcally
vanguishcd, no marrcr vhar rhc 'mcssagc` oIrhc Bhagavad Gzta is
mcanrro bc.1hcrcrcmains apovcrIul cascIor'Iaringvcll` , andnor
jusr'Iorvard` . '
|.Kobcrrppcnhcimcr,rhclcadcroIrhcAmcricanrcamrhardcvcl-
opcd rhc ulrimarc 'vcapon oI mass dcsrrucrion` during rhc Sccond
VorldVar,vasmovcdroguorcKrishna`svords '!ambccomcdcarh,
rhc dcsrroycr oI vorlds` j as hc varchcd, on t 6|uly tpq , rhc avc-
somc Iorcc oI rhc hrsr nuclcar cxplosion dcviscd by man.
6
!ikc rhc
advicc rhar Arjuna had rcccivcd abourhis dury as a varrior hghring
Ior a j usr causc, ppcnhcimcr rhc physicisr could vcll hndj usrihca-
rion in his rcchnical commirmcnr ro dcvclop a bomb Ior vhar vas
clcarly rhc righr sidc. Scrurinizing - indccd criricizing - his ovn
acrions, ppcnhcimcr said larcr on. 'Vhcn you scc somcrhingrharis
rcchnically svccr, you go ahcadand do ir and you arguc abourvhar
ro do abour ir only aIrcr you havc had your rcchnical succcss.
cspirc rhar compulsion ro 'Iarc Iorvard` , rhcrc vas rcason also Ior
rcHccring on Arjuna`s conccrns. Iovcangoodcomc Irom killing so
many pcoplc! Andvhy should ! scck vicrory, kingdomorhappincss
Iormyovnsidc!
1hcsc argumcnrs rcmain rhoroughly rclcvanr in rhc conrcmporary
vorld.1hccascIordoingvharoncsccsas onc`sdurymusrbcsrrong,
bur hov can vc bc indiIIcrcnr ro rhc conscgucnccs rhar may Iollov
Iromourdoingvharvcrakcro bcourj usrdury!AsvcrcIccronrhc
maniIcsrproblcms oIourglobalvorld Iromrcrrorism,varsandvio-
lcnccrocpidcmics,insccuriryandgrucllingpovcrryj , oron!ndia`sspc-
cial conccrns such as cconomic dcvclopmcnr, nuclcarconIronrarion
or rcgional pcaccj , ir is imporranr ro rakc on board Arjuna`s consc-
''As a high-school student, when I asked my Sanskrit teacher whether it would be
permissible to say that the divine Krishna got away with an incomplete and uncon
vincing argument, he replied: 'Maybe you could say that, but you must say it with ade
quate respect.' I have presented elsewhere a critique - I hope with adequate respect -
of Krishna's deontology, along with a defence of Arjuna's consequential perspective, in
'Consequential Evaluation and Practical Reason',]ournal of Philosophy 97 (Sept. 2ooo).
5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
gucnrial analysis, inaddirion ro considcring Krishna`s argumcnrs Ior
doingonc`s dury. 1hcunivocal 'mcssagcoIrhc Gzta' rcguircs supplc-
mcnrarionbyrhcbroadcrargumcnrarivcvisdomoIrhcMahabharata,
oIvhichrhc Gzta isonly oncsmallparr.
1hcrc vill bc an opporruniry in rhis cssay, and in rhc orhcrs ro
Iollov, rocxamincrhc rcach and signihcancc oImanyoIrhc dcbarcs
and alrcrcarions rhar havc hgurcd promincnrly in rhc !ndian argu-
mcnrarivcrradirion.VchavcrorakcnorcnoronlyoIrhcopinionsrhar
von- orallcgcdlyvon- in rhc dcbarcs, bur also oIrhc orhcr poinrs
oI vicv rhar vcrc prcscnrcd and arc rccordcd or rcmcmbcrcd. A
dcIcarcdargumcnrrharrcIuscsrobcoblircrarcdcanrcmainvcryalivc.
Gender Caste and Voice
1hcrc is, hovcvcr, a scrious gucsrion ro bc askcd as ro vhcrhcr rhc
rradirion oI argumcnrs and dispurarions has bccn conIincd ro an
cxclusivcparroIrhc!ndianpopularion - pcrhapsj usrrorhcmcmbcrs
oIrhcmalcclirc.!rvould, oIcoursc,bchardrocxpccrrharargumcn-
rarional parriciparion vould bc uniIormly disrriburcd ovcr all scg-
mcnrsoIrhcpopularion,bur!ndiahashaddccpincgualiricsalongrhc
lincsoIgcndcr,class,casrcandcommuniry onvhichmorcprcscnrlyj .
1hc:ocialrclcvanccoIrhcargumcnrarivcrradirionvouldbcscvcrcly
limircdiIdisadvanragcdsccrionsvcrccIIccrivclybarrcdIromparrici-
parion. 1hcsroryhcrcis,hovcvcr,muchmorccomplcxrhanasimplc
gcncralizarion cancaprurc.
!bcginvirhgcndcr.1hcrccanbclirrlcdoubrrharmcnhavcrcndcd,
by and largc, ro rulc rhc roosr in argumcnrarivc movcs in !ndia. ur
dcspirc rhar, rhc parriciparion oIvomcn in borhpolirical lcadcrship
andinrcllccrualpursuirshasnorbccnarallncgligiblc.1hisisobvious
cnoughroday, parricularlyinpolirics. !ndccd,manyoIrhc dominanr
poliricalparrics in!ndia- narional asvcllasrcgional- arccurrcnrly
lcd by vomcn and havc bccn so lcd in rhc pasr. ur cvcn in rhc
narional movcmcnr Ior !ndian indcpcndcncc, lcd by rhc Congrcss
!arry, rhcrcvcrcmanymorcvomcninposirionsoIimporranccrhan
inrhc Kussianand Chincsc rcvolurionarymovcmcnrs purrogcrhcr. I
is also pcrhaps vorrh noring rhar Sarojini aidu, rhc hrsr voman
6
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!rcsidcnr oIrhc !ndian arional Congrcss,vas clccrcdin tpz , hIry
ycars carlicr rhan rhc clccrion oI rhc hrsr voman lcadcr oI a major
rirish polirical parry Nargarcr 1harchcr in tp;j . ' 1hc sccond
vomanhcad oIrhc !ndianarional Congrcss, cllic Scngupra,vas
clccrcdin tpj j .
Larlicrorlarcr,rhcscdcvclopmcnrsarcproducrsoIrclarivclyrcccnr
rimcs. urvhar abour rhc disranr pasr! Vomcn`s rradirional rolc in
dcbarcsanddiscussionshas ccrrainlybccnmuchlcsspronounccdrhan
rhar oImcn in !ndia as vould also bcrruc oI mosr counrrics in rhc
vorldj . ur ir vould bc a misrakc ro rhink rhar vocal lcadcrship by
vomcn is complcrcly ouroIlincvirh anyrhingrharhas happcncdin
!ndia`spasr. !ndccd, cvcn iIvc go back all rhc vayro ancicnr !ndia,
somcoIrhcmosrcclcbrarcddialogucshavcinvolvcdvomcn,virhrhc
sharpcsr gucsrionings oIrcn comingIrom vomcn inrcrlocurors. 1his
canbcrraccdbackcvcnrorhc\paniads - rhcdialccricalrrcariscsrhar
vcrc composcd Irom abour rhc cighrh ccnrury BCE and vhich arc
oIrcnrakcnrobcIoundarions oIIinduphilosophy.
!or cxamplc, in rhc Brihadara1yaka Upaniad vc arc rold abour
rhcIamous 'arguingcombar` invhichYajavalkya, rhc oursranding
scholar andrcachcr, hasroIaccgucsrionsIromrhcasscmblcdgarhcr-
ing oIpundirs, and hcrc ir is a voman scholar, GargJ, vho providcs
rhcsharpcsrcdgcrorhcinrcllccrualinrcrrogarion. ShccnrcrsrhcIray
virhouranyspccialmodcsry.'Vcncrablcrahmins,virhyourpcrmis-
sion! shall askhim rvo gucsrionsonly.!Ihcis ablc ro ansvcrrhosc
gucsrions oIminc, rhcnnoncoIyoucancvcrdcIcarhimincxpound-
ingrhcnarurc oIGod. `

Lvcnrhough GargJ,asaninrcllccrualandpcdagoguc,isnomilirary
lcadcr inrhcmodc,Ior cxamplc, oIrhcKanioI|hansi- anorhcrIcm-
*The Presidentship of the Congress Party was not by any means a formal position
only. Indeed, the election of Subhas Chandra Bose (the fery spokesman of the increas
ing - and increasingly forceful - resistance to the British Raj) as the President of
Congress in I93 8 and in I939led to a great inner-party tussle, with Mohandas Gandhi
working tirelessly to oust Bose. This was secured - not entirely with propriety or ele
gance - shortly after Bose's Presidential Address proposing a strict 'time limit' for the
British to quit India or to face a less nonviolent opposition. The role of the Congress
President in directing the Party has remained important. In the general elections in
2004, when Sonia Gandhi emerged victorious as the President of Congress, she chose
to remain in that position, rather than take up the role of Prime Minister.
7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ininc hcro - vho Ioughr vaianry aong virh rhc 'murinccrs` in rhc
middc oIrhcnincrccnrhccnruryagainsrririshruc- oncoIrhcgrcar
'varrior-guccns` oIrhc vord, as Anronia !rascr dcscribcshcr' j , hcr
usc oIimagcry is srrikingy miiranr. 'Yajavakya, ! havc rvo gucs-
rionsIoryou. LikcrhcrucroIVidchaorKasIcnarcsj , comingIrom
a hcroic inc, vho srringshisunsrrung bov, rakcs in hand rvo pcnc-
rraringarrovs andapproachcsrhc cncmy, sodo! approachyouvirh
rvo gucsrions, vhich you havc ro ansvcr. ` Yajavakya docs, hov-
cvcr,managcrosarisIyGargIvirhhisansvcrs !amnorcompcrcnrro
cxaminc rhc rhcoogica mcrirs oI rhis inrcrchangc and vi rcIrain
Irom commcnring on rhc subsranrivc conrcnr oI rhcir discussionj .
GargI acknovcdgcsrhishandsomcy, buragainvirhourunducmod-
csry. 'Vcncrabc rahmins, you shoud considcrir an achicvcmcnr iI
youcangcravayaIrcrbovingrohim. Ccrrainy,noncoIyoucancvcr
dcIcarhimincxpoundingrhcnarurcoIGod. `
!nrcrcsringy, Yaj avakya`s viIc Nairrcy raiscs a proIoundy
imporranr morivariona gucsrionvhcnrhcrvo discussrhc rcach oI
vcarhinrhcconrcxroIrhcprobcmsandprcdicamcnrsoIhumaniIc,
inparricuarvharvcarhcanorcannordoIor us. NairrcyIvondcrs
vhcrhcr ir coud bc rhc casc rhar iI 'rhc vhoc carrh, Iu oIvcarh`
vcrcro bcong j usr rohcr, shc coud achicvc immorrairyrhrough ir.
'Io,` rcspondsYajavakya, 'ikcrhciIcoIrichpcopcvibcyour
iIc.urrhcrcisnohopcoIimmorrairybyvcarh. ` NairrcyIrcmarks.
'Vharshoud!dovirhrharbyvhich! do norbccomcimmorra ! `"
Nairrcy`s rhcrorica gucsrion has bccn rcpcarcdy circd in !ndian
rcigious phiosophy ro iusrrarc borh rhc narurc oI rhc human
prcdicamcnr and rhc imirarions oI rhc marcria vord. ur rhcrc is
anorhcr aspccr oIrhiscxchangcrhar has, in somcvays,morcimmc-
diarcinrcrcsr. 1hisconccrnsrhcrcarion - andrhc disrancc - bcrvccn
incomc and achicvcmcnr, bcrvccn rhc commodirics vc can buy and
rhc acrua capabiirics vc can cnjoy, bcrvccn our cconomic vcarh
andour abiiryroivcasvcvoudikc. ' Vhic rhcrcis aconnccrion
*Maitrey''s central question ('What should I do with that by which I do not become
immortal?' ) was useful for me to motivate and explain an understanding of develop
ment that is not parasitic on judging development by the growth of GNP or GDP; see
my Development U Freedom (New York: Knopf, and Oxford: Oxford University
Press, I999 ) , p. I.
8
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
bcrvccn opucncc and our abiiry ro achicvc vhar vc vauc, rhc
inkagc may or may nor bc vcry cosc. NairrcyI`s vordy vorrics
mighr vc havc somc rransccndcnra rccvancc as !ndian rcigious
commcnrarorshavcdiscusscdovcrmanyccnruricsj , burrhcyccrrainy
havcvordyinrcrcsrasvc.!Ivcarc conccrncdvirhrhcIrccdomro
ivc ong andivcvc, our Iocushasrobc dirccryoniIc anddcarh,
andnorj usronvcarhandcconomic opucncc.
1hcargumcnrsprcscnrcdbyvomcnspcakcrsincpicsandcassica
racs,orinrccordcdhisrory, donoravaysconIormrorhcrcndcrand
pcacc-ovingimagcrharis oIrcn assigncdrovomcn. !nrhccpicsrory
oIrhcMahibhirata, rhc good King Yudhi(hira, rcucranrro cngagc
in a boody barrc, is cncouragcd ro hghr rhc usurpcrs oIhis rhronc
virh ' appropriarcangcr`,andrhcmosr cogucnrinsrigarorishisviIc,
raupadI.
ll
!n rhc sixrh-ccnrury vcrsion oI rhis diaoguc, prcscnrcd in rhc
Kiratrjun"ya byharavi,raupadIspcaksrhus.
For a woman to advise men like you
is almost an insult.
And yet, my deep troubles compel me
to overstep the limits of womanly conduct,
make me speak up.
The kings of your race, brave as Indra,
have for a long time ruled the earth without a break.
But now with your own hand
you have thrown it away,
like a rutting elephant tearing off
his garland with his trunk .. . .
If you choose to reject heroic action
and see forbearance as the road to future happiness,
then throw away your bow, the symbol of royalty,
wear your hair matted in knots,
stay here and make offerings in the sacred fre!I2
!r is nor hard ro scc vhich sidc raupadI vas on in rhc
Arjuna-Krishna dcbarc, vhich dcas virh a arcr sragc oIrhc samc
scgucnccoIcvcnrs,byvhichrimcYudhi(hirahadmadchischoiccro
9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Iighr rarhcr rhan cmbracc rhc iIc oI a oca hcrmir, mockingy
assigncdrohimbyhisviIc,virhunconccacddcrisionj .
! I ir i s imporranr norr oscc rhc !ndian argumcnrarivc rradirion as
rhccxcusivcprcscrvcoImcn, iris aso ncccssaryro undcrsrandrhar
rhc uscoIargumcnrarivc cncounrcrs hasIrcgucnrycrosscdrhc barri-
crsoIcass andcasrc.!ndccd,rhc chacngcrorcigiousorrhodoxyhas
oIrcn comc Irom spokcsmcn oI sociay disadvanragcd groups.
isadvanragcis, oIcoursc,acompararivcconccpr.Vhcnrahminica
orrhodoxyvasdispurcdinancicnr!ndiabymcmbcrs oIorhcrgroups
incudingmcrchanrsandcraIrsmcnj , rhcIacrrharrhcprorcsrcrsvcrc
oIrcnguircaIIucnrshoudnordisrracr arrcnrion IromrhcIacrrhar, in
rhc conrcxr oIrahmin-dominarcd orrhodoxy, rhcy vcrc indccd dis-
rincryundcrprivicgcd.1hismaybcparricuarysignihcanrinundcr-
srandingrhccass basis oIrhcrapidsprcadoIuddhism,inparricuar,
in !ndia. 1hc undcrmining oI rhc supcrioriry oI rhc pricsry casrc
paycd guirc a big parr in rhcsc iniriay rcbcious rcigious movc-
mcnrs, vhich incudc |ainism as vc as uddhism. !r incudcd a
'cvcing` Icarurc rhar is nor ony rcHccrcd in rhc mcssagc oIhuman
cguairy Ior vhich rhcsc movcmcnrs srood, bur is aso caprurcd
in rhc narurc oI rhc argumcnrs uscd ro undcrminc rhc caim ro
supcrioriryoIrhoscoccupyingcxarcdposirions. SubsranriaparrsoI
caryuddhisrand|ainircrarurcsconraincxposirionsoIprorcsrand
rcsisrancc.
^ovcmcnrs againsr casrcdivisionsrharhavchgurcdrcpcarcdyin
!ndianhisrory, virhvarying dcgrccs oIsucccss, havc madc good usc
oIcngaging argumcnrs ro gucsrion orrhodoxbcicIs. ^any oIrhcsc
counrcrargumcnrs arc rccordcd in rhc cpics, indicaring rhar opposi-
rion ro hicrarchy vas nor abscnr cvcn in rhc cary days oI casrc
arrangcmcnrs. Vc do nor knov vhcrhcr rhc aurhors ro vhom rhc
sccprica argumcnrs arc arrriburcd vcrc rhc rca originarors oIrhc
doubrs cxprcsscd, or mcrc vchiccs oI cxposirion oI arcady csrab-
ishcdgucsrioning,burrhcpromincnrprcscncc oIrhcsc anri-incgua-
iryargumcnrsinrhccpicsasvcasinorhcrcassicadocumcnrsgivcs
usaIucrinsighrinrorhcrcachoIrhcargumcnrarivcrradirionrhana
monoirhic cxposirion oI rhc so-cacd 'Iindu poinr oI vicv` can
possibyprovidc.
!or cxampc, vhcn, in rhc Mahibharata, hrigurcs haradvaja
IO
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhar casrc divisions rcarc ro diIIcrcnccs in physica arrriburcs oIdiI-
Icrcnrhumanbcings,rcHcctcdinskincoour,haradvaj arcspondsnor
ony bypoinring ro rhc considcrabc variarions in skin coour within
cvcry casrc 'iI diIIcrcnr coours indicarc diIIcrcnr casrcs, rhcn a
casrcsarcmixcdcasrcs` j , burasobyrhcmorcproIound gucsrion. 'Vc
a sccm ro bc aIIccrcd bydcsirc, angcr, Icar, sorrov, vorry, hungcr,
andabour, hov dovc havc casrc diIIcrcnccs rhcn! `` 1hcrc is aso a
gcncaogica sccpricism cxprcsscd in anorhcr ancicnr documcnr, rhc
Bhaviya Pur a: 'Sincc mcmbcrs oIarhcIour casrcs arcchidrcnoI
God, rhcy a bcong ro rhc samc casrc. A human bcings havc rhc
samc Iarhcr, and chidrcn oI rhc samc Iarhcr cannor havc diIIcrcnr
casrcs. ` 1hcsc doubrsdonorvinrhcday,burnorarcrhcircxprcssions
obircrarcd in rhc cassica accounr oIrhc dcbarcs bcrvccn diIIcrcnr
poinrs oIvicv.
1oookara much arcrpcriod,rhcrradirionoI'mcdicvamysrica
pocrs` , vc csrabishcd by rhc hIrccnrh ccnrury, incudcd cxponcnrs
vhovcrc inHucnccd borhbyrhc cgairarianism oIrhcIinduhakri
movcmcnr and by rhar oI rhc Nusim Suhs, and rhcir Iar-rcaching
rcjccrionoIsociabarricrs bringsoursharpyrhcrcachoIargumcnrs
across rhc divisions oI casrc and cass. Nany oI rhcsc pocrs camc
Iromcconomicayandsociayhumbcbackgrounds,andrhcirgucs-
rioningoIsocia divisions asvcasoIrhc barricrs oIdispararcrci-
gions rcIccrcd a proIound arrcmpr ro dcny rhc rccvancc oI rhcsc
arrihciarcsrricrions. !risrcmarkabchovmanyoIrhccxponcnrsoI
rhcschcrcricapoinrs oIvicvscamcIromrhcvorkingcass. Kabir,
pcrhapsrhc grcarcsrpocr oIrhcm a, vas a vcavcr, adua corron-
cardcr,Kavi-dasashoc-makcr,Scnaabarbcr,andsoon. ' Aso, many
cadinghgurcsinrhcscmovcmcnrsvcrcvomcn,incudingoIcoursc
rhc Iamous Nira ai vhosc songs arc sri vcry popuar, aIrcr Iour
hundrcd ycarsj , bur aso Anda, aya-bai, Sahaj o-bai and Kscma,
amongorhcrs.
!n dcaing virh issucs oI conrcmporary incguairy, vhich vi bc
discusscdinrhcncxrcssay,rhcrccvanccandrcachoIrhcargumcnra-
rivc rradirion musr bc cxamincd in rcrms oIrhc conrriburion ir can
*On this, see Kshiti Mohan Sen, Medieval Mysticism of India, with a Foreword by
Rabindranath Tagore, trans. from Bengali by Manomohan Ghosh (London: Luzac,
1930) .
II
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
makcrodayinrcsisringandundcrminingrhcscincguiricsvhichchar-
acrcrizcso muchoIconrcmporary!ndiansocicry. !rvoudbc agrcar
misrakc inrharconrcxrro assumcrhar bccausc oIrhc possibc cIIcc-
rivcncssoIvc-rurorcdanddiscipincdargumcnrs,rhcargumcnrarivc
rradirion musr, in gcncra, Iavour rhc privicgcd and rhc vc-
cducarcd,rarhcrrhanrhcdisposscsscdandrhcdcprivcd.SomcoIrhc
mosr povcrIu argumcnrs in !ndianinrcccruahisrory havc, in Iacr,
bccn abourrhclivcs oIrhc lcasrprivicgcdgroups,vhichhavc dravn
onrhc subsranrivcIorccoIrhcsc caims,rarhcr rhan onrhccurivarcd
briiancc oIvc-rraincd diaccrics.
Democracy as Public Reasoning
ocsrhc richncss oIrhc rradirion oIargumcnrmakcmuchdiIIcrcncc
ro subconrincnra ivcs roday! ! voud arguc ir docs, and in a grcar
manydiIIcrcnrvays.!rshapcsoursociavord andrhcnarurc oIour
cururc. !r has hcpcd ro makc hcrcrodoxyrhcnarural srarc oIaIIairs
in !ndia morc on rhis prcscnryj . pcrsisrcnr argumcnrs arc animpor-
ranrparroIour pubic iIc. !r dccpyinHucnccs!ndianpoirics, andis
parricuaryrccvanr,!vould arguc,rorhcdcvcopmcnroIdcmocracy
in!ndiaandrhccmcrgcnccoIirssccuarpriorirics.
1hchisroricaroorsoIdcmocracyin!ndiaarcvcvorrhconsidcr-
ing, iI ony bccausc rhc connccrion virh pubic argumcnr is oIrcn
misscd, rhroughrhcrcmprarionroarrriburcrhc!ndiancommirmcnrro
dcmocracysimpyro rhcimpacroIririshinIucncc dcspircrhcIacr
rhar such an inHucncc shoud havc vorkcd simiary Ior a hundrcd
orhcr counrrics rhar cmcrgcd Irom an cmpirc onvhich rhc sun uscd
norroscrj .1hcpoinrarissuc,hovcvcr, isnorspccihcro!ndiaony.in
gcncra,rhcrradirionoIpubicrcasoningiscoscyrcarcdrorhcroors
oIdcmocracyacrossrhcgobc. ursincc!ndiahasbccncspcciayIor-
runarcinhaving a ongrradirion oIpubic argumcnrs,virhrocrarion
oI inrcccrua hcrcrodoxy, rhis gcncra connccrion has bccn parricu-
ary cIIccrivc in !ndia. Vhcn, morc rhan haI a ccnrury ago, indc-
pcndcnr !ndia bccamc rhc hrsr counrry in rhc non-Vcsrcrn vord ro
choosc a rcsourcy dcmocraric consrirurion, ir nor ony uscdvhar ir
hadcarncdIromrhcinsrirurionacxpcricnccsinLuropcandAmcrica
!2
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
parricuaryGrcarrirainj , irasodrcvonirsovnrradirionoIpubic
rcasoningandargumcnrarivchcrcrodoxy.
!ndia`s unusua rccord as a robusr, non-Vcsrcrn dcmocracy
incudcs nor j usr irs popuar cndorscmcnr, Iooving indcpcndcncc
IromrhcririshKaj , oIrhc dcmocraricIormoIgovcrnmcnr,buraso
rhc rcnacious pcrsisrcncc oI rhar sysrcm, in conrrasr ro many orhcr
counrrics vhcrc dcmocracy has inrcrmirrcnry madc camco appcar-
anccs. !r incudcs, imporranry in rhis conrcxr, rhc comprchcnsivc
acccpranccbyrhcarmcdIorccs diIIcrcnryIromrhcmiiraryinmany
orhcrcounrricsinAsia andAIricaj asvc as byrhc poiricaparrics
Iromrhc CommunisrcIrrorhcIindurighr,acrossrhcpoiricaspcc-
rrumj oIrhc prioriry oIciviian ruc- nomarrcr hov incIIicicnr and
avkvard and hov rcmpringy rcpaccabcj dcmocraric govcrnancc
mighrhavcsccmcd.
1hc dccisivc cxpcricnccs in !ndia aso incudc rhc uncguivoca
rcjccrionbyrhc!ndiancccrorarcoIavcrypromincnrarrcmpr, inrhc
tp;os,rodiurcdcmocraricguaranrccsin!ndia onrhcacgcdground
oIrhc scriousncss oIrhc 'cmcrgcncy` rhar!ndia rhcnIaccdj . 1hc oIIi-
ciay sponsorcd proposa vas massivcy rcbuIIcd in rhc pos in
tp;;. Lvcnrhough!ndiandcmocracyrcmains impcrIccrandIavcd
inscvcra diIIcrcnrvays morconrhararcr,inLssaysp-t zj , rhcvays
and mcans oI ovcrcoming rhosc Iaurs can drav povcrIuy on rhc
argumcnrarionarradirion.
!risvcryimporranrro avoidrhcrvinpirIasoI t j rakingdcmoc-
racyrobcj usragiIroIrhcVcsrcrnvordrhar!ndiasimpyacccprcd
vhcnirbccamcindcpcndcnr,andzj assumingrharrhcrcissomcrhing
uniguc in !ndian hisrory rharmakcs rhc counrry singuary suircd ro
dcmocracy. 1hc poinr, rarhcr, is rhar dcmocracy is inrimarcy con-
nccrcdvirhpubicdiscussionandinrcracrivcrcasoning.1radirionsoI
pubicdiscussioncxisracrossrhcvord,norj usrinrhcVcsr. Andro
rhccxrcnrrharsucharradirioncanbcdravnon, dcmocracybccomcs
casicrroinsrirurc andasoroprcscrvc.
Lvcn rhough ir is vcry oIrcn rcpcarcd rhar dcmocracy is a guinr-
csscnriay Vcsrcrn idca and pracricc, rhar vicv is cxrrcmcy imircd
bccausc oI irs ncgccr oI rhc inrimarc connccrions bcrvccn pubic
rcasoningandrhcdcvcopmcnroIdcmocracy- aconnccrionrharhas
bccn proIoundy cxporcd by conrcmporary phiosophcrs, mosr
I3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
noraby|ohn Kavs. '!ubic rcasoning incudcs rhc opporruniry Ior
cirizcns ro parriciparc in poirica discussions and ro inIucncc pubic
choicc. aloring can bc sccn as ony onc oIrhc vays- abcir a vcry
imporranr vay - ro makc pubic discussions cIIccrivc, vhcn rhc
opporruniry ro vorc is combincd virh rhc opporruniry ro spcak and
isrcn, virhourIcar. 1hc rcach - and cIIccrivcncss- oIvoring dcpcnd
criricayonrhcopporruniryIor opcnpubicdiscussion.
A broadcr undcrsranding oI dcmocracy- going vc bcyond rhc
IrccdomoIcccrionsandbaors- hascmcrgcdpovcrIuy,noronyin
conrcmporarypoiricaphiosophy, bur also in rhc ncv discipincs oI
'socia choicc rhcory` and 'pubic choicc rhcory`, inHucnccd by cco-
nomicrcasoningasvc asbypoiricaidcas. !naddirionrorhcIacr
rhar opcn discussions on imporranr pubic dccisions can vasry
cnhancc inIormarion abour socicry and abour our rcspccrivc prior-
irics, rhcy can aso providc rhc opporruniry Ior rcvising rhc choscn
prioriricsinrcsponscropubicdiscussion.!ndccd,as|amcsuchanan,
rhc Ioundcr oI rhc conrcmporary discipinc oIpubic choicc rhcory,
has argucd. 'rhc dchnirion oI dcmocracy as govcrnmcnr by discus-
sion" impicsrharindividuavaucscan anddochangcinrhcproccss
oIdccision-making. 1hcrocoIrhcargumcnrarivcrradirionoI!ndia
appics nor mcrcly ro rhc pubic cxprcssion oI vaucs, bur aso ro
rhc inrcracrivc Iormarion oI vaucs, iusrrarcd Ior cxampc by rhc
cmcrgcncc oI rhc !ndian Iorm oIsccuarism ro bc discusscd in rhc
ncxrsccrionj .
!ong rradirions oIpubic discussion can bc Iound across rhc
vord,inmanydiIIcrcnrcururcs,as!havcdiscusscdcscvhcrc. ur
hcrc!ndia docshavcsomccaimro disrincrion - norunrcarcdrorhc
maj orrhcmc oIrhis cssay. 1hc GrcckandKomanhcriragc onpubic
discussion is, oI coursc, righry cccbrarcd, bur rhc imporrancc
arrachcd ro pubic dcibcrarion aso has a rcmarkabc hisrory in
!ndia. Asirhappcns, cvcnrhcvord-congucringAcxandcrrcccivcd
*I have tried to present critical assessments of the contributions of social choice the
ory and of public choice theory in my Presidential Address to the American Economic
Association ('Rationality and Social Choice', American Economic Review, 8 5, r 9 9 5 )
and i n my Nobel Lecture ('The Possibility of Social Choice', American Economic
Review, 89, 1999 ) . Both are included in a collection of my essays: Rationality and
Freedom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002) .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
somc poiricaccruringashcroamcdaroundnorrh-vcsr!ndia inrhc
Iourrhccnrury BCE. !or cxampc, vhcnAcxandcr askcd a group oI
|ainphiosophcrsvhyrhcyvcrcpayingsoirrcarrcnrionrorhcgrcar
congucror, hc gor rhc Iooving - broady anri-impcria - rcpy as
rcporrcd byArrianj .
King Alexander, every man can possess only so much of the earth's surface as
this we are standing on. You are but human like the rest of us, save that you
are always busy and up to no good, travelling so many miles from your home,
a nuisance to yourself and to others! .. . You will soon be dead, and then you
will own j ust as much of the earth as will sufice to bury you. *
!nrhchisroryoIpubicrcasoningin!ndia, considcrabccrcdirmusr
bc givcnrorhc cary !ndian uddhisrs,vho had a grcar commirmcnr
ro discussion as a mcans oIsocia progrcss. 1har commirmcnr pro-
duccd, amongorhcrrcsurs,somcoIrhccaricsropcngcncramccrings
in rhc vord. 1hc so-cacd 'uddhisr councis` , vhich aimcd ar
scrringdispurcsbcrvccndiIIcrcnrpoinrsoIvicv,drcvdccgarcsIrom
diIIcrcnrpaccsandIromdiIIcrcnrschoosoIrhoughr.1hchrsroIrhc
Iour principa councis vas hcd in Kajagriha shorry aIrcr Gaurama
uddha`s dcarh, rhc sccond abour a ccnruryarcr in Vaisa, andrhc
asroccurrcdinKashmirinrhc sccondccnruryCE. urrhcrhird- rhc
argcsr and rhc bcsr knovn oI rhcsc councis - occurrcd undcr rhc
parronagc oILmpcror Ashoka in rhc rhird ccnruryBCE, in rhc rhcn
capiraoI!ndia,!a(aipurranovcacd!arnaj .'1hcsccouncisvcrc
primariy conccrncdvirhrc

oving diIIcrcnccs in rcigiousprincipcs

andpracriccs,burrhcycvidcnryaso addrcsscdrhcdcmandsoIsocia
and civic durics, and Iurrhcrmorc hcpcd, in a gcncra vay, ro con-
soidarc andpromorcrhcrradirionoIopcndiscussiononconrcnrious
issucs.
1hcassociarionoIAshoka,vhorucdovcrrhcbukoIrhc!ndian
subconrincnr srrcrching inro vhar is nov AIghanisranj , virh rhc
argcsroIrhcsccouncis isoIparricuarinrcrcsr,sincchcvassrrongy
Alexander, we learn from Arrian, responded to this egalitarian reproach with the
same kind of admiration that he had shown in his encounter with Diogenes, even
though his own conduct remained altogether unchanged ('the exact opposite of what
he then professed to admire') . See Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 J. J.
A Historical Biography (Berkeley: University of California Press, I 992) , p. 428 .
1
5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
commirrcd ro making surc rhar pubic discussion coud rakc pacc
virhouranimosiryorviocncc.AshokarricdrocodiIy andpropagarc
vharmusrhavcbccnamongrhccaricsrIormuarionsoIrucsIorpub-
ic discussion - a kind oIancicnr vcrsion oIrhc nincrccnrh-ccnrury
'Kobcrr`s Kucs oI rdcr` . ` Ic dcmandcd, Ior cxampc, 'rcsrrainrin
rcgard ro spccch, so rhar rhcrc shoud bc no cxromcnr oI onc`s ovn
sccr or disparagcmcnr oIorhcr sccrs on inappropriarc occasions, and
ir shoud bc modcrarc cvcn on appropriarc occasions` . Lvcn vhcn
cngagcdinarguing, 'orhcrsccrsshoudbcduyhonourcdincvcryvay
onaoccasions` .
Ashoka`s championing oIpubicdiscussionhashadcchocsinrhc
arcr hisrory oI !ndia, bur nonc pcrhaps as srrong as rhc Nogha
Lmpcror Akbar`s sponsorship and supporr Ior diaogucs bcrvccn
adhcrcnrsoIdiIIcrcnrIairhs,ncaryrvorhousandycarsarcr.Akbar`s
ovcrarchingrhcsisrhar'rhcpursuiroIrcason` rarhcrrhan'rcianccon
rradirion` isrhcvayro addrcss diIIicurprobcms oIsocia harmony
incudcd arobusr cccbrarion oIrcasoncddiaoguc. ' Aroyaspon-
sorship is nor csscnria Ior rhc pracricc oI pubic rcasoning, bur ir
adds anorhcr dimcnsionrorhcrcach oIrhc argumcnrarivc hisrory oI
!ndia. !nrhc dcibcrarivc conccprion oIdcmocracy, rhc roc oIopcn
discussion, virh or virhour sponsorship by rhc srarc, has a ccar
rccvancc. Vhic dcmocracy musr aso dcmand much clsc, pubic
rcasoning,vhichisccnrraroparriciparorygovcrnancc,isanimpor-
ranr parr oIa biggcr picrurc. ! sha havc occasion rorcrurnrorhis
connccrionarcr.
Understanding Secularism
1hc onghisrory oI hcrcrodoxy has a bcaring nor ony on rhc dcvc-
opmcnr and surviva oI dcmocracy in !ndia, ir has aso richy con-
rriburcd, !voudarguc,rorhccmcrgcnccoIsccuarismin!ndia, and
cvcnrorhcIormrhar!ndiansccuarismrakcs,vhichisnorcxacryrhc
samc as rhc vay sccuarism is dcIincd in parrs oI rhc Vcsr.` 1hc
rocrancc oIrcigious divcrsiry is impiciry rcHccrcd in !ndia`s having
scrvcdasa sharcd homc - inrhc chronoogyoIhisrory- IorIindus,
uddhisrs, |ains, |cvs, Chrisrians, Nusims, !arsccs, Sikhs, aha`is
1 6
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
and orhcrs. 1hcVcdas,vhich darc back arcasrro rhc middc oIrhc
sccond micnnium BCE, pavcd rhc vay ro vhar is nov cacd
Iinduism rharrcrmvasdcviscdmucharcr by!crsians and Arabs,
aIrcr rhc rivcr Sindhu or !ndusj . uddhism and |ainism had borh
cmcrgcdbyrhcsixrhccnruryBCE. uddhism,rhcpracricc oIvhichis
novrarhcr sparscin!ndia,vasrhc dominanrrcigionoIrhccounrry
Ior ncary a rhousandycars.|ainism, on rhc orhcr hand, born arrhc
samc rimc as uddhism, has survivcd as a povcrIu !ndian rcigion
ovcrrvo andahaImicnnia.
|cvs camc ro !ndia, ir appcars, shorryaIrcrrhcIa oI|crusacm,
rhough rhcrc arc orhcr rhcorics as vc incuding rhc caim rhar
mcmbcrsoIrhccnc!sracicommuniryhrsrarrivcdinrhccighrhccn-
rury BCE, and, morc pausiby, rhar rhcy camc in 175 BCE) . 24 |cvish
arrivasconrinucdinarcrvavcs, inrhchIrhandsixrhccnruricsIrom
sourhcrnArabiaand!crsiaunrirhcasrvavcoIaghdadi|cvsIrom
!ragandSyria,mosryroombayandCacurra,inrhccighrccnrhand
nincrccnrh ccnrurics. Chrisrians, roo, camc vcry cary, and by rhc
Iourrh ccnrury rhcrc vcrc argc Chrisrian communirics in vhar is
novKcraa.25 !arsccs srarrcdarrivinginrhc arc scvcnrhccnrury, as
soon as pcrsccurion oIZoroasrrianism bcgan in !crsia. 1hc aha`is
vcrc among rhc asr groups ro scck rcIugc in !ndia, in rhc asr ccn-
rury. vcrrhisongpcriodrhcrcvcrcorhcrmigrarions,incudingrhc
scrrcmcnr oI Nusim Arab rradcrs, vhich bcgan on !ndia`s vcsrcrn
coasrin rhccighrhccnrury,vc bcIorcrhc invasions rharcamcIrom
orhcr Nusim counrrics via rhc morc varikc norrh-vcsrcrn rourcs.
1hcrc vcrc in addirionmany convcrsions, cspcciayro !sam. Lach
rcigious communiry managcd ro rcrain irs idcnriry virhin !ndia`s
muri-rcigious spccrrum. '
1hc rocrarion oI divcrsiry has aso bccn cxpiciry dcIcndcd by
srrong argumcnrs in Iavour oI rhc richncss oI variarion, incuding
Iusomc praisc oI rhc nccd ro inrcracr virh cach orhcr, in murua
rcspccr, rhrough diaoguc. !n rhc asr sccrion, ! discusscd rhc conrri-
burions madc ro pubic rcasoning by rvo oI rhc grandcsr oI!ndian
one of the reflections of this diversity can be seen in the survival of the different cal
endars that are respectively associated with Buddhism, Jainism, Judaism, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Islam, which have all been flourishing for a very long time in
India, along with the different Hindu calendars (as is discussed in Essay I 5 below) .
I7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cmpcrors, Ashoka and Akbar. Iov rccvanr arc rhcir idcas and
poicics Iorrhc conrcnr andrcach oI!ndiansccuarism!
Ashoka, asvasmcnrioncdcaricr, vanrcdagcncraagrccmcnron
rhcnccdroconducrargumcnrsvirh 'rcsrrainrinrcgardro spccch` . 'a
pcrsonmusrnordorcvcrcnccrohisovnsccrordisparagcrhc bcicIs
oI anorhcr virhour rcason. ` Ic vcnr on ro arguc. ' cprcciarion
shoud bcIorspccihcrcasonsony, bccauscrhcsccrsoIorhcrpcopc
a dcscrvc rcvcrcncc Ior onc rcason or anorhcr. ` Ashoka suppc-
mcnrcdrhisgcncramoraandpoiricaprincipcbyadiaccricaargu-
mcnrbascdoncnighrcncdscI-inrcrcsr. '!orhcvhodocsrcvcrcnccro
his ovn sccr vhic disparaging rhc sccrs oI orhcrs vhoy Irom
arrachmcnr ro his ovn sccr, in rcairy inHicrs, by such conducr, rhc
scvcrcsr injury onhis ovnsccr. `
Akbarnor ony madc uncguivocapronounccmcnrs onrhc prior-
iry oIrocrancc, bur aso aid rhc Iorma Ioundarions oI a sccuar
cga srrucrurc and oI rcigious ncurrairy oI rhc srarc, vhich
incudcdrhc duryrocnsurcrhar 'no man shoud bc inrcrIcrcd virh
on accounr oIrcigion, and anyonc is ro bc aovcdrogo ovcr ro a
rcigion rhar pcascs him. ` ' cspirc his dccp inrcrcsr in orhcr
rcigions and his bricI arrcmpr ro aunch a ncv rcigion, in-iahi
\od`s rcigionj , bascd on a combinarion oI good poinrs choscn
Irom diIIcrcnr Iairhs, Akbar did rcmain a good Nusim himscI.
!ndccd, vhcn Akbar dicd in t6o , rhc !samic rhcoogian Abdul
Iag,vhohadbccnguirccriricaoIAkbar`sapscs Iromorrhodoxy,
concudcd virh somc sarisIacrion rhar, dcspirc his ' innovarions` ,
Akbarhadrcmaincda propcrNusim.

1hcmccringsrhar Akbar arrangcd inrhcarc sixrccnrhccnruryIor

pubic diaoguc rcIcrrcd ro in rhc asr sccrionj invovcd mcmbcrs oI
diIIcrcnr rcigious Iairhs incuding Iindus, Nusims, Chrisrians,
!arsccs, |ains, |cvs and cvcn arhcisrsj . Vhic rhc hisrorica back-
groundoI!ndiansccuarismcanbcrraccdrorhcrrcndoIrhinkingrhar
had bcgun ro rakc roor vc bcIorc Akbar, rhc poirics oIsccuarism
rcccivcd a rrcmcndous boosrIromAkbar`s championing oIpuraisr
idcas, aong virh his insisrcncc rhar rhc srarc shoud bc compcrcy
imparria bcrvccndiIIcrcnrrcigions. Akbar`s ovnpoiricadccisions
asorcIccrcdhispuraisrcommirmcnrs,vccxcmpihcdcvcn byhis
insisrcncconhinghiscourrvirhnon-Nusiminrcccruasandarrisrs
I 8
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
incuding rhc grcar Iindu musician 1anscnj in addirion ro ^usim
oncs,

and, rarhcr rcmarkaby, by his rrusring a Iindu Iormcr king

Kaj a ^an Singhj , vho had bccn dcIcarcd caricr byAkbar, ro scrvc
asrhc gcncracommandcroIhis armcdIorccs.29
1hc rocrancc oI variarion in diIIcrcnr vaks oIiIc has aso had
orhcr- iIcssrcga- supporrrhroughour!ndianhisrory, incudingin
Sanskrir drama,virhcriricism andridicuc oInarrov-mindcdpcrsc-
curion, Ior cxampc in

draka`s Mricchaka(ikam 1hc Lirrc Cay

Carrj and Mudrarak$asam 1hc Signcr oI rhc ^inisrcrj . !r Iinds
cxprcssion aso in Sanskrirpocrry, virhcccbrarion oIdivcrsiry, pcr-
hapsmosrccganrycxprcsscdinKaidasa`sMeghadutam 1hcCoud
^csscngcrj , vhichappaudsrhcbcauryoIvaricricsoIhumancusroms
and bchaviour rhrough rhc imagincd cycs oI a coud rhar carrics a
mcssagc oIonging Irom a banishcdhusbandro his bcovcdviIc, as
rhc coud sovy j ourncys across hIrh-ccnrury !ndia. A simiar com-
mirmcnr ro acccpring- and cxaring- divcrsiry can bcsccnin many
orhcrvrirings,Iromrhcprosc andpocrryoIAmirKhusrau, a^usim
schoar and pocr in rhc Iourrccnrhccnrury,rorhcrichcururcoInon-
sccrarian rcigious pocrry vhich Hourishcd Irom around rhar rimc,
draving on borh Iindu parricuary hakrij and ^usim parricu-
ary Suhj rradirions. !ndccd, inrcrrcigious rocrancc is a pcrsisrcnr
rhcmc in rhc pocrry oI Kabir, adu, Kavi-das, Scna and orhcrs, a
circc vhich, as vas discusscd caricr, aso incudcd a numbcr oI
disringuishcd vomcn pocrs, such as rhc rcmarkabc ^ira ai in rhc
sixrccnrhccnrury.``
Sccuarism in conrcmporary !ndia, vhich rcccivcd cgisarivc
Iormuarion in rhc posr-indcpcndcncc consrirurion oI rhc !ndian
Kcpubic, conrains srrong inIucnccs oI!ndian inrcccrua hisrory,
incuding rhc championing oI inrcccrua puraism. nc rcIccrion
oIrhishisroricaconnccrion isrhar!ndian sccuarismrakcs a somc-
vhar diIIcrcnr Iorm and makcs rarhcr diIIcrcnr dcmands Irom rhc
morc ausrcrcVcsrcrnvcrsions, such asrhc !rcnch inrcrprcrarion oI
sccuarism vhich is supposcd ro prohibir cvcn pcrsona dispay oI
rcigious symbos or convcnrions in srarc insrirurions ar vork.
!ndccd, rhcrc arcrvoprincipa approachcs ro sccuarism, Iocusing
rcspccrivcy on t ) neutrality bcrvccn diIIcrcnr rcigions, and z)
prohibition oI rcigious associarions in srarc acrivirics . !ndian
19
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
sccuarism has rcndcd ro cmphasizc ncurrairy in parricuar, rarhcr
rhanprohibirioningcncra. '`
!r is rhc 'prohibirory` aspccrrharhas bccnrhcccnrraissuc in rhc
rcccnr!rcnchdccisionrobanrhcvcaringoIhcadscarvcsbyNusim
vomcn srudcnrs, on rhc ground rhar ir vioarcs sccuarism. !r can,
hovcvcr, bc argucd rhar such a prohibirion coud nor bc j usriIicd
spcciIicay on grounds oI sccuarism, iI vc acccpr rhc 'ncurrairy`
inrcrprcrarion oI sccuarism rhar has povcrIuy cmcrgcd in !ndia.
1hc sccuar dcmand rhar rhc srarc bc 'cguidisranr` Irom diIIcrcnr
rcigions incudingagnosricismandarhcismj nccd nordisaovany
pcrsonindividuay - irrcspccrivcoIhisorhcrrcigion - Iromdccid-
ingvharrovcar, so ong asmcmbcrs oIdiIIcrcnrIairhs arc rrcarcd
symmcrricay.
1hc immcdiarc issuc hcrc is nor so muchvhcrhcr rhc !rcnch ban
is rhc vrong poicy. !r coud, guirc possiby, bc j usriIicd Ior somc
orhcr rcason orhcr rhan rhc acgcd vioarion oI sccuarismj , Ior
cxampc onrhc grounds rharrhc hcadscarvcs arc symbos oIgcndcr
incguairy andcan bcsccn as dcmcaning ro vomcn, orrharvomcn
cspcciayyounggirsjdonorrcayhavcrhcIrccdomrodccidcvhar
ro vcar, and rhar drcss dccisions arc imposcd on rhcm by morc
povcrIumcmbcrsoIIamiicsvirhmacdominanccj . |1hosccanbc
imporranr conccrns !shanorundcrrakc hcrc a cririca scruriny oI
*As will be discussed in the essays that follow, Indian secularism has drawn very
severe criticism in recent years from Hindu political activists. While some parts of that
attack are based, explicitly or implicitly, on demanding a special place for Hinduism
in Indian polity (thereby going against the principle of neutrality) , another part of the
critique has taken the form of arguing that Indian constitution and practice have not
been adequately neutral, and have allowed special treatment of Muslims, for example
in exempting some Muslim conventions (such as polygamy) from the legal reach of the
civil code that applies to members of all the other communities in India. The issues
involved in this critique are discussed - and assessed - in Essay I4 What is important
to note here is that the focus of that debate is on the 'neutrality' aspect of secularism,
rather than on the 'prohibition' of all religious associations.
tThe phenomenon of 'choice inhibition', when the individual is, in principle, free to
choose, but cannot in practice exercise that choice (given the totality of social concerns
and asymmetries of implicit power ) , is an important issue in the analysis of liberty in
'social choice theory', which I have tried to investigate elsewhere: 'Liberty and Social
Choice', Journal of Philosophy, 8o (Jan. 1983 ) ; 'Minimal Liberty', Economica, 59
( 1992) ; and Rationality and Freedom.
20
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhcircompararivcrccvanccandIorccj , burrhcyarc disrincrIromrhc
dcmands oIsccuarismirscI.
1hcpoinrisrharrhcbanningoIanindividua`sIrccdomro choosc
vhar ro vcar coud nor bc j usrihcd on rhc ground oI sccularism as
such vhcn rharprincipcis inrcrprcrcd in rcrms oI rhc nccd Iorrhc
srarc ro bc ncurra bcrvccn rhc diIIcrcnr Iairhs. cing cguidisranr
bcrvccndincrcnrrcigions docs invovc a rcj ccrion oIIavouring onc
rcligion ovcr anorhcr, and rhis coud bc rakcn ro impy rhar srarc
schoolsshoudnorIoovanasymmcrricapoicyoIbrandishingsym-
bos Irom onc rcigion, vhic cxcuding orhcrs, in rhc schoo`s ovn
dispay. urirnccdnorruc againsrrhc Irccdom oIcachpcrsonindi-
viduayromakchisorhcrovndccisions onvharrovcar- dccisions
rharorhcrsshoudbcviingrorcspccr.
As Ashoka pur ir in rhc rhird ccnrury BCE: 'concord, rhcrcIorc, is
mcrirorious, ro vir, hcarkcning andhcarkcning willingly ro rhc Lav
oI!icry as acccprcdbyorhcrpcopc. ` ` ' 1hcIormasvc asrhc inrcr-
prcrarion and undcrsranding oI sccuarism in !ndia can bc inkcd ro
rhchisroryoIrhc acccprancc oIhcrcrodoxy.
Sceptics, Agnostics and Atheists
1hc ong rradirion oI arguing aso has considcrabc bcaring on rhc
rcadingoI!ndia`spasr,aongvirhrhcundcrsrandingoIconrcmporary
!ndia. Kccognizing rhc hisrory oI hcrcrodoxy in !ndia is criricay
imporranrIorcomingrogripsvirhrhccross-currcnroIidcas,incud-
ing inrclccrua proccsscs and scrurinizcd convicrions, rhar havc
survivcd rhrough rhc rurbulcncc and rurmoi oI !ndian hisrory.
\ndcrcsrimarion oIrhar hcrcrodoxy, vhich aas is Iar roo common,
canprcvcnr an adcguarc undcrsranding oI!ndian rradirions. Lcrmc
iusrrarc rhis virh rhc srarus and rccvancc oI rcigion in !ndia, in
*When I attended a degree-giving convocation, which was described as ' secular', at
Dhaka University in Bangladesh in I999, I was struck by the fact that we had ten min
utes each of readings from Muslim, Hindu, Christian and Buddhist texts. While this
was a lot of religious thinking at one go, I could see that the ceremony could indeed
be described as a 'secular' function under the 'neutrality' interpretation of secularism
(I suppose agnostics would have had to free-ride on the scepticism of Buddhism) .
2I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
parricuarrhc nccdro undcrsrandrhconghcriragcoIrcigious sccp-
ricismin!ndia.
1hcpovcrIuprcscnccoIrcigious sccpricismin!ndiagocs- orar
casrmayappcarrogo- againsrasrandardcharacrcrizarionoI!ndian
cururc, vhichis cxcccdingy common, rharrakcs rhc Iorm oIIocus-
ingparricuary onrcigionininrcrprcring!ndianrradirions. 1hcrci-
gious connccrion isccrrainyrhcrc. !or cxampc, ir is indecdrhccasc
rhar!ndia has a massivcrcigiousircrarurc - pcrhaps morc volumi-
nousrhanany orhcrcounrry. 1hisis amongrhc rcasons Ior associar-
ing rhc undcrsranding oI !ndian civiizarion virh rcigiosiry - nor
mcrcy ar rhc cvc oIpopuar pracricc bur aso rhar oI inrcccrua
cngagcmcnr. AsrhcKcvcrcndA. C. ougucr, an accompishcd cxpcrr
on compararivc rcigion, has poinrcd our. '!ndia in parricuar Iur-
nishcs virhinirs imirs cxampcs oIcvcryconccivabcrypc oIarrcmpr
arrhcsourionoIrhcrcigiousprobcm. ` `
Andsoirdocs. Iovcvcr,rhcscgrandcxporarionsoIcvcrypossibc
rcigious bcicIcocxisrvirhdccpysccprica argumcnrs rhar arc aso
caborarcy cxporcd somcrimcs virhin rhc rcigious rcxrs rhcm-
scvcsj , goingbackarhcvayrorhcmiddcoIrhcsccondmicnnium
BCE. 1hc so-cacd ' songoIcrcarion` or rhc 'crcarionhymn` , asir is
somcrimcs cacdj inrhc aurhorirarivcVcdas cnds virh rhc Iooving
radica doubrs.
Who really knows ? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced?
Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of
this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whence this creation has arisen - perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did
not - the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows
- or perhaps he does not know.
Rigveda, IO. I 29. English translation by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, i n The Rig
Veda: An Anthology (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, I 98 I ) , pp. 25-6. The Vedas
also contain many engaging discussions of worldly affairs. For example - i n hymn 3 4
of Rigveda - we get a critical, but rather sympathetic, examination of the many prob
lems that the compulsive gambler faces, who grumbles ('my mother-i n-law hates me';
'my wife pushes me away' ) and resolves to reform ('I will not gamble in the future, I
am looked down on by my friends' ) , but who fnds it hard to change his old habits ( 'I
show up there like an adulteress visiting the appointed place' ) yet easy to advise oth
ers ('Do not play with dice. Cultivate your feld and remain content with whatsoever
you earn' ) .
2 2 .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hcsc j , oo-ycar-od doubrs voud rccur in !ndian cririca dcbarcs
again and again. !ndccd, Sanskrirnoronyhas a biggcr bodyoIrci-
giousircrarurcrhancxisrsin anyorhcrcassicaanguagc, irasohas
a argcr voumc oI agnosric or arhcisric vrirings rhan in any orhcr
cassica anguagc. 1hcrc arc a grcar many discussions and composi-
rionsoIdiIIcrcnrkinds,conIormingrorhcoguaciousncssoIrhcargu-
mcnrarivcrradirion.
!ndianrcxrsincudccaborarcrcigiouscxposirionsandprorracrcd
dcIcncc. 1hcy aso conrain cngrhy and susraincd dcbarcs among
diIIcrcnr rcigious schoos. ur rhcrc arc, in addirion, a grcar many
conrrovcrsics bcrvccn dcIcndcrs oIrcigiosiry ononc sidc, andadvo-
carcs oIgcncra sccpricism onrhc orhcr. 1hc doubrs somcrimcs rakc
rhc Iorm oIagnosricism, somcrimcs rhar oIarhcism, burrhcrc is aso
Gauramauddha`s spcciasrrarcgyoIcombininghisrhcorcricasccp-
ricismabourGodvirhapracricasubvcrsionoIrhcsignihcanccoIrhc
gucsrion by making rhc choicc oI good bchaviour compcrcy indc-
pcndcnr oI any God - rca or imagincd. ` !ndccd, dincrcnr Iorms oI
godcssncsshavchadasrrongIoovingrhroughour!ndianhisrory, as
rhcydoroday.
1hc 'Lokayara` phiosophy oI sccpricism and marcriaism Hour-
ishcd Irom rhc hrsr micnnium BCE, possiby cvcn in uddha`s ovn
rimc j udging Irom somc rcIcrcnccs in rhc cary uddhisr ircrarurcj ,
somcrvo anda haImicnnia ago. ``1hcrc iscvcn somccvidcncc oI
rhcinIucnccoIrharinc oIrhinkinginrhc\paniads. `Arhcismand
marcriaism conrinucdro arrracr adhcrcnrs and advocarcs ovcrmany
ccnrurics, andvcrc incrcasingy associarcdvirhrhc cxposirion oIrhc
'' Gautama's own position on this is, of course, a far cry from the practice of
attributing divinity to Buddha himself in some versions of later Buddhism, led by the
nirmca-kaya doctrine in Mahayana teaching. There is also the more general prob
lem, which I an Mabbett discusses, that 'in analyzing the rise of Buddhism we can
not deny a very important role to the way in which the proponents of dhamma
interacted with the scattered population of the villages and forest hamlets. From the
beginning, Buddhism had to come to terms with these populations' belief in special
beings and special powers, of a sort that we normally call supernatural' ( Ian
Mabbett, 'Early Indian Buddhism and the Supernatural', in Dipak Bhattacharya,
Moinul Hassan and Kumkum Ray ( eds. ) , India and Indology: Professor Sukumari
Bhattacharji Felicitation Volume (Kolkata [ Calcutta] : National Book Agency,
2004 ) , p. 5 0 3 ) .
23
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
inrcccruay combarivc Carvaka.' 1har 'undcrcurrcnr oI !ndian
rhoughr`,as . I. |hahasdcscribcdir,hndsarcrcxprcssioninorhcr
rcxrs, Ior cxampc in rhc ' marcriaisr phiosophica rcxr . . .
Tattopalavasimha vrirrcn by a ccrrain |ayarishi in rhc cighrh ccn-
rury` . ` ' !n rhc Iourrccnrhccnruryvhcn Nadhava
_
carya himscI a
Vcdanrisr Iinduj vrorc his aurhorirarivc ' Coccrion oI A
!hiosophics` ( Sarvadarsanasargraha) , rhc' Carvakasysrcm`hadrhc
disrincrion oIrccciving ancaborarcysymparhcricdcIcnccinrhchrsr
chaprcr oI rhc compiarion, consisring oI a rcasoncd dcIcncc oI
arhcism andmarcriaism. ` AIrcr bcing cxpoundcd and dcIcndcd in
rhc hrsr chaprcr, rhc arhcisric caims arc subj ccrcd ro counrcrargu-
mcnrsinrhcIoovingchaprcr, inincvirhrhc diaccricasrrarcgyoI
rhc book, in vhich cach chaprcr dcIcnds a parricuar schoo oI
rhoughr,Ioovcdbycounrcrargumcnrs inarcrchaprcrs.
1hccxposirionoIrhcCarvakasysrcmbcginsvirhasrrongasscrrion.
'hovcanvcarrriburcrorhcivinccingrhcgivingoIsuprcmcIaciiry,
vhcn such a norion has bccn urrcry aboishcd by Carvaka, rhc crcsr-
gcmoIrhcarhcisricschoo! ``'!n addirionrorhcdcniaoIGod,thcrcis
aso arcjccrionoIrhc sou, andanasscrrionoIrhcmarcriabasis oIrhc
mind. ' Iromrhcscmarcriaccmcnrs| aonc,vhcnrransIormcdinrorhc
body,inrcigcnccisproduccd,jusrasrhcincbriaringpovcrisdcvcopcd
IromrhcmixingoIccrrainingrcdicnrs, and vhcnrhcsc arc dcsrroycd,
inrcigcncc ar oncc pcrishcs aso. ``
Aong virh rhcsc radica bcicIs
abour rhcnarurc oIiIc andmind, rhcrc is aso a phiosophyoIvauc,
vhich conccnrrarcs on idcnrihabc pcasurc, nor any 'happincss in a
Iururc vord` . 1hcrc is rccurrcnr advicc on hov ro ivc. 'Vhic iIc is
yours, ivcj oyousy| ` 1hcrcis aso anacridandcynicacxpanarion oI
rhccurivarcdsurvivaoIrcigious iusions amongpcopc. '1hcrcisno
hcavcn,nohnaibcrarion,noranysouinanorhcrvord . . . iris ony
as a mcans oIivcihood rhar rahmins havc csrabishcd hcrc a rhc
ccrcmonics Iorrhc dcad- rhcrcisnoorhcrIruiranyvhcrc. ``'
;we fnd references to Carvaka in the epics also. In the Mahibhirata, Carvaka
causes some shock in the establishment by reproaching Yudhithira for killing his
clansmen in the central battle of that epic (a persistent subject of moral discussion
which we have already encountered twice, in the context, respectively, of the
Krishna-Arjuna debates and of Draupad's arguments to Yudhithira, encouraging
him to fght) .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hcacrivcprcscnccoIarhcism andmarcriaismconrinucdrhrough
rhc rcgimcs oI ^usim kings. !ndccd, cvcn in rhc arc sixrccnrh
ccnrury,vhcnrhc^oghacmpcrorAkbarhcdhismuri-rcigiousdia-
ogiccncounrcrsinAgra,rhc CarvakaschoooIarhcismvasvcrcp-
rcscnrcd among rhc arcrnarivc posirions rhar vcrc scccrcd Ior
prcscnrarion as Akbar`s adviscr and chroniccr Abu !az norcdj . In
phiosophicadiscourscsrhroughourIndianhisrory, arhcisrs andsccp-
ricsmakcIrcgucnrappcaranccs, andcvcnrhough,inmanycascs,rhcir
poinrs oIvicvarcurimarcyrcjccrcd,rhcydo gcrrhcirsay.
AnadcguarclyincusivcundcrsrandingoI!ndianhcrcrodoxyispar-
ricuary imporranr Ior apprcciaring rhc rcach and rangc oI hcrcro-
doxyinrhccounrry`sinrcccruabackgroundanddivcrschisrory.1his
is cspcciay cririca bccausc oI rhc rclarivc ncglccr oI rhc rarionaisr
parrs oIrhc !ndian hcriragc in rhc conrcmporary accounrs oI!ndia`s
pasr,inIavouroIconccnrraringon!ndia`simprcssivcrcigiosiry. 1har
sclccrivc inarrcnrion has, in Iacr, produccd a subsranria bias in rhc
inrcrprcrarionoI!ndianrhoughr,andrhroughrharinrhcundcrsrand-
ingoIrhc inrcccruahcriragc oIconrcmporary!ndia. '
1hc cxaggcrarcd Iocus on rcigiosiry has also conrriburcd ro an
undcrcsrimarion oI rhc rcach oI pubic rcasoning in !ndia and rhc
divcrsiry oI irs covcragc. !or cxampc, Kau(ilya`s cassic rrcarisc on
poirica cconomy and govcrnancc, Arthasastra rransarabc as
'Lconomics` j , iniriaycomposcdinrhcIourrh ccnruryBCE, isbasicay
a sccuar rrcarisc, dcspirc rhc rcspccrIu gcsrurcs ir makcs rorcigious
and socia cusroms.`
1hcncgccrhasasocdrorhcongrradirionoIrarionaasscssmcnr,
ccnrra Ior !ndian scicncc and marhcmarics, bcing undcrcsrimarcd.|
1harparricuar connccrion is vorrh discussing, and ! rurn ro rhar in
rhcncxr sccrion.
*On this general issue, see my 'The Reach of Reason: East and West', New York
Review of Books, 47 ( 2o July 2ooo), repr. as Essay 13 . See also Martha Nussbaum and
Amartya Sen, 'Internal Criticism and Indian Rationalist Traditions', in Michael
Krausz (ed. ) , Relativism: Interpretation and Confrontation (Notre Dame, Ind. :
University of Notre Dame Press, 198 8 ) , and Bimal Matilal, Perception: An Essay on
Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) .
tin fairness to Western expertise on India, it must be conceded that there has never
been any lack of Occidental interest in what may be called the 'carnal sciences', led by
the irrepressible Kamasutra and Ana1garmga.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Science, Epistemology and Heterodoxy
!risnorhardrosccrharrhcpossibiiryoIscicnrihcadvancciscoscy
connccrcdvirhrhcrocoIhcrcrodoxy,sinccncvidcasand discovcr-
ics havc ro cmcrgc iniriay as hcrcrodox vicvs, vhich diIIcr Irom,
and may bcin conHicr virh, csrabishcd undcrsranding. 1hc hisrory
oI scicnriIic conrriburions across rhc vord - rhc cxpcricnccs oI
Copcrnicus,orGaico, orIcvron, orarvin - shovs manycxam-
pcs oIrhcparrrharrcsourc hcrcrodoxy has ropay, in scrurinizing,
andvhcnncccssaryrcjccring, rhcvicvsrhararcsrandardyacccprcd.
Vc can arguc rhar rhcHovcringoI!ndianscicncc and marhcmarics
rhar bcgan in rhc Gupra pcriod cd parricuary by
_
ryabha(a in
rhc IiIrh ccnrury CE, Varahamihira in rhc sixrh, and rahmagupra
in rhc scvcnrhj bcnchrcd Iromrhc rradirion oIsccpricism and gucs-
rioningvhich had bccnHourishingin!ndia arrharrimc.'1hcrc arc
aso mcrhodoogicadcparrurcsinrhispcriodincpisrcmoogyandin
invcsrigaringrhcvaysandmcansoIadvancingrhcknovcdgcoIrhc
phcnomcnavord.
!n rhc Rimiya1a, |avai, a sccprica pundir, ccrurcs Kama, rhc
hcro oI rhc cpic, on hov hc shoud bchavc, bur in rhc proccss
suppcmcnrs his rcigious sccpricism by an insisrcncc rhar vc musr
rcy ony onvharvc can obscrvc and cxpcricncc. Iis dcnunciarion
oIrcigious pracriccs 'rhcinjuncrionsabourrhcvorshipoIgods,sac-
rihcc, giIrs and pcnancc havc bccn aid dovn in rhc sasrras scrip-
rurcs| by ccvcr pcopc, j usr ro ruc ovcr orhcr| pcopc` j and his
dcbunking oIrcigious bcicIs 'rhcrc is no aIrcr-vord, noranyrci-
gious pracricc Ior arrainingrhar` j arcIorrihcdbyrhc hrm cpisrcmo-
ogica advicc rhar |avai givcs Kama. '!oov vhar is virhin your
cxpcricncc and do nor rroubc yourscI virh vhar ics bcyond rhc
provincc oIhumancxpcricncc. ``
1his obscrvarionaIocusis, oIcoursc, inincvirhrhcmarcriaism
oILokayara andrhc Carvaka sysrcm. !n Iacr, hovcvcr, rhc Carva
sysrcm vcnr Iurrhcr and suggcsrcd rhc nccd Ior mcrhodoogica
scruriny oIknovcdgcrharis dcrivcd - dirccry or indirccry - Irom
pcrccprion. Vc arcrodrharpcrccprionis oIrvokinds. cxrcrnaand
inrcrna.!nrcrnapcrccprionisobviousydubiousbccausc'youcannor
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
csrabish rharrhc mind has any povcr ro acr indcpcndcnryrovards
an cxrcrna obj ccr, sincc a aov rhar ir is dcpcndcnr on cxrcrna
scnscs` . urvcmusrbc caurious, Iora diIIcrcnrrcason, abourrcy-
ing aso on cxrcrna pcrccprion. ir dcpcnds on hovvc usc rhis pcr-
ccprion. 'Arhough ir is possibc rhar rhc acrua conracr oIrhc scnsc
and rhc obj ccr vi producc rhc knovcdgc oIrhc parricuar obj ccr`,
oIrcnvc shahavcrorcyonproposirionsrharinkandconnccronc
obj ccrrharvc mayIairo sccro anorhcrrharvccanscc suchas an
unsccnhrcprcsumcdonrhcbasis oIobscrvcd smokcj . !ndccd,rhcrc
can bc no dirccr obscrvarion oI obj ccrs in rhc pasr or in rhc Iururc,
abour vhich vc may scck knovcdgc, and vc rhcn havc ro rracc
acgcdconnccrions ovcrrimc.
Andycrrhc basis oIrhisrypcoIcxrcnsionIromdirccrobscrvarion
rcmains, iris argucd, probcmaric.Vhicvcmaybcrcmprcdrorcy
onsuchconnccrions, 'rhcrcmighrarisca doubr asrorhccxisrcnccoI
rhc invariabc connccrion inrhis parricuar casc as, Ior insrancc, in
rhisparricuarsmokcasimpyinghrcj ` . '1hcuscoIinIcrcnccishard
romakcrigorous,sinccinIcrcnccirscIrcguircsj usrihcarion,andrhis
may rakc us Iurrhcr and Iurrhcr back. 'Ior can inference bc rhc
mcans oIknovcdgc oIrhcunivcrsaproposirion,sinccinrhccasc oI
rhisinIcrcnccvcshoudasorcguircanorhcrinIcrcnccrocsrabishir,
and so on, and hcncc voud arisc rhc Iaacy oI an ad infinitum
rcrrogrcssion.`
!Irhc!okayara approach comcs rhrough as bcing inrcnscy argu-
mcnrarivcandvcrydcdicarcdroraisingmcrhodoogicadoubrs going
vc bcyond mcrcydispuringrhc basis oIrcigious knovcdgcj , rhar
is probaby a j usr concusion. !ndccd, uddhaghoa, a uddhisr
phiosophcrinhIrh-ccnrury!ndia,rhoughrrharcvcnrhoughokayara
canbcircrayinrcrprcrcdasrhcdiscipincrharbascsknovcdgcony
on 'rhc marcria vord` , ir coud pcrhaps bc bcrrcr dcscribcd as rhc
'discipinc oIargumcnrs and dispurcs`.' !nrhis rcspccr, rhc rarionac
oIrhc!okayaraapproachisguirccoscroamcrhodoogicapoinrrhar
!rancisaconvoudmakcvirhcompcingcariryint 6oinhisrrca-
risc The Advancement of Learning. '1hcrcgisrcringandproposingoI
doubrs has a double usc, ` acon said. nc usc is srraightIorvard. ir
guardsus'againsrcrrors` . 1hcsccondusc,aconargucd,invovcdrhc
roc oIdoubrsininiriaringandIurrhcringaproccssoIcnguiry,vhich
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
hasrhccIIccr oIcnriching ourinvcsrigarions.!ssucsrhar'voudLavc
bccn passcd by ighry virhour inrcrvcnrion` , acon norcd, cnd up
bcing 'arrcnrivcy and carcIuy obscrvcd` prcciscy bccausc oI rhc
'inrcrvcnrion oI doubrs` . 48
!Icpisrcmoogica dcparrurcs Irom orrhodoxy providcd mcrhod-
oogica hcp Ior rhc curivarion oI obscrvariona scicncc, so did a
carhoiciry oIapproach rhar aovcd !ndian marhcmaricians and sci-
cnrisrsrocarnabourrhcvorksinrhcschcdsinabyon,Grccccand
Komc,vhichvcrccxrcnsivcyuscdin!ndianasrronomyparricuary
inrhcSiddhanrasjvhichprcccdcdrhcHovcringoI!ndianscicnccand
marhcmarics IromrhchIrhccnruryCE onvards.1hcrchas bccn arcn-
dcncyinrhcncv 'narionaism` oIrhcIindurvamovcmcnr discusscd
IurrhcrinLssayj j rodcnyrhcimporranccoIgobainrcracrionsgoing
indiIlcrcnrdirccrions inIavouroIvharcanbccacd'indigcnoussuI-
hcicncy` j . ur rhar rcHccrs a basic misundcrsranding oIhov scicncc
procccds andvhyrhc bordcrs oIscicnrihcknovcdgc arc nor dravn
aong gcographica incs. As ir happcns, a grcar many dcparrurcs in
scicncc and marhcmaricsoccurrcdin!ndia Irom rhccaryccnrurics oI
rhchrsrmicnniumvhicharcrcdrhcsrarcoIknovcdgcinrhcvord.
1hcinrcracrivcopcnncssoI!ndianvorkinvovcdborhgivcandrakc.
!ndianrrigonomcrryandasrronomy,inparricuar, arcoIspcciainrcr-
csrborhbccauscoIrhcirhisroricaimporranccandbccauscoIrhcvay
invhichrhcyinIucnccd asisdiscusscdinLssays 6and8 ) !ndia`srca-
rionsvirhorhcrciviizarions,parricuaryrhcArabvordand China.
!nIacr,!ndianmarhcmaricsandasrronomyhadaparricuarypro-
Iound impacr on Arab vork incuding !ranian vork in Arabicj ro
borh oIvhich Arabs and !ranians gavc gcncrous acknovcdgcmcnr.
1his appicdro Ioundariona dcparrurcs inmarhcmarics parricuary
in rhc dcvcopmcnr and usc oIrhc dccima sysrcm and in rrigonom-
crryj and aso roncv idcas andmcasurcmcnrs in asrronomy. !ndccd,
rhc dcparrurcs prcscnrcdin
_
ryabha(a`s pionccring book, compcrcd
in qpp CE, norony gcncrarcdcxrcnsivcrcsponscsvirhin!ndia srarr-
ingvirhrhcvorksoI Varahamihira,rahmagupraandhaskaraj,bur
rhcyvcrc asomuch discusscdinrhcirArabicrransarions.
!n addirion ro rhcmarhcmarica advanccs rcHccrcd in
_
ryabha(a`s
vork, rhc asrronomica dcparrurcs incudcd, among a numbcr oI
orhcrconrriburions, rhcIooving.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
( I ) an explanation of lunar and solar eclipses in terms respectively of the
earth's shadow on the moon and the moon's obscuring of the sun, com
bined with methods of predicting the timing and duration of eclipses;
( 2) rejection of the standard view of an orbiting sun that went around the
earth, in favour of the diurnal motion of the earth;
( 3 ) an identifcation of the force of gravity to explain why objects are not
thrown out as the earth rotates; and
(4) a proposal of the situational variability of the idea of 'up' and 'down'
depending on where one is located on the globe, undermining the 'high
above' status of heavenly obj ects ( but directly in line with the philosophy
of relying on what Javali called 'the province of human experience' ) .
!n addirion ro conrriburing ro scicnriIic undcrsranding, rhcsc
asrronomica advanccs aso invovcd sharp dcparrurcs Irom rhc
csrabishcdrcigiousorrhodoxy.
_
ryabha(a`sinsisrcncconvorkingon
rhcsc issucs and on pubicizing his Iindings invovcd considcrabc
couragcanddcrcrminarion.
As Abcruni, rhc !ranian asrronomcr, vrorc in rhc cary ccvcnrh
ccnrury, nor a oI
_
ryabha(a`s discipcs vho Ioovcd his scicnrihc
cad and agorirhmic mcrhods vcrc simiary couragcous. !ndccd,
rahmagupra,vhomAbcrunij udgcdrobcrhcbcsrmarhcmaricianoI
his rimc Abcruni cvcn produccd a sccond Arabic rransarion oI
rahmagupra`sSanskrirrrcariscBrahmasiddhanta, havingj udgcdrhc
caricrrransarion,madcinrhccighrhccnrury,robcrarhcrimpcrIccrj,
ccary ackcd
_
ryabha(a`s Iorrirudc and uprighrncss. rahmagupra
paycd up ro rcigious orrhodoxy bycriricizing
_
ryabha(a Ior apos-
rasy in rcj ccring rhc csrabishcd rhcoogica asrroogy, cvcn rhough
rahmaguprahimscIconrinucdrousc

ryabha(a`sscicnrihcmcrhods
andproccdurcs.
!n a rcmarkabc ccvcnrh-ccnrury rcbukc, Abcruni norcd rhc
scI-conrradicrion hcrc, ro vir rhar rahmagupra, roo, Ioovcd
_
ryabha(a`s scicnrihcmcrhodsinprcdicringccipscsvhic spinccssy
kovrovingroorrhodoxyrhroughbad-mourhing
_
ryabha(a.
We shall not argue with him [Brahmagupta] , but only whisper into his ear:
. . . Why do you, after having spoken such [harsh] words [against
A
ryabhata
and his followers], then begin to calculate the diameter of the moon in order
to explain the eclipsing of the sun, and the diameter of the shadow of the
THE ARGUMENTATIV
-
E INDIAN
earth in order to explain its eclipsing the moon? Why do you compute both
eclipses in agreement with the theory of those heretics, and not according to
the views of those with whom you think it is proper to agree ?49
!nrcrmsoImarhcmaricsandasrronomicapracricc,rahmagupravas
indccd a grcarIoovcr oIrhc innovarivc
_
ryabha(a, and as good a
marhcmarician as
_
ryabha(a possiby cvcn bcrrcrj , bur Abcruni
doubrcdrhar hc coud havc bccn as Icarcss a pionccr as
_
ryabha(a
ccaryvas. 1hcconsrrucrivcrocoIhcrcrodoxyandoIrhccouragcro
disagrccis noranycsspivorainscicnccrhaniris inrhcIosrcring oI
pubicrcasoningandinconsrrucringrhcroorsoIpoiricadcmocracy.
The Importance of Arguments
cIorc cosing rhis cssay, ! shoud makc ccar vhar is and, no css
imporranr, vharis norbcingcaimcd. 1hcrc is,inparricuar, nopro-
posahcrcroscckasingc-IacrorcxpanarionoI!ndia`s'pasrandprcs-
cnr`rhroughancxcusivcandscpararcIocusononcparricuarIcarurc
our oI a murirudc rhar can bc Iound in !ndia`s consranry cvoving
rradirions. 1orccognizcrhc imporrancc oIanargumcnrarivc hcriragc
and oIrhc hisroryoI hcrcrodoxy docs nor in anyvay do avayvirh
rhc nccd ro ook ar rhc impacr oI orhcr inHucnccs, nor obviarc rhc
ncccssiry oIinvcsrigaringrhcinrcracrions oIdincrcnrinHucnccs.
!r aso dcIinircy docs nor cncouragc us ro rhink oI any socia
Icarurc as an unchanging, pcrcnnia characrcrisric oI an ' crcrna
!ndia` .!ndiahasundcrgoncradicadcvcopmcnrsandchangcsovcrirs
ong hisroryvhich cannor bc undcrsrood virhourbringingina vari-
cryoIIacrors,circumsranccsand causaconnccrionsrharhavchad-
andarcconrinuingrohavc- rhcirimpacr. 1hcparricuarpoinr oIrhc
Iocus onhcrcrodoxyandoguaciousncssisnorsomuchroccvarcrhc
rocoIrradirioninrhcdcvcopmcnroI!ndia, burroscckaIucrrcad-
ing oI!ndianrradirions,vhichhavcinrcracrcd virh orhcrIacrorsin
rhcdynamismoI!ndiansocicryandcururc.
Considcr rhc rccvancc oIongoingrradirionsIor rhc dcvcopmcnr
oIdcmocracy - anissucrharvasbricHydiscusscd caricr. !nhisauro-
biography, Long Walk to Freedom, IcsonNandca norcs rhar as a
3 0
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
young boy hc carncd abour rhc imporrancc oI dcmocracy Irom rhc
pracricc oIrhc local AIrican mccrings rhar vcrc hcd in rhc rcgcnr`s
housc in^ghckczvcni.
Everyone who wanted to speak did so. I was democracy in its purest form.
There may have been a hierarchy of importance among the speakers, but every
one was heard, chief and subject, warrior and medicine man, shopkeeper and
farmer, landowner and laborer . . . . The foundation of self-government was that
all men were free to voice their opinions and equal in their value as citizens. 5
!n arguing rhar his 'ong valk ro Irccdom` bcgan ar homc, ^andca
vasnorcaimingrharnorhingclscmarrcrcdinrakinghimrovardsrhc
hghr Ior dcmocracy, norrhar dcmocracy voud havcno rclcvancc ro
SourhAIricahadirssociahcriragcbccndiIIcrcnr.1hcpoinris,rarhcr,
rharrhcrradirions ^andcla savar homcvcrcmomcnrous, andrhcy
inrcracrcd virh orhcr signihcanr Iacrors rhar inHucnccd him - and
orhcrs - in Sourh AIrica. And sincc rhc dcmocraric prccursors in
AIricahadbccnIairlyvidcyncgccrcdin discussions onpoirics and
colonial hisrory, ir vas parricuary imporranr Ior ^andcla ro bring
ourrhc roc oIAIrica`s hisroricalrradirions.' '
!r i si nrhis broad conrcxr rhar onc can scc rhc imporrancc oIrhc
conrriburions madc by!ndia`s argumcnrarivc rradirion ro irs inrclcc-
rua and socia hisrory, andvhyrhcy rcmainrccvanr roday. cspirc
rhccompcxiryoIrhcproccsscsoIsocialchangc,rradirionshavcrhcir
ovn inrcracrivc inHucncc, and ir is ncccssary ro avoid bcing impris-
oncdinIormuaicinrcrprcrarionsrhararcconsranrly,buroIrcnuncrir-
icaly, rcpcarcd in inrcccrua as vcl as polirical discussions on
hisrorica rradirions. !or cxamplc, sccing !ndian rradirions as ovcr-
vhcmingly rcigious, or dccpy anri-scicnriIic, or cxclusivcy hicr-
archical, orIundamcnraly unsccprical roconsidcra scroIdiagnoscs
rhar havc rcccivcd somc championing in curural carcgorizarionsj
involvcssignihcanrovcrsimpihcarionoI!ndia`spasrandprcscnr.And
in so Iar as rradirions arc imporranr, rhcsc mischaracrcrizarions rcnd
ro havc a scriousy divcrring cnccr on rhc analysis oI conrcmporary
!ndia asvcllasoIirs compcxhisrory. !ris inrharbroadconrcxrrhar
rhccorrccrivconvhichrhiscssayconccnrrarcscomcsparricularyinro
irs ovn. 1hc caimisrharrhc choscn Iocus hcrcis uscIuandinsrruc-
rivc,norrharirisuniguclycnlighrcning.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!risinrhisbroadconrcxrrharirbccomcsparricuaryimporranrro
norc rhar hcrcrodoxy has bccn championcd in many diIIcrcnr vays
rhroughour !ndian hisrory, and rhc argumcnrarivc rradirion rcmains
vcrymuchaivcroday. 1hisrradirionhasrcccivcdundcrsrandingand
supporrIrom many oIrhc modcrn cadcrs oI!ndia - noronypoiri-
cacadcrssuchas Nohandas Gandhi, burasopcopcinorhcrvaks
oIiIc, such as Kabindranarh 1agorc. 1agorc,vho vas proud oIrhc
Iacr rhar his Iamiy background rcHccrcd 'a conHucncc oI rhrcc cu-
rurcs,Iindu,Nohammcdanandrirish`,cmphasizcdrhcnccdrobc
vigianr in dcIcncc oI rhis opcn-mindcd rradirion and ro hcp ir ro
HovcrmorcIuy.
Likc Akbar`s championingoI rahi aql rhcparh oIrcasonj , 1agorc
cmphasizcd rhc roc oIdcibcrarion and rcasoning asrhc Ioundarion
oIa good socicry.
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow
domestic walls; . . .
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert
sand of dead habit; . . .
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake. 53
1har rask, momcnrous as iris, is madc casicr, ! havc argucd, byrhc
ong hisrory and consummarc srrcngrh oI our argumcnrarivc rradi-
rion,vhichvchavcrcasonrocccbrarc andro dcIcnd.
!cndonaposirivc iIsomcvharighr-hcarrcdjnorc,byrccoccring
a nincrccnrh-ccnrurycngaipocmbyKam Nohun Koyvhich bcars
onrhcsubj ccrmarrcroIrhiscssay. ' Koycxpainsvharisrcaydrcad-
Iuabourdcarh.
Ram Mohun Roy was one of the pioneering reformers in nineteenth-century India,
whose intellectual contributions matched his public work and leadership. In his far
reaching history of the emergence of the modern world, C. A. Bayly illuminatingly dis
cusses the role of Ram Mohun Roy, 'who made in two decades an astonishing leap
from the status of a late-Moghul state intellectual to that of the frst Indian liberal',
and who 'independently broached themes that were being simultaneously developed
in Europe by Garibaldi and Saint-Simon' ( The Birth of the Modern World I780-I9I4,
Oxford: Blackwell, 2004, p. 29 3 ). Ram Mohun Roy's love of reasoned arguments
combined well with the independence and reach of his mind.
3 2
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Just consider how terrible the day of your death will be.
Others will go on speaking, and you will not be able to argue back.
Vc arcrod,inincvirhouroguaciouscururc,rharrhcrcahardship
oI dcarh consisrs oI rhc Irusrraring - very Irusrraring - inabiiry ro
arguc. 1hcrc is, acruay, an inrcrcsring vision bchind rhis cxrra-
ordinarydiagnosis.
3 3
2
. Inequality, Instability and Voice
1hc rradirion oIhcrcrodoxy has ccar rclcvancc Ior dcmocracy and
sccuarism in !ndia, andmayhavc hcpcd!ndianphiosophy, marhc-
maricsandscicncc, burrhcrcarcasoorhcrissucsvirhvhichvchavc
rcasonrobcconccrncd. ocsirdoanyrhingmuchinrcsisringincgua-
iryandsrrarihcarion,orinhclpingrhcuniryoIrhccounrry, orinmak-
ingircasicrropursucrcgionapcacc!
Recognition and Inequality
! bcginvirhincguairy. !ndia has a rcrriblc rccord in sociaasymmc-
rry, oIvhichrhccasrcsysrcmisonyoncrcIccrion.1hismusrbcadc-
guarcyrccognizcdhrsr,cvcnvhcnvcrcsisrrhcrcmprarionroacccpr
ovcr-simplc gcncraizarions abour an acgcdy basic dichoromy
bcrvccn an insrincrivcly cvcn-handcdVcsr and a pcrcnniay hicrar-
chica !ndia rhc sromping ground oIvharLouis umonr has cacd
' homohicrarchicus` j . ' 1oacknovlcdgcrhc ong-srandingprcscnccoI
rcmarkabc socicra incguairy in !ndia, vc do nor havc ro cndorsc
radicalovcrsimpihcarions abourcurura- norromcnrion gcncric-
prcdisposirions rovards asymmcrryin!ndia.
urhovdocsrhcrradirionoIhcrcrodoxyandarguingrouchonrhis
aspccr oI!ndiansociaiIc! ! bcgin virh hcrcrodoxy and inclusivcncss,
andvirakcup arcr onrhcrccvanccoIarguing. 1hcincusivcncss oI
pluralisrrolcrarionin!ndiahasrcndcdmainyrorakcrhcIormoIacccpr-
ingdincrcnrgroupsoIpcrsonsasaurhcnricmcmbcrsoIrhcsocicry,virh
arighrroIoovrhcirovnbcicIsandovncusroms vhichmaybcvcry
dincrcnrIromrhosc oIorhcrsj . !ris basicalyarighroI'rccognirion` ,ro
3 4
INEQUALITY, INSTABILITY AND VOICE
invokca somcvhar ambiguousidcavirhIcgcianhcriragc,vhichhas
rcccivcdmuch discussion in conrcmporary socia andcurura rhcory.2
Sinccrhc idca oIrccognirioncanbcgivcndiIIcrcnrinrcrprcrarions,and
may somcrimcs suggcsr rhar a groups arc rakcn ro bc cgua in srarus
and sranding, ir is imporranrro cariIy rhar somcrhing rarhcr css rhan
rharis invovcdinvharmaybc cacd 'rhccguiryoIrccognirion` .
!ndccd,rarhcrrhansrickingrorhcovcruscdcxprcssion'rccognirion`,
vhichcansrandIormanydincrcnrrhings,!viuscrhc Sanskrirvord
swikriti, inrhcscnscoI'acccprancc`,inparricuarrhcacknovcdgcmcnr
rharrhcpcopcinvovcdarccnrircdro cadrhcirovnivcs.1hcidcaoI
swikriti nccd nor, oIcoursc, convcy any anirmarion oIcguairy oIrhc
srandingoIonc 'acccprcd`group comparcdvirhanorhcr.
Acccprancc,inrhisccmcnraryscnsc,mighrnorsccmikcmuch, bur
rhcpoiricavaucoIpuraismhasmuchrodovirhacccprancc- rhar
indccdisrhcdomaininvhichswikriti dcivcrsaor. ' !Irhcincusivc-
ncss oI !ndia madc ir casy Ior Chrisrians, |cvs, !arsccs and orhcr
immigranrs ro scrrc in !ndia ro cad 'rhcir ovn ivcs` , coming Irom
paccsvhcrc rhcy had bccnpcrsccurcd, rhcprincipcrharis invovcd
inrhis 'cguiryoIrocrarion`isoncoIacccprancc- oIswikriti - rarhcr
rhan cguairy in any broadcr scnsc. 1his rcmains a subsranria issuc
roday, sincc rhc cxrrcmisr parrs oI rhc Iindurva movcmcnr in con-
rcmporary !ndian poirics rhrcarcn - cxpiciry or by impicarion -
prcciscyrhcswikriti oInon-Iindus,parricuaryNusims.
Swikriti isrhusamomcnrousissuc,inirsovnrighr.ur,scpararcd
Irom orhcr obj ccrivcs and priorirics, ir docs irrc ro guaranrcc - or
advancc - rhc causc oIsocia cguairy or disrriburivc j usricc. !ndia`s
rccord inrhcsc arcas is indccd guirc appaing.| Andrhis rcmains so
*This is indeed a central issue in 'multiculturalism' which has become a matter of
much contention in contemporary Europe and
A
merica. The denial of swikriti can be
illustrated, for example, by the persecution of Turkish immigrants in Germany and by
Lord Tebbit's more amiable 'cricket yardstick', to wit, you cannot be accepted to be
truly settled in England unless you support the English cricket team in test matches.
tOn class- and gender-based inequalities, see Essays r o and I I below. I have dis
cussed a particularly elementary - and brutal - aspect of gender inequality in 'Missing
Women', British Medical Journal, 304 (7 Mar. 1992) , and 'Missing Women Revisited' ,
British Medical Journal, 327 (6 Dec. 200 3) , and in my joint book with Jean Dreze,
India: Development and Participation (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2002) . See also the large literature on these inequalities that is cited in these works.
3 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cvcnaIrcrmorc rhanhalIa ccnruryoIindcpcndcnccandrhcpracricc
oIdcmocraric polirics. ' !ncgualiricsrclarcd ro class, casrc or gcndcr
canconrinucvigorouslyvirhourbcingrrimmcdinanyvaybyrccog-
nirionorswzkriti. !IrhcnormoIacccpranccandoIparriciparionlcads
narurally, in rhc conrcxr oI a conrcmporary socicry, ro political
cgualiryvirhinrhcbroadsrrucrurcoIadcmocracyrharrranslarionis
casy cnoughj , ir docs norin any auromaricvay cxrcnd rharpolirical
symmcrryinrorhcpromorionoIsocial and economic cgualiry.
!n Iacr, . K. Ambcdkar, vho chaircd rhc commirrcc rhar draIrcd
!ndia`s dcmocraric consrirurion, concludcd his prcscnrarion virh a
povcrIul poinrcr. ' n rhc z6rh |anuary tpo rhc Iounding oI rhc
!ndianKcpublicvirhirsncvconsrirurion| ,vc arcgoingro cnrcrinro
aliIc oIconrradicrions.!npoliricsvcvill havc cgualiry andinsocial
andcconomicliIcvcvillhavcincgualiry. ` `1hcrcis,hovcvcr, acon-
nccrionbcrvccnrhcrvo - bcrvccndcmocraricpoliricsandrcsisrancc
ro cconomic incgualiry. 1his is nor a mcchanicalccrrainry as indccd
!ndia`svcryslovprogrcssinrcmovingsocialandcconomicincgualiry
brings ourj , bur ir can bc madc morc cIIccrivc rhrough commirrcd
public acrion andparriciparory acrivirics.
1hc righr ro comprchcnsivc parriciparion in dcmocraric polirics
canbcrhc basis oIsocial andpoliricaluscoI 'voicc` - rhroughargu-
mcnrs and agirarions - ro advancc rhc causc oIcgualiry in diIIcrcnr
sphcrcs oIliIc. !ndia`s dcmocraric pracricc has bccnlcss rhan vigor-
ous insomc oIrhcsc issucs, and rhcsc lacunac arc amongrhc mzj or
inadcguacics in rhc usc oIdcmocracy in !ndia roday. 1hc Iururc oI
srrarihcarions rclarcd ro class, casrc, gcndcr and orhcr barricrs vill
dcpcnd criricallyonhovrhcy arc addrcsscdinpoliricalcngagcmcnr
and parriciparory social acrions inrhc counrry. cspirc rhcIrusrra-
rionvirhdcmocracy cxprcsscdbymanypcoplc,disappoinrcdparric-
ularlybyrhc slovprogrcss againsr socicral incgualiry, vharisrcally
nccdcd is a morc vigorous pracricc oI dcmocracy, rarhcr rhan rhc
abscnccoIir.5
1hc!ndianconsrirurionirsclIpoinrsrorhcimporranccoIrakingup
rhcscissucsindcmocraricIrccdoms.1hcconsrirurionnor only idcnri-
*Many of the 'challenges' that India faces in the new millennium link closely with
continuing i nequalities in India; see Romila Thapar (ed. ) , India: Another Millennium
(New Delhi and London: Penguin Books, 2ooo) .
INEQUALITY, INSTABILITY AND VOICE
Iics ccrrain 'Iundamcnral righrs` , such as Irccdom oI spccch and
associarion and cgualiry bcIorc rhc lav, bur also dclincarcs a scr oI
spcciIic social and cconomic cnrirlcmcnrs undcr rhc ' irccrivc
!rinciplcs oISrarc!olicy`, including 'rhcrighrro anadcguarcmcans
oIlivclihood` , 'Ircc and compulsory cducarion Ior all childrcn`, and
'rhc righrro vork` . '` 1hcsc righrs havc bccnrhc basis inrcccnrycars
borhoIlcgaldccisionsbyrhcSuprcmcCourr,andoIvidcsprcadpop-
ular agirarion, IorcxamplcIor middaymcalsinschools,Ioragcncral
cmploymcnrguaranrcc, andorhcrsuchpublicarrangcmcnrs.!nalim-
ircdvay, publicvoicchasalrcadybcgunro shovirscIIccrivcncss.
1hcargumcnrarivcrradirion can bc a srrong ally oIrhcundcrdog,
parricularlyinrhcconrcxroIdcmocraricpracricc.Asvasdiscusscdin
rhchrsrcssay,voiccsoIdisscnr - socialasvcllasphilosophical - havc
oIrcncomc across barricrs oIcasrc, class and gcndcr, and rhcy havc
norbccncnrirclyincIIccrivc.uririsrhcinrcrmcdiarionoIdcmocraric
poliricsrharmakcs rhcvoiccsoIdisscnrparricularlycIIccrivcinprac-
ricalaIIairs.!orcxamplc,rhchighproporrionoIvomcninlcadcrship
posirions in !ndian narionalisr polirics and in rhc posr-indcpcndcncc
pcriod discusscd carlicrj rcHccrs a combinarion oI!ndian vomcn`s
abiliry ro usc rhcir voicc and rhc acrual opporrunirics oIpublic poli-
rics as irhappcns, inrhis casc, originallyvirhinrhc colonial sysrcm
oIrhc rirish Kaj , inrhcIorm oIa narionalmovcmcnragainst irj .
Somcrhing similar can bcsaid abour rhc involvcmcnr oIpolirical
lcadcrsIromdisadvanragcdclasscsandcasrcsin!ndianpoliricsroday.
Counrcrargumcnrsrorhccasrc sysrcmmayhavchadinrcllccrualIorcc
incarlydispurarions, cvcninparrs oIrhc Iindu classics as vas dis-
cusscdcarlicrj , virhclcararricularionoIsccpricalgucsrionsinvarious
Iorms.'VcallsccmrobcaIIccrcdbydcsirc,angcr,Icar,sorrov,vorry,
hungcr, and labour, hov do vc havc casrc diIIcrcnccs rhcn! ` r, ro
considcr anorhcrclassicaldispurarion. 'Sinccmcmbcrs oIall rhc Iour
casrcs arc childrcn oI God, rhcy all bclong ro rhc samc casrc. All
human bcings havc rhc samc Iarhcr, andchildrcn oIrhc samc Iarhcr
cannor havc diIIcrcnr casrcs. ` " ur rhc pracrical impacr oI such criri-
cismsoIsocicralpracricccanbcguircncgligiblc,unlcssargumcnrsand
disscnrsarcrcHccrcdinapoliricallycIIccrivcvoiccandinconsrrucrivc
*See the discussion of these 'rights' and their practical usability in Dreze and Sen,
India: Development and Participation, especially pp. I 84-8 , 3 36-4 0, 369-79.
3
7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
publicdiscussions. !rvould bc | usrasmuchoIa misrakc ro rrcar rhc
argumcnrarivc rradirion as bcing oI no rclcvancc vharcvcr ro con-
rcmporary !ndian socicry as ir vould bc ro rcgard rhar rradirion as
povcrIully cIIccrivc on irs ovn, irrcspccrivc oI arrangcmcnrs Ior
polirics, parricularlyoIdcmocraricpolirics.
nc oIrhc pcnalrics oIrhc incrcascdIocus on rcligious and com-
munalidcnrirics,vhichhasrcccnrlygonchandinhandvirhrhcdclib-
crarc Iosrcring oI sccrarian polirics in !ndia, is a vcakcning oI rhc
pursuiroIcgalirariancommirmcnrs,vhichrcguircsamorc inrcgrarcd
IocusonrhcinrcrcsrsandIrccdomsoIdcprivcdgroupsrakcnrogcrhcr
rclarcdro cconomic, social andgcndcr-bascdsrrarihcarionsj . Vhilc
polirical organizarions rharunirc allrhc lovcr casrcs can - and oIrcn
do- hclprhcundcrdogsingcncral,t rharcndisnorscrvcdbyrhcdivi-
sivc polirics oIrivalry bcrvccn diIIcrcnrlovcr-casrc groups hghring
cachorhcr, rarhcr rhan conIronringrogcrhcrrhc rop dogs oIsocicryj,
or by rcligious sccrarianism Ior cxamplc, by rhc congrcgarion oI
uppcr- and lovcr-casrc Iindus carcIully scr up ro j oinrly push and
shovcrhcnon-Iindusj . 1hcncvlycrccrcdcommunalboundarylincs
arc nor only divisivc in rhcmsclvcs, rhcy also add ro rhc social and
polirical diIIiculrics in rcmoving rhc old barricrs oI hardcncd
incgualiry.
1hc dcmands of j usricc in !ndia arc also dcmands for morc usc oI
voicc in rhc pursuir oI cguiry. 1hc argumcnrarivc hcriragc may bc an
imporranr asscr as ! bclicvcirisj , bur irs cIIccrivcncss dcpcnds onirs
usc. Nuch vould dcpcnd on rhc polirical dcploymcnr oI rhc
*There is also the further issue of the undermining of the role of deprived groups,
for example women, through the belittling ideology of sectarian politics. In the con
text of the Hindutva movement, see the problems identifed in Tanika Sarkar, Hindu
Wife, Hindu Nation: Religion, Community, Cultural Nationalism (Delhi: Permanent
Black, and Indian University Press, 2oor ) , and also Tanika Sarkar and Urvashi Butalia
( eds. ), Women and the Hindu Right (Delhi: Kali for Women, r 995 ), among other con
tributions in this area.
tGeneral anti-upper-caste movements, in fact, played an important part in the trans
formation of Kerala in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, by working for
more egalita.rian sharing of social benefts, for example of basic education and health
care. On this, see V. K. Ramachandran, 'Kerala's Development Achievements', in Jean
Dreze and Amartya Sen (eds . ) , Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives
(Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, r 996) .
INEQUALITY, INSTABILITY AND VOICE
argumcnrarivcvoiccinopposirionrosocicralincguiryandasymmcrry,
and rhc acrual usc rhar is madc oI rhc opporrunirics oI dcmocraric
arricularionandoIpolirical cngagcmcnr. SilcnccisapovcrIulcncmy
oIsocial j usricc.
The Unity of India
! rurn nov ro a diIIcrcnr issuc, rhar oI rhc uniry oI !ndia. Vc can
disringuishbcrvccnrvodisrincrIcarurcs oIrhc inrcrcommuniry dis-
cussionsarrangcdbyAkbarinAgrainrhclarcsixrccnrhccnrury. 1hc
hrsrvasrhc 'acccpranccoIpluraliry`,cmbracingrhc rcgular prcscncc
oIamulrirudcoIbclicIsandconvicrions.1hcsccondvasrhc'dialogic
commirmcnr` inrhcIormoIAkbar`svisionaryinsisrcncconrhcnccd
ro havc convcrsarions and inrcrchangcs among holdcrs oI diIIcrcnr
bclicIs and convicrions. 1hcy arc inrcrlinkcd Icarurcs oI a rich and
inrcgrarcdundcrsrandingoIa divcrsc socicry.
Considcr, hrsr, rhc Iar-rcachingrclcvancc oI rhc Iormcr- rhc morc
clcmcnrary - Icarurc oI Akbar`s vision, rhc acknovlcdgcmcnr and
rccognirionoIrhcinrcrnaldivcrsiryoI!ndia.1hccxrcnroIrhardivcr-
siry has baIIlcd many. !ndccd, many ccnrurics larcr, vhcn Vinsron
Churchill madc rhc momcnrous announccmcnr rhar !ndia vas no
morc acounrryrhanvasrhcLguaror, irvascvidcnrrharhisinrcllcc-
rualimaginarionvasscvcrclysrraincdbyrhcdiniculryoIsccinghov
so much divcrsiry could hr inro rhc conccprion oI onc counrry. 1hc
rirish bclicI, vcry common inimpcrial days and norcnrircly abscnr
nov,rharirvosrhcKajrharsomchov'crcarcd`!ndiarcHccrsnoronly
apridcinallcgcdaurhorship,buralsosomcbaIIlcmcnrabourrhcpos-
sibiliryoIaccommodaringsomuchhcrcrogcnciryvirhinrhccohcrcnr
limirs oIvharcould bcrakcnro bc aprc-cxisringcounrry.
Ycr, asis discusscdinLssays ;, 8 and IS, gcncralsrarcmcnrs abour
!ndia and!ndians can bcIoundrhroughour hisrory, Iromrhc ancicnr
days oIAlcxandcrrhcGrcar,oINcgasrhcncs aurhoroIrhcIndika, in
rhc rhird ccnrury BCE) , and oIApollonius oI 1yana an !ndia-cxpcrr
inrhchrsrccnrurycE) rorhc 'mcdicval` daysoIAraband!ranianvisir-
ors vho, likcAlbcruni,vrorcsomuchabourrhclandandrhcpcoplc
oI!ndiaj , all rhc vay ro rhc Lnlighrcnmcnr and posr-Lnlighrcnmcnr
39
THE ARGUMENTATI VE INDIAN
Luropc virhhcroicgcncralizarions abour!ndiaprcscnrcdbyIcrdcr,
Schclling, Schlcgcl and Schopcnhaucr, amongmanyorhcrsj . !r is also
inrcrcsring ro norc rhar, in rhc scvcnrh ccnrury CE, as rhc Chincsc
scholarYi|ingrcrurncdroChinaaIrcrspcndingrcnycarsin!ndia,hc
vas movcd ro ask rhc gucsrion. '!s rhcrc anyonc, in rhc hvc parrs oI
!ndia,vho docsnoradmircChina! `'1harrhcrorical - andsomcvhar
oprimisric - gucsrionisanarrcmprarsccingauniryoIarrirudcsinrhc
counrryasavholc, dcspirc irs divisions, includingirs 'hvcparrs` .
Akbar vas onc oIrhc ambirious and cncrgcric cmpcrors oI!ndia
along virh Candragupra Naurya, Ashoka, rhc larcr Candragupra
oIrhc Gupra dynasry, Alauddin Khilji, and orhcrsj vho vould nor
acccprrharrhcirrcgimcvascomplcrcunrilrhcbulkoIvharrhcyrook
ro bc onc counrry vas undcr rhcir unihcd rulc. ' 1hc vholcncss oI
!ndia, dcspirc all irs variarions, has consisrcnrly invircd rccognirion
and rcsponsc. 1his vas nor cnrircly irrclcvanr ro rhc rirish con-
gucrorscirhcr,vho- cvcninrhccighrccnrhccnrury - hadamorcinrc-
grarcd conccprion oI!ndia rhan Churchill vould havc bccn ablc ro
consrrucraroundrhc Lguaror.8
1hcIcarurcs oI!ndia`suniryvarygrcarlyvirhrhcconrcxr. Somc oI
rhcmarcmorcoIrcnrccollccrcdrhanorhcrs,rhoughrhcyallhavcrhcir
spccihcrclcvancc.Considcr,Iorcxamplc,rhccmcrgcncc,IarlcssoIrcn
discusscdrhanirshouldbc, oIrhcciryoI\jjain,inrhccarly ccnrurics
oIrhchrsr millcnnium CE, as rhc locarion oIrhc 'principal mcridian`
Ior!ndiancalcndars,scrvingIor!ndianasrronomcrsassomcrhinglikc
an!ndian Grccnvich.t As is discusscdin Lssay I , ir is srillrhc basc
oIrhc!ndiansrandardrimcroday, ncarlyrvorhousandycarslarcr, an
avkvardhvcandahalIhours ahcadoIGrccnvichNcan1imc.1har
rcchnical dcvclopmcnr clcarly had much ro do virh rhc locarion oI
impcrial povcr as vcll as scicnrihc rcscarch ar rhar rimc. \jj ain or
\jj ayin, asirvas rhcncallcdj,as an ancicnr !ndian ciry, movcd Irom
*There was, of course, some plasticity about the exact borders of what counts as
India, but such ambiguity is a common feature of nearly all territorial delineations.
Indeed, there is considerable dispute even today about where, say, India ends and
China begins, on the northern borders.
tUjjain had to compete initially with Benares, which is an older city. The early astro
nomical work Paulisa Siddhanta, which preceded Aryabhata's major breakthrough in
the ffth century, focused its attention on longitudes at three places in the world: Ujjain,
Benares and Alexandria.
INEQUALITY, INSTABILITY AND VOICE
irs rolc as rhc capiral oIAvanri larcr, Nalvaj in rhc scvcnrh ccnrury
BCE, ro bccomcrhccapiraloIrhc
g
akaroyalry, andmosr promincnrly
scrvcdasrhcbascoIrhclarcrGupradynasry, inrhcpcriodoIrhcHov-
cring oI!ndianmarhcmarics andscicncc.
\j j ainvas, asirhappcns,alsorhchomcoImanylcadcrsoI!ndia`s
lircrary and culrural vorld, including rhc pocr Kalidasa, in rhc hIrh
ccnrury. !r vas rhis connccrion, rarhcr rhan rhc scicnrihc onc, rhar
arrracrcd L. N. !orsrcr - rharpro
(
ound obscrvcr oI!ndia - ro \jjain
intptq. IcvassrruckbyrhclackoIconrcmporaryinrcrcsrinrhchis-
roryoIrharancicnrciry.' ldbuildingsarcbuildings,ruinsarcruins. `'
!nKalidasa`slongpocmMeghadutam, dcscribcdinLssayt asgiving
a unircdvicvoI!ndia asa counrryvirhvcryrichvariarionsj , a ban-
ishcdhusband,vho asksacloudrocarryacross!ndiahismcssagcoI
lovc and longing ro his Iar-avay viIc, insisrs rhar rhc cloud musr
undcrrakca dcrourro sccrhc magnihccncc oI\j j ain. Icoursc,hcrc
roo - as clscvhcrcinKalidasa`s scnsuous vrirings - hc cannorrcsisr
dvcllingonrhcIcmininccharmrharcouldbcIound.Ashcvisirsmod-
crn \j j ain, L. N. !orsrcr rccollccrs Kalidasa`s dcscriprion oI rhc
bcaury oI\jj ayin vomcn, and hovrhc hIrh-ccnrurycirylivcncdup
inrhccvcningas 'vomcnsrcalrorhcirlovcrs`rhrough 'darkncssrhar
anccdlcmighrdividc` . 1hccloudishrmlyinsrrucrcd.
Though it diverts you on your way northward,
Do not fail to see the roofs of Ujj ayin!'s stuccoed palaces -
If you are not enchanted there by the way the city women's eyes
Tremble in alarm at your bolts of lightning,
You are cheated.
IO
Kalidasa combincs his obscrvarion oI divcrsc charms and bcaurics
across !ndiavirh a dcrcrminarionroprovidc aIullvicv oIrhc cnrirc
landrharlics onrhcvayIromonccndoI!ndiaroanorhcronrhcrourc
rharrhcpocr dcrcrmincsIorrhcmcsscngcrcloud.
Similarly,Akbarnoronlynorcdrhcvariarionsacross!ndia,buralso
madc scrious arrcmprs ar somc srandardizarion. !ndccd, borh his
aborrivcmovcroiniriarcaninrcgrarcdcalcndarIor!ndia,rhc'1arikh-
ilahi` , and his unsucccssIul cnorrs ro havc a synrhcric rcligion, rhc
' in-ilahi ` , draving on rhc diIIcrcnr rcligions knovn in !ndia,
rcIccrcd a consrrucrivc scarch Ior an ovcrarching uniry, combincd
THE ARGUMENTATlVE INDIAN
virhahrmacknovlcdgcmcnroIpluraliry. 1hcrccognirionoIhcrcro-
gcnciry has much ro do virh an undcrsranding oI !ndia`s gualihcd
solidariryrharcmcrgcsinrhcscdivcrsclircrary, scicnrihcandpolirical
cIIorrs. cirhcr a homogcncous conccprion oI a unirary !ndia, nor
a vicv oI isolarcd scgmcnrs, could rakc rhc placc oI rhc idca oI a
pluralisr !ndia rhar vas Iirmly csrablishcd vcll bcIorc !ord Clivc
bcgancrccringrhcIoundarionsoIrhcKaj .
Solidarity and the Subcontinent
Jhc carlicr conccprions oI!ndia as a counrry havc had ro undcrgo
somc curbacks ovcrrhclasrccnrury, rhroughrhcparririon oI 1pq;.
urrhcrc arc clcarly manysharcdclcmcnrs inrhcsubconrincnralhcr-
iragc, draving as rhcy do onrhc mulriculrural hisrory oIrhc rcgion.
1hcsc clcmcnrs havc a vidcsprcad bcaring on rhc scarch, nov
cxrrcmclyimporranr,Ior a saIcr and morc prospcrous Sourh Asia.
l2
1hcyapplyinparricularrorhcIosrcringoIdiscussionsanddialogucs
ro counrcracrrhc rcnsionscrcarcdby - andrhc acrualdangcrsrcsulr-
ing Irom- rhc dcvclopmcnr oInuclcar bombs and dcadly missilcs in
borh !ndia and !akisran, and oI coursc ro rcsolving long-sranding
diIIcrcnccs onKashmir.
IopcIuldcvclopmcnrshavcrcccnrlyoccurrcdinrhcdialogicdircc-
rion. 1hcrc arc consrrucrivc inrcrgovcrnmcnral iniriarivcs and onc
hopcsrharrhcyvillbcmorcsrablcandrcsilicnrrhanpasrarrcmprsin
rhardirccrion.!orrhcsrrcngrhoIrhcdialogicproccss,irisimporranr
rharrhcdialogucsinvolvccivil socicrics asvcllas govcrnmcnr. 1hcrc
havc,inIacr,bccnimporranrandconsrrucrivcmovcsrhroughcirizcns`
scminars and colloguys Ior pcacc and human righrs in Sourh Asia,
iniriarcdbynon-govcrnmcnralrcgional organizarions. 1hcrcismuch
*Essay 12 goes specifcally into the nuclear issue. See also the literature cited there,
and also Dreze and Sen, India: Development and Participation, ch. 8 , Arundhati Roy,
War Talk (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 2003 ) , and other recent writings on the
terrible insecurities involved. Pervez Hoodbhoy's documentary film Pakistan and
India: Under the Nuclear Shadow and Anand Patwardhan's flm War and Peace also
provide well-informed and well-reasoned critiques of the nuclear policies of the two
countries and bring out starkly the seriousness of the problem both countries face.
INEQUALITY, INSTABILIT
Y
AND VOICE
rcason Ior hopc inrhc Iacr rhar rhcsc cirizcns` mccrings, vhcncvcr
organizcd, rcnd ro arrracr cxrcnsivc parriciparion cvcn in rhc mosr
unIavourablc circumsranccs. !or cxamplc, rhcrc vas a mccring oI
SourhAsiansIor IumanKighrs, arcmarkablcinrcr-counrrycirizcns`
organizarion lcdbyAsma|ahangirand!. K. Gujralj , incvclhiin
ovcmbcr zoot, arrcndcd bymorc rhan ;oo cirizcnsIrom diIIcrcnr
parrs oI rhc subconrincnr oI vhom ! vas oncj , j usr as !ndia and
!akisran sccmcd ro bc hcading Ior a violcnr milirary conIronrarion.
1hc mcdia, roo, hasacriricallyimporranrrolcroplayin advancinga
dialogicapproach. '
1hcrc arc also imporranr issucsro bc addrcsscdinrhc orhcr inrcr-
counrry aIIairs in rhc subconrincnr. !or cxamplc, rclarions bcrvccn
Sri !anka and !ndia havc bccn viriarcd by much misundcrsranding
abour vhar !ndia should - or can - do ro hclp rcsolvc rhc issuc oI
1amil scpararism. Similarly, rclarions bcrvccn angladcsh and!ndia
dcmandmuchsubrlcryoIpcrccprion,linkcdasrhcrvocounrricsarc
nor only by hisrory, bur also by languagc and lircrarurc cngali
culrurcHourishcs on borhsidcs oIrhc bordcrj , rcligion rhc Nuslim
minoriryin!ndiaconsrirurcsabourrhcsamcproporrionoIrhc!ndian
popularion as rhc Iindu minoriry docs oI rhc angladcshi popula-
rionj , migrarion Iairly cxrcnsivc, raking rhc illcgal virh rhc Icgalj ,
polirics borh sccular burvirh a subsranrialprcscnccoIrcligious scc-
rarianism in borh counrricsj , and cconomics grcar porcnrialiry oI
closccconomicricsrharconrinucrorcmainlargclyunrcalizcdj . 1hcrc
arcmaniIcsrproblcmsrobc addrcsscd on rhc basis oIa Iullcr undcr-
sranding, and rhc usc oI rhc dclibcrarivc approach - virh a long
hcriragc in rhc j oinrhisroryoI!ndia and angladcsh - has muchro
oIIcr hcrc asvcll.
1hc dialogiccommirmcnrrclarcdrorhclongmulriculruralhisrory
oIrhcsubconrincnrisindccddccplyrclcvanrIorrcgional solidariryas
vcll as narional uniry and social j usricc. Lvcn rhough rhis book is
*The Indian press can take some pride in its reach and independence over a long
period. However, the rapid expansion of the breadth and coverage of parts of the
Pakistani news media is among the most signifqt developments in South Asia. The
tradition of non-sectarianism, particularly advanced by periodicals led by the excellent
Friday Times and the Herald, fnds considerable reflection in the daily papers, includ
ing the Dawn; the Daily Times, the Nation and others.
43
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
mainly conccrncd

virh rhc problcms oI!ndia in parricular, ! should

cmphasizcrhcimporranccoIdravingonrhcdialogichcriragcborhoI
!ndia andoIrhc rcgion as avholc.Vc arcindccdIorrunarc rharrhis
rradirioncxisrsandisrcasonablyvcllcsrablishcdinrhcsubconrincnr.
1hcrc is basis Ior somc hopc Ior rhc Iururc inrhc lincs idcnrihcd by
rharrcmarkablcobscrvcroIrhcsubconrincnrcravio!azinhis book
In Light of India:
Of course, it is impossible to foresee the future turn of events. In politics and
history, perhaps in everything, that unknown power the ancients called Fate
is always at work. Without forgetting this, I must add that, in politics as well
as in private life, the surest method for resolving conficts, however slowly, is
dialogue.
1hc argumcnrarivc rourc has irs uscs. Vc can rry ro our-ralk rhc
'unknovn`- and dumb - povcr ol!arc.
*Octavia Paz, In Light of India (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1 997) , p. 1 3 3.
44
3
India: Large and Small
Some Personal Memories
1hisisa gcncral bookon!ndia, andshouldpcrhaps bcuncomprom-
isingly impcrsonal . Iovcvcr, ! vill rakc rhc libcrry oI ralking a
lirrlc, virh duc apology, abour somc pcrsonal mcmorics. Nany oI
my childhood ycars vcrc spcnr in my grandparcnrs` homc ar
Sanrinikcran,vhcrc!srudicdarrhcschoolrharKabindranarh1agorc
hadcsrablishcdandvhcrcmygrandIarhcr,KshiriNohanScn,raughr.
Ic vas, among orhcrrhings, a vcll-knovn Sanskririsr hc vas cvcn
oIIicially rirlcd a '!undir`, rclarcd ro his accomplishmcnrs ar rradi-
rional ccnrrcs oISanskriric cducarion in cnarcsj , and hcvas also a
maj or cxpcrr onIinduism, Iocusing borh onirs Iormidablc classical
hcriragcandonrhcmcdicvalrcligiouslircrarurcandorhcrdcvorional
pocrry suchasrharoIKabir,adu,rhcaulsoIcngalj . ' Vc didnor
havc any rcligious riruals ar homc, bur my grandparcnrs had Iairly
hrm rcligious convicrions, in linc virh a conrcmplarivc and rarhcr
non-ccrcmonial vcrsion oIIinduism. Also, Kshiri Nohanvas oIrcn
askcd ro spcak ar hcrcrodox rcligious mccrings in Sanrinikcran,
Calcurraandclscvhcrc.
* See Kshiti Mohan Sen, Medieval Mysticism of India, wit h a Foreword by
Rabindranath Tagore, trans. from Bengali by Manomohan Ghosh (London: Luzac,
1 930), and Hinduism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961, 2005 ) . His Bengal i books
include not only investigations of the ancient Hindu texts (often focusing on social
issues) , but also of the 'medieval' religious schools that drew on both Hinduism and
Islam. His Bengali books are still very widely read, particularly t hose on Kabir, Dadu
and the Bauls, and on the scriptural diversities on the subject of the caste system and
women's social status.
45
THE ARGUMENTATlVE INDIAN
Sincc mychildhoodrhoughrs- Iorvharrhcyvcrcvorrh - didnor
arrracrmcarallro rcligion, ! askcdmygrandIarhcrvhcrhcr! should
bcconccrncdrharrcligion didnorappcalro mc. Icroldmc, 'o,in
IacrrhcrcisnocascIorhavingrcligiousconvicrionsunrilyouarcablc
rorhinkscriouslyIoryoursclI - irvillcomcvirhrimc. ` Sincc, inmy
casc,irdidnorcomcarallmysccpricismsccmcdromarurcvirhagcj ,
! roldmygrandIarhcr, somc ycars larcr, rharhchadbccn absolurcly
vrong. 'or ar all,` rcplicd my grandIarhcr, 'you havc addrcsscdrhc
rcligiousgucsrion,andyouhavcplaccd yoursclI, ! scc, inrhcarhcisric
- rhc!okayara - parroIrhcIinduspccrruml `
! rcmcmbcrrcHccring onrharlargcvicvoI Iinduismvhcn, somc
ycars larcr, ! vas hclping my grandIarhcr ro producc and cdir rhc
Lnglish vcrsion oI a book on Iinduism vhich hc had vrirrcn in
cngali hckncvlirrlc Lnglishj , arrhcinvirarion oI!cnguinooks. '`
1his book, publishcd in tp6t, vas a grcar succcss, borh in Lnglish
virhmanyrcprinrsonborhsidcsoIrhcArlanricj , andinrranslarions
inro orhcr languagcs !rcnch, urch, Spanish, bur also !arsi and
|apancscj . Among irs subsranrivc accomplishmcnrs, Kshiri Nohan`s
book broughr our virh much clariry rhc hcrcrodoxy oI bclicIs rhar
Iinduism allovcd, virh a richvaricryoIvcll-dcvclopcd bur divcrsc
rcligious argumcnrs. Kshiri Nohan idcnrihcd an ovcrarching libcral-
iryas bcingparr andparccl oIrhc basic Iindu approach, and savir
as onc oI irs inrcllccrual conrriburions ro rhc vorld oI rhoughr.
'Iinduismalso poinrs ourrhar a diIIcrcncc oImcraphysical docrrinc
nccd nor prcvcnr rhc dcvclopmcnr oIan acccprcd basic codc oIcon-
ducr. 1hc imporranrrhing abour a man is his dharma roughly, rhc
pcrsonalbasisoIbchaviourj ,norncccssarilyhisrcligion. `1harpridc
inlibcraliry androlcranccconrrasrsrarhcrsharplyvirhrhc bclligcr-
cnrly sccrarian inrcrprcrarion oI Iinduism vhich is nov bccoming
commonrhroughirs poliricizarion.
! shall nor cnrcrhcrc inro rhc diIIiculr gucsrion oIrhc rolcIindu
rradirion may havc playcd in susraining a dialogic culrurc and rhc
rolcrancc oIhcrcrodoxyin !ndia, virh vhichrhis bookismuch con-
ccrncd. Somc oIrhcmosrarricularcandardcnradvocarcsoIrolcrancc
*This book, called Hinduism and frst published in I 96I , will be reissued soon by
Penguin Books, with a new Foreword, written by the present author.
INDIA: LARGE ANDC SMALL
and murual rcspccr

i n!ndia vcrc nor rhcmsclvcs Iindu, such as

Ashoka,vhovasauddhisr,andAkbar,vhovasaNuslim,burrhcy
roo bclongcd ro a broad culrurc in vhich Iindu Icrcrodoxy vas
vigorouslyprcscnr.Asvasdiscusscdinrhchrsrcssay, rhcrcis a long
rradirion oI rolcraring doubrs and disagrccmcnrs virhin Iinduism,
goingbackrorhcancicnrVcdas,somcrhrccandahalIrhousandycars
ago,vhichmadcroomIorproIoundsccpricism. 'Vhorcallyknovs !
Vhovillhcrcproclaimir!Vhcnccvasirproduccd! . . . Vhcnccrhis
crcarion has ariscn - pcrhaps irIormcdirsclI, or pcrhaps irdidnor!`
!ndccd, asvasdiscusscdi nLssay t, i nsomc oIrhc conrrovcrsics
Iorcxamplc,bcrvccnKamaand|avaliinrhcRamaya1a andbcrvccn
Krishna andArjunainrhcMahabharata) , inrricarcargumcnrs againsr
Kama`sandKrishna`s orrhodoxvicvs arc claborarcly accommodarcd
and carcIully prcscrvcd in rhc body oI rhc csrablishcd rcxrs rhcm-
sclvcs. Lvcn rhough orrhodoxy is shovn ro vin arrhc cnd, rhc van-
guishcd sccpricism livcs on, vcll conscrvcd in rhc dialogic accounr.
1hc Ramaya1a norcs rhar|avalidcscribcs rhc dccisions rakcn byrhc
cpic hcro Kama - rhc samc Kama vhosc diviniry has bccn an acr oI
Iairh in rcccnrly poliricizcdIinduism - as cxrrcmcly 'Ioolish`, cspc-
ciallyIorroguorc|avalij' aninrclligcnrandviscman` .|avaliisgivcn
rhcopporruniryinrhccpicrospcllourvhyhccomcs rorharncgarivc
j udgcmcnr. '!amrcallyanxiousIorrhoscvho,disrcgardingallrangi-
blcdurics andvorks rharlicvirhinrhc provincc oIpcrccprion, busy
rhcmsclvcsvirhcrhcrcalvirrucalonc.1hcyj usrsuIIcrvariousmiscrics
hcrc on carrh, prcccdingrhcir annihilarionby dcarh. ` 1hc claborarc
prcscnrarion oI alrcrnarivc poinrs oI vicvs dravs arrcnrion ro rhc
pluraliry oIpcrspccrivcs and argumcnrs, andrhis rradirion oIaccom-
modaringhcrcrodoxyrcccivcs, asvas discusscdinLssay t, cxrcnsivc
supporrvirhinvcll-csrablishcdIindudocumcnrs Iorcxamplcinrhc
Iourrccnrh-ccnrury srudy Sarvadarsanasargraha ' Collccrion oI All
!hilosophics` j , vhcrc sixrccnconrrary and compcring vicvpoinrs arc
scgucnriallyprcscnrcdinasmanychaprcrsj .
!n conrrasr virh rhis largc vicv, many Iindu polirical acrivisrs
rodaysccm bcnr ondoing avayvirhrhc broad androlcranrparrs oI
rhc Iindu rradirion in Iavour oI a unigucly asccrraincd - and oIrcn
Iairly crudc- vicvvhich, rhcydcmand, musr bcacccprcdbyall. 1hc
piouslybclligcrcnrarmyoIIindupoliricsvouldrarhcrrakcus avay
4
7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Irom rhcsc cngagingly rhoughrIul discussions and vould havc us
cmbracc insrcad rhcir much-rcpcarcd public proclamarions, Ior
cxamplc rhar Kama, rhc cpic hcro, is an incarnarion oIGod, rharall
Iindus vorship him, andrharhcvas bornon a vcll-idcnrihcd spor
'ninc lakh poo,oooj ycars ago`.` Vc arc rhus nor allovcd ro sccrhc
Ramayma as 'a marvcllous parablc` as Kabindranarh 1agorc sav
irj , ' burasahisroricaldocumcnrvhichcannorbcgucsrioncd.!risalso
rakcn ro havc cnough lcgal srarus ro givc acrivcly dcsrrucrivc Iindu
poliricians a liccncc ro rcar dovn a placc oIvorship oIorhcr pcoplc
rhcabrimosguc,inrhiscasc,dcmolishcdincccmbcrtppzj robuild
arcmplcro Kama,incclcbrarionoIhisallcgcdbirrhcxacrlyrhcrc.
1hcrcis also aIurrhcrclaimrhar, bcIorc irvas dcmolishcd byrhc
Iindu acrivisrs, rhc abri mosguc or masj idj srood prcciscly ar
rhc sirc oIan carlicr Iindu rcmplc, allcgcdly dcsrroycd ro tuild rhc
mosguc. 1hishisroricalclaimvhcrhcrornorcorrccrj , rhcaurhcnric-
iry oIvhich is currcnrly undcr scruriny by no lcss a body rhan rhc
Suprcmc CourroI!ndiaj , hasrobcdisringuishcdIromrhcmorcgigan-
ric claim rhar Kama, rhc divinc incarnarion, vas born rhcrc, bcIorc
rccordcdhisrorybcgan.
Vhy any oIrhcsc rhcorics - hisrorical or rcligious - cvcn iIrhcy
vcrcacccprcd,vouldgivcaliccnccIorrcligious vandalism or sccrar-
ian dcsrrucrion is nor ar all clcar. ur in addirion, cvcn virhin rhc
orrhodoxy oIIinduism, rhc insisrcncc rhar rhc rcligious claims oI a
parricular group musr bc acccprcd as indispurablc rrurh vould bc a
rcmarkablyconsrricrcdvicv. NanyIindu schools oIrhoughr donor
mcnrion Kama ar all, and, among rhc rcxrs rhar do, many hardly
porrrayhim in rhc spccracularlighroIdiviniry invhichrhc prcscnr-
day Iindurva acrivisrs insisr on sccing him. !ndccd, rhc Ramayma
irsclI, as jusr discusscd, makcs room Ior rhosc vho rorally disagrcc
virhKamaro arricularc,rarhcrclaborarcly, rhcir doubrs.t
*Rabindranath Tagore was keen to preserve the obvious distinction between mytho
logical tales and historical truths: 'the story of the Ramayaga' is not to be i nterpreted
as 'a matter of historical fact' but 'in the plane of ideas', as a marvellous parable of
'reconciliation' (A Vision of India's History, Calcutta: Visva-Bharati, 1951, p. I o) .
tThere are also several distinct versions of the Rmaya1a, varyi ng with region and
community within India, offering somewhat different accounts of what was meant to
have happened in this epic story. The versions of the Ramaya1a known in South-East
Asia, for example in Thailand and Indonesia, include further vari ations.
INDIA: LARGE AND. SMALL
!n addirionroIavouringnarrovlyrcligiousccrrainry, Iindupolir-
icalacrivisrs clcarlyprcIcrro dvcll on inrcr-rcligious conIronrarions,
rarhcr rhan on rhc rradirion oI rhc pcaccIul prcscncc oI diIIcrcnr
Iairhs, sidc bysidc. !ndians - Iindus asvcll as orhcrs - canacrually
rakc somc pridc in rhc Iacrrharpcrsccurcd minorirics such as|cvs,
Chrisrians, !arsccsj Irom abroad havc comc ro !ndia ovcr many
ccnrurics,scckingancvandunpcrsccurcdliIc,andhavc,byandlargc,
Ioundirpossiblc. AconrinuarionoIrharrolcranrandrcccprivcrradi-
rioncanalso bcIoundin rhclibcralvrirings oImodcrn-daypolirical
orlircrarylcadcrs,suchasGandhior1agorc.!risvcllrcprcscnrcdin
rhc spccchcs and rcligious vrirings oI many non-aggrcssivc Iindu
lcadcrs oIourovnrimc, suchasVivckananda.
Ir is nor, hovcvcr, parricularly vorrhvhilc ro cnrcr inro a dcbarc
ovcr vhcrhcr rhc libcral, rolcranr and rcccprivc rradirions virhin
Iinduism may in any scnsc bc rakcn ro bc morc aurhcnric rhan rhc
narrovcr and morc combarivc inrcrprcrarions rhar havc bccn Iorcc-
Iullychampioncdbyprcscnr-dayIindupolirics. !rissuIIicicnrronorc
hcrc rhar rhcrc is a vcll-csrablishcd capaclous vicv oI a broad and
gcncrous Iinduism, vhich conrrasrs sharply virh rhc narrov and
bcllicosc vcrsionsrhararccurrcnrlyonpoliricaloIIcr, lcdparricularly
byparrs oIrhcIindurvamovcmcnr.
The Emergence of Hindutva
Iov old is rhc Iindurva movcmcnr! !r is a rclarivcly ncv dcvclop-
mcnr in !ndian polirics, bur ir has bccomc a povcrIul Iorcc. 1hc
harariya |anara !arry |!j , rhc polirical parry rhar rcprcscnrs rhc
Iindurva movcmcnr inrhc Indian parliamcnr, vas in oIIicc in cv
clhi bcrvccn tpp8 and zoo(, rhrough lcading a coalirion govcrn-
mcnr,unrilirsclccroraldcIcarinNay zoo(.
Alrhough Iinduism is an ancicnr rcligion, Iindurva is guirc a
rcccnr polirical movcmcnr. A polirical parry callcd rhc ' Iindu
Nahasabha` didcxisrbcIorc!ndia`s indcpcndcncc, and irs succcssor,
rhc '|an Sangh` , commandcd rhc loyalry oI a small proporrion oI
Iindus. urncirhcrparryvasapolirical Iorcc rorcckonvirh inrhc
vay rhc |! and irs associarcs havc nov bccomc. Virh irs coalirion
49
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
parrncrs, vhich i

cludc largcly sccular burrcgionalparrics Irom diI-

Icrcnr parrs oI!ndia somc virh only local supporrj and a rclarivcly
rinymiliranrIinduparryrhcShivScna,virhalocal bascinrhcsrarc
oINaharashrraj , rhc |! rook conrrol oIrhc ccnrral govcrnmcnr in
tpp8, and, aIrcr somc dcIccrions, Iormcda ncvcoalirion ro sccurc a
j oinrclccroralvinagain,in tppp.
1hc |!`s rischasbccnmcrcoric.!nrhc!okSabha rhc povcrIul
lovcr houscj oIrhc !ndian parliamcnr, rhc |! had j usrrvo scars in
tp8q. !n tp8p ir von 8 scars. y tppt ir had managcd ro gcr t tp
scars, by tpp8 ir had t 8 z scars, and in tppp ir again caprurcd t 8z
scars.Vhilcrharvas srilla minoriry, in a houscoIqj scars in all, ir
vas adcguarc Iorrhc|!, asrhclargcsrsinglcparry, robcrhc lcading
parrncroIacoalirionarionalcmocraric Allianccj rharrulcd!ndia
unril zooq. !n rhc Nay zooq clccrions, hovcvcr, rhc|!vcnr dovn
Iromt 8zscarsroonlyt j 8,virhrhc!ndianarionalCongrcsscmcrg-
ing as rhc largcsr parry in parliamcnr virh tq scarsj , commanding
maj orirysupporrvirhirs ovnallics zt 8scarsinallj andrhcbacking
oIrhcparrics oIrhclcIr 6oscarsj .
!I rhc |! suIIcrcd a subsranrial dcclinc, losing a guarrcr oI irs
parliamcnraryscars,mosroIrhc'sccular`parricsinrhc|!-lcdalliancc
suIIcrcdacarasrrophicdcbaclc,virhrhcA!NKin1amiladulosing
all irs scars, rhc 1rinamool inVcsrcngal losing all bur onc, and rhc
cconomically dynamic 1clcgu csom !arry oIAndhra !radcsh bcing
rcduccdro scarsIromaprcviousroraloIzp.1hcvorcrssccmrohavc
bccnparricularlyharshonmosroIrhcsccularcollaborarorsoIrhc|!.
Lvcnrhough rhc|! isno longcr dominanr, inrhcvayirvasovcr
rhc lasrIcvycars,irrcmainsapoliricallypovcrIulIorcc, andisvork-
ing hard ro rcrurn ro oIIicc bcIorc long. 1hc |! has maximally
rcccivcdaroundaguarrcroIrhcvorcscasrin!ndiangcncralclccrions.
1hishappcncdin tpp8 - irsvorcsharcIcllIromapcakoIz6pcrccnr
in tpp8rozqpcrccnrintppp, anddovnro zzpcrccnrinzooq,virh
Congrcss gcrring z; pcr ccnr. Ycr rhc |! docs havc loyal supporr
Iroma commirrcdgroup oIsupporrcrs, andirisanimporranrparroI
rhc conrcmporary!ndianpolirical sccnc. ursinccrhc|!is dcpcnd-
cnronirscoalirionsrogcrinrooIIicc,irscIIccrivcsrrcngrhdcpcndson
irs abiliryro arrracrsupporrIrombcyondrhcimmcdiarc|! Iold.
1hc |!`s povcrIul rolc in mainsrrcam !ndian polirics and rhc
50
INDIA: LARGE AND - SMALL
mighroIrhcIindurvamovcmcnrarcparrsoI rhcncvpoliricalrcaliry
in!ndia.!nrhccarlyycarsaIrcrindcpcndcncc,rhcbroadandinclusivc
conccpr oI an !ndian idcnriry vhich had cmcrgcd during rhc long
srrugglcIorIrccdomcommandcdsvccpingallcgiancc. `1hc dcrcrmi-
narion ro prcscrvc rhar capacious idcnriry vas srrcngrhcncd by rhc
dccp scnsc oIrragcdyassociarcdvirhrhc parririoning oIrhc subcon-
rincnr,andalsobyconsidcrablcnarionalpridcinrhcIacrrhardcspirc
rhcpoliricalprcssurcIor' ancxchangcoIpcoplc` , rhcbulkoIrhclargc
Nuslimpopularioninindcpcndcnr!ndiachoscrosrayin!ndiararhcr
rhan movc ro !akisran. 1his inclusivc idcnriry, vhich acknovlcdgcd
and cmbraccd inrcrnal hcrcrogcnciry and cclcbrarcd rhc richncss oI
divcrsiry, vcnrvirhanadamanrrcIusalroprioririzcrhcdiIIcrcnrrcli-
giouscommuniricsagainsrcachorhcr.
!r is rhis spacious and absorprivc idca oI!ndianncss rhar has bccn
scvcrcly challcngcd ovcr rcccnr dccadcs." Ar rhc risk oI slighr ovcr-
simplihcarion, ircanbcsaidrharrhcmovcmcnrsccsIindurva lircr-
ally, ' rhc gualiry oI Iinduism` j as a guinrcsscnrial guidc ro
'!ndianncss` . Lvcn rhough rhc movcmcnr had rclarivcly lirrlc public
supporrarrhcrimcoI!ndianindcpcndcncc,rhcidcaoI'Iindurva` as
apoliricalidcologyhadalrcadybccnlaunchcdmorcrhanrvodccadcs
carlicr. !ndccd, rhc conccproIIindurvavas claborarclydiscusscdin
a book oI rhar namc, publishcd in t pzj , aurhorcd by Vinayak
amodar Savarkar, oIrcn callcd 'Vccr` valianrj Savarkar, a Iindu
chauvinisrlcadcroIrcmarkablccncrgy.VhilcirisoIrcnassumcdrhar
inprc-parririon!ndiarhcclaimrharrhcIindus andNuslims Iormcd
'rvodisrincrnarions`- norrvoparrsoIrhcsamc!ndiannarion- vas
IormularcdbyNuhammadAli|innah inrhcconrcxroImakingacasc
Ior rhc parririon oI rhc counrry on rcligious lincsj , ir vas in Iacr
Savarkar vho had Hoarcd rhc idca vcll bcIorc - morc rhan hIrccn
ycars carlicr rhan - |innah`s Iirsr invoking oI rhc idca. arhuram
Godsc,vhomurdcrcdNaharmaGandhiIorhisIailurcrosupporrrhc
dcmands oIIindupolirics oIrhcday,vas a disciplc oISavarkar.8
1hc|! gcrs polirical supporrIrom a modcsr minoriry oI!ndians,
and, no lcss ro rhc poinr, a limircd minoriry oI rhc Iindus. As vas
norcd carlicr, rhc proporrion oI roral vorcs in !ndian parliamcnrary
clccrions rhar rhc |! has maximally managcd ro gcr has bccn only
abour z6 pcr ccnr as vas mcnrioncd carlicr, ir has nov Iallcn ro
5 1
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
zz pcr ccnrj , in a counrryvhcrcmorc rhan 8o pcr ccnr oIrhcroral
popularion happcn ro bclongro rhc Iinducommuniry. !risccrrainly
norrhc parry oI choicc oImosr Iindus - Iar Iromir. 1hcrc is also a
disrincrly rcgional parrcrn in rhc polirical divisions in !ndia. !ndccd,
rhcrc arcscvcral!ndiansrarcsinvhichrhc|!hasncvcrvoncvcna
singlc parliamcnraryscar.
1hcpoliricsoIIindurva is promorcd by aIamilyoIIindupoliri-
cal organizarions oI vhich rhc |! is only onc parr. 1hc ' Sangh
!arivar`, as iris callcd, is lcd byrhcKashrriya SvayamScvak Sangh
KSSj or'organizarionoInarionalvolunrccrs`,vhichisinmanyvays
rhc corc organizarion oI rhc parivar Sanskrir Ior Iamilyj . 1hc KSS
providcs rhcorcrical analyscs as vcll as Iuncrional acrivirics in rhc
promorionoIIindurva. 1hc Sangh!arivaralsoincludcsrhc 'Vishva
Iindu!arishad` VI!j , orrhcVorldCounciloIIindus,dcvotcdnor
j usrro rcligion asrhcnamc indicarcsj bur ro inrcnscly rcligiouspoli-
rics championing vhar rhcy scc as Iinduism. !r also includcs
rhc 'Scva harri` , dcdicarcd ro vclIarc programmcs linkcd virh rhc
Iindu rva movcmcnr. 1hcrc is in addirion rhc ' ajrang al` , rhc
violcnrlycncrgcricyourhvingoIrhcVishvaIindu!arishad,vhich
has bccn accuscd - byrhc inrcrnarional Iuman KighrsVarchasvcll
as rhc !ndian Iuman Kighrs Commission- oI dirccrinvolvcmcnr in
rhckillingoINuslimsinrhc Gujararriorsinzooz. 1hc|!isrhcoIIi-
cial polirical arm oIrhc Sangh!arivar, andmosroIrhc majorlcadcrs
oIrhc|!havcbccnmcmbcrs oIrhcKSSIoralongrimc.
1hcIindurvamovcmcnrhashadasrrongcIIccronrcccnrpolirical
dcvclopmcnrs in!ndia, and has addcd vcry subsranrially ro rhc poli-
ricsoIsccrarianism.'!risrhcrcIorcimporranrroinvcsrigarcrhcnarurc
oIrhcinrcllccrualclaimsirmakcsandrhcargumcnrsirprcscnrs. Sincc
rhc Iindurva movcmcnr has bccn accompanicd by violcnr physical
acrions, including rhc killing and rcrrorizing oI minorirics as
happcncdinombayin tppz-j andinGujararinzooz) ,irisdiIIiculr
rohavcparicnccvirhirsinrcllccrualbclicIs andpublicproclamarions.
ur losingparicncc is nor a uscIulvay oIaddrcssing any problcm-
cvcn onc virh such violcnr associarions. 1hc hcrcrogcnciry rcHccrcd
byrhcdiIIcrcnrcomponcnrsoIrhcIindurva movcmcnr also dcmands
rhar irs inrcllccrual ving should rcccivc arrcnrion, norvirhsranding
vharrhcirmorcviolcnrcomradcsprcIcrro do.
52
INDIA: LARGE AND, SMALL
! nIacr, vhilc rhc hard corcoI'Iindurva` advocarcsi s rclarivcly
small in numbcr, around rhcm clusrcr a vcry much largcr group,
vhom ! vill call ' proro-Iindurva` cnrhusiasrs. 1hcy arc rypically
lcss zcalous rhan rhc Iindurva champions and arc opposcd ro
violcncc in gcncral andarcrypicallyguircpur oII by irj ,` burrhcy
ncvcrrhclcss scc a basic asymmcrry bcrvccn rhc prc-cmincncc oI
Iinduism in!ndia and rhc claims oIorhcrrcligionsvhich arc 'also
prcscnr`in!ndia.1hcyagrcc,rhus,virhrhcidcologyoIIindurvain
givinga primarysrarus ro rhc Iindus in !ndia, comparcdvirhrhc
adhcrcnrs oIorhcrIairhs.
1hcargumcnrIorrhisasymmcrrysccmsrodravonrvoIacrs.
( I ) the statistical fact that the Hindus form an overwhelming majority of
Indians ( no other community comes anywhere close to it numerically),
and
( 2) the historical and cultural fact that the Hindu tradition goes back more
than three thousand years in Indian history ( at least to the Vedas) and
that nearly every part of the Indian culture bears the historical imprint of
Hindu thoughts and practices.
orh arc undoubrcdly vcighry considcrarions and dcscrvc scrious
arrcnrionandscruriny.
Numbers and Classifcation
1hc srarisrical argumcnrsrarrs clcarlyvirh a corrccr prcmisc. morc
rhanIour-hIrhs oIrhc!ndiancirizcnsarcIindusinrcrmsoIsrandard
classihcarion, cvcnrhoughrhcbclicIsoIIindus, asalrcadydiscusscd,
arcoIrcnrhoroughlydivcrscrhc' oIIicial`numbcroIIindusincludcs
cvcnagnosrics andarhcisrs oIIindu social backgroundj . 1his sraris-
ricalIacrhas appcarcdromany - norj usrrhcIindurva cnrhusiasrs -
ro bc grounds cnough Ior an immcdiarc idcnrihcarion oI !ndia as a
prc-cmincnrly Iindu counrry. 1har summary rcducrionism appcals
also ro many inrcrnarional j ournalisrs - cvcn oI rhc lcading ncvs-
papcrs in Luropc andAmcrica - vho pcrsisrcnrly dcscribc !ndiaasa
'mainly Iindu counrry` . ir savcs spacc in ncvspapcr columns and
sccms accurarc cnough in somc scnsc.
53
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!ralsoarrracrs acadcmicsvhocanpcrhaps bc dcscribcd as 'inrcl-
lccrual simpliIicrs` . !or cxamplc, in his Iamous book, The Clash
of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Samucl
Iunringron placcs!ndiaIirmly inrhccarcgory oI'rhcIinducivil-
izarion` . !n raking rhis pcculiarly rcducrionisr vicv, Iunringron`s
pcrspccrivc has ro dovnplay rhc Iacr rhar !ndia has many morc
Nuslimsmorcrhantqomillion- largcrrhanrhccnrircririshand
!rcnch popularions pur rogcrhcrj rhan any orhcr counrry in rhc
vorld virh rhc cxccprion oI !ndoncsia and, marginally, !akisran,
and rhar ncarly cvcry counrry in Iunringron`s dcIinirion oI ' rhc
!slamic civilizarion` has Iar Icvcr Nuslims rhan !ndia has .
Somcrhinggocsvronghcrc virh rhc numbcr-bascdasscssmcnr. ur
pcrhaps rhc diIIiculrics in using rhc srarisrical argumcnr lic in rhc
narurcoIrhcargumcnrirsclI.
1hc hrsr diIIiculry is rhar a sccular dcmocracy vhich givcs cgual
room ro cvcrycirizcnirrcspccrivc oIrcligious background cannor bc
IairlydchncdinrcrmsoIrhcmaj oriryrcligionoIrhccounrry. 1hcrcis
a diIIcrcncc bcrvccnaconsrirurionallysccularnarionvirhamaj oriry
Iindu popularion and a rhcocraric Iindu srarc rhar mighr scc
Iinduism as irs oIIicial rcligion cpal comcs closcr ro rhc larrcr
dcscriprionrhandocs!ndiaj . !urrhcrmorc,nomarrcrvharrhcoIIicial
sranding oIany communiry as a group may bc, rhc srarus oIindivid-
ual cirizcns cannor bc compromiscd by rhc smallncss iI rhar is rhc
cascj oIrhc group rovhichhc orshcbclongs. '
1omakc acomparison,vhcnrhc\nircd Srarcs dcclarcd indcpcnd-
cnccint ;;6rhcdiIIcrcnrrcligiouscommuniricsvcrcguircdivcrscin
sizc. rhc ncv poliry could havc bccn dcscribcd as bcing a 'largcly
Chrisriancounrry`inrhcvay!ndiaissccnbysomcasa'mainlyIindu
counrry` . ur rhis did nor dcrail rhc nccd Ior rhc \S consrirurion ro
rakcancurralvicvoIrhcspccihcbclicIsoIrhcmcmbcrsoIrhcdiIIcr-
cnrcommunirics - non-ChrisrianasvcllasChrisrian - irrcspccrivcoI
group dimcnsions. 1hc rcspccrivc sizcs oI rhc diIIcrcnr rcligious
:The insecurities to which some minorities (particularly Muslims) have recently
been subj ected clearly violate the right to equal treatment that all Indian citizens have
reason to expect. That basic human right was shamefully violated in the recent bar
barities, in 2002, in Guj arat. The underlying issues are insightfully discussed by Rafq
Zakaria, Communal Rage in Secular India (Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, 2002) .
54
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
communiricsshouldnorbcallovcdr odisruprrhcrighrs,includingrhc
scnsc oIbclonging,rharcvcrycirizcn should bc ablc ro cnjoy.
1hc sccond diIIiculry is conccprually dccpcr. Vhar is sccn as a
maj orirydcpcnds criricallyonvhar principlc oIclassihcarionisuscd.
1hcpcoplcoI!ndiacanbcclassihcdonrhcbasisoIdiIIcrcnrcrircria,
oIvhichrcligionisonly onc. !r is, Iorcxamplc, also possiblcrocarc-
gorizc!ndians accordingro class, orlanguagc, orlircrarurc, orpoliri-
calbclicIs,romcnrionj usraIcv.Vharcounrsasan'!ndianmaj oriry`
dcpcnds rhcrcIorconrhccarcgoricsinrovhichrhcnarionisclassihcd.
1hcrcisnounigucvayoIcarcgorizingpcoplc.
!orcxamplc,rhcsrarusoIbcinga maj oriry in!ndiacan bc arrrib-
urcd, amongorhcr groups, ro
( r ) the category of low- or middle-income people ( say, the bottom 6o per
cent of the population);
( 2) the class of non-owners of much capital;
( 3 ) the group of rural Indians;
( 4) the people who do not work in the organized industrial sector; and
( 5) Indians who are against religious persecution.
LachgrouprhusidcnrihcdisinIacramaj oriryinirsrcspccrivcsysrcm
oIcarcgorizarion,andrhcircommoncharacrcrisricscanbcrakcnrobc
imporranr, dcpcnding on rhc conrcxr. !n ordcr ro arrach immcnsc
signihcancc ro rhc Iacr rhar Iindus consrirurc a maj oriry group in
!ndiansocicryinoncparricularsysrcmoIclassihcarion,rhcprioriryoI
rharrcligion-bascdcarcgorizarionovcr orhcrsysrcms oIclassihcarion
vouldhavcrobc csrablishcd hrsr.
!r is possiblc ro arguc rhar rhc vay a pcrson is ro bc carcgorizcd
musrbc,ulrimarcly,Iorhimorhcrrodcrcrminc,rarhcrrhancvcryonc
bcingIorccdinro a uniguc andprc-sclccrcdclassihcarionrharignorcs
orhcr principlcs oI grouping. 1hc Iacr rhar considcrably lcss rhan a
rhirdoIrhcIindupopularionin!ndiavorcIorrhcparricsrharbclong
ro rhc Iindurva Iamily vould suggcsr rhar rhc rcligious idcnriry oI
Iindurva is nor sccn as bcing oI primary polirical imporrancc by a
largc maj oriryoI!ndianIindus.
1hcrc is, in Iacr, norhing parricularly odd in rhis dissociarion.
Vhcn,Iorcxamplc,pcoplcIromvharvasrhcnLasr!akisransoughr
- and achicvcd - scpararion and indcpcndcncc as angladcsh, rhcy
5 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
vcrc nor arguing rhar rhcir principal rcligious idcnriry vas diIIcrcnr
IromvharcharacrcrizcdrhcpcoplcoIVcsr!akisran.rhcvasr major-
iryoIpcoplcinborhLasrandVcsr!akisransharcdrhcsamcrcligious
idcnriry. 1hc Lasrcrncrs vanrcd scpararion Ior rcasons rhar linkcd
hrmly virh languagc and lircrarurc parricularly rhc placc oI rhcir
morhcr ronguc, cngalij and alsovirhpolirical - includingsccular -
priorirics. Vhilc rhc srarisrics oIIindu maj oriry arc indccd corrccr,
rhc usc oIrhc srarisricalargumcnrIorsccing!ndiaasaprc-cmincnrly
IinducounrryisbascdonaconccprualconIusion. ourrcligionisnor
our onlyidcnriry, nor ncccssarilyrhc idcnriryrovhich vc arrachrhc
grcarcsr imporrancc.
History and Indian Culture
!s rhc hisrorical rcasoning bchind sccing !ndia as a mainly Iindu
counrry lcss problcmaric and morc convincing rhan rhc srarisrical
argumcnr! Ccrrainly,rhcancicnrncssoIrhcIindurradirioncannorbc
dispurcd. Iovcvcr, orhcr rcligions, roo, havc had a long hisrory in
!ndia, vhichhas bccn, Ior a vcry long rimc indccd, a mulri-rcligious
counrry, making room Ior many diIIcrcnr Iairhs and bclicIs. Asidc
IromrhcobviousandpromincnrprcscnccoINuslimsin!ndiaIorvcll
ovcr a millcnnium Nuslim Arab rradcrs scrrlcd in !ndia Irom rhc
cighrh ccnruryj , !ndia vas nor a 'Iindu counrry` cvcn bcIorc rhc
arrival oI !slam. uddhism vas rhc dominanr rcligion in !ndia Ior
ncarly a milIcnnium. !ndccd, Chincsc scholars rcgularly dcscribcd
!ndiaas 'rhcuddhisrkingdom` . t
!n Iacr, uddhism is arguably as much an inhcriror oIrhc carlicr
!ndianrradirionsoIrhcVcdasandrhc\paniadsasIinduismis,sincc
borhrhcrcligious rradirionsdrcvonrhcscclassics.ScholarsinChina,
|apan,Korca,1hailandandorhcrcounrricsrovhichuddhismvcnr
*The far-reaching role of plurality and choice in the idea of ' identity' is discussed in
my Romanes Lecture at Oxford University, published as Reason before Identity
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) , and my book on identity to be published by
Norton, New York.
tSee Essay 8, and also my paper 'Passage to China' , in New York Review of Books,
2 Dec. 2004.
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
vcrc inrroduccd ro rhc \paniads mainly rhrough rhcir srudics oI
uddhism. |ainism, roo, has had a similarly longhisrory and in Iacr
has alargcprcscnccin!ndia roday.
Also, as vas discusscdin Lssay t , rhcrc has bccn a vcry long and
subsranrial rradirion oIarhcism and agnosricismin !ndia, vhichvas
alrcadyvcll dcvclopcdinrhchrsrmillcnniumBCE. Androrhis hasro
bc addcd rhc carlyprcscncc, also discusscd inLssay t, oIChrisrians,
|cvsand!arsccs IromrhchrsrmillcnniumCE, andrhc larc - burvig-
orous- cmcrgcnccoISikhismin!ndiaasaunivcrsalisrconvicrionrhar
drcv onborhrhc Iindu and!slamicrradirions bur dcvclopcd a ncv
rcligious undcrsranding. 1hc high ground oIhisrory is ccrrainly nor
comIorrablc Ior a Iindu sccrarian ourlook,vhichis oncrcasonvhy
rhcrchas bccn suchaHurryoIarrcmprsbypoliricalIanaricsrorcvrirc
!ndian hisrory, vhich has produccd much drama and somc Iarcc ro
vhich! shall rcrurnlarcr oninrhis cssayj .
o lcss imporranrly, ir vould bc Iurilc ro rry ro havc an undcr-
srandingoIrhcnarurcandrangcoI!ndianarr,lircrarurc,music,archi-
rccrurc, cincma, rhcarrc or Iood virhour sccing rhc conrriburions oI
consrrucrivc cnorrs rhar havc dchcd rhc allcgcd barricrs oIrcligious
communirics. !ndccd, inrcracrions in cvcryday living, or in culrural
acrivirics, arc nor scgrcgarcd along communal lincs. !or cxamplc,
Kavi Shankar, rhc magniIiccnr musician and sirarisr, may bc con-
rrasrcdvirhAli Akbar Khan, rhc grcarsarodplaycr, onrhc basis oI
rhcir parricular masrcry ovcr diIIcrcnr Iorms oI !ndian music, bur
ncvcr as a ' Iindu musician` or a 'Nuslim musician` rcspccrivcly
rhoughoncdocshappcnrobcaIinduandrhcorhcraNuslimj . 1hc
samc applics ro orhcr Iiclds oI culrural crcariviry, nor cxcluding
ollyvood - rhar grcar ingrcdicnr oI !ndian mass culrurc. !ndia`s
culruralliIcdocsindccdbcarrhcmarkoIrhcpasr,burrhcmarkisrhar
oIirsinrcracrivc and mulri-rcligious hisrory.
'There is a connection here with the general point that Shashi Tharoor makes
powerfully that 'the only possible idea of India is that of a nation greater than the sum
of its parts' (India: Midnight to the Millennium, New York: Arcade, I997, p. s ) .
5 7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Hindus and Muslims in History
Lvcn rhough !ndian hisrory may, in gcncral, bc a diIIiculr barrlc-
ground Ior rhc Iindurva vicv, much morc spccializcd succcss has
bccn achicvcd by rhc Iindurva movcmcnr rhrough agirarion and
propagandarharbuildonvharisrrumpcrcdasahisrorical'guilr` oI
rhcNuslim congucrors vho ovcrran!ndia. !ndccd,rhcmainpoliri-
calmovcsroundcrminc!ndiansccularismhavcrcndcdroIocus,nor
on discussing rhc broad currcnr oI!ndia`s social, culrural or inrcl-
lccrual hisrory, bur rarhcr on arbirrarily highlighring spccially
choscn cpisodcs or anccdorcs oINuslim malrrcarmcnr oIIindus,
cvidcnrly aimcd ar gcncraring rhc dcsircd anri-Nuslim and anri-
sccularscnrimcnrs.
1hcsc accounrs drav on hisrory, bur vork rhrough morivarcd
sclccrion and purposcIully dcsigncd cmphascs as vcll as Ircgucnr
cxaggcrarion.!risccrrainlyrrucrhar,Iromrhcclcvcnrhccnrury, carly
Nuslim invadcrs did dcmolish - or murilarc - a rcmarkablc numbcr
oIrcmplcs, ar rhc samc rimc causing gcncral dcvasrarion and blood-
shcd. !or cxamplc, Sulran Nahmud oI Ghazni, coming Irom
^Ighanisran,rcpcarcdlyinvadcdnorrhandvcsr!ndiainrhcclcvcnrh
ccnrury, dcvasrarcd scvcral cirics andruincdmanyrcmplcs,including
parricularly Iamous oncs in Narhura, Kanauj , and vhar is nov
Karhiavar vhcrc rhc vondcrIul Somnarh rcmplc had bccn vidcly
rcnovncd Ior irs rrcasurcsj . Albcruni, rhc Arab-!ranian rravcllcr and
disringuishcd marhcmarician, vho vould larcr lcarn Sanskrir and
vritcagrcarbookabour!ndia,savrhcarrociricsandvrorcabourrhc
nasrincssoINahmud`s barbaricbchaviour.
1l
1hc ' slash and burn` culrurc oI rhc Nuslim invadcrs, making
bloody cxcursions inro !ndia, did, hovcvcr, gradually givc vay ro
immigrarion inro !ndia and ro scrrling in rhc counrry, lcading ro
!ndianizarion oINuslimrulcrs. !rvouldbc as sillyro dcnyrhcbar-
barirics oIrhcinvasivc hisrory as irvouldbcro sccrhissavagcry as
rhc main hisrorical Icarurc oI rhc Nuslim prcscncc in !ndia.
KccounringrhcdcsrrucrionscauscdbyNahmudoIGhazniandorhcr
invadcrs cannormakcusIorgcrrhclonghisroryoIrcligiousrolcrancc
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
in !ndia, and rhc Iacr rhar rhc congucring Nuslim rulcrs, dcspirc a
hcryandbruralcnrry,soondcvclopcd- virha Icv promincnr cxccp-
rions- basicallyrolcranrarrirudcs.
Nuslimrulcrsin!ndia, such asrhcNoghals,couldhardlybcgcn-
crally characrcrizcd as dcsrroycrs rarhcr rhan as buildcrs. Iindurva
accounrs oINuslim rulcrsrcndrorakc sucha parrisan vicvrharrhcy
cndup bcingvcrylikcrhcrcadingoI!ndianhisroryrharKabindranarh
1agorchadridiculcdas 'Iorcigncr`shisrory` . !n an cssayvrirrcnmorc
rhana ccnruryago in tpozj , hcvrorc.
The history of India that we read in schools and memorize to pass examina
tions is the account of a horrible dream - a nightmare through which India
has passed. It tells of unknown people from no one knows where entering
India; bloody wars breaking out; father killing son and brother killing
brother to snatch at the throne; one set of marauders passing away with
another coming in to take its place; Pathan and Mughal, Portuguese, French
and English - all helping to add to the nightmarish confusion.
1
3
1hchisrory oI!ndia docsindccdconrainmanynighrmarishclcmcnrs,
burir also includcs convcrsarions anddiscussions,andcxrcnsivcj oinr
cIIorrs in lircrarurc,music,painring,archirccrurc,j urisprudcnccanda
grcar many orhcr crcarivc acrivirics. And ir has includcd vays and
mcans oI alloving pcoplc oI dissimilar convicrions ro livc pcaccIully
rogcrhcrrarhcrrhan goingconsranrlyIor cach orhcr`sj ugular.
Somc Nuslim rulcrs, in parricular, vcrc cxrrcmcly kccn on cclc-
braringdivcrsiry and onprorccringrhcrighrsoIcachrcligious group
ro pursucrhcirovnbclicIs andrradirions.KcIcrcncchas alrcady bccn
madc ro rhc grcar cmpcror Akbar, vho rcigncd Irom t 6 ro t6o,
and vho vas dccply inrcrcsrcd i n Iindu philosophy andculrurc
along virh orhcr rcligious rradirions such as Chrisrianiry and
Zoroasrrianismj . As vas discusscd in rhc carlicr cssays, Akbarrricd
also ro iniriarc, norvirh grcarsucccss, a synrhcric rcligion rhc 'in-
ilahi` j , draving on rhc diIIcrcnr Iairhs in !ndia. Akbar`s courr vas
hllcdvirhIinduasvcllasNuslimarrisrs,musicians,painrcrs,schol-
ars and vrircrs, and his pronounccmcnrs on rolcrancc vcrc guirc
magnihccnr rhcn andrcmainrarhcrrcmarkablc, cvcn roday. !ndccd,
Akbarvas a maj orrhcorisr in rhc dirccrion oIrolcrarion, andvas a
59
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
pionccring lcadcr in rhc vorld in arranging inrcr-Iairh dialogucs
involvingscholarsIromdiIIcrcnrrcligious backgrounds.
NanyoIrhcorhcrcssaysoIrhisvolumcgoinrorhc diIIcrcnrvays
in vhich Iindus and Nuslims havc inrcracrcd virh cach orhcr in
culrural, scicnriIic and orhcr crcarivc pursuirs. Iovcvcr, sincc rhc
ancicnr cpics rhc Ramayma and rhc Mahabharata havc alrcady hg-
urcdaccrrainamounrinrhis book, irvouldpcrhapsbcinrcrcsringro
mcnrionrharrhcvcrysucccssIulandcxrrcmclypopularcngalirrans-
larions oIrhcsccpics ovcdmuchrorhccIIorrs oIrhcNuslim!arhan
kings oI cngal. incsh Chandra Scn`s aurhorirarivc accounr oIrhc
hisroryoIcngalilircrarurc dcscribcsrhc cvcnrs rhus.
The Pathans occupied Bengal early in the thirteenth century . . . . The Pathan
Emperors learned Bengali and lived in close touch with the teeming Hindu
population . . . . The Emperors heard of the far-reaching fame of the Sanskrit
epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and observed the wonderful
influence they exercised in moulding the religious and domestic lives of the
Hindus, and they naturally felt the desire to be acquainted with the contents
of those poems . . . . They appointed scholars to translate the works into
Bengali which they now spoke and understood. The frst Bengali translation
of the Mahabharata of which we hear was undertaken at the order of Nasira
Saha, the Emperor of Gauda [in Bengal] who ruled for 40 years till 13 25
A.D . . . . The name of the Emperor of Gauda who appointed Krittivasa to
translate the Ramayana is not known with certainty. He might be Raj a
Kamsanaryana or a Moslem Emperor, but even if he was a Hindu king, there
are abundant proofs to show that his court was stamped with Muslim
infuence.
1
4
Iindurva crirics havc somcrimcs Iocuscd parricularly on rhc in-
rolcrancc oI Aurangzcb, a larcr Noghal cmpcror vho rulcd Irom
t6 8 ro t;o;. !ndccd, somc Iindurvasccrarians scc hisroricalj usricc
indiscriminaring againsrNuslimsprccisclybccauscAurangzcbissup-
poscdrohavcdoncrhcopposirc - discriminaringagainsrIindus - in
rhclarcscvcnrccnrhccnrury.Iovcvcr,cvcniIAurangzcbhad bccnrhc
only Nuslim rulcr in !ndia hc vas, oIcoursc, onc oIa grcarmanyj ,
rhcidcaoIa hisroricalrcrriburionvouldbccxccprionallysilly. irisa
proposal Ior marching a hisrorical Iolly by crcaring a ncv Iolly,
pcnalizingpcoplcIor 'sins` rharrhcy didnorrhcmsclvcs commir. ur
6o
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
also, Aurangzcb clcarly vas rhc lcasr rolcranr oI rhc ong inc oI
Noghal rulcrs.
As ir happcns, Aurangzcb vas prcccdcd and Iollovcd by orhcr
Nuslim mcmbcrs oI rhc royalry vho rook a vcry diIIcrcnr vicv oI
rcligiousrolcrancc,andhchimsclIvassurroundcdbypcoplcvhodid
norsharchis inrolcrancc.Aurangzcb`sson,alsocallcdAkbar,rcbcllcd
againsrhisIarhcrin t 68t , andj oincdrhcIinduKajpurkingsrohghr
his Iarhcr. As rhc Kaj purs vcrc subducd by Aurangzcb`s army,
Aurangzcb`s son conrinucd his barrlc againsr his Iarhcr by j oining
anorhcrIinduking,Kaj aSambhaji,rhcsonoIShivajivhoIoughrrhc
Noghals and vho is much rcvcrcd by conrcmporary Iindu acrivisrs
cvcn rhc namc oIrhc Iindu cxrrcmisr parry ' Shiv Scna` commcmo-
rarcs Shivaj i, vho gcrs much adorarion Irom miliranr Iindus
oIrodayj . |
Aurangzcb`s cldcr brorhcr, ara Shikoh, rhc lcgirimarc hcir ro rhc
rhronc oIhis Iarhcr, Shah|ahan rhc crcaror oIrhc1ajNahalj , vhom
Aurangzcb had killcd onrhcvayro rhc Noghal rhronc, had lcarncd
SanskrirandsrudicdIinduphilosophycxrcnsivcly. !nIacr,rhchcirro
rhc Noghal rhronc had himsclIrranslarcd inro !crsian somc signiI-
canr parrs oIrhc \paniads, rhc ancicnrIindu scriprurcs, andcom-
parcdrhcm- norunIavourably - virhrhcKoran.!risrhisrranslarion,
vhicharadidvirhrhcassisranccoIIindupundirs,rhargavcmany
pcoplcinVcsrAsia and Luropcrhcirhrsrglimpsc oIIindu philoso-
phy.| 1o rakcAurangzcbasrhc 'rypical`Noghalmonarch, or as rhc
guinrcsscnrial Nusim rulcr oI!ndia, vouldbc an cxrrcmcly srrangc
hisroricalj udgcmcnr, asidc IromrhcIacrrharrhcproposalIormarch-
ingrhcinrolcranccoIAurangzcbbyasimilarasymmcrryrodayvould
bc rcmarkably pcculiarj urisprudcncc.
*Even though Aurangzeb certainly had much intolerance, it is interesting to note
that he too had Hindu scholars and musicians in his court in positions of importance.
tThese historical connections are discussed more fully in Essay I4-
:ln fact, Sir William Jones, the founder of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in
1784, who did so much to expand Sanskrit scholarship in India and to spread it
abroad, was frst introduced, as a Persian scholar, to the Upaniads, by Dara Shikoh's
translation.
6r
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
On Inventing the Past
Iisrory is an acrivc hcld oIinrcllccrual cngagcmcnr Ior rhc Iindurva
movcmcnr,andparrsoIrharmovcmcnrhavcbccnvcryinvolvcdinrhc
rcvriringoIhisrory. Lvcnrhoughirisnorsurprising,givcnrhcnarurc
oIrhcIindurva crccd, rhar!ndianhisrorymusrplaysomcparrinrhc
argumcnrsprcscnrcdbyrhcmovcmcnr,irissrillvorrh cnguiringprc-
cisclyvhyrhcscissucs arcrakcnrobcsoccnrral,as arcsulroIvhich
!ndian hisrory has bccomc such a barrlcground. Vhar is irs spccihc
rclcvanccinconrcmporary!ndianpolirics,andvhyisIindurvapoli-
rics sokccn onrcdcscribingrhcpasr! !vouldargucrharrhc ansvcr
licsinrvo spccihcIcarurcs oIconrcmporaryIindupolirics.
1hchrsrisrhc nccdIorrhc Iindurva movcmcnr ro kccp rogcrhcr
irs divcrsc componcnrs and ro gcncrarc Ircsh loyalry Irom porcnrial
rccruirs. 1hcIindurvamovcmcnrrcapsconsidcrablcsrrarcgicbcnchr
IromrhcvaricryoIsrylcsandmodcs oIopcrarionrharrhcdivcrsiryoI
organizarions virhin rhc !arivar allovs. As a modcrn polirical parry
inamulri-parryIuncrioningdcmocracy,rhc|!irsclIiscommirrcdro
parliamcnrary rulc, and docs, by and largc, lisrcn ro rhc vicvs oI
orhcrs. ur ir can, ar rhc samc rimc, drav on supporr - somcrimcs
violcnr supporr - Irom orhcr mcmbcrs oIrhc Iindurva Iamilyvho
can srray Irom rhc |!`s culrivarcd urbaniry and providc a harshcr
Iorcc.1hc'rvonarion` rhcory,vhich - irmusrbccmphasizcd - isnor
a parr oI rhc |! docrrinc, is championcd guirc crudcly by scvcral
sccrions oIrhc!arivar.
1hc solidariry oI rhc divcrsc mcmbcrs oI rhc Sangh !arivar is
grcarlyhclpcdbyrakingaunircdvicvoI!ndia`shisroryascsscnrially
a 'Iindu civilizarion` ir is convcnicnr Ior rhcm rhar cvcn a culrural
rhcorisr likc Samucl Iunringronhas dcscribcd!ndia incxacrlyrhosc
rcrms,asvasdiscusscdcarlicrj . 1hcrcvriringoI!ndia`shisroryinlinc
virhrhcmcssagcoIIindurvaiscxrrcmclyimporranrIorrhccohcsion
oIdiIIcrcnrclcmcnrsinrhcSangh!arivar.1hcycandiIIcronpolirical
mcans and racrics - varying Irom soIr-spokcn advocacy ro hard-
hcadcdviolcncc- bursrill agrcconagrandIinduvisionoI!ndia.
1hcsccondrcasonIorIocusingon!ndia`spasrisrhclargcsupporr
Ior rhc Iindurva movcmcnr rhar comcs Irom rhc !ndian diaspora
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
abroad, parricularly in orrh Amcrica and Luropc, Ior vhom ir is
guirc imporranr ro bc ablc ro rcrain rhcir gcncral !ndian narionalisr
arrachmcnrvhilccmbracinganyorhcrloyalryrhcymaybcpcrsuadcd
rohavc suchasIindurvaj . 1hcrvocanbcharncsscdrogcrhcrbya
narrovlyIinduizcdvicvoI!ndianhisrory, vhichIosrcrsrhccongru-
cnccoIaIinduidcnriryvirhamorcgcncral!ndianidcnriry.
1hc rcvriring oI!ndia`s hisrory scrvcs rhc dual purposcoIplaying
arolcinprovidingacommonbasisIorrhcdivcrscmcmbcrshipoIrhc
Sangh !arivar, and oIhclping ro gcr Ircsh rccruirs ro Iindu polirical
acrivism, cspccially Irom rhc diaspora. !r has rhus bccomc a maj or
prioriryinrhcpolirics oIIindurva inconrcmporary!ndia.!olloving
rhc clccroral vicrory oIcoalirions lcd by rhc |! in tpp8 and tppp,
variousarmsoIrhcgovcrnmcnroI!ndiavcrcmobilizcdinrhcraskoI
arranging'appropriarc`rcvriringsoI!ndianhisrory. Lvcnrhoughrhis
advcnrurc oI invcnring a pasr is no longcr 'oIIicial` bccausc oIrhc
dcIcaroIrhc |!-lcdcoalirioninrhcgcncral clccrions inrhc springoI
zooqj , rharhighlychargcd cpisodcisvorrhrccollccring borhbccausc
oIvharirrcllsusabourrhcabuscoIrcmporalpovcrandalsobccausc
oIrhclighrirrhrovsonrhcinrcllccrualundcrpinningoIrhcIindurva
movcmcnr.
1hcrapidlyrcorganizcdarionalCounciloILducarionalKcscarch
and 1raining CLK1j bccamc busy, Irom shorrly aIrcr rhc |!`s
assumprionoIoIIicc,noronlyinproducingIrcshrcxrbooksIor!ndian
school childrcn, bur also in dclcring sccrions Irom books produccd
carlicr by CLK1 irsclI undcr prc-|! managcmcnrj , vrirrcn
by rcpurcd !ndian hisrorians. 1hc 'rcorganizarion` oI CLK1 vas
accompanicd by an 'ovcrhaul` oI rhc !ndian Council oI Iisrorical
Kcscarch !CIKj , virh ncv oIIiccrs bcing appoinrcd and a ncv
agcnda choscn Ior borh, mainly in linc virh rhc priorirics oI rhc
Iindu rvamovcmcnr.
l6
1hcspccdoIrhcarrcmprcdrcxrbookrcvisionhadro bcsoIasrrhar
rhcncvlyrcconsrirurcdCLK 1cvidcnrlyhadsomcdiIIiculryinInd-
ing hisrorians ro do rhis raskvho vould bc borhrcasonably distin-
guishcd andadcguarclycomplianr. !nrhccarlyschoolrcxrbooksrhar
cmanarcd Irom rhc CLK1, rhcrc vas nor only rhc prcdicrablc
' 'The importance of the identity issue for the diaspora is discussed in Essay 4-
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
sccrarian bias in rhc dirccrion oIrhc polirics oI'Iindu rva`, bur also
numcrous Iacrual misrakcs oI a Iairly srraighrIorvard kind. School
childrcnvcrcro bcraughr, inoncoIrhcrcxrbooks,rharNadagascar
vas 'an island in rhc Arabian sca` and rhar!ancashirc had bccn 'a
Iasr-grovingindusrrialrovn` . 1hcncvlydcviscdhisrory oI!ndia in
rhc ncv rcxrbooks prcparcd by rhc Govcrnmcnr oI !ndia rcccivcd
sharpcriricisminrhc mcdia and inpublic discussions rharIollovcd.
1hc rcvicvs in rhc maj or ncvspapcrs vcrc almosr uniIormly dis-
paraging. 'loomcrs Galorc in rhc CLK 1 1cxrs` , vas rhc ncvs
hcadlincinrhcHindusthan Times. 17
1hc|!-lcdCLK1admirrcdsomcIacrualcrrorsandpromiscdro
corrccrrhcm Nadagascar, irvaspromiscd, vould bc rcrurncdrorhc
!ndian occanj . ur rhcrcvasno assurancc oncorrccring rhc polirical
slanr imposcd rhrough sclccrivc omissions and choscn cmphascs ro
play up rhc Iindurva vicv oI!ndia. 1har, oIcoursc, bclongs ro rhc
hcarr oIrhc arrcmpr ro rcvrirc !ndian hisrory. 1hc Hindu, a lcading
daily, purrhcgraviryoIrhcproblcminpcrspccrivcvhcnirpoinrcdro
'rhc havoc rhar indiIIcrcnr scholarship combining virh a disrorrcd
idcologycould causc in schoolcducarion`.
18
!ndccd, in addirion ro rhc plcrhora oIinnocuous conIusions and
silly misrakcs, rhcrc vcrc also scrious omissions and lapscs in rhc
govcrnmcnr-sponsorcd!ndian hisrory. !or cxamplc, onc oIrhc rcxr-
booksrharvasmcanrrorcach!ndianschoolchildrcnabourrhccvcnrs
surrounding!ndia`s indcpcndcnccIailcdromcnrionrhc assassinarion
oINaharma Gandhibyarhuram Godsc, rhcIindupoliricalIanaric
vho had links virh rhc acrivisr KSS rhc Kashrriya Svayam Scvak
Sanghj - an omission oIvcry considcrablc momcnr. Norc gcncrally,
rhc accounrs givcn in rhcsc rcxrbooks oI rhc hghr Ior !ndia`s indc-
pcndcncc vcrc povcrIully prcjudiccd in rhc dirccrion oIrhc polirics
oIIindurva.
'
'
Nany !ndians Iclr grcarly alarmcd ar rhar rimc rhar rhc Iindurva
movcmcnr vould srop ar norhing shorr oI alicnaring !ndia Irom irs
ovnpasrrhroughrhcirconrrolovcrschoolsandrcxrbooks.1hcrcvas
ccrrainly a good casc bascd borh on rcspccr Ior hisrory and on
rrcasuring rhc inclusivc characrcr oI !ndian socicryj Ior raking rhc
rhrcarscriously, andrhcnccdrobcalivcrorhcscissucsrcmainssrrong
roday.1hcrcarcmanyoursrandinghisroriansin!ndiaandrhcyclcarly
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
havc a prorccrivc rolcro playhcrc, rhis is bcsr donci I rhc dcIcncc oI
hisrory comcs Irom a gcnuinc commirmcnr ro hisrory, nor j usrIrom
polirical opposirionro rhc Iindurvavicv. As irhappcns, many vcll-
csrablishcd and rcspccrcd !ndian hisrorians did gucsrion, virh
rcasoncd j usriIicarion, rhc accuracy and aurhcnriciry oI rhc claims
madcbyIindurvaidcologucs.
cspircrhcundcrsrandablcpanic,irvasncvcrcasyro scchovrhc
Iindurva movcmcnr could succccd in making !ndians acccpr a 'rc-
invcnrcdpasr`,nomarrcrhovmuchconrrolrhcymighrhavchadovcr
cducarional policics in cv clhi. 1hc rcdraving oI !ndia`s hisrory
usingrhcIindurvalcnssuIIcrsIromsomcdccpcmpiricalproblcms as
vcll as conccprual rcnsions. 1hc narurc oIrhc problcm rhar rhc |!
Iaccdinrryingrochangc!ndia`s pasrcan bcillusrrarcd virh a simplc
cxamplc.
Givcn rhc priorirics oI Iindurva, rhc rcvriring oI !ndia`s hisrory
rcnds ro Iavour inrcrnal and cxrcrnal isolarion, in rhc Iorm oIscpar-
aringourrhccclcbrarionoIIinduachicvcmcnrsIromrhcnon-Iindu
parrs oIirs pasr and alsoIrominrcllccrualandculruraldcvclopmcnrs
oursidc !ndia. uran 'isolarionisr`programmcisparricularlydiIIiculr
ro susrain, givcn rhc imporrancc oIcxrcnsivc inrcracrionsrhroughour
!ndia`shisrory, borhinrcrnallyvirhinrhccounrryandcxrcrnallyvirh
rhc rcsr oI rhc vorld. 1hus, rhc isolarionisr pcrspccrivc runs inro
scvcrcconHicrvirhmanyvcll-knovnaspccrs oI!ndia`shisrory.
1hcproblcmsrarrsvirhrhcaccounroIrhcvcrybcginningoI!ndia`s
hisrory. 1hc '!ndus vallcy civilizarion`, daring Irom rhc rhird millcn-
niumBCE, HourishcdvcllbcIorcrhcrimingoIrhccarlicsrIindulircr-
arurc,rhcVcdas,vhicharcrypicallydarcdinrhcmiddlcoIrhcsccond
millcnniumBCE. 1hc!nduscivilizarion,orrhcIarappacivilizarionas
ir is somcrimcs callcd in honour oI irs mosr Iamous sircj , covcrcd
muchoIrhcnorrh-vcsroIrhcundividcdsubconrincnrincludingvhar
arc roday !unj ab, Iaryana, Sindh, aluchisran, vcsrcrn \rrar
!radcsh,Kaj asrhan and Gujararj - a much largcrarcarhanNcsopo-
ramia and Lgypr,vhichHourishcd ar abour rhc samc rimc.` !r had
many spccial achicvcmcnrs, including rcmarkablc rovn planning,
organizcdsroragc oIgraininparricularj , andcxrraordinarydrainagc
sysrcms uncguallcd, iI ! am any j udgc, in rhc subconrincnr in rhc
IollovingIourrhousandycarsj .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hcrcisobviousmarcrialhcrcIornarionalorcivilizarionalpridcoI
!ndians. urrhis poscs animmcdiarc problcm Ior rhc Iindurvavicv
oI !ndia`s hisrory, sincc an ancicnr civilizarion rhar is clcarly prc-
Sanskriric and prc-Iindu dccply vcakcns rhc possibiliry oI sccing
!ndianhisroryinprc-cmincnrlyandconsrirurivclyIindurcrms.
!urrhcrmorc, rhcrc is a sccond challcngc associarcd virh !ndia`s
ancicnrpasr,vhichrclarcsrorhcarrivaloIrhc!ndo-Luropcanssomc-
rimcscallcdAryansjIromrhcVcsr,mosrlikclyinrhcsccondmillcn-
nium BCE, riding horscs unknovn in rhc !ndus vallcy civilizarionj ,
and spcaking a varianr oIcarly Sanskrir rhc Vcdic Sanskrir, asir is
novcallcdj . 1hcIindurva vicvoIhisrory, vhichrraccs rhc origin oI
!ndian civilizarion ro rhc Vcdas has, rhcrcIorc, rhc doublc 'diIIiculry`
oI ( t ) having ro acccpr rhar rhc Ioundarional basis oIIindu culrurc
camc originally Irom oursidc !ndia, and ( z) bcing unablc ro placc
Iinduism ar rhc bcginning oI !ndian culrural hisrory and irs urban
hcriragc.
1hc Iindurva cnrhusiasrs havc also bccn grcar champions oI so-
callcd'Vcdicmarhcmarics`and'Vcdicscicnccs` , allcgcdlydcvclopcdin
splcndidisolarionincxcccdinglyancicnr!ndia.As irhappcns,dcspirc
rhcrichncss oIrhcVcdasinmanyorhcrrcspccrs,rhcrcisno sophisri-
carcdmarhcmarics inrhcm, nor anyrhing rhar can bccallcd rigorous
scicncc.
l1
1hcrc vas, hovcvcr, much oI borh in !ndia in rhc Iirsr
millcnnium CE as vas discusscd in rhc hrsr cssay oI rhis volumcj .
1hcscconrriburionsvcrccarlycnoughinrhchisroryoI marhcmarics
and scicncc ro dcmand rcspccrIul arrcnrion, bur rhc |!-crcarcd
proposcd hisrory rcxrbooks rricd, virhlirrlc rcason and cvcn lcss
cvidcncc, ro placc rhc origin oI somc oI rhcsc conrriburions in rhc
much carlicr, Vcdicpcriod.
ll
1hus, in rhc Iindurva rhcory, muchhangs on rhcgcncsis oI rhc
Vcdas. !n parricular. vho composcd rhcm ir vould bc bcsr Ior
Iindurva rhcoryiIrhcyvcrcnarivc!ndians,scrrlcdin !ndia Iorrhou-
sands oI ycars, rarhcr rhan !ndo-Luropcans coming Irom abroadj !
Vcrcrhcycomposcdlarcrrhanrhc !ndusvallcycivilizarion irvould
bc bcsr iI rhcy vcrc nor larcr, in sharp conrrasr virh rhc acccprcd
knovlcdgcj ! Iovancicnrvcrcrhc allcgcdVcdic scicnccs andmarh-
cmarics couldrhcy nor bc carlicr rhan Grcck and abyloniaI conrri-
burions, purringIindu !ndia ahcad oIrhcmj ! 1hcrc vcrc, rhcrcIorc,
66
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
arrcmprsbyrhcIindurvachampionsr orcvrirc!ndianhisroryi nsuch
a vay rhar rhcsc dispararc diIIiculrics arc simulrancously rcmovcd
rhrough rhc simplc dcvicc oI 'making` rhc Sanskrir-spcaking com-
poscrs oIrhcVcdas alsorhcvcrysamcpcoplcvho crcarcdrhc!ndus
vallcycivilizarionl
1hc !ndus vallcy civilizarion vas accordingly rcnamcd 'rhc
!ndus-Sarasvari civilizarion`, in honour oI a non-obscrvablc rivcr
callcdrhcSarasvarvhichisrcIcrrcdro inrhcVcdas. 1hcinrcllccrual
originsoIIinduphilosophyasvcllasoIrhcconcocrcdVcdicscicncc
andVcdicmarhcmarics arcrhuspursolidlyinrorhc rhirdmillcnnium
BCE, iI nor carlicr. !ndian school childrcn vcrc rhcn madc ro rcad
abour rhis highly rhcorcrical '!ndus-Sarasvari civilizarion` in rhcir
ncvhisroryrcxrbooks,makingIinduculrurc- andIindu scicncc-
morc ancicnr, morc urban, morc indigcnous, and comIorrably
omniprcscnrrhroughour!ndia`scivilizarionalhisrory.
1hc problcm virh rhis accounr is, oI coursc, irs obvious Ialsiry,
goingagainsr all rhc availablccvidcnccbascdonarchacologyand lir-
crarurc. '1omccrrhardiIIiculry, 'ncv` archacologicalcvidcncchadro
bc marshallcd. 1his vas donc - or claimcd ro bc donc - in a much -
publicizcd book by arvar |ha and . S. Kaj aram callcd The
Deciphered Indus Script, publishcdinzooo. '`1hcaurhors claimrhar
rhcyhavcdcciphcrcdrhc as-ycr-undcciphcrcdscripruscd inrhc!ndus
vallcy, vhich rhcy arrriburc ro rhc mid-Iourrh millcnnium BCE -
srrcrching rhc 'hisrory` unilarcrally back by a Iurrhcr rhousand ycars
or so. 1hcy also claimrharrhcrablcrs IoundrhcrcrcIcr ro Rigveda's
Sarasvar rivcr in rhc indirccr Iorm oI '!la surrounds rhc blcsscd
land` j . !urrhcr, rhcy produccd a picrurc oI a rcrracorra scal virh a
*For the sake of clarity, we have to distinguish between three distinct errors that are
conflated together in this invented history: ( I ) the spurious claim of the indigenous ori
gin of Sanskrit and the Vedas (denying their Indo-European roots) ; (2) the absurd
belief in the Sanskrit-based nature of the Indus civilization (despite all evidence to the
contrary) ; and ( 3) the manifestly false affirmation that the Vedas contain much sophis
ticated mathematics and many scientifc discoveries (even though non-partisan read
ers cannot fnd them there) . The third claim, by the way, also has the efect of implicitly
asserting that Aryabhata or Varahamihira or Brahmagupta were not original in the
fifth to the seventh centuries: their far-reaching scientific ideas and mathematical
results had been, it was implied, known all along from ancient Vedic times, for more
than two thousand years.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
horsc onir, vhichvas mcanrro bc Iurrhcr prooIoIrhc Vcdic- and
Aryan- idcnriry oIrhc !nduscivilizarion. 1hcVcdasarcIull oIrcIcr-
cnccsro horscs, vhcrcas rhc !ndus rcmains havcplcnryoIbulls bur-
soirvas hirhcrro rhoughr- nohorscs.
1hc allcgcd discovcryand dcciphcrmcnr lcdro a vigorous dcbarc
abour rhc claims, and rhc upshor vas rhc dcmonsrrarion rhar rhcrc
vas, inIacr,no dcciphcrmcnrvharcvcr, andrharrhc horsc scal isrhc
rcsulr oI a simplc Iraud bascd on a compurcrizcd disrorrion oI a
brokcn scal oIa unicorn bull, vhich vas knovn carlicr. 1hc allcgcd
horsc scal vas a disrincr producr oI rhc larc rvcnricrh ccnrury, rhc
crcdir Ior rhc crcarion oIvhich has ro go ro rhc Iindurva acrivisrs.
1hcdchnirivcdcmonsrrarionoIrhcIraudcamcIromNichaclVitzcl,
!roIcssoroISanskrirarIarvard\nivcrsiry,ina| oinrcssayvirhSrcvc
!armcr. 1hcdcmonsrrariondidnor,hovcvcr,cndrcIcrcnccsinoIIi-
cial school rcxrbooks produccd by rhc CLK1 during rhc |!-lcd
rulc, cnding only in Nay zooqj ro 'rcrracorra hgurincs` oIhorscs in
rhc '!ndus-Sarasvaricivilizarion` .
!risdiIIiculrroundcrsrandIully vhy a movcmcnrrhar bcganvirh
pridc inIinduvalucs, invhich rhc pursuir oIrrurh plays such a big
parr, should producc acrivisrs vho vould rry ro havc rhcir vay nor
onlyrhroughIalsiryburrhroughcarcIully craIrcd Iraud. Lvcnrhough
Narco !olo vas nor as imprcsscd virh vhar hc sav in rhirrccnrh-
ccnrurysourh!ndiaashcvasvirhccnrralChina,hcdidpuronrccord,
in a srarcmcnrrhar is oIsomcinrcrcsr cvcn aIrcr discounringIorrhc
obvious cxaggcrarion in irj , his admirarion Ior rhc commirmcnr ro
rrurhrharhcIoundamongrhc!ndians hc mcr. '1hcyvouldnorrclla
licIoranyrhinginrhcvorldanddonorurrcravordrharisnorrruc. ``
!Irharvasindccdvhar!oloIound,rhingshavcclcarlymovcdonrad-
icallysinccrhcn,virhpoliricalinsirarionplayingancncrgcricparr.
!n a rhrilling passagc in rhc Chandogya Upaniad Irom rhc hrsr
millcnnium BCE, young Svcrakcru`s Iarhcr rclls Svcrakcru abour rhc
maniIcsrarionoIGod inallbcings includingSvcrakcruhimsclIj . '!ris
rhc1ruc. !r is rhc SclI, and rhou, 0 Svcrakcru, arr ir. ` 1har cxchangc
has bccn much discusscd in posr-\paniad Iindu philosophy. !r
vould bc rarhcr sad ro havc ro complcrc Svcrakcru`s cducarion by
adding ro ir a ncvposrscripr. 'And j usr in cascrhou arr nor all rhar,
vc vill hx ir virh a bir oI clcvcrncss in rcconsrrucring rcaliryl ` !n
68
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
rryingro invcnr!ndianhisroryro suirrhcprcjudiccsoIIindurva,rhc
movcmcnr rook on a proIoundlyconrrary rask. 1hc rask is parricu-
larlyhardro achicvcgivcnvharisknovn abour!ndia`s longhisrory.
1hc unadorncd rrurh docs nor Iavour rhc Iindurva vicv, and rhc
adorncdIalsirydocs nor survivccriricalscruriny.
The Miniaturization of India
1hc sizc oI !ndianrcligious lircrarurc and rhc maniIcsrprcscncc oI a
proIusion oI rcligious pracriccs across rhc counrry havc ro bc bal-
anccd, as vas discusscd in rhc lasr cssay, againsr rhc vigour and
pcrsisrcncc oI sccprical rhoughr rhroughour !ndian hisrory. ! havc
alrcady discusscd, in Lssay t , rhchisroricalrclcvancc oIrhc sccprical
rradirion borhj udgcdas a parr oI!ndia`s inrcllccrualvorld, andalso
Ior irs rclcvancc ro rhc dcvclopmcnr oI scicncc and marhcmarics as
vcllasrhcpolirics oIrolcranccandsccularismin!ndia.
Iovcvcr, sccpricismabourrcligionnccdnoralvaysrakcrhc com-
barivc Iorm oI rcsisring rcligious pronounccmcnrs. !r can also hnd
cxprcssionas dccp-scarcddoubrsabourrhc socialrclcvanccandpolir-
icalsignihcancc oIdiIIcrcnccsinrhcrcligious bclicIs oIdiIIcrcnrpcr-
sons. cspirc rhc vcrirablc Hood oIrcligious pracriccs in!ndia, rhcrc
is also a rcsilicnr undcrcurrcnr oIconvicrion across rhc counrry rhar
rcligiousbclicIs,vhilcpcrsonallysignihcanr,arcsociallyunimporranr
and should bcpoliricallyinconscgucnrial. !gnoring rhc imporrancc -
andrcach - oIrhis undcrlying convicrion has rhc cIIccr oIsysrcmari-
callyovcrcsrimaringrhcrolcoIrcligionin!ndiansocicry. '
1his claim mighr sccm pcculiarly implausiblc Ior a counrry in
vhich allcgcdlyrcligious conHicrshavcbccncxrrcmcly promincnrin
rhc rcccnr pasr, and in vhich rhcy sccm ro inHucncc a good parr oI
conrcmporary polirics as vcll. Vc havc ro disringuish, hovcvcr,
bcrvccn t j cvidcnrsocietal rcnsionsrharvcmaysccbcrvccnpugna-
cious spokcsmcn oI communirics idcnriIicd by diIIcrcnr rcligious
*Also, as discussed in Essay I, the Indian understanding of secularism, which has
emerged mainly from its history of tolerant pluralism, is inclined towards favouring
neutrality of the state between members of different religious communities.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
anccsrrics oIrcn cd by sccrarian acrivisrsj , and zj acrua religious
rcnsionsin vhichrhcconrcnrs oIrcigious bcicIsarcrhcmscvcsmar-
cria. !ndccd, cvcnvhcnrhccnrhusiasrsIorrcigious poirics in!ndia
havc bccn succcssIu in paying up rcigious diIIcrcnccs, rhcy havc
vorkcd mainy rhrough gcncraring socicra Iricrions in vhich rhc
dcmographiccorrcarcsoIrcigionhavcbccnuscdroscpararcourrhc
communirics Ior scccrivc rogucry as happcncd,ro a grcarcxrcnr, in
Gu|arar in zoozj . !n rhis, rhc hncryoIrcigious bcicIs has rypicay
paycd irrc orno parr. !r is imporranrro apprcciarc rhc disrincrion
bcrvccnrcigioussrriIcs,onrhconchand,andpoirica discordsbascd
onuriizingcommunadcmography, onrhcorhcr.
I is possibc rhar cvcn rhc proccss oI cxpoiring rhc cassihcarory
divisivcncss oI rcigious dcmography, incuding rhc viocncc associ-
arcd virh ir, is running inro subsranria rcsisrancc in conrcmporary
!ndia. 1hc usc oI miiranr 'Iindurva` may havc vorkcd vc1n rhc
srarc cccrions in cccmbcr zooz in srriIc-rorn Gu| arar, virh
vhippcd-up hysrcria much as rhc Ircnzy oI prc-parririon riors had
'communaizcd` Iindus, NusimsandSikhsinrhc tpqosj . urasrhc
dcirium guicrcncd, rhc cxcircmcnr oI Iindurva acrivism dclivcrcd
vcry irrc ro sccrarian poirics in rhc Iour srarc cccrions hcd a Icv
monrhs arcr, in!cbruary zooj . AIrcrIour succcssivc dcIcars, incud-
ing osing conrro oIrhc srarc oIIimacha !radcsh, avcrsaric - and
rcvampcd- |! changcd irs racrics and vcnr on ro vin handsomcy
ar rhc pos in rhrcc our oI Iour srarc cccrions in ovcmbcr zooj ,
mainy bypromincnry shiIringrhc Iocus oIirs campaignro dcvcop-
mcnra issucs in parricuar 'roads, cccrriciry and varcr` j , virh rci-
giousdcmographyraking, byandargc, a backscar.
Iovcvcr,rhcissucoIdivisivcncsshadnorgoncavay, andsurIaccd
again,inabigvay,inrhc!ndiangcncracccrionsinNayzooq. 1hcrc
is considcrabc cvidcncc rhar rhc sccrarian as vc as cconomic divi-
sivcncss oIrhc|!didcosrirconsidcrabcsupporr acrossrhccounrry.
Nuch has bccn vrirrcn abour rhc Iacr rhar rhc |!`s sogan '!ndia
shiningl ` vhichrricdro rakccrcdirIor rhc clcvarcdgrovrhrarc and
orhcr cconomic buoyancy in !ndiaj backhrcd, sincc argc groups oI
*It is particularly important in this context to see the distinction, well analysed by
Ayesha Jalal, between 'religion as faith' and ' religion as identity'; see her Self and
Sovereignty (London: Routledge, 2ooo) .
INDIA: LARGE AND SMALL
pcopc, cspcciay many among rhc poor, parricuaryrhcrurapoor,
hadnorrcccivcdmuchoI asharc oI rhc prospcriryrharrhc urbanrich
had cn|oycd. urin addirion rorhar cconomic inIracrion, irvaspos-
sibc Ior Congrcss and orhcr parrics oursidc rhc |!-cd aiancc ro
makcgoodcccrorauscoIrhcanxicryandrcvusiongcncrarcdbyrhc
|! rhrough irs curivarion oI sccrarianism and rhc rargcring oI
minorirics,vhichmadcrhc|!ookikcavcrydivisivcIorccin!ndia.
AnyscroIcccrionrcsurs,cspcciayinacounrryasargcas!ndia,
voudrcndrocarryrhcimpacroImanydiIIcrcnrrypcs oIinHucnccs,
andrhcrccannorbcanysingc-IacrorcxpanarionoIrhcdiIIcrcnrccc-
rora ourcomcs. ur ooking rhrough rhc narurc oI rhc cccrora
rcvcrscs oIrhc |! andirs aics inrhcrcccnrcccrions, incuding rhc
rora - or ncar-rora- dcmisc oIrhc 'sccuar` parrics in aiancc virh
rhc |!, ir is diIIicur ro miss a gcncra scnsc oI gricvancc abourrhc
ncgccroIsccuarconccrnsbyparricsvhichvcrcnorIormay signcd
upIorrhcIindurva agcnda. oronyvcrcrhcvorcrskccnonbring-
ing dovnrhc |! irscIanorchorrvo, burirooksasiIrhc 'sccuar`
supporrrharrhc|!aicsdcivcrcdrorhc|!-cdaianccvasparr-
icuary impcricd by rhc Iindurva movcmcnr`s aggrcssivc - and
somcrimcsviocnr- undcrminingoIasccuar!ndia andrhc compcrc
Iaiurc oIrhc|!`s aicsrorcsisrrhccxrrcmismoIIindurva.
!nparricuar, rhcviocnccin Gu|arar, cspcciay aimcdarNusims,
cIr a asring mark on rhc |!`s imagc, and rcccivcd much arrcnrion
across rhccounrry. 1hcconccssionbyrhcIormcr!rimcNinisrcrAra
ihari Va| paycc, rhc cadcr oI rhc dcIcarcd |!, rhar rhc Gu| arar
kiingshad bccn a ma| or inHucncc in rhc |!`s dcIcar,sccmcdro bc
sayingvharvas obvious ro many. ' ur- norsurprisingy- rhc css
modcrarcparr oIrhc Iindurvacadcrshiphasrcacrcd rorhisconccs-
sionvirhunconccacdvcnom,makingVa|payccsvaovmosroIhis
vords oIconccssion.
!r is imporranrro undcrsrandrhchodoIrhcsccpricarradirion in
!ndia,dcspircrhcmaniIcsrprcscnccoIrcigionsa acrossrhccounrry.
!n rcsponding ro rhc cxpoirarion oI rcigious dcmography in rhc
*Vajpayee is reported to have said: 'It is very difficult to say what all the reasons are
for the defeat [of the BJP] in the elections but one impact of the violence was we lost
the elections' (see 'Gujarat bloodbath cost us dearly: Vajpayee', Times of India, r2
June 2004) .
7I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
poirics oIIindurva, rhc dcIcndcrs oIsccuar polirics oIrcn rakc Ior
granrcd rhar rhc !ndian popuarion voud vanr rcigious polirics in
onc Iorm or anorhcr. 1his has lcd ro rhc poirica rcmprarion ro usc
' soIrIindurva`asacompromiscrcsponscbysccuarisrsrorhcpoirics
oI 'hard Iindurva` . ur rhar racrica approach, vhich ccrrainy has
nor givcn rhc anri-|! parrics anydividcnd so Iar, is Ioundarionay
misrakcn. !r proIoundy ignorcs rhc srrcngrh oI sccpricism in !ndia,
vhichcxrcndsrorcligions asvcll,parricularyinrhcIormoIdoubr-
ing rhc rccvancc oI rcigious bcicIs in poirica aIIairs. !ndccd, rhc
rocrancc oI hcrcrodoxy, and acccprancc oI variarions oI rcigious
bclicIsandcusroms,is dccproorcdin!ndia.
Kabindranarh1agorcrhoughrrharrhc'idcaoI!ndia`irsclImiirarcs
'againsr rhc inrcnsc consciousncss oI rhc scpararcncss oI onc`s ovn
pcopc Irom orhcrs` . ' 1hrough rhcir arrcmprs r o cncouragc and
cxpoir scpararism, rhc Iindurva movcmcnr has cnrcrcdinro a con-
IronrarionvirhrhcidcaoI!ndiairscI.1hisisnorhingshorroIasus-
raincdcIIorrrominiarurizcrhcbroadidcaoIaargc!ndia - proudoI
irshcrcrodoxpasr andirspuraisr prcscnr - and rorcpaccirbyrhc
sramp oI a sma !ndia, bundcd around a drasricaly dovnsizcd
vcrsionoIIinduism.!nrhcconIronrarionbcrvccnaargcandasma
!ndia,rhc broadcr undcrsrandingcanccrrainlyvin. urrhc barrcIor
rhc broad idca oI!ndia cannor bc von uncss rhosc hghring Ior rhc
argcrconccprionknovvharrhcyarchghringIor.1hcrcachoI!ndian
rradirions, incuding hcrcrodoxy andrhc cclcbrarion oIpuraliry and
sccpricism, rcguircs a comprchcnsivc rccognirion. Cognizancc oI
!ndia`s pasr is imporranr Ior an adcguarc undcrsranding oIrhc capa-
ciousidcaoI!ndia.
72
4
The Diaspora and the World
An Issue of Identity
1hc narurc oIrhc!ndianidcnriry is signihcanr Iorrhosc vho ivcin
!ndia. ur ir is aso imporranr Ior rhc vcry argc !ndian diaspora
acrossrhcvord -csrimarcdrobczomiionormorcinnumbcr.1hcy
scc,righry,noconrradicrionbcrvccnbcingoyacirizcnsoIrhccoun-
rryinvhichrhcyarcscrrcdandvhcrcrhcyarcsociayandpoiricay
inrcgrarcdrirainorrhc\nircdSrarcsorNaaysiaorKcnyaorvhcr-
cvcrj , andsrircrainingascnscoIaIIiiarionandcompanionshipvirh
!ndiaand!ndians.AsisIrcgucnryrhccascvirhcmigranrsingcncra,
rhc !ndian diaspora is aso kccn on rakingpridc - somc scI-rcspccr
anddigniry- inrhccururcandrradirionsoIrhciroriginahomcand.
1hisIrcgucnryrakcsrhcIormoIsomckindoI'nariona` or 'civiiza-
riona` apprcciarionoIbcing!ndianinorigin. Iovcvcr,rhcrcis oIrcn
somc ack oI cariry on rhc appropriarc grounds Ior digniry. vhar
shoudrhc !ndian diasporabcproud oI!
1hisis nora hard gucsrionro ansvcr, givcnrhc brcadrh andrich-
ncss oI !ndian civiizarion. cvcrrhccss, rhis sub| ccr has bccomc
somcrhing oIa barrcgroundin rcccnrycars.!ndccd,rhcrarhcr com-
barivcinc oIcxcusionaryrhinkingrharrhcIindurvamovcmcnrhas
sponsorcdandchampioncdhasmadcsrronginroadsinrorhcpcrccp-
rions oI rhc !ndian diaspora. 1hcrc has bccn a sysrcmaric cIIorr ro
cncouragc non-rcsidcnr !ndians oI Iindu background ro idcnriIy
rhcmscvcs,norprimariyas'!ndians` , burparricuaryas'Iindus` or,
arcasr,ro scc rhcmscvcs as!ndiansvirhinaIinduizcdconccprionj .
*Some general issues of identity are discussed i n Essay r 6 below.
7
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hccampaignhas vorkcdcnccrivcy ovcr parrs oIrhc diaspora, and
rhc Sangh !arivar - incuding irs morc aggrcssivc componcnrs -
rcccivcs argc rcmirranccsIrom!ndians ovcrscas.
As ir happcns,sccrarianandIundamcnraisridcas oIdincrcnrrci-
gionsoIrcndogcr cnrhusiasricsupporrIromcmigranrs,vho aggrcs-
sivcypayuprhcvaucoIvharrhcyidcnriIyasrhcir'ovnrradirions`
asrhcyhndrhcmscvcscnguIcdinadominanrIorcigncururcabroad.
1his rcndcncy gavc srrcngrh ro Sikh poirica miirancy in orrh
AmcricaandLuropcrharvasvcrypovcrIuinrhc tp8os. !rasocon-
rinucs ro add ro rhc vigour oI!samic Iundamcnraism in rhc vord
roday. 1hc Iindurva movcmcnr, roo, has bccn busy rccruiring irs
Iorcign cgionvirhmuchvigourand considcrabcsucccss.
Ycr many cxparriarc !ndians, irrcspccrivc oIrhcirrcigious back-
ground, hndirhardrosccrhcmscvcs in such divisivc rcrms, and arc
aso vorricd abour rhc usc oI brurairics and boodshcd associarcd
virhrhccxrrcmisrving oIrhcIindurvamovcmcnr, Ior cxampc, in
rhcriorsin Gujararin zooz. voiccsvcrc cvcnraiscdarrhc orhcrvisc
smoorh mccring oI ' !ravasi harariya` !ndians iving abroadj ,
arrangcdvirhmuchIanIarcbyrhcgovcrnmcnroI!ndiai ncvchi
in|anuaryzooj rovhichz,ooomcmbcrsoIrhcdiasporacamcIrom
sixry-rhrccdiIIcrcnrcounrricsj,abourrhcdccp shamcrharmanyovcr-
scas !ndians Icr abour rhc organizcd sccrarian viocncc in Gujarar.
1hcrcis a dcsircIornariona orcururapridc, bur somcunccrrainry
abourvharrorakcpridcin.
Tradition and Pride
!n rhis conrcxr, ir is parricuaryimporranrro ookar rhc rradirions
oI !ndia in a rhcir spaciousncss - nor arriIiciay narrovcd in
sccrarian incs. !ndccd, virhin rhc Iindu rradirion irscI, rhcrc is
surcy much rcason Ior pridc in rhc rcach and opcn-mindcdncss oI
rhc broad andcapaciousrcadingoIrhcIindupcrspccrivc,virhour
a conIronrariona approach ro orhcr Iairhs. 1har pcrspccrivc as
discusscdinLssayj j isradicaydiIIcrcnrIromrhcdrasricaydovn-
sizcd Iinduismrharrcndsrorcccivcrhcparronagc oIrhcIindurva
movcmcnr.
7
4
THE DIAS PORA AND THE WORLD
Lvcn rhough rhc programmc oIidcnriIying virh a 'sma !ndia` is
vigorousypushcdnouddha,pcasc,norAshokaorAkbarorKabir
or anakj , rhcrc is a 'argc !ndia` roo, avaiabc ro rhc diaspora as
much as ro !ndians in !ndia. !r is imporranr ro apprcciarc rhar rhc
hisroricaachicvcmcnrs in!ndiaincriricarcasoning,pubicdcibcra-
rion and anayrica scruriny, as vc as in scicncc and marhcmarics,
archirccrurc, mcdicinc, painring and music, arc producrs oI !ndian
socicry - invoving borh Iindus and non-Iindus, and incuding rhc
sccprica as vc as rhc rcigious. !ndians oI any background shoud
havcrcasoncnoughrocccbrarcrhcirhisroricaorcururaassociarion
virh ro considcr a varicry oI cxampcsj agar| una`s pcncrraring
phiosophicaargumcnrs,Iara`sphianrhropiccadcrship,NairrcyI`s
or GargI`s scarching gucsrions, Carvaka`s rcasoncd sccpricism,
_
ryabha(a`s asrronomica and marhcmarica dcparrurcs, Kaidasa`s
dazzing pocrry,

draka`s subvcrsivc drama, Abu !az`s asrounding

schoarship, Shah|ahan`sacsrhcricvision,Kamanu|an`smarhcmarics,
orKaviShankar`sandAiAkbarKhan`smusic,virhourhrsrhavingro
chcckrhcrcigiousbackgroundoIcach.
!nrharargcrradirion,rhcrcisindccdmuchrobcproudoI,incud-
ingsomc idcas Iorvhich!ndia gcrsIarcss crcdirrhanir coudpau-
sibycxpccr.Considcr,Iorcxampc,rhcrradirionoIpubicrcasoning.
Lvcn rhough rhc imporrancc oI diaoguc and discussion has bccn
cmphasizcdinrhchisroryoImanycounrricsinrhcvord,rhcIacrrhar
rhc !ndian subconrincnr has a parricuary srrong rradirion in rccog-
nizingandpursuingadiaogiccommirmcnrisccrrainyvorrhnoring,
cspcciay in rhc darkcningvord- virh viocncc and rcrrorism- in
vhichvcivc.!risindccdgoodrorcmcmbcrrharsomc oIrhccaricsr
opcnpubic dcibcrarions inrhcvordvcrc hosrcdin!ndiaro discuss
diIIcrcnr poinrs oIvicvs, virh a parricuary argc mccring arrangcd
byAshoka in rhc rhirdccnruryBCE. !r is good rorcmcmbcr aso rhar
Akbar championcd - cvcn rhar vas Iour hundrcd ycars ago - rhc
ncccssiryoIpubicdiaogucsandbackcduphisconvicrionbyarrang-
ingacruadiaogucsbcrvccnmcmbcrs oIdiIIcrcnrIairhs. 1hc impor-
rancc oI such rccoccrions docs nor ic mcrcy in rhc cccbrarion oI
hisrory, bur aso in undcrsranding rhc conrinuing rccvancc oIrhcsc
carydcparrurcsinrhcoryandpracricc.
!risarrhisrimcrarhcrcommoninVcsrcrnpoiricadiscussionsro
7
5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
assumc rhar rocrancc and rhc usc oIrcason arc guinrcsscnria -
possiby uniguc - Icarurcs oI ' ccidcnra vaucs` . Ior cxampc,
SamucIunringronhasinsisrcdrharrhc'VcsrvasVcsrongbcIorc
irvasmodcrn`andrharrhc' scnscoIindividuaismandarradirionoI
individua righrs and ibcrrics` ro bc Iound in rhc Vcsr arc 'uniguc
amongciviizcdsocicrics` . GivcnrhcIairdcgrccoIubiguiryrharsuch
pcrccprionshavcinrhcmodcrnVcsr,irispcrhapsvorrhnoringrhar
issucs oI individua righrs and ibcrrics havc hgurcd in discussions
cscvhcrcasvc,norcasrinrhcconrcxroIcmphasizingrhcimpor-
ranccoIrhcindividua`srighroIdccision-making,Iorcxampcabour
onc`srcigion.
1hcrchas bccnsupporrasvc asdcniaoIsuchrighrs inrhchis-
roryoIborhLuropc and!ndia, andirishardro sccrharrhcVcsrcrn
cxpcricncc insupporr oIrhcsc righrsispccuiary 'uniguc among civ-
iizcd socicrics` . !or cxampc,vhcn Akbarvasissuinghis cga ordcr
rhar 'no man shoud bc inrcrIcrcd virh on accounr oI rcigion, and
anyoncisrobcaovcdrogoovcrroarcigionrharpcascshim`,and
vas busy arranging diaogucs bcrvccn Iindus, Nusims, Chrisrians,
|ains, !arsccs, |cvs and cvcn arhcisrs, Giordano runo vas bcing
burnr ar rhc srakc in Komc Ior hcrcsy, inrhc pubic spacc oICampo
dci!iori.
!crhaps rhcmosr imprcssivc aspccr oIAkbar`s dcIcncc oIarocr-
anrpuraisrsocicryishisIocusonrhcrocoIrcasoninginchoosing
rhisapproach. Lvcnindccidingononc`sIairh,oncshoudbc,Akbar
argucd,guidcd by 'rhcparhoIrcason` ( rahi aql) , rarhcrrhancdby
' bind Iairh` . Kcason cannor bur bc suprcmc, sincc cvcn vhcn dis-
puring rcason, vc voud havc ro givc rcason Ior rhar dispurarion. `
!nrhc Iirsr rvo cssays oIrhis book,! havc rricdro commcnr onrhc
ong hisrory oI rcasoning - and arguing - in !ndia, and irs conncc-
rion virh accompishmcnrs in such Iicds as scicncc, marhcmarics,
cpisrcmo ogy, pubic crhics and in rhc poirics oI parriciparion
andsccuarism.
1hcrc is,!voudarguc,muchinrhisrradirionrharshoudrcccivc
sysrcmaric arrcnrionIrom!ndiansroday, incudingrhc diaspora, irrc-
spccrivc oIvhcrhcrrhccadcrshipcomcs IromIindus orNusims or
uddhisrs or Chrisrians or Sikhs or !arsccs or|ains or |cvs. !ndccd,
rhcimporranccoIIucrknovcdgcabour!ndia`srradirionsishardro
THE DI AS PORA AND THE WORLD
ovcrcmphasizc ar rhc prcscnr rimc. !r is nor ony rccvanr Ior rhc
undcrsrandingoIrhc'arge!ndia`,buraso imporranrIorapprcciaring
rhc variarions and Irccdoms rhar a broad !ndian idcnriry aovs -
indccd,cccbrarcs.
Colonial Dominance and Self-respect
nc oI rhc rcasons Ior sccking a ccarcr vicv oI rhc inrcccrua
accompishmcnrsin!ndia`spasrrcarcsroabiasinscI-pcrccprionrhar
is associarcdvirh!ndia`s coonia hisrory. 1his isnorrhc occasionro
rryroook armanyorhcrIcarurcs oIcooniarcarionsrharradicay
inHucnccdarrirudcsandpcrccprionsin!ndia, bursincc! amIocusing
onsomcrhingguircspccihc,!shoudvarnabourrhcscndcrnarurcoI
rhcprogrammc oIinvcsrigarionhcrc.
1hccoonia cxpcricncc oI!ndia norony hadrhc cIIccr oIundcr-
mining rhc inrcccrua scI-conIidcncc oI !ndians, ir has aso bccn
cspcciayhardonrhcrypc oIrccognirionrhar!ndiansmaysrandardy
havc givcn ro rhc counrry`s scicnrihc and cririca rradirions. 1hc com-
pararivc| udgcmcnrrharNacauaymadcpopuarinrhccarynincrccnrh
ccnrury ' asingcshcIoIagoodLuropcanibraryvasvorrhrhcvhoc
narivcircrarurcoI!ndiaandArabia` j vas sccnroappyparricuaryro
!ndiananalytical vork asvibcmorcIuydiscusscdinLssay ;j . '
Lvcn rhough cary coonia adminisrrarors i nrhc arc cighrccnrh
ccnrury- VarrcnIasrings amongrhcm- rook a vcry broad inrcrcsr
in !ndia`s inrcccrua pasr, rhc narroving oI rhc impcria mind vas
guirc rapid oncc rhc cmpirc scrrcd in. Cocrcion and dominancc
dcmandcdrhckindoIdisrancingrharcoudsusrainrhc'aurocracyscr
up and susraincd in rhc Lasr by rhc Iorcmosr dcmocracy in rhc
Vcsrcrn vord` as Kana|ir Guha has insighrIuy dcscribcd coonia
!ndiaj . ' !ndia`s rcigions and mysrica rhoughrs did nor rhrcarcn ro
undcrminc rhar impcria inrcccrua disrancc. 1hcrc vas no grcar
dinicury in providing cncouragcmcnr and assisrancc ro rhosc vho
garhcrcdandrransarcd'rhcsacrcdbooksoIrhccasr` asNaxNcr
did, virh supporr Irom rhc Lasr !ndia Company, commissioncd in
8q;, rcsuring in a j o-voumc coccrionj . ur in rhc srandard
hcds oIpurc and pracrica rcason, rhc propcnsiry ro scc a giganric
77
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
inrcccruagapbcrvccn !ndia andrhcVcsr - srrcrchingIar back inro
hisrory - vas ccrrainyguircsrrong.
!cr mc iusrrarc. Considcr, Ior cxampc, rhc originairy oI
_
ryabha(a`svork,compcrcdin499 CE, onrhcdiurnamorionoIrhc
carrh dispuringrhc caricr undcrsrandingoIan orbiring sunj andrhc
rcarcd proposa rhar rhcrc vas a Iorcc oI graviry vhich prcvcnrcd
marcria ob| ccrs Irom bcing rhrovn avay as rhc carrh rorarcd
dcscribcd in Lssay t ) . 1hc mosr inIucnria coonia hisrorian oI
rirish!ndia,|amcsNi,rookrhcsccaimsrobcsrraighrIorvardIab-
ricarion. !r vas ccar ro Ni rhar rhc !ndian 'pundirs had bccomc
acguainrcd virh rhc idcas oILuropcan phiosophcrs rcspccring rhc
sysrcmoIrhc univcrsc`, andhadrhcnprocccdcdro caimrhar 'rhosc
idcas vcrc conraincd in rhcir ovn books`. ' Ni`s !ndian hisrory,
vhich Nacauay dcscribcd as 'on rhc vhoc rhc grcarcsr hisrorica
vorkvhichhasappcarcdinouranguagcsinccrharoIGibbon`g vas
rrcmcndousyinHucnriainrhcinrcccruavordoIrhcririshKa| .
ll
As ir happcns, hovcvcr, rhc scicnrihc idcas in dispurc vcrc vc
rcporrcd,nor| usrin !ndianbooks, buraso in rhc accounrsoIoursidc
obscrvcrs. !n parricuar, rhcyrcccivcdcarcIu and dcraicddcscriprion
as didorhcrcary!ndianvorksinasrronomyandmarhcmaricsj Irom
Arab and!ranianmarhcmaricians,vho aso rransarcdandcxrcnsivcy
uscd virh gcncrous acknovcdgcmcnrj somc oIrhc rccvanr Sanskrir
books.t !orcxampc,rhc!ranianmarhcmaricianAbcrunicon\mcnrcd
spccihcayonrhis parricuar vorkoI
_
ryabha(a vhich Ni rook ro
bc rhc rcsur oInincrccnrh-ccnrury Iabricarionj in anArabic book on
!ndia( Tarikh al-hind), vrirrcninrhccaryccvcnrhccnrury.
See the discussion of 'the magisterial view' in Essay 7 below.
tOne of the oddities of the intellectually underinformed world of the Hindutva
movement is the chastisement that it offers to the Arab world. The i nternational head
of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Praveen Togadia, whose knowledge of science cannot
far exceed his pol i tical wisdom, is even on record asking 'Indian Muslims to get their
genetics tested', to rule out the possibility that 'the blood of Arabia' may 'flow in their
blood' ( ' Togadia Said It, and He's Proud of It', Indian Express, 2I Oct. 2002) . The
grossness of this gratuitous counsel is particularly galling, not j ust because of its moral
crudity and scientifc stupidi ty, but also because of Togadia's evident ignorance of the
generosity and fairness with which the Arab authors have, historically, tended to treat
the creative works of Hindu intellectuals ( on this see Essay 7 below) . In fact, Hindu
mathematics became known in the Christian West mainly through the efforts of
Muslim Arabs.
THE DIAS PORA AND THE WORLD
Brahmagupta says in another place of the same book: 'The followers of
Aryabhata maintain that the earth is moving and heaven resting. People have
tried to refute them by saying that, if such were the case, stones and trees
would fall from the earth.' But Brahmagupta does not agree with them, and
says that that would not necessarily follow from their theory, apparently
because he thought that all heavy things are attracted towards the centre of
the earth.
12
|amcsNi`scomprchcnsivcdcniaoI!ndianinrcccruaoriginairy
cvidcnrysprangIromhisgcncrabcicIrhar!ndianshadrakcnony'a
Icv oIrhc caricsr srcps in rhc progrcss ro civiizarion` .
'
Ni`s con-
vicrion rhar !ndian schoars vcrc Iabricaring rhings voud havc
rcccivcd somc hcp Irom his orhcr gcncra bcicI. ' ur anccsrors,
rhough rough, vcrc sinccrc, bur undcr rhc gosing cxrcrior oI rhc
Iindu, ics a gcncra disposirion ro dcccir and pcrhdy. Ni vas
guirc cvcn-handcd in dismissing a orhcr caims oI achicvcmcnr oI
!ndianscicncc andmarhcmaricsasvc, Iorcxampcrhcdcvcopmcnr
anduscoIrhc dccimasysrcm NioIIcrcdrhccnricingvicvrharrhc
!ndian dccima norarionsvcrc 'rcayhicrogyphics` j .
!crhaps! shoudinIairncss norc rhc mirigaringcircumsrancc rhar
Ni madc a conscious dccisionrovrirchis hisrory oI!ndia virhour
carning any !ndian anguagc and virhour cvcr visiring !ndia. Ni
dccarcd rhcsc Iacrs virh somc apparcnr pridc in rhc !rcIacc ro his
book - hccvidcnrydidnorvanrrobcbiascdbycoscncssrorhcsub-
| ccr marrcr. Abcruni, rhc !ranian marhcmarician, vho masrcrcd
Sanskrir and roamcdaroundin!ndiaIora grcarmanyycarsbcIorc
vriring his ovn hisrory oI !ndia, cighr hundrcd ycars bcIorc Ni,
voudhavcbccnairrcpuzzcdbyrhcrcscarchmcrhodoogyoIrhc
cading rirish hisrorian oI !ndia oI rhc nincrccnrh ccnrury. Ni`s
vork scr rhc ronc Ior many oIrhc discussions on coonia poicy oI
rhc day, incudingrhccducarionaarrangcmcnrs insrirurcdin rirish
!ndia,invhichNacauayinparricuar, ciringNivcryoIrcn,paycd
a bigparr.
Coonia undcrmining oI scI-conhdcncc hadrhc cIIccr oI driving
many !ndians roookIorsourccsoIdigniryandpridcin somc spccia
achicvcmcnrs invhichrhcrcvas csspovcrIu opposirion- andaso
''These and other Millian diagnoses are more fully discussed in Essay 7 below.
7
9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
lcss compcririon - Irom rhc impcrial Vcsr, including !ndia`s allcgcd
cxccllcncc in spirirualiry and rhc oursranding imporrancc oI hcr
spccihcrcligiouspracriccs.IS ycrcaringrhcir 'ovn domain oIsovcr-
cignry` as !arrha Charrcr| cc has dcscribcd irj , rhc !ndians - likc
orhcrpcoplc dominarcdbycolonialism- havcoIrcnsoughrrhcirsclI-
rcspccrinunusualhcldsandspccialinrcrcsrs.1hishasbccnassociarcd
virh ancxrraordinaryncglccroI!ndianvorksonrcasoning,scicncc,
marhcmaricsandorhcrso-callcd 'VcsrcrnsphcrcsoIsucccss` . 1hcrcis
ccrrainly a nccd Ior somc cmcndarionhcrc.
History and Public Reason
1hcrc is a nccd Ior a somcvhar similar corrccrivc rcgarding !ndian
rradirions inpublicrcasoningandrolcranrcommunicarion, andmorc
gcncrallyinvharcanbc callcd rhc prccursors oIdcmocraricpracricc
discusscd in Lssay t j . !mpcrial lcadcrs in rirain, such as Vinsron
Churchill, vcrc noronly sccprical oIrhc abiliry oI!ndians ro govcrn
rhcmsclvcs, rhcyIound lirrlc rcasonro rakc aninrcrcsr in rhc hisrory
oIidcas oncivil adminisrrarion orparriciparorygovcrnanccorpublic
rcasoning in !ndia. !n conrrasr, vhcn !ndia bccamc indcpcndcnr in
tpq;rhcpoliricaldiscussionsrharlcdro a Iullydcmocraricconsriru-
rion,making!ndiarhclargcsrdcmocracyinrhcrvcnricrhccnrury, nor
only includcd rcIcrcnccs ro Vcsrcrn cxpcricnccs in dcmocracy, bur
also rccallcdirsovn parriciparoryrradirions.
|avaharlal chru, !ndia`s Iirsr !rimc Ninisrcr, pur parricular
cmphasis on rhc rolcrarion oI hcrcrodoxy and pluralism in !ndian
hisrory. 1hc Chair oIrhcraIringCommirrcc oIrhc!ndian consri-
rurion, r . K. Ambcdkar, a disringuishcd scholar and polirical
lcadcrIromrhc communiry oIalirs Iormcrly, 'unrouchablcs` j , also
vcnrinsomcdcrailinrorhchisroryoIlocaldcmocraricgovcrnanccin
!ndiaro asscssvhcrhcrircouldIruirIullyscrvcasamodclIormodcrn
!ndian dcmocracy. Ambcdkar cvcnrually savlirrlc mcrir in draving
onlocal dcmocraric cxpcricncc, sincc localism, hc argucd, gcncrarcd
'narrov-mindcdncss and communalism` spcaking pcrsonally,
Ambcdkar cvcn asscrrcd rhar 'rhcsc villagc rcpublics havc bccn rhc
ruinarion oI !ndia` j . IS ur Ambcdkar also poinrcd ro rhc gcncral
8o
THE DIAS PORA AND THE WORLD
rccvancc oIrhc hisrory oIpubicrcasoningin !ndia, andparricuary
cmphasizcdrhc cxprcssion oIhcrcrodoxvicvs.I9
cspircrhosccarydcibcrarionsinindcpcndcnr!ndia,rhcinrccc-
ruaagcndasrcarcdronarionapoiricshavcrcndcdromovchrmyin
orhcr dirccrions sincc rhcn, inHucnccd by, among orhcr Iacrors, rhc
sccrarianismoIrhcIindu rvamovcmcnrandrhccururaignoranccoI
many oI rhc gobaizing modcrnizcrs. Ycr rhc hisrorica roors oI
dcmocracyandsccuarismin!ndia,nocssrhanrhcrcachoIirsscicn-
rihcandmarhcmaricahcriragc, dcmandscrious arrcnrion in conrcm-
porary!ndia. !ndccd, pubic discussion- inaddirionrobaoringand
cccrions - isparroIrhcvcrycorcoIdcmocraricarrangcmcnrs.|usras
rhcrradirion oIbaoring going backrorhcpracriccinArhcns inrhc
sixrh ccnrury BCE) is:ighry accaimcd in rhc hisrory oI dcmocracy,
rhcrc is a simiar casc Ior cccbraring rhc dcvcopmcnr, across rhc
vord, oIrhcrradirion oIopcnpubicdiscussionasancsscnriaaspccr
oI rhc roors oI dcmocracy. !I Akbar vas vc ahcad oI his rimc in
arranging srarc-organizcd inrcr-Iairh diaogucs possiby rhc hrsr in
rhc vordj , Ashokamusraso bc rcgardcd asrcmarkabc in his inrcr-
csrandinvovcmcnr, inrhcrhirdccnruryBCE, inrhcrucsoIdiscussion
and conIronrarionrhar shoudgovcrnargumcnrs bcrvccnhodcrs oI
divcrsc bcicIs.
1harconnccrion has goba rccvancc roo, sincc Ashokavas criri-
cayimporranrIorrhc sprcadoIuddhismandirssociavaucs inrhc
vord bcyond !ndia. !r is inrcrcsring ro norc rhar arraching spccia
imporranccro discussions and diaoguc movcdvirh orhcr uddhisr
principcs,vhcrcvcruddhismvcnr. ` !orcxampc,incaryscvcnrh-
ccnrury |apan, rhc inIucnria uddhisr !rincc Shoroku, vho vas
rcgcnr ro his morhcr, Lmprcss Suiko, inrroduccd a rcarivcy ibcra
consrirurion or kempo knovn as ' rhc consrirurion oI scvcnrccn
arriccs` j in 6o( CE, vhichincudcdrhcinsisrcncc inrhcspiriroIrhc
Nagna Carra ro bc signcd sixccnruricsarcr,in t zt j . 'ccisions on
Buddhism also had the effect, typically, of enhancing the social importance of gen
eral literacy. The continuing influence of this can, to a considerable extent, be seen in
the relatively high levels of literacy in countries in which Buddhism has survived, from
Japan and Korea, to Thailand and Sri Lanka, and even in an otherwise miserable
Burma. The Buddhist commitment clearly gave way to other priorities in the thousand
years after its effective exit from India.
8 I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
imporranr marrcrs shoud nor bc madc by onc pcrson aonc. 1hcy
shoudbcdiscusscdvirh many.` Shoroku aso argucd. 'or lcrus bc
rcscnrIu vhcn orhcrs diIIcr Irom us. !or a mcn havc hcarrs, and
cach hcarr has irs ovn canings. 1hcir righr is our vrong, and our
righris rhcirvrong. ` ` !ndccd, somc commcnrarors havc sccn, inrhis
scvcnrh-ccnruryuddhism-inspircdconsrirurion,|apan`s 'hrsrsrcp oI
gradualdcvcopmcnrrovarddcmocracy` .
'
Anorhcrmaj oruddhisrachicvcmcnr - nor unrcarcd inIacrrorhc
inrcrcsr in public communicarion - is rhar ncary cvcry arrcmpr ar
cary prinring inrhcvord,in parricuar in China,Korcaand|apan,
vasundcrrakcnbyuddhisrrcchnoogisrs,virhaninrcrcsrincxpand-
ing pubic communicarion. ' 1hc Iirsr cvcr prinrcd book or, morc
cxacry, rhchrsrprinrcdbook rharisacruaydarcdj vasrhc Chincsc
rransarion oI an !ndian Sanskrir rrcarisc Vajracchedikaprajna
piramiti) , rhc so-calcd ' iamond Surra` . 1his vas rransarcd inro
Chincsc byKumarajva a haI-!ndian, haI-1urkishuddhisrschoarj
in402 CE andrhismanuscriprvasprinrcdin 8 68 . 1hcinrroducrory
norcrharvcnrvirhrhcvoumccxpicirlycxplaincdrharirvasmadc
Ior 'univcrsaIrcc disrriburion` . `
! shoud aso norc hcrc rhar rhc achicvcmcnrs rhar arc inkcd ro
uddhismincludcnorj usrrhcIocusonpublicrcasoningandprinring,
bur aso accompishmcnrs in marhcmarics, asrronomy, ircrarurc,
painring, scuprurc andcvcninrhcpracricc oIpubichcarhcarc- a
subj ccr in vhich uddhisrs vcrc parricuary invovcd and vhich
grcaryinrcrcsrcdChincscvisirorsro!ndiasuchas!axianinrhccary
hIrhccnruryandYi|ing inrhc scvcnrh.| Aso Ashoka, rhc uddhisr
cmpcror,vasapionccrincrcaringhospiralsIorpubicuscinrhcrhird
ccnruryBCE. 1hcrcisaso asrarcmcnrinoncoIrhcLdicrsrharAshoka
had csrabishcd hospirals in rhc Iccnisric kingdoms - a claimrhar
*There were early attempts at printing by Indian Buddhists also, but with far less
success. Yi Jing, a Chinese scholar who visited India in the seventh century, talks of
Buddhist images on silk and paper in India. On this and other early attempts at print
ing, see Essay 8 below, and the illuminating assessment of the different attempts by
Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 198 s ) , vol. v, part i, pp. I48-so.
tThe infl uences going in both directions between these two countries are discussed
in Essay 8 below, and also in 'Passage to China', New York Review of Books, 2 Dec.
2004.
82
THE DIAS PORA AND THE WORLD
may soundimpausibc burhas bccnpausiby dcIcndcdonrhc basis
oIavaiabccvidcnccby1homasNcLvicy.24
nc oIrhc sad Icarurcs oI a narrovy Iinduizcd vicv oI!ndia`s
pasr isrharrhc | usrihabcpridc!ndians canrakc inrhc achicvcmcnrs
oInon-Iindu asvcasIinduaccompishmcnrsin!ndiais drovncd
in rhc sccrarianism oI sccing !ndia as mainy a vchicc Ior Iindu
rhoughr andpracricc.1har,combincdvirhan asronishingy narrov
andinrocranrvicvoIrhcIindurradirionirscI, amounrsrodcnying
a good dca oI!ndian hisrory rhar!ndians havc rcasonro rcmcmbcr
androcccbrarc.
Global Connections
Sincc rhc tp8os rhcrc has bccn a gradua opcning up oIrhc !ndian
cconomy, virh a big shiIr in tppz, undcr rhc cadcrship oI
NanmohanSinghrhcprcscnr!rimcNinisrcroI!ndiajvhovasrhcn
rhc !inanccNinisrcrinrhc Congrcss govcrnmcnrcd byarasimha
Kao.' 1hargovcrnmcnrgavcvayro orhcrs,burrhcrcducrionoIrhc
aurarky oI coscd cconomic poicics has conrinucd. SigniIicanry,
vhcn rhc |!-cd govcrnmcnr camc ro oIIicc in tpp8 , and vas con-
soidarcdin tppp, irdidrakcaIairybroadvicvoI!ndia`sgobacco-
nomicconnccrions. 1hc Iocus may havc bccngcarcdparricuaryro
somc spcciIic sccrors, bur rhc ovcra inrcrcsr in goba rradc vas
srrong.1hcparochiaismmaniIcsrinrhc|!`scururaagcndadidnor
managcroovcrvhcmrhc|!govcrnmcnr`spoicicsoninrcrnariona
rradc.1hcgrovrhrarcoIrhc!ndiancconomyvasasoIairyIasrovcr
rhoscycars.
Iovcvcr,cvcnrhoughrhc|!`scururaprc|udiccsdidnormanagc
ro ovcrpovcr rhc ourvard-ooking cconomic programmc oI rhc
!ndian govcrnmcnr, rhc curura agcnda irscI - coscy inkcd ro irs
sccrarian poirics - mainraincd irs parochia priorirics. !ndccd, rhc
rcvriring oI !ndia`s pasr rhar rhc Iindurva movcmcnr oIIcrcd is
coscy inkcd as vas discusscd in Lssay j j virh rcaring !ndia`s
*The relevance of these changes and the tasks that remain to be urgently taken up
are discussed in Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: Development and Participation
(Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) ; see also Essay 9 below.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
civiizariona accompishmcnrs ro consrrucrivc vork donc singc-
handcdyarhomc,in spcndidisoarion.
1his scgrcgarionisrprogrammcruns conrrary ro rhc Iacrrhar sus-
raincdinrcracrions acrossrhcbordcrscan bc sccnrhroughour!ndia`s
onghisrory. !r is nor so much rharrhcrcvas no dcprccarion oIIor-
cigncrs in !ndian rradirionaisr rhinking. !ndccd, guirc rhc conrrary.
ur, as Abcruni, rhc !ranian hisrorian oI !ndia, norcd ncary a
rhousand ycars ago in a srarcmcnr virh rcmarkabc anrhropoogica
visionj , 'dcprcciarionoIIorcigncrsnoronyprcvaisamongusandrhc
!ndians, buris commonro anarionsrovardscachorhcr` . `cspirc
rhis sccpricism oI Iorcign pcopc, rhcrc vcrc inrcracrions virh our-
sidcrsrhroughour!ndianhisrory.
!ndia`s rcccnr achicvcmcnrs in scicncc and rcchnoogy incuding
inIormarionrcchnoogyj,orinvordircrarurc, orininrcrnarionabusi-
ncss,havcainvovcdagooddcaoIgobainrcracrion.1hcimporranr
poinr ro norc in rhc prcscnr conrcxr is rhar rhcsc inrcracrions arc nor
unprcccdcnrcdin!ndianhisrory.!ndccd,inrcracrionshavcbccnparrand
parccoIrhc!ndianciviizarion,Iromvcrycarydays. ConsidcrSanskrir
- a spcndidanguagcvirh arichircrarurc- vhichhas bccnoncoIrhc
robusr piars oI !ndian civiizarion. cspirc irs guinrcsscnria
'!ndianncss` , rhcrc is a gcncra undcrsranding rhar, in an cary Iorm,
Sanskrircamcro!ndiaIromabroadinrhc sccondmicnniumBCE, virh
rhc migrarion oI !ndo-Luropcans, and rhcn ir dcvcopcd Iurrhcr and
Iourishcd magnihccnry in !ndia. !r is aso inrcrcsring ro norc rhar rhc
grcarcsr grammarian in Sanskrir indccd possiby in any anguagcj ,
namcy!apini,vhosysrcmarizcdandrransIormcdSanskrirgrammarand
phoncrics around rhc Iourrh ccnrury BCE, vas oI AIghan origin hc
dcscribcshisviagconrhc banks oIrhcrivcrKabuj. 1hcscIorcigncon-
nccrions havc nordiminishcdrhc pridc oIcassicay mindcd!ndians in
rhargrcaranguagc,norinrhc cxccprionaachicvcmcnrsoIrhc ircrarurc,
cururc andscicnccrharIoundirscxprcssionin Sanskrir. '
*I had initially hoped t hat, despite all its transgressions, the Hindutva movement
would have the good effect of enhancing the study of Sanskrit in India, on which there
were many declarations of intent. This expectation has not, however, been substan
tially realized, perhaps because so few of the Hindutva advocates seem to know
Sanskrit, but also because many enthusiasts for 'Hindu traditions' evidently prefer to
rely on garbled 'summaries' of the Vedas and the Ramaya1a, combined with 'rewrit
ten' Indian history, rather than looking for the classical documents themselves.
THE DIAS PORA AND THE WORLD
!ndccd, inrcracrions havc cnrichcd as vc as sprcad Sanskrir
bcyond !ndia`s bordcrs ovcr many ccnrurics. 1hc scvcnrh-ccnrury
Chincsc schoarYi|ingcarncdhisSanskririn|ava inrhcciryoIShri
Vi| ayaj onhisvayIrom Chinaro!ndia.1hcinHucnccoIinrcracrions
is vcrcHccrcdinanguagcs andvocabuaricsrhroughourAsiaIrom
1haiand and Naaya ro !ndo-China, !ndoncsia, rhc !hiippincs,
Korcaand|apan.AndrhisappicsroChinaroo,vhcrcschoarshipin
Sanskrir Iourishcd grcary in rhc Iirsr micnnium, asidc Irom rhc
inIucnccs rhar camc via orhcr counrrics in rhc rcgion. !r is nor oIrcn
rcaizcdrhar cvcnrhcvord 'Nandarin`, sranding asir docs Ior a ccn-
rra conccpr in Chincsc cururc, is dcrivcd Irom a Sanskrir vord,
Mantr", vhichvcnrIrom!ndiaroChinaviaNaaya.
Lvcn rhough conrcmporary arracks on inrcccrua gobaizarion
rcnd ro comc nor ony Irom rradiriona isoarionisrs bur aso Irom
modcrn scpararisrs, vc havc ro rccognizc rhar our gobaciviizarion
is a vord hcriragc- nor| usra coccrion oIdispararc oca cururcs.
1hcrcndcncyoIparrs oIrhccommunirarianmovcmcnrropush us in
rhc dirccrion oIIragmcnrcdisoarionismsuIIcrs, rhus, Irom a scrious
cpisrcmicvcakncss, in addirionrovharcvcrnormarivcdiIIicurics ir
mighrcncounrcrvis-a-viscrhicaunivcrsaism.
1hcnccdrorcsisrcooniadominanccis,oIcoursc,imporranr,bur
irhasro bcsccnasahghragainsrsubmissivccompiancc,rarhcrrhan
as a pca Ior scgrcgarion and ocaism. 1hc so-cacd 'posr-coonia
cririguc` can bc signiIicanry consrrucrivc vhcn ir is diaccricay
cngagcd - andrhussrrongyinrcracrivc - rarhcrrhandcIcnsivcyvirh-
dravnandbarricrcd.| Vc canhndavarning againsr isoarionismin
a parabc abour a vc-Irog - rhc 'kpamapquka` - rhar pcrsisrcnry
rccurs in scvcra od Sanskrir rcxrs, such as Ganapatha, Hitopadesa,
*On this and related issues, see especially Sheldon Pollock, 'Indi a in the Vernacular
Millennium: Literary Culture and Polity, 1oo0-1 5oo', Daedalus, 127 ( 1998). Pollock
discusses the vernacularization that occurred in the early centuries of the second millen
nium, following a long period of international dominance of Sanskrit, when ' Sanskrit
literary texts circulated from Central Asia to Sri Lanka and from Afghanistan to Annam,
and participating in such a literary culture meant participating in a vast ecumene' ( p. 4 5 ).
tGayatri Chakravorty Spivak's far-reaching work, for example, i s at its productive
best in its reactive mode. She writes, in a self-descriptive passage: 'I am viewed by the
Marxists as too codic, by feminists as too male-dominated, by indigenous theorists as
too committed to Western theory. I am uneasily pleased about this' (The Post-Colonial
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Prasannaraghava andBhattikavya. 1hc kpamapquka is a Irog rhar
ivcsirsvhoc iIcvirhinavc,knovsnorhingcsc,andissuspicious
oIcvcryrhingoursidcir.!rraksronoonc,andargucsvirhnooncon
anyrhing. !r mcrcy harbours rhc dccpcsr suspicion oI rhc oursidc
vord. 1hc scicnriIic, curura and cconomic hisrory oI rhc vord
voudhavcbccnvcryimircdindccdhadvcivcdikcvc-Irogs.
Cccbrarion oI !ndian civiizarion can go hand in hand virh an
aIIirmarionoI!ndia`sacrivcroc inrhcgobavord.1hc cxisrcncc oI
a argc diasporaabroadis irscI aparr oI!ndia`s inrcracrivc prcscncc.
!dcas asvc aspcopchavcmovcdacross!ndia`s bordcrs ovcrrhou-
sands oI ycars, cnriching !ndia as vc as rhc rcsr oI rhc vord.
Kabindranarh 1agorc pur rhc rarionac vc, in a crrcr ro C. F
Andrcvs. 'Vharcvcr vc undcrsrand and cn| oy in human producrs
insranrybccomcs ours,vhcrcvcrrhcymighrhavcrhcirorigin. `
!ndians, incudingrhc diaspora, havcrcasonrorcsisrcxrcrnaiso-
arionasvcasinrcrnaminiarurizarion.!ndccd,rhcopcnncssoIrhc
argumcnrarivc rradirion miirarcs nor ony againsr cxcusionary nar-
rovncss virhinrhccounrry, bur aso againsrrhccurivarcdignorancc
oIrhcvc-Irog.Vc nccdnoragrccrobcincarccrarcdinrhcdingincss
oIa much diminishcd !ndia, no marrcr hovhardrhc poirica advo-
carcs oI smancss rry ro | osrc us. 1hcrc arc scrious choiccs ro bc
madc.
Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues, ed. Sarah Harasym, New York: Routledge,
1 990, pp. 69-70; italics added) . These arguments can indeed be interesting as well as
constructive, and Gayatri Spivak, as the quintessential 'argumentative Indian' (if I may
so describe a lifelong friend) , need not be so 'uneasy' about her justifed delight in these
dialectics.
*I discuss Tagore's critique of intellectual isolation in Essay 5 below.
86
PART TWO
Culture and
Cottunication
5
Tagore and His India:
Kabindranarh1agorc,vho dicdin I94I ar rhc agc oI 8o, is a rovcr-
ing hgurc in rhc micnnium-od ircrarurc oI cnga. Anyonc vho
bccomcs Iamiiar virh rhis argc and Iourishing rradirion vi bc
imprcsscd by rhc povcr oI 1agorc`s prcscncc in angadcsh and in
!ndia.Iispocrryasvcashisnovcs,shorrsroricsandcssaysarcvcry
vidcyrcad, andrhc songs hccomposcdrcvcrbcrarc around rhc casr-
crnparroI!ndia andrhroughourangadcsh.
!n conrrasr, in rhc rcsr oI rhc vord, cspcciay in Luropc and
Amcrica, rhc cxcircmcnr rhar 1agorc`s vrirings crcarcd in rhc cary
ycars oI rhc rvcnricrh ccnrury has argcy vanishcd. 1hc cnrhusiasm
virh vhich his vork vas oncc grccrcd vas guirc rcmarkabc.
Gitanjali, a scccrion oIhis pocrry Ior vhich hc vas avardcd rhc
obc!rizcinircrarurcinr9r 3 , vaspubishcdinLngishrransarion
in!ondoninNarchoIrharycar andhadbccnrcprinrcdrcnrimcs by
ovcmbcr, vhcnrhcavardvas announccd. urhcisnormuchrcad
nov in rhc Vcsr, and arcady by r 9 3 7 Graham Grccnc vas abc ro
say. 'As Ior Kabindranarh 1agorc, ! cannor bcicvc rhar anyonc bur
Nr Ycarscansrirakchispocmsvcryscriousy. `
1hc conrrasr bcrvccn 1agorc`s commanding prcscncc in cngai
ircrarurcandcururcandhisncar-roraccipscinrhcrcsroIrhcvord
*The original publication of this essay in the New York Review of Books, on 26
June I997, corresponded roughly with the fftieth anniversary of Indian independence
on I 5 August I 94 7, and the occasion is referred to in the text. The essay is also
included in Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein (eds. ) , India: A Mosaic (New York:
New York Review of Books, 2ooo) . For helpful discussions I am most grateful to Akeel
Bilgrami, Sissela Bok, Sugata Bose, Supratik Bose, Krishna Dutta, Rounaq Jahan,
Salim Jahan, Maruf Khan, Andrew Robinson, Nandana Sen, Gayatri Chakravorty
Spivak and Shashi Tharoor.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
is pcrhaps css inrcrcsting rhan rhc disrincrion bcrvccn rhc vicv oI
1agorc asa dccpyrccvanrandmany-sidcdconrcmporaryrhinkcrin
angadcsh and !ndia, and his imagc in rhc Vcsr as arcpcririvc and
rcmorc spiriruaisr. Graham Grccnc had, in Iacr, gonc on ro cxpain
rharhcassociarcd1agorc'virhvharChcsrcrroncas rhcbrighrpcb-
bycycs" oIrhc1hcosophisrs` . Ccrrainy, anair oImysricismpaycd
somc parr in rhc 'scing` oI Kabindranarh 1agorc ro rhc Vcsr by
Ycars, !ound andhisorhcrcarychampions.LvcnAnnaAkhmarova,
onc oI 1agorc`s Icv arcr admircrs vho rransarcd his pocms inro
Kussianinrhcmid-tp6osj , raksoI'rharmighryHovoIpocrryvhich
rakcs irs srrcngrh Irom Iinduism as Irom rhc Gangcs, and is cacd
Kabindranarh1agorc` .
Kabindranarh did comc Irom a Iindu Iamiy - onc oIrhc andcd
gcnrry vho ovncd csrarcs mosry in vhar is nov angadcsh. ur
vharcvcr visdom rhcrc mighr bc in Akhmarova`s invoking oI
Iinduism and rhc Gangcs, ir did norprcvcnrrhc argcyNusimcir-
izcns oIangadcshIromhavinga dccp scnsc oIidcnriryvirh1agorc
andhisidcas.ordidirsroprhcncvyindcpcndcnrangadcshIrom
choosing onc oI1agorc`s songs 'Amar Sonar angla`, vhich mcans
'mygodcncnga` j asirsnariona anrhcm. 1his musr bc vcryconIus-
ing ro rhosc vho scc rhc conrcmporary vord as a 'cash oIciviiza-
rions`- virh'rhcNusimciviizarion`,'rhcIinduciviizarion`and'rhc
Vcsrcrnciviizarion` cachIorccIuyconIronringrhc orhcrs.
1hcy voud aso bc conIuscd by Kabindranarh 1agorc`s ovn
dcscriprion oI his cngai Iamiy as rhc producr oI 'a conHucncc oI
rhrcc cururcs, Iindu, Nohammcdan and rirish` . Kabindranarh`s
grandIarhcr, varkanarh, vas vc knovn Ior his command oI
Arabic and !crsian, and Kabindranarh grcv up in a Iamiy armos-
phcrcinvhichadccpknovcdgcoISanskrirandancicnrIindurcxrs
vas combincdvirh anundcrsranding oI!samicrradirions as vc as
!crsian ircrarurc. !r is nor so much rhar Kabindranarh rricd ro pro-
ducc- or had aninrcrcsrin producing- a 'synrhcsis` oIrhc diIIcrcnr
rcigions as rhc grcarNogha cmpcror Akbarrricd hard ro achicvcj
as rhar his ourook vas pcrsisrcnry nonsccrarian, and hisvrirings-
somcrvohundrcdbooks - shovrhcinHucnccoIdiIIcrcnrparrsoIrhc
!ndian curura background asvc as rhar oIrhc rcsr oIrhc vord.
Nosr oIhis vork vas vrirrcn ar Sanrinikcran Abodc oI!caccj, rhc
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
smallrovnrhargrcvaoundrhcschoolhcIoundcdincngalin1901.
IcnoronlyconccivcdrhcrcanimaginarivcandinnovarivcsysrcmoI
cducarion- rovhich! shallrcrurn- bur,rhroughhisvrirings andhis
inhucncconsrudcnrs and rcachcrs, hcvas ablc rouscrhcschoolasa
bascIromvhichhccouldrakcamaj orparrin!ndia`s social,polirical
andculruralmovcmcnrs.
1hc proIoundly original vrircr vhosc clcganr prosc and magical
pocrrycngalircadcrsknovvcllisnorrhcscrmonizingspirirualguru
admircd - and rhcn rcjccrcd - in !ondon. 1agorc vas nor only an
immcnscly vcrsarilc pocr, hc vas also a grcar shorr-srory vrircr,
novclisr, playvrighr, cssayisr and composcr oI songs, as vcll as aral-
cnrcd painrcr vhosc picrurcs, virhrhcirvhimsical mixrurc oIrcprc-
scnrarion and absrracrion, arc only nov bcginning ro rcccivc rhc
acclaim rhar rhcy havc long dcscrvcd. Iis cssays, morcovcr, rangcd
ovcrlircrarurc, polirics, culrurc, socialchangc,rcligious bclicIs, philo-
sophical analysis, inrcrnarionalrclarions, and much clsc. 1hc coinci-
dcncc oI rhc IiIricrh annivcrsary oI !ndian indcpcndcncc virh rhc
publicarion oIa sclccrion oI1agorc`s lcrrcrs by Cambridgc !nivcrsiry
!rcss is a goodoccasionro cxaminc rhc narurc oI1agorc`s idcas and
rcHccrions,andrhckindoIlcadcrshipinrhoughrandundcrsrandinghc
providcdinrhcsubconrincnrinrhchrsrhalIoIrhcrvcnricrhccnrury.
Gandhi and Tagore
Sincc Kabindranarh1agorcandNohandas Gandhivcrcrvo lcading
!ndian rhinkcrs in rhc rvcnricrh ccnrury, many commcnrarors havc
rricd ro comparc rhcir idcas. n lcarning oI Kabindranarh`s dcarh,
|avaharlalchru,rhcnincarccrarcdinaririshj ailin!ndia,vrorcin
hisprison diaryIor7 Augusr 1941 :
Gandhi and Tagore. Two types entirely different from each other, and yet
both of them typical of India, both in the long line of India's great men . . . .
It is not so much because of any single virtue but because of the tout ensem
ble, that I felt that among the world's great men today Gandhi and Tagore
were supreme as human beings. What good fortune for me to have come into
close contact with them.
91
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
KomainKoandvas Iascinarcdbyrhcconrrasrbcrvccn rhcm, and
vhcn hc compcrcd his book on Gandhi, hc vrorc ro an !ndian
acadcmic,inNarchI923 : '!havchnishcdmyGandhi, invhich!pay
rriburc ro your rvo grcar rivcr-ikc sous, ovcrIoving virh divinc
spirir, 1agorc and Gandhi. ` 1hc Iooving monrh hc rccordcd in his
diary an accounr oI somc oI rhc dilIcrcnccs bcrvccn Gandhi and
1agorcvrirrcnbyKcvcrcndC.F Andrcvs,rhcLngishccrgymanand
pubicacrivisrvhovasacosclricndolborhmcn andvhoscimpor-
ranr roc in Gandhi`s iIc in Sourh AIrica as vc as !ndia is vc
porrraycd in Kichard Arrcnborough`s lim Gandhi) . Andrcvs
dcscribcd ro Koand a discussion bcrvccn 1agorc and Gandhi, ar
vhichhcvasprcscnr, onsubj ccrsrhardividcdrhcm.
The frst subj ect of discussion was idols; Gandhi defended them, believing the
masses incapable of raising themselves immediately to abstract ideas. Tagore
cannot bear to see the people eternally treated as a child. Gandhi quoted the
great things achieved in Europe by the flag as an idol; Tagore found it easy to
obj ect, but Gandhi held his ground, contrasting European flags bearing
eagles, etc. , with his own, on which he has put a spinning wheel. The second
point of discussion was nationalism, which Gandhi defended. He said that
one must go through nationalism to reach internationalism, in the same way
that one must go through war to reach peace.4
1agorc grcary admircd Gandhi bur hc had many disagrccmcnrs
virhhim on a varicry oIsubjccrs, incuding narionaism, parriorism,
rhc imporrancc oI curura cxchangc, rhc roc ol rarionairy and oI
scicncc, and rhc narurc oI cconomic and socia dcvcopmcnr. 1hcsc
diIIcrcnccs, ! sha arguc, havc a ccar and consisrcnr parrcrn, virh
1agorc prcssing Ior morc room Ior rcasoning, and Ior a css rradi-
rionaisr vicv, a grcarcr inrcrcsr in rhc rcsr oI rhc vord, and morc
rcspccrIorscicnccandIor obj ccrivirygcncray.
Kabindranarhkncv rharhccoudnorhavcgivcn!ndiarhcpoirica
cadcrshiprharGandhiprovidcd,andhcvasncvcrsringyinhispraisc
Iorvhar Gandhi didIorrhcnarion irvas in Iacr1agorcvhopopu-
arizcdrhcrcrm'Naharma` - grcarsou - asadcscriprionolGandhi ) .
And ycr cach rcmaincd dccpy cririca oImany rhings rhar rhc orhcr
srood Ior. 1har Naharma Gandhi has rcccivcd incomparaby morc
arrcnrion oursidc !ndia and aso virhinmuch oI!ndiairscImakcs ir
92
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
imporranrroundcrsrand'1agorc`s sidc` oIrhcGandhi-1agorcdcbarcs.
!nhisprisondiary,chruvrorc.'!crhapsirisasvcllrhar1agorc|
dicdnovanddidnorsccrhcmanyhorrors rhararclikclyrodcsccnd
inincrcasingmcasurconrhcvorldandon!ndia.Ichadsccncnough
and hcvas inhnircly sad and unhappy. ` 1ovards rhc cnd oIhis liIc,
1agorc vas indccd bccoming discouragcd abour rhc srarc oI !ndia,
cspccialy as irs normal burdcn oI problcms, such as hungcr and
povcrry, vas bcing supplcmcnrcd by polirically organizcdincircmcnr
ro 'communal` viocncc bcrvccn Iindus and Nuslims. 1his conHicr
vould lcad in tpq;, sixycarsaIrcr1agorc`s dcarh, rorhcvidcsprcad
killing rhar rook placc during parririon, bur rhcrc vas much gorc
alrcadyduringhis dcclining days. !n cccmbcr tpjphcvrorc ro his
Iricnd !conard Llmhirsr, rhc Lnglish philanrhropisr and social
rcIormcrvhohadvorkcdclosclyvirhhimonruralrcconsrrucrionin
!ndia and vho had gonc on ro Iound rhc arringron Iall 1rusr in
Lngand and a progrcssivc schoo ar arringron rhar cxpliciry
invokcdKabindranarh`scducarionalidcals) . '
It does not need a defeatist t o feel deeply anxious about the future of millions
who with all their innate culture and their peaceful traditions are being simul
taneously subjected to hunger, disease, exploitations foreign and indigenous,
and the seething discontents of communalism.
Iovvould1agorchavc vicvcd rhc !ndia oIroday, vc mayvcll
ask onrhc IiIricrh annivcrsary oIirs indcpcndcncc in r pq;! Vould
hc scc progrcss rhcrc, or vasrcd opporruniry, pcrhaps cvcn a
bcrrayal oI irs promisc and convicrion! And, on a vidcr subj ccr,
hovvouldhcrcacrrorhc sprcad oIcurural scpararisminrhccon-
rcmporaryvord!
East and West
Givcn rhc vasr rangc oIhis crcarivc achicvcmcnrs, pcrhaps rhc mosr
asronishing aspccr oIrhc imagc oI1agorcin rhcVcsr is irs narrov-
ncss, hc is rccurrcnrlyvicvcd as 'rhc grcar mysric Irom rhc Lasr`, an
imagc virh a purarivc mcssagc Ior rhc Vcsr, vhich somc vould
vclcomc,orhcrsdisikc,andsrillorhcrshnddccplyboring.1o agrcar
93
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cxrcnrrhis1agorcvasrhcVcsr`sovncrcarion,parroIirsrradirionoI
mcssagc-sccking Irom rhc Lasr, parricularly Irom!ndia, vhich - as
Icgcl pur ir - had 'cxisrcdIor millcnnia in rhc imaginarion oI rhc
Luropcans` . !ricdrichSchlcgcl, Schclling,IcrdcrandSchopcnhaucr
vcrconlya IcvoIrhcrhinkcrsvhoIollovcdrhcsamcparrcrn. 1hcy
rhcorizcd, ar Iirsr, rhar !ndia vas rhc sourcc oI supcrior visdom.
Schopcnhaucraroncsragccvcnargucdrharrhccv1csramcnr'musr
somchovbcoI!ndianorigin. rhisis arrcsrcdbyirscomplctcly!ndian
crhics,vhichrransIormsmoralsinro asccricism,irspcssimism,andirs
avarar`, in 'rhc pcrson oI Chrisr` . ur rhcn rhcy rcjccrcd rhcir ovn
rhcoricsvirhgrcarvchcmcncc,somcrimcs blaming!ndiaIornorliving
uprorhcirunIoundcdcxpccrarions.
Vc can imaginc rhar Kabindranarh`s physical appcarancc - hand-
somc,bcardcd,drcsscdinnon-Vcsrcrnclorhcs - may,ro somc cxrcnr,
havccncouragcdhisbcingsccnasacarricroIcxoricvisdom.Yasunari
Kavabara, rhc hrsr |apancsc obcl laurcarc in lircrarurc, rrcasurcd
mcmoricsIromhis middlc-school daysoI'rhissagc-likcpocr`.
His white hair flowed softly down both sides of his forehead; the tufts of hair
under the temples also were long like two beards, and linking up with the hair
on his cheeks, continued into his beard, so that he gave an impression, to the
boy I was then, of some ancient Oriental wizard.
1harappcaranccvouldhavcbccnvcllsuircdrorhcscllingoI1agorcin
rhc Vcsr as a guinrcsscnrially mysrical pocr, and ir couldhavc madc ir
somcvhar casicr ro pigconholc him. Commcnring on Kabindranarh`s
appcarancc, !ranccs CornIord rold Villiam Korhcnsrcin. '! can nov
imaginc a povcrIul and gcnrlc Chrisr, vhich ! ncvcr could bcIorc. `
carriccVcbb,vhodidnorlikc1agorc and rcscnrcdvharshcrookro
bchis 'guirc obvious dislikc oIallrharrhcVcbbssrandIor` rhcrcis,in
Iacr,lirrlccvidcnccrhar1agorchadgivcnmuchrhoughrrorhissubjccr),
saidrharhcvas'bcauriIulrolookar`andrhar'hisspccchhasrhcpcrIccr
inronarionandslovchanr-likc modcrarion oIrhc dramaricsainr`.
Lzra !ound andW . Ycars, among orhcrs, hrsr lcdrhcchorus oI
adorarioninrhcVcsrcrnapprcciarionoI 1agorc,andrhcnsoonmovcd
'f i have tried to analyse these 'exotic' approaches to India (along with other Western
approaches) in 'India and the West', New Republic, 7 June 1993, and in Essay 7 below.
94
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
roncglccrandcvcnshrillcriricism.1hcconrrasrbcrvccnYcars`spraisc
oIhisvorkin I 9I 2 '1hcsclyrics. . . displayinrhcirrhoughravorld
! havc drcamcd oI all myliIc long`, 'rhc vork oIa suprcmc culrurc` j
and his dcnunciarionin I93 5 'amn 1agorc`j arosc parrly Iromrhc
inabiliry oI1agorc`smany-sidcdvrirings rohrinro rhc narrov boxin
vhichYcars vanrcd roplacc - andkccp - him. Ccrrainly, 1agorc did
vrircahugcamounr, andpublishcdccasclcssly, cvcninLnglish somc-
rimcs inindiIIcrcnrLnglishrranslarionj , burYcars vas also borhcrcd,
ir is clcar, by rhc diIIiculry oIhrring 1agorc`s larcr vrirings inro rhc
imagc Ycars hadprcscnrcd ro rhcVcsr. 1agorc, hc had said, vas rhc
producroI'avholcpcoplc,avholccivilizarion,immcasurablysrrangc
rous`,andycr 'vchavcmcrourovnimagc . . . orhcard, pcrhaps Ior
rhc hrsr rimc inlircrarurc, our voiccasinadrcam`. '
Ycarsdidnorrorallyrcjccrhiscaryadmirarion asLzra!oundand
scvcral orhcrs didj , and hc includcd somc oI1agorc`s carly pocms in
The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, vhich hc cdircd in I93 6. Ycars
also had somcIavourablcrhingsro sayabour1agorc`s proscvrirings.
Iis ccnsurc oI1agorc`s larcr pocms vas rcinIorccd by his dislikc oI
1agorc`sovnLnglishrranslarionsoIhisvork '1agorcdocs norknov
Lnglish, no !ndian knovs Lnglish, ` Ycars cxplaincdj , unlikc rhc
Lnglish vcrsion oI Gitanjali vhich Ycars had himsclI hclpcd ro prc-
parc. !ocrryis, oIcoursc,nororiouslydiIIiculrrorranslarc, andanyonc
vhoknovs1agorc`s pocms inrhcir original cngali cannorIcclsaris-
hcdvirhanyoIrhcrranslarions madcvirhorvirhourYcars`shcpj .
Lvcnrhc rranslarions oIhisproscvorks suIIcr, rosomccxrcnr, Irom
disrorrion. L. N. !orsrcrnorcd,ina rcvicv oIa rranslarionoIonc oI
1agorc`s grcar cngali novcls, The Home and the World, in I9I9:
'1hcrhcmc is sobcauriIul` , burrhc charmshavc 'vanishcdi nrransla-
rion`, orpcrhaps 'inancxpcrimcnrrharhasnorguirccomcoII` . '
'' Tagore himself vacillated over the years about the merits of his own translations.
He told his friend Sir William Rothenstein, the artist: 'Iam sure you remember with
what reluctant hesitation I gave up to your hand my manuscript of Gitanjali, feeling
sure that my English was of that amorphous kind for whose syntax a school-boy could
be reprimanded. ' These - and related - issues are discussed by Nabaneeta Dev Sen,
'The "Foreign Reincarnation" of Rabindranath Tagore', Journal of Asian Studies, 25
( r966) , reprinted, along with other relevant papers, in her Counterpoints: Essays in
Comparative Literature (Calcutta: Prajna, r 9 8 5 ) .
95
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1agorc himsclI playcd a somcvhar bcmuscd parr in rhc boom
and busr oI his Lnglish rcpurarion. Ic acccprcd rhc cxrravaganr
praisc virh much surprisc as vcll as plcasurc, and rhcn rcccivcd
dcnunciarions virh cvcn grcarcr surprisc, and barcly conccalcd
pain. 1agorc vas scnsirivc ro criricism, andvashurrby cvcnrhc
mosrIar-Icrchcdaccusarions,suchasrhcchargcrharhcvasgcrring
crcdir Ior rhc vork oIYcars, vho had 'rcvrirrcn` Gitanjali. 1his
chargc vas madc bya corrcspondcnr Ior The Times, SirValcnrinc
Chirol,vhomL. N. !orsrcronccdcscribcdas' anodAnglo-!ndian
rcacrionaryhack` . ) !romrimcro rimc1agorc aso prorcsrcd arrhc
crudiry oI somc oI his ovcrcxcircd advocarcs. Ic vrorc ro C. F
Andrcvs in I 9 20: '1hcsc pcoplc . . . arc likc drunkards vho arc
aIraid oI rhcir lucidinrcrvals. `
God and Others
Ycarsvasnor vrongro scc alargc rcligious clcmcnrin1agorc`svrir-
ings.IcccrrainlyhadinrcrcsringandarrcsringrhingsrosayabourliIc
and dcarh. Susan vcn, rhc morhcr oI VilIrcd vcn, vrorc ro
KabindranarhinI920, dcscribinghcrasrconvcrsarionsvirhhcrson
bcIorchclcIrIorrhcvarvhichvouldrakchisliIc.VilIrcdsaidgood-
bycvirh'rhoscvondcrIuvordsoIyours- bcginningar Vhcn!go
Iromhcncc, lcr rhis bc my parring vord". ` Vhcn VilIrcd`s pockcr
norcbookvasrcrurncdrohismorhcr, shcIound'rhcscvordsvrirrcn
inhis dcar vriring- virhyour namc bcncarh` .
1hc idca oIa dirccr, j oyIul and roraly Icarlcss rclarionship virh
GodcanbcIoundinmanyoI 1agorc`srcigiousvrirings,includingrhc
pocms oIGitanjali. !rom !ndia`s divcrscrcligious rradirions hc drcv
manyidcas,borhIromancicnrrcxrsandIrompopularpocrry. ur'rhc
brighrpcbblycycs oIrhc1hcosophisrs`donorsrarcouroIhisvcrscs.
cspirc rhc archaiclanguagc oIrhc originalrranslarion oI Gitanjali,
vhichdidnor,!bcicvc,hclproprcscrvcrhcsimpiciryoIrhcoriginal,
irs clcmcnrary humaniry comcs rhrough morc clcarly rhan any
complcxandinrcnscspiriruairy.
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
Leave this chanting and singing and telling of beads! Whom dost
thou worship in this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all
shut?
Open thine eyes and see thy God is not before thee!
He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the
pathmaker is breaking stones.
He is with them in sun and in shower, and his garment is covered
with dust.
An ambiguiry abour rcligious cxpcricncc is ccnrral ro many oI
1agorc`s dcvorional pocms, and makcsrhcmappcalro rcadcrs irrc-
spccrivc oI rhcir bclicIs, bur cxccssivcly dcrailcd inrcrprcrarion can
ruinously srrip avayrhar ambiguiry.8 1his applics parricularly ro his
manypocmsvhichcombincimagcs oIhumanlovcandrhosc oIpious
dcvorion.1agorcvrircs.
I have no sleep to-night. Ever and again I open my door and look
out on the darkness, my friend!
I can see nothing before me. I wonder where lies thy path!
By what dim shore of the ink-black river, by what far edge of the
frowning forest, through what mazy depth of gloom, art thou
threading thy course to come to see me, my friend?
! supposc ir could bc hclpIul ro bc rold, as Ycars hasrcns ro cxplain,
rhar 'rhc scrvanr or rhc bridc avairing rhc masrcr`s homc-coming in
rhc cmpry housc` is 'amongrhc imagcs oIrhc hcarr rurning ro God` .
ur in Ycars`s considcrarc arrcmpr ro makc surc rhar rhc rcadcr docs
nor miss rhc 'main poinr`, somcrhing oIrhc cnigmaric bcaury oIrhc
cngalipocmislosr - cvcnvharhadsurvivcdrhcanriguarcdlanguagc
oIrhcLnglishrranslarion.
1agorcccrrainlyhadsrronglyhcldrcligiousbclicIs oIanunusually
nondcnominarionalkind) , burhcvasinrcrcsrcdinagrcarmanyorhcr
rhingsasvcllandhadmanydiIIcrcnrrhingsrosayabourrhcm. Somc
oIrhcidcashcrricdroprcscnrvcrcdirccrlypolirical, andrhcyhgurc
rarhcrpromincnrlyinhislcrrcrsandlccrurcs.Ichadpracrical,plainly
cxprcsscd vicvs abour narionalism, var and pcacc, cross-culrural
cducarion, IrccdomoIrhcmind,rhcimporranccoIrarionalcriricism,
rhc nccd Ior culrural opcnncss, and so on. Iis admircrs in rhc Vcsr,
97
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
hovcvcr, vcrc runcd ro rhc morc

orhcr-vorldly rhcmcs vhich had

bccncmphasizcdbyhishrsrVcsrcrnparrons.!coplccamcrohispub-
lic lccrurcs inLuropcand Amcrica cxpccringruminarions on grand,
rransccndcnralrhcmcs,vhcnrhcyhcardinsrcadhisvicvsonrhcvay
publiclcadcrs should bchavc,rhcrcvassomcrcscnrmcnr,parricularly
as L. !. 1hompson rcporrs) vhcn hc dclivcrcd polirical criricism 'ar
$;ooa scold` .
Reasoning in Freedom
!or1agorcirvas oIrhchighcsrimporranccrharpcoplcbcablcrolivc,
and rcason, in Irccdom. Iis arrirudcs rovards polirics and culrurc,
narionalism andinrcrnarionalism, rradirionandmodcrniry, canall bc
sccninrhclighroIrhis bclicI. ' orhing, pcrhaps,cxprcsscshisvalucs
asclcarlyasa pocm in Gitanjali:
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow
domestic walls; . . .
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary
desert sand of dead habit; . . .
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
Kabindranarh`s gualihcdsupporrIor narionalisrmovcmcnrs- and
his opposirionro rhcunIrccdomoIalicnrulc- camcIromrhis com-
mirmcnr. Sodidhisrcscrvarions abourparriorism, vhich, hcargucd,
can limir borh rhc Irccdom ro cngagc idcas Irom oursidc 'narrov
domcsricvalls` andrhc Irccdom alsoro supporrrhc causcs oIpcoplc
in orhcr counrrics. Kabindranarh`s passion Ior Irccdom undcrlics his
Iirm opposirion ro unrcasoncd rradirionalism, vhich makcs onc a
prisoncr oI rhc pasr losr, as hc pur ir, in 'rhc drcary dcscrr sand oI
dcad habir` ) .
1agorcillusrrarcsrhcryrannyoI rhcpasrinhisamusingycrdccply
Satyajit Ray, t he flm director, has argued t hat, even in Tagore's paintings, 'the
mood evoked . . . is one of a joyous freedom' (Ray, Foreword to Andrew Robinson,
The Art of Rabindranath Tagore, London: Andre Deutsch, 198 9) .
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
scrious parabc 'Karrar hoor` '1hc Ghosr oI rhc !cadcr` ) . As rhc
rcspccrcd lcadcr oI an imaginary land is abour ro dic, his panic-
srrickcn Iolovcrs rcgucsrhimro srayon aIrcr his dcarhro insrrucr
rhcmonvharrodo. Icconscnrs.urhisIolovcrshndrhcirlivcsarc
Iull oI riruals and consrrainrs on cvcryday bchaviour and arc nor
rcsponsivc ro rhc vord around rhcm. !lrimarcly, rhcy askrhc ghosr
oIrhccadcrrorcicvcrhcmoIhisdominarion,vhcnhcinIormsrhcm
rharhccxisrs onyinrhcirminds.
1agorc`s dccp avcrsion ro any commirmcnrro rhc pasrrhar could
norbcmodihcdbyconrcmporaryrcasoncxrcndcdcvcnrorhcallcgcd
virruc oI invariably kccping pasr promiscs. n onc occasion vhcn
Naharma Gandhi visircd 1agorc`s school ar Sanrinikcran, a young
voman gor him ro sign hcr aurograph book. Gandhi vrorc. 'cvcr
makc a promisc in hasrc. Iaving oncc madc irIulhlir arrhc cosr oI
youriIc. ` Vhcnhcsavrhiscnrry,1agorcbccamcagirarcd.Icvrorc
inrhcsamcbookashorrpocmincngalirorhccIIccrrharnoonccan
bcmadc'aprisoncrIorcvcrvirhachainoIcay` . Icvcnronrocon-
cudc in Lnglish, possibly so rhar Gandhi coud rcad ir roo, '!ling
avayyourpromisciIirisIoundrobcvrong. ` '
1agorchadrhcgrcarcsradmirarionIorNaharma Gandhiasapcr-
son and as a polirica cadcr, bur hc vas aso highly sccprical oI
Gandhiji`s Iorm oInarionaism andhis conscrvarivc insrincrsrcgard-
ing rhc counrry`s pasrrradirions. Ic ncvcrcriricizcd Gandhi pcrson-
ay. !n rhc tpj 8 cssay ' GandhirhcNan`,hcvrorc.
Great as he is as a politician, as an organizer, as a leader of men, as a moral
reformer, he is greater than all these as a man, because none of these aspects
and activities limits his humanity. They are rather inspired and sustained
by it.
And ycr rhcrc is a dccp division bcrvccnrhc rvo mcn. 1agorc vas
cxplicirabourhisdisagrccmcnr.
We who often glorify our tendency to ignore reason, installing in its place
blind faith, valuing it as spiritual, are ever paying for its cost with the obscu
ration of our mind and destiny. I blamed Mahatmaj i for exploiting this
irrational force of credulity in our people, which might have had a quick
result [in creating] a superstructure, while sapping the foundation. Thus
99
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Mahatma Gandhi with Rabindranath Tagore during a visit to Tagore's school
at Santiniketan, I8 February I940
began my estimate of Mahatmaji, as the guide of our nation, and it is fortu
nate for me that it did not end there.
urvhilcir' didnorcndrhcrc` ,rhardiIIcrcnccoIvisionvasapovcr-
Iuldividcr.
1agorc, Ior cxamplc, rcmaincd unconvinccd oI rhc mcrir oI
Gandhi`s IorccIul advocacy rhar cvcryonc should spin ar homc virh
rhc 'charka`, rhc primirivc spinning vhccl. !or Gandhi, rhis pracricc
vas animporranrparroIIndia`ssclI-rcalizarion. '1hcspinning-vhccl
gradually bccamc` , ashis biographcr . K. anda vrircs, 'rhc ccnrrc
oIruralupliIrinrhc Gandhianschcmc oIIndian cconomics. `"1agorc
Ioundrhc allcgcd cconomicrarionalcIorrhisschcmcguircunrcalisric.
^sKomainKollandnorcd,Kabindranarh'ncvcrrircsoIcriricizingrhc
charka` . In rhis cconomic j udgcmcnr, 1agorc vas probably righr.
LxccprIor rhc rarhcr small spccializcdmarkcrIorhigh-gualiryspun
roo
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
corh, iris hard ro makc cconomic scnsc oIhand-spinning, cvcnvirh
vhccscssprimirivc rhanGandhi`scharka.Iand-spinningasavidc-
sprcad acriviry can survivc ony virh rhc hcp oIhcavy govcrnmcnr
subsidics.
lI
Iovcvcr, Gandhi`sadvocacyoIrhccharkavasnor bascdonyon
cconomics.Icvanrcdcvcryoncro spinIor'rhirryminurcs cvcryday
as a sacrihcc`, sccingrhis as a vayIorpcopc vho arc bcrrcr oIIro
idcnriIy rhcmscvcs virh rhc css Iorrunarc. Ic vas imparicnr virh
1agorc`srcIusarograsprhispoinr.
The poet lives for the morrow, and would have us do likewise. . . . 'Why
should I, who have no need to work for food, spin? ' may be the question
asked. Because I am eating what does not belong to me. I am living on the
spoliation of my countrymen. Trace the source of every coin that fnds its way
into your pocket, and you will realise the truth of what I write. Every one
must spin. Let Tagore spin like the others. Let him burn his foreign clothes;
that is the duty today. God will take care of the morrow. I2
!I1agorchadmisscdsomcrhinginGandhi`sargumcnr,sodidGandhi
miss rhc poinr oI 1agorc`s main criricism. !r vas nor ony rhar rhc
charka madc irrc cconomic scnsc, bur aso, 1agorc rhoughr, rhar ir
vas norrhcvayro makcpcopcrcHccronanyrhing. '1hccharkadocs
nor rcguirc anyonc ro rhink, onc simpy rurns rhc vhcc oI rhc
anriguarcd invcnrion cndcssy, using rhc minimum oI j udgcmcnr
andsramina. `
On Celibacy and Personal Life
1agorc and Gandhi`s arrirudcs rovards pcrsona iIc vcrc aso guirc
diIIcrcnr. Gandhivas kccn onrhcvirrucs oIccibacy, rhcorizcdabour
ir, and, aIrcr somcycarsoIconjugaiIc,madcaprivarccommirmcnr
- pubicy announccd - ro rcIrain Irom sccping virh his viIc.
Kabindranarh`sovnarrirudconrhissubjccrvasvcrydiIIcrcnr,burhc
vasgcnrc abourrhcirdisagrccmcnrs.
[Gandhiji] condemns sexual life as inconsistent with the moral progress of
man, and has a horror of sex as great as that of the author of The Kreutzer
IOI
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Sonata, but, unlike Tolstoy, he betrays no abhorrence of the sex that tempts
his kind. In fact, his tenderness for women is one of the noblest and most
consistent traits of his character, and he counts among the women of his
country some of his best and truest comrades in the great movement he is
leading.
1agorc`spcrsonalliIcvas,inmanyvays,anunhappyonc.Icmar-
ricd in I 883 , losr his viIc in I 902, andncvcrrcmarricd. Ic soughr
closccompanionship,vhichhcdidnoralvaysgcrpcrhapscvcndur-
ing his marricd liIc - hc vrorc ro his viIc, Nrinaini. '!I you and !
couldbccomradcsinallourvorkandinalourrhoughrsirvould bc
splcndid, burvc cannor arrain all rhar vc dcsirc` j . Ic mainraincd a
varm Iricndship virh, and a srrong !laronic arrachmcnr ro, rhc
lircrarurc-loving viIc, Kadambari, oIhis cldcr brorhcr, |yoririndra-
narh. Ic dcdicarcd somc pocms ro hcr bcIorc his marriagc, and
scvcral books aIrcrvards, somc aIrcr hcr dcarh shc commirrcd sui-
cidc, Iorrcasonsrhararc norIully undcrsrood, arrhc agc oI2 5 , Iour
monrhs aIrcrKabindranarh`svcddingj .
Nuch larcr in liIc, during his rour oI Argcnrina in I 924-5 ,
Kabindranarh camc r oknov rhc ralcnrcd and bcauriIul Vicroria
campo,vhoarcrbccamcrhcpublishcroIrhcircrarymagazincSur.
1hcybccamccloscIricnds,burirappcarsrharKabindranarhdcHccrcd
rhcpossibiliryoIapassionarcrclarionshipinro a conhncdinrcllccrual
onc.13 !conard Llmhirsr, vho accompanicd Kabindranarh on his
Argcnrincrour,vrorc.
Besides having a keen intellectual understanding of his books, she was in love
with him - but instead of being content to build a friendship on the basis of
intellect, she was in a hurry to establish that kind of proprietary right over
him which he absolutely would not brook.
campoandLlmhirsr,vhilcrcmainingIricndly,vcrcborhguircrudc
invhar rhcy vrorc abour cach orhcr. campo`s book on1agorc oI
vhichacngairranslarionvasmadc Iromrhc Spanishbyrhc disrin-
guishcd pocr and criric Shankha Ghoshj is primarilyconccrncd virh
1agorc`s vrirings bur also discusscs rhc plcasurcs and diIIiculrics oI
rhcir rclarionship, giving guirc a diIIcrcnr accounr IromLlmhirsr`s,
andncvcr suggcsringanysorroIpropricraryinrcnrions.
I02
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
campo,hovcvcr, makcsirplainrharshcvcrymuchvanrcdrogcr
physicalycoscrroKabindranarh.'!irrlcbylirrlchc1agorcjparrially
ramcdrhcyounganimal, byrurnsvildanddocic,vho didnorslccp,
dog-likc, on rhc Iloor oursidc his door, simply bccausc ir vas nor
donc.`Kabindranarh,roo, vasclcarlyvcrymucharrracrcdrohcr.Ic
calcd hcr 'Vij aya` rhc Sanskrir cguivalcnr oIVicroria) , dcdicarcd a
book oIpocms rohcr, Purabi - an 'cvcning mclody` - and cxprcsscd
grcaradmirarionIorhcrmind ' likcasrarrharvasdisranr` ) . !nacrrcr
rohcrhcvrorc, asiIrocxplainhis ovnrcriccncc.
When we were together, we mostly played with words and tried to laugh
away our best opportunities to see each other clearly . . . . Whenever there is
the least sign of the nest becoming a j ealous rival of the sky[,] my mind, like
a migrant bird, tries to take . . . fight to a distant shore.
!ivcycarslarcr, during1agorc`sLuropcanrourin1930, hcscnrhcra
cablc. 'Vil you nor comc andsccmc. ` Shc did. urrhcirrclarionship
did nor sccm ro go much bcyond convcrsarion, and rhcir somcvhar
ambiguous corrcspondcncc conrinucd ovcr rhc ycars. Vrirrcn in
1940, aycarbcIorchisdcarharcighry,oncoIrhcpocmsinSesh Lekha
'!asr Vrirings` ) , sccms ro bc abour hcr. 'Iov ! vish ! could oncc
againhnd myvay ro rhar Iorcign landvhcrc vairs Ior mc rhc mcs-
sagcoIlovclI . . . Icrlanguagc!kncvnor,burvharhcrcycssaidvill
Iorcvcrrcmainclogucnrinirsanguish. `'
Iovcvcr indccisivc, orconIuscd, oravkvard Kabindranarh may
havc bccn, hc ccrrainly did nor sharc Naharma Gandhi`s ccnsorious
vicvsoIscx.!nIacr,vhcnircamcrosocialpolicy,hcadvocarcdcon-
rraccprionandIamilyplanningvhilcGandhiprcIcrrcdabsrincncc.
Science and the People
Gandhi and 1agorc scvcrcly clashcd ovcr rhcir roraly diIIcrcnr arri-
rudcs rovards scicncc. !n|anuary 1934 ihar vas srruck bya dcvas-
raringcarrhguakcvhichkilcdrhousandsoIpcoplc. Gandhi,vhovas
rhcndccplyinvolvcdinrhchghragainsrunrouchabiiry rhc barbaric
sysrcm inhcrircd Irom !ndia`s divisivc pasr, in vhich 'lovly pcoplc`
vcrckcpraraphysicaldisrancc) , cxrracrcdaposirivclcssonIromrhc
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rragic cvcnr. 'Amanlikcmc`,Gandhi argucd, 'cannorburbclicvc rhis
carrhguakc is a divinc chasriscmcnr scnr by God Ior our sins` - in
parricular rhc sins oI unrouchabiliry. '!ormc rhcrc is a viral conncc-
rion bcrvccnrhciharcalamiryandrhcunrouchabilirycampaign. `
1agorc, vho cgually abhorrcd unrouchabiliry and had j oincd
Gandhiinrhcmovcmcnrsagainsrir,prorcsrcdagainsrrhisinrcrprcra-
rionoIancvcnrrharhadcauscdsuIIcringanddcarhrosomanyinno-
ccnr pcoplc, including childrcn and babics. Ic also harcd rhc
cpisrcmology implicir in sccing an carrhguakc as causcd by crhical
Iailurc. '!ris`,hcvrorc, 'allrhcmorcunIorrunarcbccauscrhiskindoI
unscicnrihcvicvoInaruralj phcnomcnaisroorcadilyacccprcd by a
largc sccrionoIourcounrrymcn. `
1hcrvo rcmaincd dccply dividcd ovcr rhcir arrirudcs rovards
scicncc. Iovcvcr, vhilc 1agorc bclicvcd rhar modcrn scicncc vas
csscnrial ro undcrsrandingphysicalphcnomcna, hisvicvs on cpisrc-
mology vcrc inrcrcsringly hcrcrodox. Ic did nor rakc rhc simplc
'rcalisr` posirionoIrcn associarcdvirhmodcrn scicncc. 1hc rcporroI
his convcrsarion virh Linsrcin, publishcdinrhcNew York Times in
I930, shovshovinsisrcnr1agorcvas on inrcrprcringrrurh rhrough
obscrvarionandrcHccrivcconccprs.1o asscrrrharsomcrhingisrrucor
unrrucinrhcabscnccoIanyoncro obscrvc orpcrccivcirsrrurh,orro
IormaconccprionoIvhariris,appcarcdro1agorcrobcdccplygucs-
rionablc. Vhcn Linsrcin rcmarkcd, '!Irhcrc vcrc no human bcings
anymorc,rhcApolloclvcdcrcnolongcrvouldbcbcauriIul ! ` 1agorc
simplyrcplicd, 'o. ` GoingIurrhcr - andinro muchmorcinrcrcsring
rcrrirory - Linsrcin said, '! agrcc virh rcgard ro rhis conccprion oI
bcaury, bur nor virh rcgard ro rrurh. ` 1agorc`s rcsponsc vas. 'Vhy
nor!1rurhisrcalizcdrhroughmcn. `
1agorc`s cpisrcmology, vhich hc ncvcr pursucd sysrcmarically,
vouldsccmrobcscarchingIoralincoIrcasoningrharvouldlarcr bc
clcganrly dcvclopcd by Iilary !urnam, vho has argucd. '1rurh
dcpcnds on conccprual schcmcs andiris noncrhclcss rcalrrurh" .
1agorchimsclIsaidlirrlcrocxplainhisconvicrions,buririsimporranr
ro rakc accounr oIhis hcrcrodoxy, nor only bccauschis spccularions
vcrc invariably inrcrcsring, bur also bccausc rhcyillusrrarc hov his
supporrIor anyposirion,includinghis srronginrcrcsrin scicncc,vas
accompanicdbycriricalscruriny.
104
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
Nationalism and Colonialism
1agorc vas prcdicrablyhosrilc ro communal sccrarianism such as a
Iindu orrhodoxyrhar vas anragonisricro!slamic, Chrisrian or Sikh
pcrspccrivcs) . ur cvcn narionalism sccmcd ro him ro bc suspccr.
!saiah crlin summarizcs vcll 1agorc`s complcx posirion on !ndian
narionalismcvcnrhoughhcovcrsimplihcd1agorc`svicvoIrhcorigin
oIpolirical libcrry) .
Tagore stood fast on the narrow causeway, and did not betray his vision of
the difficult truth. He condemned romantic overattachment to the past, what
he called the tying of India to the past 'like a sacrifcial goat tethered to a
post', and he accused men who displayed it - they seemed to him reactionary
- of not knowing what true political freedom was, pointing out that it is from
English thinkers and English books that the very notion of political liberty
was derived. But against cosmopolitanism he maintained that the English
stood on their own feet, and so must Indians. In 19 1 7 he once more
denounced the danger of 'leaving everything to the unalterable will of the
Master', be he brahmin or Englishman.
18
1hcdualirycrlinpoinrsroisvcllrcHccrcdalsoin1agorc`sarrirudc
rovardsculruraldivcrsiry.Icvanrcd!ndiansrolcarnvharvasgoing
on clscvhcrc, hov orhcrs livcd, vhar rhcy valucd, and so on, vhilc
rcmaining inrcrcsrcd and involvcd in rhcir ovn culrurc and hcriragc.
!ndccd, in his cducarional vrirings rhc nccd Iorsynrhcsis is srrongly
srrcsscd.!rcan also bcIoundinhis adviccro!ndiansrudcnrs abroad.
!n I907 hcvrorcrohisson-in-lavagcndranarhGangulcc,vhohad
goncroAmcricarosrudyagriculrurc.
To get on familiar terms with the local people is a part of your education. To
know only agriculture is not enough; you must know America too. Of course
if, in the process of knowing America, one begins to lose one's identity and
falls into the trap of becoming an Americanised person contemptuous of
everything Indian, it is preferable to stay in a locked room.
1agorc vas srrongly involvcd in prorcsr againsr rhc Kaj on a
numbcroIoccasions,mosrnorablyinrhcmovcmcnrrorcsisrrhc I90 5
ririshproposalrosplirinrvorhcprovincc oIcngal,aplanrharvas
105
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cvcnruayvirhdravnIoovingpopuarrcsisrancc.IcvasIorrhrighr
indcnouncingrhcbrurairyoIririshrucin!ndia,ncvcrmorcsorhan
aIrcr rhc Amrirsar massacrc oI t j Apri tptp, vhcn j ;p unarmcd
pcopcarapcaccIumccringvcrcgunncddovnbyrhcarmy, andrvo
rhousand morc vcrc voundcd. crvccn zj and z6 Apri,
Kabindranarhvrorchvc agirarcdcrrcrsro C. ! Andrcvs, vhohim-
scIvascxrrcmcy disrurbcd, cspcciayaIrcrhcvasrodbya rirish
civiscrvanrin!ndiarhar,rhanksrorhisshovoIsrrcngrh,rhc 'mora
prcsrigc`oIrhcKaj had'ncvcrbccnhighcr` .
A monrh aIrcr rhc massacrc, 1agorc vrorc r o rhc Viccroy oI
!ndia,askingro bc rcicvcd oIrhcknighrhoodhc had acccprcd Iour
ycars caricr.
The disproportionate severity of the punishments inficted upon the unfortu
nate people and the methods of carrying them out, we are convinced, are
without parallel in the history of civilized governments, barring some con
spicuous exceptions, recent and remote. Considering that such treatment has
been meted out to a population, disarmed and resourceless, by a power which
has the most terribly efficient organisation for destruction of human lives, we
must strongly assert that it can claim no political expediency, far less moral
j ustifcation . . . . The universal agony of indignation roused in the hearts of
our people has been ignored by our rulers - possibly congratulating them
selves for imparting what they imagine as salutary lessons . . . . I for my part
want to stand, shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my
countrymen who for their so-called insignificance are liable to suffer a
degradation not ft for human beings.
orhGandhiandchrucxprcsscdrhcirapprcciarionoIrhcimpor-
ranr parr 1agorc rookinrhc nariona srruggc. !r ishrringrhar, aIrcr
indcpcndcncc, !ndia chosc a song oI 1agorc`s '|ana Gana Nana
Adhinayaka` , vhichcan bcroughyrransarcd as 'rhc cadcr oIpco-
pc`s minds` ) as irs nariona anrhcm. Sincc angadcsh voud arcr
chooscanorhcrsongoI1agorc`s 'AmarSonaranga` ) asirsnariona
anrhcm, hc may bc rhc ony onc cvcr ro havc vrirrcn rhc nariona
anrhcms oIrvo dincrcnrcounrrics.
1agorc`scriricismoIrhcririshadminisrrarionoI!ndiavasconsis-
rcnrysrrongandgrcvmorcinrcnscovcrrhcycars.1hispoinrisoIrcn
misscd,sincchcmadcaspcciacIIorrro dissociarchiscriricismoIrhc
ro6
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
KajIromanydcnigrarionoIrirish - orVcsrcrn - pcoplcandculrurc.
Naharma Gandhi`svcll-knovn guip inrcplyro a gucsrion, askcdin
Lngland, on vharhc rhoughr oIVcsrcrn civilizarion '!r vould bc a
goodidca` j couldnorhavccomcIrom1agorc`slips. Icvouldundcr-
srandrhc provocarions rovhich Gandhivasrcsponding- involving
culruralconccirasvcllasimpcrialryranny. . I. !avrcnccsupplicd
a hnc cxamplc oIrhc Iormcr. '! bccomcmorc andmorc surpriscdro
scchovIarhighcr,inrcaliry, ourLuropcancivilizarionsrandsrhanrhc
Lasr,!ndianand!crsian, cvcrdrcamcdoI . . . . 1hisIraudoIlooking
uprorhcm- rhisvrcrchcdvorship-oI-1agorcarrirudc - isdisgusring. `
ur, unlikc Gandhi, 1agorc could nor, cvcn i nj csr, bcdismissivc oI
Vcsrcrncivilizarion.
LvcninhispovcrIulindicrmcnroIririshrulcin!ndiain 1941, in
a lccrurc vhich hc gavc on his lasr birrhday, and vhich vas larcr
publishcd as a pamphlcr undcr rhc rirlc Crisis in Civilization, hc
srrains hard ro mainrain rhc disrincrion bcrvccn opposing Vcsrcrn
impcrialismandrcj ccringVcsrcrncivilizarion.Vhilchc sav!ndia as
having bccn 'smorhcrcdundcrrhc dcadvcighroIririshadminisrra-
rion` adding 'anorhcr grcarand ancicnrcivilizarionIor vhoscrcccnr
rragic hisrory rhc rirish cannor disclaim rcsponsibiliry is China` j ,
1agorc rccalls vhar!ndia has gaincd Irom 'discussions ccnrrcdupon
Shakcspcarc`s drama andyron`spocrry and abovc all . . . rhclargc-
hcarrcd libcralism oI nincrccnrh-ccnrury Lnglish polirics` . 1hc
rragcdy, as1agorcsav:r,camcIromrhcIacrrharvhar'vasrrulybcsr
inrhcirovncivilizarion,rhcupholdingoIdigniryoIhumanrclarion-
ships,hasnoplaccinrhcririshadminisrrarionoIrhiscounrry. ` '!Iin
irs placc rhcy havc csrablishcd, baron in hand, a rcign oI lav and
ordcr" , or in orhcr vords a policcman`s rulc, such a mockcry oI
civilizarioncanclaimnorcspccrIromus. `
Critique of Patriotism
Kabindranarh rcbcllcd againsr rhc srrongly narionalisr Iorm rhar rhc
indcpcndcncc movcmcnroIrcnrook, andrhis madc himrcIrainIrom
rakingaparricularlyacrivcparrinconrcmporarypolirics. Icvanrcd
ro asscrr !ndia`s righrro bc indcpcndcnrvirhour dcnying rhc impor-
I07
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ranccoIvhar!ndiacouldlcarn - Ircclyandprohrably - Iromabroad.
Icvas aIraidrhararcj ccrion oIrhcVcsrinIavouroIanindigcnous
!ndianrradirionvasnoronlylimiringinirsclI,ircouldcasilyrurninro
hosriliry ro orhcr inIlucnccs Irom abroad, including Chrisrianiry,
vhich camc ro parrs oI !ndia by rhc Iourrh ccnrury, |udaism, vhich
camc rhrough|cvish immigrarion shorrlyaIrcrrhc Iall oI|crusacm,
asdidZoroasrrianismrhrough!arsccimmigrarionlarcronmainlyin
rhc cighrh ccnrury) , and, oIcoursc - and mosrimporranrly - !slam,
vhichhashadavcrysrrongprcscnccin!ndiasinccrhccighrhccnrury.
1agorc`scriricismoIparriorismisapcrsisrcnrrhcmcinhisvrirings.
As carly as tpo8, hcpurhisposirionsuccincrlyinalcrrcrrcplyingro
rhc criricism oI Abal a osc, rhc viIc oI a grcar !ndian scicnrisr,
|agadish Chandra osc. ' !arriorism cannor bc our Iinal spirirual
shclrcr, my rcIugc is humaniry. ! vill nor buy glass Iorrhc pricc oI
diamonds,and!villncvcralovparriorismrorriumphovcrhumaniry
aslongas!livc. ` Iisnovcl Ghare Baire ( The Home and the World) has
much ro say abour rhis rhcmc. !n rhc novcl, ikhil, vho is kccn on
socialrcIorm, includingvomcn`slibcrarion, bur coorovardsnarion-
alism, gradually loscs rhc csrccm oIhis spirircdviIc,imala, bccausc
oIhisIailurcrobccnrhusiasricabouranri-ririshagirarions,vhichshc
sccs as a lack oI parrioric commirmcnr. imala bccomcs Iascinarcd
virhikhil`snarionaisrIricndSandip,vhospcaks brillianrlyandacrs
virh parrioric milirancy, andshcIallsinovcvirhhim. ikhi rcIuscs
rochangchisvicvs. '!amvillingroscrvcmycounrry,burmyvorship
!rcscrvcIorKighrvhichisIargrcarcrrhanmycounrry.1ovorshipmy
counrryasa god is ro bringacurscuponir. ` '
As rhc srory unIolds, Sandip bccomcs angry virh somc oI his
counrrymcnIorrhcirIailurcroj oinrhc srrugglcasrcadilyashcrhinks
rhcy should ' Somc Nohammcdan rradcrs arc srill obdurarc` ) . Ic
arrangcsrodcalvirhrhcrccalcirranrsbyburningrhcirmcagrcrrading
srocks andphysicalyarrackingrhcm. imala hasro acknovlcdgc rhc
connccrion bcrvccn Sandip`s rousing narionalisric scnrimcnrs andhis
sccrarian - and urimarclyviolcnr - acrions.1hc dramaric cvcnrs rhar
':Martha Nussbaum initiates her wide-ranging critique of patriotism ( in a debate
that is joined by many others) by quoting this passage from The Home and the World
(in Martha C. Nussbaum et a!., For Love of Country, ed. Joshua Cohen, Boston:
Beacon Press, I996, pp. 3-4) .
ro8
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
Ioov ikhiarrcmprsrohcprhcvicrims,riskinghisiIc)includcrhc
cndoIimala`spoiricaromancc.
1his is a diIIiculr subjccr, and SaryajirKay`s bcauriIul hlm oIThe
Home and the World brilianry brings ourrhc novcl`s rcnsions,along
virhrhchumanaIIccrions anddisaIIccrions oIrhcsrory. orsurpris-
ingly, rhc srory has had many dcrracrors, nor j usr among dcdicarcd
narionalisrsin!ndia.Gcorg!ukcsIound1agorc`snovclrobc'apcrir
bourgcoisyarnoIrhcshoddicsrkind`,'arrhcinrclccruascrviccoIrhc
ririshpoicc` , and'aconrcmpriblccaricarurcoIGandhi` . !rvould,oI
coursc,bcabsurdrorhink oISandip asGandhi,burrhcnovcgivcsa
'srrongandgcnrlc`varning, ascrrolrrcchrnorcdinhisdiary, oIrhc
corrupribiliry oI narionalism, sincc ir is nor cvcn-handcd. Iarrcd oI
oncgroupcanlcadroharrcd oIorhcrs, nomarrcrhovIar suchIcc-
ing may bc Irom rhc minds oI humanc narionalisr lcadcrs likc
Naharma Gandhi.
Admiration and Criticism of Japan
1agorc`srcacrionronarionaismin|apanis parricuaryrcling. As in
rhc casc oI !ndia, hc sav rhc nccd ro build rhc scI-conhdcncc oI a
dcIcarcd and humiiarcd pcoplc, oI pcoplc lcIr bchind by dcvclop-
mcnrsclscvhcrc,asvasrhccascin|apanbcIorcirscmcrgcnccduring
rhcnincrccnrhccnrury.ArrhcbcginningoIoncoIhislccrurcsin|apan
in tp t 6 'arionaismin|apan` ) , hcobscrvcdrhar'rhcvorsrIormoI
bondagc is rhc bondagc oI dcjccrion, vhich kccps mcn hopccssly
chaincdinoss oIIairh in rhcmsclvcs` . 1agorc sharcdrhc admirarion
Ior|apanvidcsprcadinAsiaIordcmonsrraringrhcabiiryoIanAsian
narion ro riva rhc Vcsr in indusrria dcvclopmcnr and cconomic
progrcss. Ic norcd virh grcar sarisIacrion rhar |apan had 'in gianr
srridcslcIrccnrurics oIinacrion bchind,ovcrrakingrhcprcscnrrimcin
irsIorcmosrachicvcmcnr` . !ororhcrnarions oursidcrhcVcsr,hcsaid,
|apan ' has brokcn rhc spcl undcrvhichvc lay in rorpor Ior agcs,
rakingirro bcrhcnormalcondirion oIccrrain raccsliving in ccrrain
gcographica imirs` .
urrhcn1agorcvcnronrocriricizc rhc riscoIa srrongnariona-
ism in |apan, and irs cmcrgcncc as an impcriaisr narion. 1agorc`s
I09
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ourspokcncriricisms did norplcasc|apancscaudicnccs and, as L. !.
1hompsonvrorc, 'rhcvclcomcgivcn ro him on hishrsrarrivalsoon
coolcd` . 1vcnry-rvo ycars larcr, in r 9 3 7, duringrhc|apancsc var
on China, 1agorc rcccivcd a lcrrcr lrom Kash chari osc, an anri-
rirish!ndianrcvolurionaryrhcnlivingin|apan,vhosoughr1agorc`s
approval lor his cllorrs rhcrc on bchall ol !ndian indcpcndcncc, in
vhichhchadrhcsupporrolrhc|apancscgovcrnmcnr.1agorcrcplicd.
Your cable has caused me many restless hours, for it hurts me very much to
have to ignore your appeal. I wish you had asked for my cooperation in a
cause against which my spirit did not protest. I know, in making this appeal,
you counted on my great regard for the Japanese for I, along with the rest of
Asia, did once admire and look up to Japan and did once fondly hope that in
Japan Asia had at last discovered its challenge to the West, that Japan's new
strength would be consecrated in safeguarding the culture of the East against
alien interests. But Japan has not taken long to betray that rising hope and
repudiate all that seemed signifcant in her wonderful, and to us symbolic,
awakening, and has now become itself a worse menace to the defenceless
peoples of the East.
Iovrovicv|apan`sposirioninrhcSccondVorldVarvasadivi-
sivcissucin!ndia.Alrcrrhcvar,vhcn|apancscpoliricallcadcrsvcrc
rricdlorvar crimcs, rhc solc disscnringvoicc amongrhcj udgcscamc
lrom rhc !ndian j udgc, Kadhabinod !al, a disringuishcd j urisr. !al
disscnrcd on various grounds, among rhcm rhar no lair rrial vas
possiblcinvicvolrhcasymmcrryolpovcrbcrvccnrhcvicrorandrhc
dclcarcd. Ambivalcnr lcclings in !ndia rovards rhc|apancsc milirary
aggrcssion, givcn rhc unacccprablc narurc ol rirish impcrialism,
possiblyhad aparrin prcdisposing!alro considcr a pcrspccrivc dil-
lcrcnrlrom rhar olrhc orhcr j udgcs.
Norc rcllingly, Subhas Chandra osc no rclarion olKashchari
oscj , alcadingnarionalisr,madchisvayro|apanduringrhcvarvia
!ralyandGcrmanyalrcr cscapinglromaririshprison, hchclpcdrhc
|apancscrolormunirsol!ndiansoldicrs,vhohadcarlicrsurrcndcrcd
ro rhc advancing |apancsc army, ro hghr on rhc |apancsc sidc as rhc
'!ndianarionalArmy` . Kabindranarhhadlormcrlycnrcrraincdgrcar
admirarion lor Subhas osc as a dcdicarcd nonsccrarian hghrcr lor
!ndianindcpcndcncc. `urrhcirvaysvouldhavcparrcdvhcnosc`s
I IO
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
poirical acrivirics rook rhis rurn, arhough 1agorc vas dcad by rhc
rimcoscrcachcd|apan.
1agorc sav|apancscmilirarismasillusrraringrhcvaynarionalism
canmislcadcvcnanarionoIgrcarachicvcmcnrandpromisc. !n r pj8
Yoncoguchi,rhcdisringuishcdpocrandIricndoI1agorc asvcllas
oIYcars and !oundj , vrorc ro 1agorc, plcading virh him ro changc
hismindabour|apan. Kabindranarh`srcply,vrirrcnon 1 2 Scprcmbcr
tpj8, vas alrogcrhcruncompromising.
It seems to me that it is futile for either of us to try to convince the other,
since your faith in the infallible right of Japan to bully other Asiatic nations
into line with your Government's policy is not shared by me . . . . Believe me,
it is sorrow and shame, not anger, that prompt me to write to you. I suffer
intensely not only because the reports of Chinese suffering batter against
my heart, but because I can no longer point out with pride the example of a
great Japan.
Icvouldhavcbccnmuchhappicrvirhrhcposr-varcmcrgcnccoI
|apanasapcaccIulpovcr.1hcn,roo,sincchcvasnorIrccoIcgorism,
hcvould alsohavc bccnplcascd byrhcarrcnrionpaidrohisidcasby
rhcnovclisrYasunariKavabara andorhcr. '
International Concerns
1agorcvas norinvariablyvcll-inIormcdabourinrcrnarionalpoirics.
Ic allovcdhimscIro bccnrcrraincd byNussoliniin a shorrvisirro
!ralyinNay-|unc tpz6,avisirarrangcdbyCarlo!ormichi,proIcssor
oI Sanskrir ar rhc !nivcrsiry oI Komc. Vhcn hc askcd ro mccr
cncdcrro Crocc, !ormichi said, '!mpossiblcl !mpossiblcl ` Nussoini
roldhimrhar Crocc vas 'norin Komc` . Vhcn1agorcsaidhcvould
go 'vhcrcvcrhc is`, NussoliniassurcdhimrharCrocc`svhcrcabours
vcrc unknovn.
Such incidcnrs, as vcll as varnings Irom Komain Kolland and
orhcr Iricnds, should havc cndcd 1agorc`s Hirrarion virh Nussolini
morc guicklyrhanirdid. urony aIrcrhcrcccivcd graphicaccounrs
oIrhcbruraliryoI!ralianIascismIromrvo cxilcs, GacranoSalvcmini
and Gacrano Salvadori, andlcarncdmorc oIvharvashappcningin
I I I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!taly, did hcpubliclydcnounccthc rcgimc, publishing a lcttcrto thc
Manchester Guardian inAugust.1hcncxtmonth,Popolo dItalia, thc
magazinc cditcd by cnito Nussolini`s brothcr, rcplicd. 'Vho carcs!
!taly laughs at 1agorc and thosc vho brought this unctuous and
insupportablc Icllov in ourmidst. `
Vith his high cxpcctations oI ritain, 1agorc continucd to bc
surpriscdbyvhathctook to bc a lack oIoIIicial sympathyIorintcr-
nationalvictimsoIaggrcssion.Icrcturncdtothisthcmcinthclccturc
hcgavconhis last birthday, in tpqt .
While Japan was quietly devouring North China, her act of wanton aggres
sion was ignored as a minor incident by the veterans of British diplomacy. We
have also witnessed from this distance how actively the British statesmen
acquiesced in the destruction of the Spanish Republic.
ut distinguishing bctvccn thc ritish govcrnmcnt and thc ritish
pcoplc, Kabindranath vcntonto notc 'vithadmirationhova band
oIvaliantLnglishmcnlaiddovnthcirlivcsIorSpain` .
1agorc`s vicv oIthc Sovict !nion has bccn a subjcctoImuch dis-
cussion.IcvasvidclyrcadinKussia.!ntpt;scvcralKussiantrans-
lations oIGitanjali onc cditcd by !vanunin, latcrthc hrst Kussian
obcl laurcatc in litcraturcj vcrc availablc, and by thc latc tpzos
many oI thc Lnglish vcrsions oI his vork had bccn rcndcrcd into
Kussian by scvcral distinguishcd translators. Kussian vcrsions oIhis
vork continucd to appcar. oris !astcrnak translatcd him in thc
tp os and tp6os.
Vhcn1agorcvisitcdKussiaintpjo,hcvasmuchimprcsscdbyits
dcvclopmcnt cIIorts and by vhat hc sav as a rcal commitmcnt to
climinatc povcrty and cconomic incguality. utvhat imprcsscd him
most vas thc cxpansion oI basic cducation across thc old Kussian
cmpirc. !n Letters from Russia, vrittcn in cngali and publishcd in
tpjI , hcunIavourablycomparcsthcacccptanccoIvidcsprcadillitcr-
acy in !ndia by thc ritish administration vith Kussian cIIorts to
cxpand cducation.
In stepping on the soil of Russia, the frst thing that caught my eye was that
in education, at any rate, the peasant and the working classes have made
1 1 2
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
such enormous progress in these few years that nothing comparable has
happened even to our highest classes in the course of the last hundred and
fifty years . . . The people here are not at all afraid of giving complete
education even to Turcomans of distant Asia; on the contrary, they are
utterly in earnest about it.22
Vhcn parrs oI rhc book vcrc rranslarcd inro Lnglish in I93 4, rhc
undcr-sccrcraryIor !ndiasrarcdin !arliamcnrrhar irvas 'calcularcd
bydisrorrionoIrhcIacrsro bringrhcririshAdminisrrarionin!ndia
inro conrcmpr and disrcpurc` , and rhc book vas rhcn promprly
banncd. 1hc Lnglish vcrsion vould nor bc publishcd unril aIrcr
indcpcndcncc.
Education and Freedom
1hc rirish!ndian adminisrrarors vcrc nor, hovcvcr, alonc in rrying
rosupprcss1agorc`srcHccrionsonKussia.1hcyvcrcjoincdbySovicr
oIIicials. !n aninrcrvicvvirhIzvestia in I930, 1agorc sharply criri-
cizcdrhc lack oIIrccdom rharhcobscrvcdinKussia.
I must ask you: Are you doing your ideal a service by arousing in the minds
of those under your training anger, class-hatred, and revengefulness against
those whom you consider to be your enemies ? . . . Freedom of mind is needed
for the reception of truth; terror hopelessly kills it . . . . For the sake of human
ity I hope you may never create a vicious force of violence, which will go on
weaving an interminable chain of violence and cruelty . . . . You have tried to
destroy many of the other evils of [the tsarist] period. Why not try to destroy
this one also?
1hc inrcrvicvvas norpublishcdin Izvestia unril I 9 88 - ncarly sixry
ycars larcr. '
1agorc`s rcacrion ro rhc Kussia oI I93 0 arosc Irom rvo oI his
srrongcsr commirmcnrs. his uncompromising bclicI in rhc impor-
rancc oI 'Irccdom oImind` rhc sourcc oIhis criricism oIrhc Sovicr
*It was, however, published in the Manchester Guardian shortly after it was meant to
be published in Izvestia. On this see Krishna Dutta and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath
Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man (New York: St Martin's Press, I 995 ) , p. 297.
1 1 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!nion) , and his convicrion rhar rhc cxpansion oI basic cducarion is
ccnrral ro social progrcss rhc sourcc oI his praisc, parricularly in
conrrasrrorirish-run!ndia) . IcidcnrihcdrhclackoIbasiccducarion
as rhc Iundamcnra causc oI many oI !ndia`s socia and cconomic
aIIlicrions.
In my view the imposing tower of misery which today rests on the heart of
India has its sole foundation in the absence of education. Caste divisions,
religious conflicts, aversion to work, precarious economic conditions - all
centre on this single factor.
!rvas oncducarion andonrhcrcHccrion, dialoguc and communica-
rion rhar arc associarcd virh ir) , rarhcr rhan on, say, spinning ' as a
sacrihcc` 'rhc charka docs nor rcguirc anyonc ro rhink` ) , rhar rhc
Iururc oI!ndia vould dcpcnd.
1agorc vas conccrncd nor only rharrhcrc bc vidcr opporrunirics
Ior cducarion across rhc counrry cspccially in rura arcas vhcrc
schoolsvcrcIcv),buralsorharrhcschoosrhcmscvcsbcmorclivcly
andcnjoyablc.IchimsclIhaddroppcdouroIschoocary,largclyour
oI borcdom, and had ncvcr borhcrcd ro carn a dipoma. Ic vrorc
cxrcnsivcly on hov schools should bc madc morc arrracrivc ro boys
andgirlsandrhusmorcproducrivc.Iisovnco-cducarionalschoolar
Sanrinikcran had many progrcssivc Icarurcs. 1hc cmphasis hcrc vas
onsclI-morivarionrarhcrrhanondisciplinc,andonIosrcring inrcllcc-
rua curiosiryrarhcrrhancompcririvccxccllcncc.
NuchoIKabindranarh`sliIcvas spcnrin dcvclopingrhc school ar
Sanrinikcran. 1hc schoolncvcr had muchmoncy, sincc rhc Iccs vcrc
vcrylov. Iis lccrurchonoraria, ' $;ooascold`,vcnrro supporrir,as
vcllasmosroIhisobcl!rizcmoncy.1hcschoolrcccivcdnosupporr
Irom rhc govcrnmcnr, bur did gcr hclp Irom privarc cirizcns - cvcn
Naharma GandhiraiscdmoncyIorir.
1hc dispurc wirh Naharma Gandhi on rhc ihar carrhguakc
rouchcdona subj ccrrharvasvcryimporranrro1agorc.rhcnccdIor
cducarion in scicncc as vcll as in lircrarurc and rhc humanirics. Ar
Sanrinikcran, rhcrc vcrc srrong 'ocal` ccmcnrs in irs cmphasis on
!ndian rradirions, incuding rhc classics, and in rhc usc oI cngali
rarhcr rhan Lnglish as rhc languagc oIinsrrucrion. Arrhc samcrimc
rhcrc vcrc courscs on a grcar varicry oI cururcs, and srudy pro-
I I4
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
grammcs dcvorcd ro China, |apan and rhc Niddlc Lasr. Nany
Iorcigncrs camc ro Sanrinikcran ro srudyor rcach, and rhc Iusion oI
srudicssccmcdrovork.
! am parrial ro sccing 1agorc as an cducaror, having mysclI bccn
cducarcd ar Sanrinikcran. 1hc schoolvas unusual in many diIIcrcnr
vays, such as rhc oddiry rhar classcs, cxccpring rhosc rcguiring a
laborarory,vcrchcldourdoorsvhcncvcrrhcvcarhcrpcrmirrcd) . o
marrcrvharvcrhoughroIKabindranarh`sbclicIrharoncgainsIrom
bcinginanaruralscrringvhilclcarning somcoIusargucdabourrhis
rhcory) , vc rypically Iound rhc cxpcricncc oI ourdoor schooling
cxrrcmcly arrracrivc andplcasanr. Acadcmically, ourschoolvas nor
parricularlycxacring oIrcnvc didnorhavcanycxaminarions arall) ,
andircouldnor,byrhcusualacadcmicsrandards,compcrcvirhsomc
oIrhcbcrrcr schoolsinCalcurra.urrhcrcvassomcrhingrcmarkablc
abour rhc casc virhvhichclass discussions couldmovcIrom!ndian
rradirional lircrarurc ro conrcmporary as vcll as classical Vcsrcrn
rhoughr, andrhcnrorhcculrurcoIChinaor|apanor clscvhcrc. 1hc
school`s cclcbrarion oI varicry vas also in sharp conrrasr virh rhc
culrural conscrvarism and scpararism rhar has rcndcd ro grip !ndia
Iromrimcrorimc.
1hcculruralgivc andrakc oI1agorc`s vision oIrhc conrcmporary
vorldhasclosc parallclsvirhrhcvisionoISaryajirKay,alsoanalum-
nus oI Sanrinikcran, vho madc scvcral Iilms bascd on 1agorc`s
srorics. '`Kay`svordsabourSanrinikcranin 1991 vouldhavcgrcarly
plcascdKabindranarh.
I consider the three years I spent in Santiniketan as the most fruitful of my
life . . . . Santiniketan opened my eyes for the frst time to the splendours of
Indian and Far Eastern art. Until then I was completely under the sway of
Western art, music and literature. Santiniketan made me the combined prod
uct of East and West that I am.24
Fifty Years after Independence
Vhar!ndia has orhasnorachicvcdinirshalIccnruryoIindcpcndcncc
is bccoming a subj ccr oI considcrablc inrcrcsr. 'Vhar has bccn rhc
I I 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
srory oI rhosc Iirsr IiIry ycars ! ` as Shashi 1haroor asks in his
balanccd, inIormarivc and highly rcadablc accounr oI India: From
Midnight to the Millennium) .
25 !I 1agorc vcrc ro scc rhc !ndia oI
roday, halI a ccnrury aIrcr indcpcndcncc, norhing pcrhaps vould
shockhimsomuchasrhcconrinucdillircracyoIrhcmasscs.Icvould
sccrhis as a roral bcrrayal oIvharrhc narionalisr lcadcrs hadprom-
iscdduringrhcsrrugglcIorindcpcndcncc- apromiscrharhadhgurcd
cvcninchru`s rousing spccchonrhc cvc oIindcpcndcnccinAugusr
tpq; on!ndia`s ' rrysrvirhdcsriny` ) .
! nvicvoI hisinrcrcsrinchildhoodcducarion,1agorcvouldnorbc
consolcd byrhc cxrraordinary cxpansion oI univcrsiry cducarion, in
vhich!ndia scnds roirsunivcrsiricssixrimcsasmanypcoplcpcrunir
oI popularion as docs China. Karhcr, hc vould bc srunncd rhar, in
conrrasrro Lasr and SourhLasrAsia,including China, halIrhc adulr
popularionandrvo-rhirdsoI!ndianvomcnrcmainunablcrorcador
vrirc. Srarisricallyrcliablcsurvcys indicarcrharcvcninrhclarc tp8os
ncarly halI oI rhc rural girls bcrvccn rhc agcs oI t zand tq did nor
arrcnd anyschoolIora singlc dayoIrhcirlivcs.
1his srarc oIaIIairsisrhcrcsulroIrhcconrinuarionoIririshimpc-
rial ncglccr oI mass cducarion, vhich has bccn rcinIorccd by!ndia`s
rradirional clirism, as vcll as uppcr-class-dominarcd conrcmporary
polirics cxccpr in parrs oI !ndia, such as Kcrala, vhcrc anri-
uppcr-casrcmovcmcnrshavcrcndcdroconccnrrarconcducarionasa
grcarlcvcllcr) . 1agorcvouldsccillircracyandrhcncglccroIcducarion
noronlyasrhcmainsourccoI!ndia`sconrinucdsocialbackvardncss,
buralsoasagrcarconsrrainrrharrcsrricrsrhcpossibiliryandrcachoI
cconomicdcvclopmcnrin!ndia ashisvrirings onruraldcvclopmcnr
IorccIullymakcclcar) . 1agorcvould also havc srronglyIclrrhcnccd
Ioragrcarcrcommirmcnr - andagrcarcrscnscoIurgcncy - inrcmov-
ingcndcmicpovcrry.
Arrhcsamcrimc,1agorcvouldundoubrcdlyhndsomcsarisIacrion
in rhc survival oIdcmocracyin!ndia, inirs rclarivclyIrccprcss,and
in gcncral in rhc 'Irccdom oI mind` rhar posr-indcpcndcncc !ndian
polirics has, on rhc vholc, managcd ro mainrain. Ic vould also bc
plcascd by rhc obscrvarion madc by L. !. 1hompson vhosc Iarhcr
Ldvard 1hompson had vrirrcn onc oI rhc hrsr maj or biographics
oI1agorc' ) .
r r 6
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
All the convergent influences of the world run through this society: Hindu,
Moslem, Christian, secular; Stalinist, liberal, Maoist, democratic socialist,
Gandhian. There is not a thought that is being thought in the West or East
that is not active in some Indian mind.
2B
1agorcvoudhavc bccnhappyasorosccrharrhconcgovcrnmcnra
arrcmpr ro dispcnsc gcncray virh basic ibcrrics and poirica and
civirighrsin!ndia,inrhctp;os,vhcn!rimcNinisrcr!ndiraGandhi
ironicay, hcrscI a Iormcr srudcnr ar Sanrinikcran) dccarcd an
'cmcrgcncy`, vasovcrvhcmingyrcjccrcdbyrhc!ndianvorcrs, cad-
ingrorhcprccipirarcIaoIhcrgovcrnmcnr.
Kabindranarh voud aso sccrharrhc changcs in poicy rhar havc
ciminarcd Iaminc sincc indcpcndcncc had muchro dovirh rhc Ircc-
domro bchcardin a dcmocraric !ndia. !n1agorc`spay Raja 0 Rani
'1hcKing and rhc Quccn` ) , rhc symparhcric guccn cvcnruayrcbcs
againsrrhccaousncssoIsrarcpoicyrovardsrhchungry. Shcbcgins
bycnguiringabourrhcugysoundsoursidcrhcpaacc,onyrobcrod
rharrhcnoisciscomingIrom'rhccoarsc,camorouscrovdvhohov
unashamcdyIorIoodanddisrurbrhcsvccrpcaccoIrhcpaacc` . 1hc
viccrcga oIIicc in!ndia coud havc rakcn a simiary caous vicv oI
!ndian Iamincs, righr up ro rhc casiy prcvcnrabc cnga Iaminc oI
tpqj, j usrbcIorc indcpcndcncc, vhich kicd bcrvccnrvo and rhrcc
miion pcopc. ur a govcrnmcnr in a muri-parry dcmocracy, virh
cccrions and Ircc ncvspapcrs, cannor any ongcr dismiss rhc noisc
Irom'rhccoarsc, camorouscrovd` . '
!nikc Gandhij i, Kabindranarh voud norrcscnr rhc dcvcopmcnr
oI modcrn indusrrics in !ndia, or rhc accccrarion oI rcchnica
progrcss,sincchcdidnorvanr!ndiaro bcshackcdrorhcrurningoI
'rhc vhcc oI an anriguarcd invcnrion` . 1agorc vas conccrncd rhar
pcopc nor bc dominarcd by machincs, bur hc vas nor opposcd ro
making good usc oI modcrn rcchnoogy. '1hc masrcry ovcr rhc
machinc, ` hcvrorcinCrisis in Civilization, ' byvhichrhcririshhavc
*I have tried to discuss the linkage between democracy, political incentives and pre
vention of disasters in Resources, Values and Development ( Cambridge, Mass. :
Harvard University Press, r984, repr. r997) , ch. r9, and i n my presidential address to
the American Economic Association, 'Rationality and Social Choice' , American
Economic Review, 8 5 ( r995 ) .
I I7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
consolidarcdrhcir sovcrcignryovcrrhcirvasr cmpirc, has bccnkcpra
scalcd book, ro vhich duc acccss has bccn dcnicd ro rhis hclplcss
counrry.` Kabindranarhhad a dccp inrcrcsr in rhc cnvironmcnr - hc
vasparricularlyconccrncdabourdcIorcsrarion and iniriarcd a 'Icsri-
val oI rrcc-planring` (vriksha-ropana) as carly as tpz8. Ic vould
vanrincrcascdprivarcandgovcrnmcnrcommirmcnrsrocnvironmcn-
ralism, bur hc vould nor dcrivc Irom rhis posirio

a gcncral casc
againsrmodcrnindusrryandrcchnology.
On Cultural Separatism
Kabindranarhvouldbcshockcdbyrhcgrovrh oIculruralscpararism
in!ndia,asclscvhcrc.1hc 'opcnncss`rharhcvalucdsomuchisccrr-
ainly undcr grcar srrain righr nov - in many counrrics. Kcligious
Iundamcnralism srill has a rclarivcly small Iolloving in !ndia, bur
variousIacrionssccmrobcdoingrhcirbcsrroincrcascrhcirnumbcrs.
Ccrrainly rcligious sccrarianism has had muchsucccss in somcparrs
oI!ndia parricularlyinrhcvcsrandrhcnorrh) .1agorcvouldsccrhc
cxpansionoIrcligioussccrarianismasbcingclosclyassociarcdvirhan
arrihciallyscpararisrvicvoIculrurc.
Icvouldhavcsrronglyrcsisrcddchning!ndiainspccihcallyIindu
rcrms, rarhcr rhan as a ' conIucncc` oImanyculrurcs. Lvcn aIrcrrhc
parririon oI1947, !ndiaissrillrhc rhird-largcsrNuslimcounrryinrhc
vorld,virhmorcNuslimsrhaninangladcsh,andncarlyasmanyas
in!akisran.nly!ndoncsiahassubsranriallymorcIollovcrsoI!slam.
!ndccd, by poinring ro rhc immcnsc hcrcrogcncousncss oI !ndia`s
culruralbackgroundandirsrichlydivcrschisrory, 1agorchadargucd
rhar rhc 'idca oI!ndia` irsclImilirarcd againsr a culrurally scpararisr
vicv - 'againsr rhcinrcnsc consciousncss oIrhc scpararcncss oIonc`s
ovnpcoplc Irom orhcrs` .
1agorc vould also opposc rhc culrural narionalism rhar has
rcccnrly bccn gaining somc ground in!ndia, alongvirh an cxaggcr-
arcdIcaroIrhcinHucnccoIrhcVcsr.Icvasuncompromisinginhis
bclicIrharhumanbcings could absorbguircdiIIcrcnrculrurcsincon-
srrucrivcvays.
I I 8
TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
Whatever we understand and enjoy in human products instantly becomes
ours, wherever they might have their origin. I am proud of my humanity
when I can acknowledge the poets and artists of other countries as my own.
Let me feel with unalloyed gladness that all the great glories of man are
mine. Therefore it hurts me deeply when the cry of rejection rings loud
against the West in my country with the clamour that Western education can
only injure us.
!nrhisconrcxr,irisimporranrrocmphasizcrharKabindranarhvas
norshorroIpridcin !ndia`s ovnhcriragc, and oIrcn spokc abourir.
IclccrurcdarxIord,virhcvidcnrsarisIacrion,onrhcimporranccoI
!ndia`s rcligious idcas - guoring borh Irom ancicnr rcxrs and Irom
popular pocrry such as rhc vcrscs oIrhc sixrccnrh-ccnrury Nuslim
pocr Kabir) . !n 1940, vhcn hc vas givcn an honorary docrorarc by
xIord \nivcrsiry, in a ccrcmony arrangcd ar his ovn cducarional
csrablishmcnrinSanrinikcran '!n GangcmcIluir!sis` , xIordhclp-
Iullycxplaincd) , rorhcprcdicrablc'vollcyoI!arin`1agorcrcspondcd
' by a vollcy oI Sanskrir` , as Narj oric Sykcs, a Quakcr Iricnd oI
Kabindranarh, rcporrs. Icr chccrIul summary oI rhc march, '!ndia
hcldirs ovn`,vasnorouroIlincvirh1agorc`spridcin!ndianculrurc.
Iisvclcoming arrirudcroVcsrcrncivilizarionvasrcinIorccdbyrhis
conhdcncc.hcdidnorscc!ndia`sculrurcasIragilcandinnccdoI'pro-
rccrion`IromVcsrcrninIucncc.
!n !ndia, hc vrorc, ' circumsranccs almosr compcl us ro lcarn
Lnglish,andrhisluckyaccidcnrhasgivcnusrhcopporruniryoIacccss
inrorhcrichcsroIallpocricallircrarurcsoIrhcvorld. ` 1hcrcsccmsro
mcmuchIorccin Kabindranarh`s argumcnrIor clcarlydisringuishing
bcrvccn rhc injusricc oI a scrious asymmcrry oIpovcr colonialism
bcing a primc cxamplc oI rhis) and rhc imporrancc ncvcrrhclcss oI
appraising Vcsrcrn culturc in an opcn-mindcd vay, in colonial and
posr-colonialrcrrirorics,inordcrrosccvharuscscouldbcmadcoIir.
Kabindranarh insisrcd on opcn dcbarc on cvcry issuc, and dis-
rrusrcdconclusions bascd on a mcchanical Iormula, no marrcr hov
arrracrivc rhar Iormula mighr sccm in isolarion such as '1his vas
Iorccdonus by ourcolonialmasrcrs- vcmusrrcjccrir`, '1his is our
rradirion - vcmusrIollovir` , 'Vchavcpromiscdrodorhis - vcmusr
Iulhl rhar promisc`, and so on) . 1hc gucsrion hc pcrsisrcnrly asks is
I I9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
vhcrhcrvchavcrcasoncnoughrovanrvharisbcingproposcd,rak-
ingcvcryrhinginroaccounr.!mporranrashisroryis,rcasoninghasro
go bcyond rhc pasr. !r is in rhc sovcrcignry oI rcasoning - Icarcss
rcasoning in Irccdom - rhar vc can Iind Kabindranarh 1agorc`s
asringvoicc.
1 20
6
Our Culture, Their Culture:
1hc vorks oI Saryajir Kay tpzt-pz) prcscnr a pcrccprivc undcr-
sranding oI rhc rclarion bcrvccn diIIcrcnr culrurcs, and his idcas
rcmain pcrrincnr ro rhc maj or culrural dcbarcs in rhc conrcmporary
vorld- nor lcasr in !ndia. !n Kay`s hlms and inhis vrirings, vc scc
cxplorarions oI ar lcasr rhrcc gcncral rhcmcs on culrurcs and rhcir
inrcrrclarions. rhc imporrancc oIdistinctions bcrvccn diIIcrcnr local
culrurcs and rhcir rcspccrivc individualirics, rhc ncccssiry ro undcr-
srandrhc dccply heterogeneous characrcr oIcach localculrurc cvcn
rhar oIa communiry, norro mcnriona rcgion or a counrry) , andrhc
grcar nccd Ior inrcr-culrural communication vhilc rccognizing rhc
diIIiculrics oIsuch inrcrcoursc.
AdccprcspccrIordisrincrivcncss iscombincdinKay`svisionvirh
an apprcciarion oI rhc imporrancc oI inrcr-culrural communicarion
and also rhc rccognirion oI much inrcrnal divcrsiry virhin cach
culrurc. !n cmphasizing rhc nccd ro rcspccr rhc individualiry oI cach
culrurc,KaysavnorcasonIorclosingrhcdoorsrorhcoursidcvorld.
!ndccd, opcning doors oIcommunicarionvas animporranrprioriry
in Kay`s vork. !n rhis rcspccr his arrirudc conrrasrs sharply virh rhc
incrcasing rcndcncyro scc!ndian culrurc or culrurcs) inhighly con-
scrvarivc rcrms - vanring ir ro bc prcscrvcd Irom rhc 'pollurion` oI
Vcsrcrnidcasandrhoughr.Kayvasalvaysvillingrocnjoyandlcarn
Irom idcas, arrIorms andliIcsrylcsIrom anyvhcrc - virhin!ndia or
abroad.
*This essay is an abridged version of the text of the Satyajit Ray Lecture, given at
Nandan in Calcutta on 22 December I 99 5, and published as Our Culture, Their
Culture (Calcutta: Nandan, I996) . Another version of the text, also abridged, was
published in New Republic, I April I996.
I 2I
THE ARGUMNTATIVE INDIAN
KayapprcciarcdrhcimporranccoIhcrcrogcnciryvirhinlocacom-
munirics. 1his insighrconrrasrs sharplyvirh rhc rcndcncy oI many
communirarians- rcigious andorhcrvisc- vhoarcvilingro brcak
up rhc narion inro somc communirics and rhcn srop dcad cxacrly
rhcrc. 'rhus Iar and no Iurrhcr` . 1hc grcar hm-makcr`s cagcrncss ro
scckrhclargcrunir urimarcly,his abiliryrorakrorhcvholcvorld)
combincdvclvirhhis cnrhusiasmIorundcrsrandingrhcsmallcsroI
rhcsmall.rhcindividualiryoIcachpcrson.
Distinctions and Communications
1hcrccan bclirrlc doubr abourrhcimporranccrharKay arrachcd ro
rhc disrincrivcncss oI diIIcrcnr cururcs. Ic also discusscd rhc prob-
cms rhar rhcsc divisionscrcarc in rhc possibiliry oIcommunicarion
across culrural boundarics. !n his book Our Films Their Films, hc
norcdrhcimporranrIacrrharhmsacguirc'coourIromallmanncroI
indigcnous Iacrors such as habirs oI spccch and bchaviour, dccp-
scarcdsocialpracriccs,pasrrradirions,prcscnrinHucnccs and soon` .
Icvcnronroask. 'IovmuchoIrhiscanaIorcigncr- virhnomorc
rhan a cursory knovlcdgc oIrhc Iacrors involvcd - Icc andrcspond
ro! ` Ic obscrvcd rhar 'rhcrc arc ccrrain basic similarirics in human
bchaviouralovcrrhcvorld` suchas'cxprcssionsoIj oyandsorrov,
lovc and harc, angcr, surprisc and Icar` ) , bur 'cvcn rhcy can cxhibir
minurc local variarionsvhichcanonlypuzzcandpcrrurb- andcon-
scgucnrlyvarprhcj udgcmcnroI - rhc uniniriarcdIorcigncr` .
1hcprcscnccoIsuch culrural dividcs raiscsmanyinrcrcsringprob-
lcms.1hcpossibiliry oIcommunicarionisonyonc oIrhcm.1hcrcis
rhcmorcbasicissucoIrhcindividualiryoIcachculrurc,andgucsrions
abourvhcrhcrandhovrhisindividuairycanbcrcspccrcdandvaucd
cvcnrhoughrhcvorldgrovs srcadilysmallcrandmorcuniIorm.Vc
livc ar a rimc vhcn idcas and pracriccs sprcad across boundarics oI
counrrics and rcgions virh grcar rapidiry, and rhc possibiliry rhar
somcrhing cxrrcmcly imporranr is bcing losr in rhis proccss oI inrc-
grarion has arouscd undcrsrandablc conccrn. And ycr culrural inrcr-
acrions,cvcninavorld oIdccpincguairics,can also crcarc spaccIor
crcarivc innovarions,vhichcombincconsrrucrionvirhvulncrabiiry.2
122
OUR CULTUR , THEIR CULTURE
1hc individualiry oI culrurcs is a big subjccr novadays, and rhc
rcndcncy rovards homogcnizarion oI culrurcs, parricularly in somc
uniIormVcsrcrn modc, or in rhc dcccprivc Iorm oI'modcrniry`, has
bccnsrronglychallcngcd.QucsrionsoIrhiskindhavcbccnrakcnup
in diIIcrcnr Iorms in rcccnrculrural srudics, cspccially in high-prohlc
inrcllccrual circlcs inIlucnrial in rhc Vcsr Irom !aris ro San
!rancisco) . Vhilc rhcsc gucsrions arc bcing askcd virh incrcasing
Ircgucncyinconrcmporary!ndiaasvcll,rhcrcispcrhapssomcirony
in rhc Iacr rhar so much oI rhc 1hird Vorld cririguc oI 'Vcsrcrn
modcrniry` has bccn inspircd and inHucnccd byVcsrcrnvrirings.
Lngaging argumcnrs on rhis subj ccr havc rcccnrly bccn prcscnrcd
by a numbcr oI!ndian aurhors, including !arrha Charrcrj cc. 1hcsc
argumcnrsoIrcndisplayavcll-arricularcd'anri-modcrnism`,rcj ccring
vhar is sccn as rhc ryranny oI ' modcrn` socicry parricularly oI
'Vcsrcrn` Iorms oI modcrnizarion) . Among rhc divcrsc !ndian cri-
rigucs,rhcrcarcsomc argumcnrs, amidsrorhcrs,invhichrhcdchancc
oI Vcsrcrn culrural modcs is combincd virh cnunciarions oI rhc
unigucimporranccoI!ndianculrurcandoIrhcrradirionsoIirs local
communirics.
ArrhcbroadcrlcvcloI'Asia`rarhcrrhan!ndia,rhcscpararcncssoI
'Asianvalucs` and rhcir disrincrion Irom Vcsrcrn norms has oIrcn
bccnasscrrcd,parricularlyincasrAsia - IromSingaporcandNalaysia
ro China and |apan. 1hc invoking oI Asian valucs has somcrimcs
occurrcd in rarhcr dubious polirical circumsranccs. !or cxamplc, ir
has bccn uscd ro j usriIy aurhorirarianism and harsh pcnalrics Ior
allcgcd rransgrcssions) in somc casr Asian counrrics. !n rhc Vicnna
conIcrcncc on human righrs in 1993 , rhc !orcign Ninisrcr oI
Singaporc, ciringdiIIcrcnccsbcrvccnAsianandLuropcanrradirions,
argucdrhar'univcrsalrccognirionoIrhcidcaloIhumanrighrscanbc
harmIuliIunivcrsalism is uscdro dcny or maskrhc rcaliry oIdiver
sity' .4 1hc championing oI 'Asian valucs` has rypically comc Irom
govcrnmcnr spokcsmcn rarhcr rhan Irom individuals ar a disrancc
Irom csrablishcd rcgimcs. Srill, rhc gcncralissucisimporranrcnough
ro dcscrvc ourarrcnrionandscruriny.
! 2
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Critical Openness
Lvcn rhough hc cmphasizcd rhc diIIiculrics oI inrcr-culrural commu-
nicarion,Kaydidnor,inIacr,rakccross-culruralcomprchcnsionrobc
impossiblc. Ic sav rhc diIIiculrics as challcngcs ro bc cncounrcrcd,
rarhcrrhan as srricr boundarics rharcouldnor bc brcachcd. Iisvas
nor a rhcsis oI basic 'incommunicabiliry` across culrural boundarics,
mcrclyoncoIrhcnccdrorccognizcrhcdiIIiculricsrharmayarisc. n
rhc largcr subj ccr oI prcscrving rradirions againsr Iorcign inHucncc,
Kayvas nor a culrural conscrvarivc. Ic did norgivc sysrcmaric pri-
oriryro conscrvinginhcrircdpracriccs.
!ndccd,!hndno cvidcncc inhisvorkandvriringsrharrhcIcaroI
bcing roo inIlucnccd by oursidcrs disrurbcd his cguilibrium as an
'!ndian` arrisr. IcvanrcdrorakcIullnorcoIrhcimporranccoIonc`s
culruralbackgroundvirhourdcnyingvharrhcrcisrolcarnIromclsc-
vhcrc.1hcrcis,!rhink,muchvisdominvharvccancallhis' crirical
opcnncss` , including rhc valuing oI a dynamic, adaprablc vorld,
rarhcr rhan onc rhar is consranrly 'policing` cxrcrnal inHucnccs and
Icaring'invasion`oIidcasIrom clscvhcrc.
1hc diIIiculrics oIundcrsrandingcachorhcracrossrhc boundarics
oIculrurc arc undoubrcdlygrcar.1his applicsrorhccincma, buralso
ro orhcr arr Iorms as vcll, including lircrarurc. !or cxamplc, rhc
inabiliryoImosrIorcigncrs - somcrimcscvcnorhcr!ndians - rosccrhc
asronishingbcauryoIKabindranarh1agorc`spocrry aIailurcrharvc
cngalis hnd so cxaspcraringj is a good illusrrarion oI j usr such a
problcm. !ndccd, rhc rhoughr rhar rhcsc non-apprcciaring Iorcigncrs
arc bcing vilIully conrrary and obdurarc rarhcrrhanmcrcly unablc
ro apprcciarc across rhc barricr oI languagcs and rranslarionsj is a
Ircgucnrly aircd suspicion.
1hc problcmis pcrhaps lcss cxrrcmc in hlms, in so Iar as rhc cin-
cmaislcss dcpcndcnronlanguagc, sinccpcoplccanbcinIormcdcvcn
bygcsrurcs and acrions. urourday-ro-daycxpcricnccsgcncrarcccr-
rainparrcrns oIrcacrion and non-rcacrionrharcan bcmysriIying Ior
Iorcign vicvcrs vho havc nor had rhosc cxpcricnccs. 1hc gcsrurcs -
and non-gcsrurcs - rhar arc guirc srandard virhin rhc counrry and
124
OUR CULTURE, THEIR CULTURE
undcrsrandablc as 'pcrIccrly ordinary` j may appcar alrogcrhcr
rcmarkablcvhcnsccnbyorhcrs.
Vords, roo, havc a Iuncrionrhargocsvcllbcyondrhc inIormarion
rhcy dirccrly convcy, muchis communicarcd by rhc sound oIrhc lan-
guagc and spccial choicc oIvords ro convcy a mcaning, or rocrcarc a
parricularcIIccr.AsKayhasnorcd, 'inasoundhlm,vordsarccxpccrcd
ropcrIormnoronlyanarrarivc buraplasricIuncrion`,and 'muchvill
bcmisscd unlcss oncknovsrhc languagc, andknovsirvcll` .
!ndccd,cvcnrhcnarrarivcmaybcincscapablyrransIormcdbccausc
oI languagc barricrs, cspccially rhc diIIiculry oI convcying nuancc
rhrough rranslarion. ! vas rcmindcd oIKay`srcmarkrhc orhcr day,
vhcn ! savTin Kanya again,in Cambridgc, Nassachuscrrs,vhcrc a
Icsrival oISaryajir Kay`s hlms bascd onrhc vondcrIul rcissucs pro-
duccd by rhc Ncrchanr-!vory cnrcrpriscsj vas bcing hcld. Vhcn
obdurarc !aglcc - in rhc sparkling Iorm oI Aparna Scn rhcn
asgupraj - dccidcsrovrirc, arlasr,alcrrcrrohcrspurncdhusband,
shcconvcyshcrncvscnscoIinrimacybyaddrcssinghiminrhcIamil-
iar Iorm 'rumi` as hc had rcgucsrcdj , rarhcr rhan rhc Iormal and
ovcrly rcspccrIul ' apni` . 1his could nor, oI coursc, bc caughr in rhc
Lnglish subrirlc. So rhc rranslarion had ro shov hcr as signing
rhclcrrcras'yourviIc` roconvcyhcrncvscnscoIinrimacyj . urrhc
cngali original invhich shc srillsigns as '!aglcc` bur addrcsscshim
inrhcIamiliarIorm 'rumi` isinhnirclymorcsubrlc.
The Audience and the Eavesdropper
SuchdiIIiculrics andbarricrs cannorbcavoidcd. Kaydidnorvanrro
aim his movicsara Iorcignaudicncc, and Kay Ians abroad vho rush
roscchishlmsknovrharrhcyarc,inascnsc,cavcsdropping.!bclicvc
rhis rclarionship oIrhc crcaror and rhc cavcsdroppcr is by novvcry
vcll csrablishcd among rhc millions oI Kay Ians across rhc vorld.
1hcrc is no cxpccrarion rhar his hlms arc anyrhing orhcr rhan rhc
vorkoIan!ndian - and a cngali - dirccror madcIor a local audi-
cncc, andrhc arrcmprroundcrsrandvharisgoingon is a dccisionro
cngagcin a sclI-consciously'rcccprivc` acriviry.
125
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!n rhis scnsc, Kay has rriumphcd - on his ovn rcrms - and rhis
vindicarion, dcspirc allrhcbarricrs, rclls us somcrhing abourpossiblc
communicarionandundcrsrandingacrossculruralboundarics.!rmay
bchard,burircanbcdonc,andrhccagcrncssvirhvhichvicvcrsvirh
much cxpcricncc oIVcsrcrn cincma Iock ro scc Kay`s hlms dcspirc
rhc occasional obscurirics oIa prcscnrarion originally railorcd Ior an
cnrirclydiIIcrcnraudicncc) indicarcs vharispossiblcvhcnrhcrc isa
villingncssrogo bcyondrhc boundsoIonc`s ovnculrurc.
Saryajir Kay makcs an imporranr disrincrion on vhar is or is nor
scnsiblcinrryingro spcakacrossaculruraldividc,cspccialybcrvccn
rhcVcsrand!ndia.!n19 8 - rvoycars aIrcrPather Panch ali vonrhc
SpcciaAvardinCanncs,and oncycar aIrcrrhc Grand!rixarVcnicc
IorAparajito - hcvrorcrhcIolovinginancssay callcd '!roblcmsoI
acngali!ilmNakcr` .
There is no reason why we should not cash in on the foreigners' curiosity
about the Orient. But this must not mean pandering to their love of the false
exotic. A great many notions about our country and our people have to be
dispelled, even though it may be easier and - from a flm point of view-more
paying to sustain the existing myths than to demolish them. 5
Kay vas nor, oI coursc, uniguc in Iooving rhis approach. A
numbcr oI orhcr grcar Iilm dirccrors Irom !ndia havc Iollovcd a
similar rourc as Kay. As an old rcsidcnr oI Calcurra, ! am proudoI
rhc Iacr rhar somc oI rhc parricuarly disringuishcd dirccrors havc
comc, likcKay,Iromrhisvcryciry !rhinkoIcoursc oINrinalScn,
Kirvik Gharak, Aparna Scn and orhcrs) . ur vhar Kay cals pan-
dcring ro rhc ' lovc oI rhc Ialsc-cxoric` has ccarly rcmprcd many
orhcr dirccrors. Nany!ndian Iilms rhar can Iairy bc callcd 'cnrcr-
rainmcnr movics` havc achicvcd grcar succcss abroad, including in
rhcNiddc Lasr andAIrica in addirionro Luropc and,incrcasingy,
Amcrica, and ombay has bccn a big inIucncc on rhc cincmaro-
graphicvorldinmanycounrrics.
!risnorobviousvhcrhcrrhcimaginarysccncsoIarchaicsplcndour
shovn in such ' cnrcrrainmcnr movics` should bc sccn as misdcscrip-
rions oIrhc!ndiainvhichrhcyarc allcgcdlyscr, orascxccllcnrpor-
rrayals oI somc non-cxisrcnr 'ncvcr-ncvcr land` nor ro bc conIuscd
virhany rcacounrry) . As Kaynorcs in anorhcrconrcxr, guirc aIcv
1 26
OUR CULTUR, THEIR CULTURE
oI rhcsc rradirional !ndian hlms, vhich arrracr largc audicnccs, ' do
avayvhollyvirh rhc| borhcrsomcaspccr oIsocialidcnrihcarion`and
'prcscnra synrhcric, non-cxisrcnrsocicry, andonccanspcakoIcrcdi-
biliryonlyvirhinrhcnorms oIrhismakc-bclicIvorld` .Kaysuggcsrs
rhar rhis Icarurc ' accounrs Ior rhcir counrry-vidc acccprancc`, in a
counrry virh such divcrsiry. 1his is so, bur rhis makc-bclicvc Icarurc
also conrriburcs grcarly ro rhc appcal oI rhcsc hlms ro many Iorcign
audicnccs, happy ro scc lavish cnrcrrainmcnr in an imagincd land.
1hisis,oIcoursc, anundcrsrandablc'succcss` srory,sinccacccprancc
abroad bringsvirhirborhrcpurarionandrcvcnuc.
!nIacr, rhccxploirarionoIrhc biascs andvulncrabilirics oIrhcIor-
cign audicncc nccdnorbcconccrncd spccihcallyvirhrhc 'lovcoIrhc
Ialsc-cxoric` . Lxploirarioncanrakc orhcrIorms- norncccssarilyIasc,
nor cspccially cxoric. 1hcrc is, Ior cxamplc, norhing Ialsc abour
!ndian povcrry, nor abour rhc Iacr - rcmarkablc ro orhcrs - rhar
!ndianshavclcarncdrolivcnormallivcs vhilc raking lirrlc noricc oI
rhcsurroundingmiscry.
1hc graphicporrrayal oIcxrrcmc vrcrchcdncss, and rhc hcarrlcss-
ncss oI orhcrs rovards rhc dovnrroddcn, can irsclI bc skilIuly
cxploircd, cspccially vhcn supplcmcnrcd by a goodly supply oI
viciousvillains. Arasophisricarcdandclcganrlcvcl,suchcxploirarivc
usccanbcsccncvcninrharcxrrcmcysucccssIulhlmSalaam Bombay!
by rhc vondcrIully ralcnrcd dirccror Nccra air. 1har Iilm has
rcccivcd much acclaim, as ir should, sincc ir is vcry povcrIully con-
srrucrcd, bcauriIully absorbing and dccply moving. And ycr ir
mcrcilcsslycxploirsnoronlyrhcvicvcrs`ravsymparhy,buralsorhcir
inrcrcsr in idcnriIying 'rhc villain oIrhc piccc` vho could bc blamcd
Ior allrhis. '
Sincc Salaam Bombay! is Iull oIvillains and also oIpcoplc rorally
lackingin symparhyandanyscnscoIj usricc,rhc causcs oIrhcmiscry
andsuIIcringporrraycdinrhchlmbcginrolookcasilyundcrsrandablc
cvcnrodisranrIorcigncrs.!shouldaddrharrhisIcarurcoIrclianccon
villains is largcly avoidcd in Nccra air`s ncxr Iilm, Mississippi
*As a postscript, I can express much happiness that the extraordinary talents of
Meera Nair - which were absolutely clear even in Salaam Bombay!, despite what I
thought was a serious flaw- have since then found predictable expression in her later
flms, which have established Meera Nair as one of the leading directors of our time.
! 27
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Masala - anorhcr grcar Iilm - vhich raiscs somc inrcrcsring and
imporranrissucsabouridcnriryandinrcrmixing, inrhiscasc, involv-
ing cx-\gandans oI !ndian origin. 1hc undcrlying philosophy in
Salaam Bombay! rakcsrhcvicvcrsrraighrrorhccomIorringgucsrion.
givcn rhc ack oIhumaniry oI pcoplc around rhc vicrims, vhar clsc
couldyoucxpccr!1hccxploirarivcIormdravsaroncconrhcknovl-
cdgc - commoninrhcVcsr - rhar!ndiahasmuchpovcrryandsuIIcr-
ing, and aso on rhc comIorr - Ior vhich rhcrc is somc dcmand- oI
sccingrhcIaccsoIrhc 'baddics`vhoarccausingallrhisrroublc asin,
say, Amcrican gangsrcr movics) . Ar a morc mundanc lcvcl, Koand
|oIIe`s The City of Joy docsrhcsamcvirhCalcurra,virhclcaryidcn-
rihcdvillainsvhohavcrobcconIronrcd.
yconrrasr,cvcnvhcnKay`shlmsdcalvirhproblcmsrhararcj usr
asinrcnsc suchasrhccomingoIrhc cngal IamincoItpqjinAshani
Sanket) , rhccomIorroIrhcrcadycxplanarionrhroughrhcpromincnr
prcscnccoImcnacingvillainsisarogcrhcravoidcd.!ndccd,villainsarc
rcmarkabyrarc - almosrcompcrclyabscnr- in SaryajirKay`s hms.
Vhcnrcrriblcrhingshappcn,rhcrcmaybcnobodyclcaryrcsponsiblc
Iorrhccvi.Lvcnvhcnsomconcisccarlyrcsponsiblc,asayamoycc`s
Iarhcr-in-avmosrdchnirclyisIorhcrprcdicamcnr, andindirccrlyIor
hcrdcarh,inrhchmDevi, hcroo isavicrim- oIhismisguidcdbclicIs
- andbynomcansdcvoidoIhumancIcarurcs.!ISalaam Bombay! and
The City of Joy arc, ulrimarcly, in rhc 'cops and robbcrs` rradirion
cxccpr rhar rhcrc arc no 'good cops` in Salaam Bombay!) , rhc Kay
hlms havc ncirhcr cops norrobbcrs, vcl illusrrarcd, Ior cxamplc, by
Kay`s Mahanagari 1hc Grcar Ciry), scr in Cacurra, virh many dis-
rrcssingcvcnrs amongj oyousmomcnrs,cadingroa dccprragcdy,bur
virhnovilains onvhomrcsponsibilirycan bcimmcdiarclypinncd.
ncrcsulroIrhisabscnccisrharKaymanagcsroconvcysomcrhingoI
rhccomplcxiryoIsocicralsiruarionsrharlcadrosuchrragcdics,rarhcr
rhansccking spccdy cxplanarions inrhc grccd, cupidiryandcruclryoI
somcvcry badpcoplc.!ncschcvingrhccasycommunicabiliryoIhlms
invhich nasry pcoplc causc nasrycvcnrs,Kayprovidcs social visions
rhararcborhcomplcxandiluminaring.
OUR CULTUR, THEIR CULTURE
Heterogeneity and External Contacts
VhilcSaryajirKayinsisrsonrcrainingrhcrcalculruralIcarurcsoIrhc
socicry rharhcporrrays, his vicvoI!ndia - indccd, cvcn oIcngal -
rccognizcs a complcx rcaliry, virh immcnsc hcrcrogcnciry ar cvcry
lcvcl. !r is nor rhc picrurc oI a srylizcd Lasr mccring a srcrcorypical
Vcsr,rhc srockinrradcoIsomanyrcccnrculruralvriringscriricaloI
'Vcsrcrnizarion`and 'modcrniry` .Kaypoinrsourrharrhcpcoplcvho
'inhabir`hishlms arc borhcomplicarcd andcxrrcmclydivcrsc.
Take a single province: Bengal. Or, better still, take the city of Calcutta where
I live and work. Accents here vary between one neighbourhood and another.
Every educated Bengali peppers his native speech with a sprinkling of English
words and phrases. Dress is not standardized. Although women generally
prefer the sari, men wear clothes which reflect the style of the thirteenth cen
tury or conform to the directives of the latest Esquire. The contrast between
the rich and the poor is proverbial. Teenagers do the twist and drink Coke,
while the devout Brahmin takes a dip in the Ganges and chants his mantras
to the rising sun.
nc imporranrrhing ro norc immcdiarcly hcrc is rharrhc narivc cul-
rurc vhich Kay cmphasizcs is nor somc purc vision oI a rradirion-
bound socicry, bur rhc hcrcrogcncous livcs and commirmcnrs oI
conrcmporary!ndia.1hc!ndianvhodocsrhc'rvisr`isasmuchrhcrc
asrhconcvho chanrs hismanrrasbyrhc Gangcs.
1hcrccognirionoIrhishcrcrogcncirymakcsirimmcdiarclyclcarvhy
Saryajir Kay`s Iocus on local culrurc cannor bc rcadily sccn as an 'anri-
modcrn`movc. 'urculrurc`candravon'rhcirculrurc`asvcll,as'rhcir
culrurc`candravon'ours` . 1hcacknovlcdgcmcnrandcmphasis onrhc
culrurcoIrhcpcoplcvho inhabirKay`shlmsisinnovayadcnial oIrhc
lcgirimacy oI sccking inrcrcsr in idcas and pracriccs originaring clsc-
vhcrc. !ndccd, Kayrccollccrs virh cvidcnrj oyrhc rimc vhcnCalcurra
vasIulloIVcsrcrn- includingAmcrican- rroopsinrhcvinrcroIr 94 2:
Calcutta now being a base of operations of the war, Chowringhee was chock
a-block with Gis. The pavement book stalls displayed wafer-thin editions of
Life and Time, and the j am-packed cinema showed the very latest flms from
129
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Hollywood. While I sat at my office desk . . . my mind buzzed with the
thoughts of the flms I had been seeing. I never ceased to regret that while I
had stood in the scorching summer sun in the wilds of Santiniketan sketching
simul and palash in full bloom, Citizen Kane had come and gone, playing for
just three days in the newest and biggest cinema in Calcutta. 8
Kay`sinrcrcsrinrhingsIrom cscvhcrchadbcguna orcaricr. Iis
cngagcmcnrvirhVcsrcrn cassicamusicvcnr backrohis yourh, bur
his Iascinarionvirhhmsprcccdcdhisinvovcmcnrvirh music. !nhis
posrhumousypubishcd book My Years with Apu: A Memoir, Kay
rccoccrs.
I became a film fan while still at school. I avidly read Picturegoer and
Photoplay, neglected my studies and gorged myself on Hollywood gossip
purveyed by Hedda Hopper and Louella Parsons. Deanna Durbin became a
favourite not only because of her looks and her obvious gifts as an actress,
but because of her lovely soprano voice. Also firm favourites were Fred
Astaire and Ginger Rogers, all of whose flms I saw several times j ust to learn
the Irving Berlin and Jerome Kern tunes by heart.9
Kay`s viingncss ro cnj oyand carnIrom rhings happcning csc-
vhcrcispcnriIuyccarin hovhc choscroivcandvhathcchosc
ro do.
`
Vhcn Kay dcscribcs vhar hc carncd as a srudcnr ar
Sanrinikcran - rhc disringuishcd ccnrrc oI cducarion srarrcd by
Kabindranarh 1agorc vhcrc Kay srudicd Iinc arrs - rhc ccmcnrs
Irom homc and abroad arc vcmixcd rogcrhcr. Iccarncd a grcar
dca abour !ndia`s ' arrisricandmusicahcriragc` hc gor invovcd in
!ndian cassica music, aparr Irom bcing rraincd ro painr in rradi-
riona!ndianvaysj , burasoimmcrscdhimscIin 'Iar-casrcrncaig-
raphy` and parricuary in rhc usc oI ' minimum brush srrokcs
appicd virh maximum discipinc` j . Vhcn his rcachcr, !roIcssor
andaa osc, a grcar arrisr and rhc cading ighr oI rhc 'cnga
schoo` , raughr Kay hov ro drav a rrcc 'or Iromrhc rop dovn-
vards. A rrcc grovs up, nor dovn. 1hc srrokcs musr bc Irom rhc
bascupvards . . . ` j , oscvasbcingaroncccriricaoIsomcVcsrcrn
convcnrions, vhic inrroducing Kay ro rhc srycs and rradirions in
rvoorhcrcounrrics,Chinaand|apan vhodid, amongorhcrrhings,
gcrrhcrrccrighr, osc rhoughrj .
OUR CULTURE, THEIR CULTURE
Kaydidnorhcsirarcroindicarc hovsrronglyhis Pather Panchali
- rhc proIound movic rhar immcdiarcly madc him a Ironr-ranking
Iilm-makcr in rhc vorld - vas dirccrly inIlucnccd by Virrorio c
Sica`s Bicycle Thieves. Ic norcs rhar nor only had hc sccn Bicycle
Thieves virhinrhrccdaysoIarrivingin!ondon, buralsorhcIollov-
ing. '!kncv immcdiarcly rhar iI! cvcr madc Pather Panchali - and
rhc idca had bccn arrhc back oImy mind Ior somc rimc - ! vould
makc ir in rhc samc vay, using narural locarions and unknovn
acrors. `' cspircrhisinHucncc,Pather Panchali is a guinrcsscnrially
!ndian hlm, borh in subj ccr marrcr and in rhc srylc oIprcscnrarion,
and ycr a maj or inspirarion Ior irs cxacr organizarion camc dirccrly
Irom an !ralian Iilm. 1hc !ralian inIlucncc did nor makc Pather
Panchali anyrhing orhcr rhan an!ndian hlm - ir simply hclpcdir ro
bccomcagreat !ndianhlm.
External Sources and Modernity
1hc groving rcndcncy in conrcmporary !ndia rochampion rhc nccd
Ior an indigcnous culrurc rhar has 'rcsisrcd` cxrcrnal inIucnccs lacks
crcdibiliryasvcllascogcncy.!rhasbccomcguirccommonrocircthc
IorcignoriginoIanidcaorarradirionasanargumcnragainsrirsusc,
andrhis has bccnlinkcd upvirhan anri-modcrnisrprioriry. Lvcn as
acurc and pcrccprivc a social analysr as !arrha Charrcrj cc Iinds ir
possiblcrodismisscncdicrAndcrson`srhcsislinkingnarionalismand
'imagincd communirics` , by rcIcrring ro rhc Vcsrcrn origin oI rhar
'modular`Iorm.'!havconcccnrralobj ccrionroAndcrson`s argumcnr.
!Inarionalismsinrhcrcsr oIrhcvorldhavcro chooscrhcir imagincd
communiryIromccrrain modular" Iorms alrcady madc availablcro
rhcm by Luropc and rhc Amcricas, vhar do rhcyhavc lcIrro imag-
inc! `'1hcconccprualIormoIrhcnarionasan'imagincdcommuniry`
vhich Andcrson pursucs mighrormighrnorhavcmuchro commcnd
ir !pcrsonallyrhinkrharirdocs - burrhisisadiIIcrcnrissucj , burrhc
IcarrharirsVcsrcrnoriginvouldlcavcusvirhoura modclrharisour
' ovn` isa pcculiarly parochialanxicry.
!ndian culrurc, as ir has cvolvcd, has alvays bccn prcparcd ro
absorbmarcrial andidcasIrom clscvhcrc. Saryajir Kay`s hcrcrodoxy
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
is nor, in anyscnsc, ouroIlincvirh ourrradirion. Lvcnin marrcrs oI
day-ro-day living, rhc Iacr rhar rhc chili, a basic ingrcdicnr oI rradi-
rional !ndian cooking, vas broughr ro !ndia byrhc !orrugucsc Irom
rhc ' ncv vorld` , docs nor makc currcnr !ndian cooking any lcss
!ndian. Chili has nov bccomc an '!ndian` spicc. Culrural inHucnccs
arc, oI coursc, a rvo-vay proccss, and !ndia has borrovcd Irom
abroad,j usrasvchavcalsogivcnrhcvorldoursidcrhcbcnchrsoIour
cooking rradirions. !or cxamplc, vhilc randoori camc Irom rhc
Niddlc Lasr ro !ndia, ir is Irom !ndia rhar randoori has bccomc a
sraplc rirish dicr. !asr summcr ! hcard in !ondon a guinrcsscnrial
Lnglishvoman bcing dcscribcd as bcing 'as Lnglish as daIIodils or
chickcnrikka massala` .13
Givcnrhcculruralandinrcllccrualinrcrconnccrions,rhcgucsrionoI
vhar is 'Vcsrcrn` and vhar is 'Lasrcrn` or '!ndian` ) is oIrcn hard ro
dccidc, andrhcissuc can bc discusscd only inmorcdialccricalrcrms.
1hc diagnosis oIarhoughras 'purclyVcsrcrn` or'purcly!ndian` can
bcvcryillusory. 1hc origin oIidcas is norrhckind oIrhingro vhich
'puriry` happcns casily.
Science, History and Modernity
1his issuc has somc pracrical imporrancc ar rhc momcnr, givcn rhc
poliricaldcvclopmcnrsoIrhclasrdccadc,includingrhcincrcascinrhc
srrcngrh oI polirical parrics Iocusing on !ndian - and parricularly
Iindu - hcriragc. 1hcrc is an imporranr aspccr oI anri-modcrnism
vhichrcndsrogucsrion- cxplicirlyor byimplicarion- rhc cmphasis
ro bc placcd on vhar is calcd 'Vcsrcrn scicncc` . !I and vhcn rhc
challcngcsIromrradirionalconscrvarismgrov,rhiscanbccomcguirc
a rhrcarroscicnrihccducarionin!ndia, aIIccringvhar young!ndians
arc cncouragcdrolcarn.
1hcrcasoningbchindrhisanri-IorcignarrirudcisHavcdin scvcral
disrincr vays. !irsr, so-callcd 'Vcsrcrn scicncc` is nor rhc spccial
posscssion oILuropcandAmcrica. Ccrrainly, sinccrhcKcnaissancc,
rhc !ndusrrial Kcvolurion and rhc Lnlighrcnmcnr oIrhc cighrccnrh
ccnrury, mosr oIrhc scicnrihc progrcss has acrually occurrcd in rhc
Vcsr. ur rhcsc scicnrihc dcvclopmcnrs drcvsubsranrially oncarlicr
OUR CULTURE, THEIR CULTURE
vorkinmarhcmaricsandscicnccdoncbyrhcArabs,rhcChincsc,rhc
!ndians and orhcrs. 1hc rcrm 'Vcsrcrn scicncc` is mislcading in rhis
rcspccr, and guirc misguidcd in irs rcndcncy ro csrablish a disrancc
bcrvccn non-Vcsrcrn pcoplcs and rhc pursuir oI marhcmarics
andscicncc.
Sccond, irrcspccrivc oIvhcrcrhc discovcrics and invcnrions rook
placc,rhcmcrhodsoIrcasoninguscdinscicnccandmarhcmaricsgivc
rhcm somc indcpcndcncc oI local gcography and culrural hisrory.
1hcrc arc,oIcoursc,imporranrissucsoIlocalknovlcdgcand oIvary-
ing pcrspccrivcs rcgarding vhar is or is nor imporranr, bur much oI
subsranccis srill sharcd in mcrhods oIargumcnr, dcmonsrrarion and
rhc scrurinyoIcvidcncc. 1hc rcrm 'Vcsrcrn scicncc` is mislcading in
rhisrcspccralso.
1hird, ourdccisionsabourrhcIururcnccdnorbcparasiric onrhc
rypc oI pasr vc havc cxpcricnccd. Lvcn iI rhcrc vcrc no Asian or
!ndian componcnr in rhc cvolurion oI conrcmporary marhcmarics
and scicncc rhis is nor rhc casc, bur cvcn iI ir had bccn rrucj , irs
imporrancc inconrcmporary!ndia nccdnorbcundcrmincdIorrhar
rcason.
1hcrcisasimilarissuc,rovhich!rcIcrrcdcarlicr,abourrhcrolcoI
'modcrniry`inconrcmporary!ndia. Conrcmporaryarracksonmodcr-
nirycspcciallyona 'modcrniry` rharis sccnas comingro!ndiaIrom
rhc Vcsrj drav grcarly on rhc lircrarurc on 'posr-modcrnism` and
orhcrrclarcdapproachcs,vhichhavcbccnguircinHucnrialinVcsrcrn
lircrary and culrural circlcs and larcr on, somcvhar dcrivarivcly, in
!ndiarooj . 1hcrc ispcrhaps somcrhing oIinrcrcsrinrhis dualrolc oI
rhcVcsr. rhc colonialmcrropolissupplyingidcas and ammunirionro
posr-colonial inrcllccruals ro arrack rhc inIlucncc oI rhc colonial
mcrropolis luroIcourscrhcrcisnoconrradicrionrhcrc.Vharirdocs
suggcsr,hovcvcr,isrharmcrcidcnrihcarionoIVcsrcrnconnccrionsoI
anidcacoud norbccnoughro damnir.
1hccriricsoI'modcrnism` oIrcnsharcvirhrhcsclI-consciousadvo-
carcs oI'modcrnism` rhc bclicIrhar bcing 'modcrn` is avcll-dchncd
conccpr- rhc onlydividingpoinrbcingvhcrhcryouarc 'Ior` modcr-
niry, or 'againsr` ir.urrhcdiagnosis oImodcrniryisnorparricuary
casy,givcnrhchisroricalroors- oIrcnvcrylongroors- oIrcccnr- or
'modcrn` - rhoughrs and inrcllccrual dcvclopmcnr, and givcn rhc
1 3 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
mixrurcoIoriginsinrhc gcncsis oIidcasandrcchnigucsrhararcryp-
icallyrakcnrocharacrcrizcmodcrnism.
1hc poinr is nor ar all rhar modcrn rhings musr bc somchov
j udgcdro bcgood,orrharrhcrcarcnorcasonsro doubrrhcvisdom
oImany dcvclopmcnrs vhich arc j usrihcd in rhc namc oIa nccdcd
modcrniry.Karhcr,rhcpoinrisrharrhcrcisnocscapcIromrhcncccs-
siryro scrurinizc and asscss idcas and proposals nomarrcrvhcrhcr
rhcyarcsccnaspro-modcrnoranri-modcrn.!orcxamplc,iIvchavc
ro dccidcvharpolicicsro supporr incducarion,hcalrh carc orsocial
sccuriry, rhc modcrniry ornon-modcrniry oIany proposalis ncirhcr
hcrc nor rhcrc. 1hc rclcvanr gucsrion is hov rhcsc policics vould
aIIccr rhc livcs oI pcoplc, and rhar cnguiry is nor rhc samc as rhc
invcsrigarion oI rhc modcrniry or non-modcrniry oI rhc policics in
gucsrion. Similarly, iI, Iaccd virh communal rcnsions in conrcmpo-
rary!ndia, vc suggcsrrhar rhcrc is muchro bc gaincdIromrcading
rhc rocranrpocms oIKabir Iromrhc hIrccnrhccnrury) or srudying
rhc polirical priorirics oIAkbar daring Irom rhc sixrccnrh ccnrury) ,
inconrrasrvirh,say,rhcinrolcranrapproachoIanAurangzcb inrhc
scvcnrccnrh) , rhar discriminarion has ro bc donc in rcrms oI rhc
vorrh oI rhcir rcspccrivc posirions, and nor on rhc basis oI somc
claimrharKabir orAkbarvas 'morcmodcrn` or 'lcss modcrn` rhan
Aurangzcb. Nodcrniry is nor only a bcIuddling norion, ir is also
basicaly irrclcvanr as a poinrcr oI mcrir or dcmcrir in asscssing
conrcmporarypriorirics.
The Elusive 'Asian Values'
VharabourrhcspccialncssoI'Asianvalucs`onvhichsomuchisnov
bcing said by rhc aurhorirics in a numbcr oI Lasr Asian counrrics!
1hcsc argumcnrs, dcvclopcdparricularlyin Singaporc, Nalaysia and
China, appcalrorhcdiIIcrcnccs bcrvccn'Asian`and'Vcsrcrn`valucs
ro dispurc rhc imporrancc oI civil righrs, parricularly Irccdom oI
cxprcssion including prcss Irccdoms) inAsiancounrrics. 1hcrcsisr-
ancc ro Vcsrcrn hcgcmony - a pcrIccrlyrcspccrablc causc in irsclI -
rakcs rhc Iorm, undcr rhisinrcrprcrarion, oIj usriIying supprcssion oI
j ournalisric Irccdoms and rhc violarions oI clcmcnrary polirical and
I 3 4
OUR CULTURE
_
THEIR CULTURE
civilrighrsongroundsoIrhcallcgcdunimporranccoIrhcscIrccdoms
in rhchicrarchyoIvhararcclaimcdro bc 'Asianvalucs` .
1hcrc arc rvo basic problcms virh rhis modc oI rcasoning. !irsr,
cvcniIirvcrcshovnrharIrccdomsoIrhiskindhavcbccnlcss impor-
ranrinAsianrhoughrsandrradirionsrhaninrhcVcsr,rharvouldsrill
bc an unconvincingvayoIj usriIyingrhc violarion oIrhcsc Irccdoms
in Asia. 1o scc rhc conIicr ovcr human righrs as a barrlc bcrvccn
VcsrcrnlibcralismononcsidcandAsianrclucrancconrhcorhcrisro
casr rhc dcbarc in a Iorm rhar disrracrs arrcnrion Irom rhc ccnrral
gucsrion.vharvouldmakcscnscinconrcmporaryAsia! 1hchisrory
oIidcas - in Asia andinrhcVcsr - cannorscrrlcrhisissuc.
Sccond,irisbynomcansclcarrhar,hisrorically,grcarcrimporrancc
hasbccnsysrcmaricallyarrachcdroIrccdomandrolcranccinrhcVcsr
rhaninAsia. Ccrrainly, individuallibcrry,inirsconrcmporaryIorm,is
a rclarivclyncv norion borh in Asia and in rhc Vcsr, and vhilc rhc
Vcsrdidgcrro rhcsc idcas rarhcr carlicr rhroughdcvclopmcnrs such
as rhc Kcnaissancc, rhc Luropcan Lnlighrcnmcnr, rhc !ndusrrial
Kcvolurion and so onj, rhc divcrgcncc is rclarivclyrcccnr. !n ansvcr
ro rhc gucsrion, ' ar vhar darc, in vhar circumsranccs, rhc norion oI
individual libcrry . . . hrsr bccamc cxplicir in rhcVcsr` , !saiah crlin
has norcd. '! havc Ioundno convincing cvidcncc oIanyclcar Iormu-
larion oIirinrhcancicnrvorld.
1hisvicvhasbccndispurcdbyrlando!arrcrson. !arrcrson`shis-
rorical argumcnrs arc indccd inrcrcsring. ur his rhcsis oIa Irccdom-
ccnrrcdrradirioninrhcVcsrinconrrasrvirhvharhappcncdclscvhcrc
sccmsro dcpcndonarrachingsignihcanccroparricularcomponcnrsoI
Vcsrcrn rhoughrvirhourlookingadcguarclyIorsimilarcomponcnrs
innon-Vcsrcrninrcllccrualrradirions,Iorcxamplc,inrhcIairlycxrcn-
sivc lircrarurcs on polirics and parriciparory govcrnancc in Sanskrir,
!ali, Chincsc, Arabic andorhcrlanguagcs.
16
!nrhcrcadingrharsccsrhcVcsrcrnrradirionasrhcnaruralhabirar
oIindividualIrccdom andpolirical dcmocracy, rhcrc is a subsranrial
rcndcncyro cxrrapolarc backvards Iromrhc prcscnr. Valucsrharrhc
Luropcan Lnlighrcnmcnr and orhcr rclarivcly rcccnr dcvclopmcnrs
havc madc common and vidcsprcad can scarccly bc sccn as parr oI
rhc long-rcrm Vcsrcrn hcriragc - cxpcricnccd in rhc Vcsr ovcr
millcnnia. 1hcrc has, oI coursc, bccn championing oI Irccdom and
13 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rolcrancc in spccihc conrcxrs in rhc Vcsrcrn classical rradirion, bur
muchrhcsamccanbcsaidoImanyparrsoIrhcAsianrradirionasvcll
- norlcasrin!ndia,virhrhcarricularions associarcdIorcxamplcvirh
Ashoka`s inscriprions,

draka`s drama, Akbar`s pronounccmcnrs or

adu`spocrry, ronamcjusraIcvcxamplcs.
!ris rruc rharrolcrancchas nor bccnadvocarcd by all inrhcAsian
rradirions. orhasrharadvocacyrypicallycovcrcdcvcryonc rhough
somc, such as Ashoka, in rhc rhirdccnruryBCE, did indccd insisr on
complcrclyunivcrsalcovcragc,virhouranycxccprionj . urmuchrhc
samc can bc said abour Vcsrcrn rradirions as vcll. 1hcrc is lirrlc
cvidcncc rhar !laro or Sr Augusrinc vcrc morc rolcranr and lcss
aurhorirarianrhanConIucius. Vhilc Arisrorlc ccrrainly didvrirc on
rhcimporranccoIIrccdom,vomcnandslavcsvcrccxcludcdIromrhc
domain oIrhis conccrn an cxclusion rhar, as irhappcns, Ashoka did
nor makc around roughly rhc samc rimcj . 1hc claim rhar rhc basic
idcasundcrlyingIrccdomandrolcrancchavc bccnccnrralroVcsrcrn
culrurcovcrrhcmillcnnia andarc somchovalicnroAsiais,! bclicvc,
cnrirclyrcjccrablc.
1hcallcgcdlysharpconrrasrbcrvccnVcsrcrnandAsianrradirions
onrhc subjccr oIIrccdomandrolcranccisbascdonvcrypoorhisrory.
1hc aurhorirarian argumcnr bascd on rhc spccial narurc oI Asian
valucsisparricularlydubious.1hissupplcmcnrsrhcmorcbasicargu-
mcnr,prcscnrcdcarlicr,rharcvcniIirhadbccnrhccascrharrhcvalucs
championcd inAsia`spasrhavcbccnmorcaurhorirarian,rhishisrori-
cal poinr vould nor bc grounds cnough ro rcjccr rhc imporrancc ot
rolcranccandlibcrricsinconrcmporaryAsia.
Over-aggregation and Heterogeneity
iscussion oI Asian valucs dravs arrcnrion ro an imporranr issuc
undcrlying arrcmprs ar gcncralizarions abour culrural conrrasrs
bcrvccnrhcVcsrandrhcLasr, orbcrvccnLuropcand!ndia, andso
on.1hcrcarcindccdmanydiIIcrcnccsbcrvccnLuropcand!ndia,bur
rhcrcarc sharp diIIcrcnccs alsovirhin!ndiairsclt, orvirhinLuropc.
And rhcrc arc also grcar diIIcrcnccs bcrvccn diIIcrcnr parrs oI rhc
!ndian inrcllccrual and hisrorical rradirions. nc oI rhc rhings rhar
OUR CULTURE; THEIR CULTURE
gocs dccpyvrongvirhgrand conrrasrs bcrvccn 'our cururc` and
'rhcircururc` isrhcrrcmcndousvaricryvirhincachoIrhcsccururcs.
Nyodrcachcr|oanKobinsonuscdrosay. 'Vha)cvcryoucan_r1r[y
say abour !ndia,
_

_|
po)t s aso rruc. ` !r is nor rhar curura
diIIcrcnccs arcoInoimporrancc,burrhcconrrasrsdonorcomcinrhc
raior-madcIormoIsomcimmcnscopposirionbcrvccn,say,rhcVcsr
and!ndia, virhrcarivc homogcnciry insidccach.
1hcprobcm is, oIcoursc,cvcnargcrvhcnrhcrc arcarrcmprs ar
gcncraizarion abour 'Asian` vaucs. Asia is vhcrc abour 6o pcrccnr
oI rhc vord`s cnrirc popuarion ivc. 1hcrc arc no guinrcsscnria
vaucs rhar appyro rhis immcnscyargc andhcrcrogcncouspopua-
rionvhichscpararcrhcmourasagroupIrompcopcinrhcrcsroIrhc
vord. 1hosc vho havc vrirrcn on rhc imporrancc oI curura divi-
sionshavc bccnrighrropoinrrorhcm,andycrrhcarrcmprrosccrhcsc
divisions in rhc ovcr-aggrcgarcd Iorm oI Lasr-Vcsr conrrasrs hidcs
morcrhanirrcvcas.
!ndccd, gcncraizarionscvcnabouranindividuarcigious commu-
niryvirhin!ndia suchasrhcIindusorrhcNusimsj orabouraang-
uagc group such as rhc cngais or Gu|araris or1amisj can bcvcry
dccpy miscading. cpcndingonrhc conrcxr, rhcrc may bcmorc sig-
nihcanrsimiarirybcrvccn groups oIpcopc in diIIcrcnr parrs oIrhc
counrry vho comc Irom rhc samc cass, havc rhc samc poirica con-
vicrions, or pursuc rhc samc proIcssion or vork. Such simiariry can
hod across nariona boundarics as vc. !copc can bc cassihcd in
rcrms oImanydiIIcrcnr crircria,andrhc rcccnr rcndcncyro cmphasizc
somc conrrasrs such as rcigion or communiryj , vhic ovcrooking
orhcrs,hasignorcdimporranrdiIIcrcnccscvcnasirhascapiraizcdon
orhcrs.
'Ours' and 'Theirs'
1hc diIIicurics oIcommunicarion across cururcs arc rca, as arcrhc
| udgcmcnra issucs raiscd by rhc imporrancc oI curura diIIcrcnccs.
urrhcscrccognirionsdonorcad usro acccprrhc srandarddisrinc-
rions bcrvccn ' our cururc` and 'rhcir cururc` . or do rhcy givc us
causcroovcrookrhcdcmandsoIpracricarcasonandoIpoiricaand
137
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
social rclcvancc in conrcmporary !ndia, in Iavour oI IairhIulncss ro
somc allcgcd hisrorical conrrasrs. ! havc rricd ro shov rhar rhc
conrrasrs arc oIrcnnor guirc asrhcy arc dcpicrcd, andrhc lcssons ro
bcdravnarchardlyrhconcsrharrhcvigorouschampionsoI' ourcul-
rurc` claimrhcmrobc.
1hcrcismuchro bclcarncdinallrhisIrom SaryajirKay`s apprcci-
arion oI culrural dividcs, along virh his pursuir oI communicarion
acrossrhcsc dividcs. IcncvcrIashioncdhiscrcarionrocarcrrovhar
rhc Vcsrmay cxpccr Irom !ndia, bur nor did hc rcIusc ro cnjoy and
lcarn Irom vhar Vcsrcrn and orhcr culrurcs oIIcrcd. And vhcn ir
camcro rhc rccognirion oIculrural divcrsiryvirhin !ndia, Kay`s dcli-
carcporrrayal oIrhcvaricrics oIpcoplcrharmakcusvharvc arc as
a narioncannor bcourmarchcd.VhilcrcHccringonvharroIocuson
inhishlms,hcpurrhc problcm bcauriIully.
What should you put in your flms ? What can you leave out? Would you leave
the city behind and go to the village where cows graze in the endless felds and
the shepherd plays the fute? You can make a flm here that would be pure
-and fresh and have the delicate rhythm of a boatman's song.
Or would you rather go back in time - way back to the Epics, where the
gods and the demons took sides in the great battle where brother killed
brother and Lord Krishna revivifed a desolate prince with the words of the
Gita? One could do exciting things here, using the great mimetic tradition of
the Kathakali, as the Japanese use their Noh and Kabuki.
Or would you rather stay where you are, right in the present, in the heart
of this monstrous, teeming, bewildering city, and try to orchestrate its dizzy
ing contrasts of sight and sound and milieu?
1hc cclcbrarion oIrhcsc diIIcrcnccs - rhc 'dizzying conrrasrs` - is Iar
Irom vhar can bc Iound in rhc labourcd gcncralizarions abour 'our
culrurc` , and rhc vigorous plcas, incrcasingly vocal, ro kccp ' our
culrurc` , ' our modcrniry` disrincrly uniguc and immunc Irom rhc in-
Hucncc oI'rhcir culrurc` , 'rhcir modcrniry` . !n our hcrcrogcnciry and
inouropcnncsslicsourpridc,norourdisgracc.SaryajirKayraughrus
rhis, andrharlcssonisproIoundlyimporranrIor!ndia. AndIorAsia,
andIorrhcvorld.
7
Indian Traditions and the
Western Imagination:
1hc scI-imagcs or 'inrcrna idcnrirics` ) oI !ndians havc bccn much
aIIccrcd by cooniaism ovcr rhc pasr ccnrurics and arc inIucnccd -
borh coarcray anddiaccricay- byrhc impacr oIoursidc imagcry
vharvc may ca ' cxrcrna idcnriry` ) . Iovcvcr, rhc dirccrion oIrhc
inHucncc oIVcsrcrn imagcs oninrcrna!ndian idcnrirics is nor aro-
gcrhcr srraighrIorvard. !n rcccnr ycars, scpararisr rcsisrancc ro
VcsrcrncururahcgcmonyhascdrorhccrcarionoIsignihcanrinrc-
ccruamovcmcnrsinmanyposr-cooniasocicrics- norcasrin!ndia.
1his has parricuarydravnarrcnrion ro rhc imporranrIacrrhar rhc
scI-idcnriry oIposr-cooniasocicricsis dccpyaIIccrcd byrhc povcr
oIrhc coonia cururcs andrhcirIormsoIrhoughrand cassihcarion.
1hoscvhoprcIcrro pursuc a morc 'indigcnous` approachoIrcnopr
IoracharacrcrizarionoI!ndiancururcandsocicryrharisrarhcrscI-
consciousy' disranr` IromVcsrcrnrradirions. 1hcrc is much inrcrcsr
in 'rccovcring` a disrincry!ndianIocusin!ndiancururc.
! voud arguc rharrhis srancc docs nor rakc adcguarc norc oIrhc
diaccricaaspccrsoIrhcrcarionshipbcrvccn!ndiaandrhcVcsrand,
in parricuar, rcnds ro disrcgard rhc Iacrrhar rhc cxrcrna imagcs oI
!ndiainrhcVcsrhavcoIrcnrcndcdro cmphasizc rarhcrrhandovn-
pay) rhcdiIIcrcnccs - rcaorimagincd - bcrvccn!ndiaandrhcVcsr.
!ndccd, ! proposc rharrhcrc arc rcasonsvhyrhcrchas bccn a con-
sidcrabc Vcsrcrn incinarion in rhc dirccrion oI 'disrancing` !ndian
*This essay draws on an earlier article entitled 'India and the West', New Republic,
7 June I993 For helpful discussions, I am grateful to Akeel Bilgrami, Sugata Bose,
Barun De, Jean Dreze, Ayesha Jalal, Dharma Kumar, V. K. Ramachandr
i
n, Tapan
Raychaudhuri, Emma Rothschild, Lloyd Rudolph, Suzanne Rudolph, Ashutosh
Varshney, Myron Weiner, Leon Wieseltier and Nur Yalman.
1 3 9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
culrurcIromrhcmainsrrcamoIVcsrcrnrradirions.1hcconrcmporary
rcinrcrprcrarions oI !ndia including rhc spccihcally 'Iindu` rcndi-
rions) vhichcmphasizc!ndianparricularismj oinIorccsinrhisrcspccr
virh rhc 'cxrcrnal` imaging oI!ndia in acccnruaringrhc disrincrivc-
ncss oI!ndianculrurc) . !ndccd, ircanbcargucdrharrhcrcismuchin
common bcrvccn |amcs Nill`s impcrialisr hisrory oI !ndia and rhc
Iindu narionalisr picruring oI!ndia`s pasr, cvcn rhough rhc Iormcr
imagc is rhar oI a grorcsgucly primirivc culrurc vhcrcas rhc larrcr
rcprcscnrarionis dazzlinglyglorious.
1hc spccial characrcrisrics oI Vcsrcrn approachcs ro !ndia havc
cncouragcdadisposirionroIocusparricularlyonrhcrcligiousandspir-
irual clcmcnrs in !ndian culrurc. 1hcrc has also bccn a rcndcncy ro
cmphasizcrhcconrrasrbcrvccnvharisrakcnrobc'Vcsrcrnrarional-
iry`andrhcculrivarionoIvhar'Vcsrcrncrs`vouldsccas'irrarional`in
!ndian inrcllccrual rradirions. Vhilc Vcsrcrn crirics may hnd 'anri-
rarionalism` dcIccrivc and crudc, and!ndianculrural scpararisrs may
hnd ir cogcnr and pcncrraring and pcrhaps cvcn 'rarional` in somc
dccpcrscnsc),rhcyncvcrrhclcssagrcconrhccxisrcncc oIasimplcand
sharpconrrasrbcrvccnrhcrvohcriragcs.1hcissucrharhasrobcscru-
rinizcdisvhcrhcrsucha bipolarconrrasrisarallprcscnrinrharIorm.
! vill discuss rhcsc gucsrions and arguc rhar Iocusing on !ndia`s
' spccialncss` misscs, in imporranr vays, crucial aspccrs oI !ndian
culrurcandrradirions.1hcdccp-scarcdhcrcrogcnciryoI!ndianrradi-
rions is ncglccrcd inrhcsc homogcnizcd inrcrprcrarions cvcn rhough
rhcinrcrprcrarionsrhcmsclvcsarcoIdiIIcrcnrkinds) . NyIocusvillbc
parricularlyonimagcsoI!ndianinrcllccrualrradirions,rarhcrrhanon
irs crcarivc arrs and orhcrIcarurcs oIsocial liIc. AIrcr disringuishing
bcrvccnrhrcc oIrhcdominanrapproachcsinVcsrcrninrcrprcrarions
oI!ndian inrcllccrual rradirions, ! shall considcr vharmay appcar ro
bcrhc ovcrallconscgucncc oIrhcscapproachcs inVcsrcrnimagcs oI
!ndia andirsimpacron borh cxrcrnal and inrcrnalidcnrirics.
Western Approaches to India: Three Categories
A dissimilariry oIpcrccprions has bccn animporranrcharacrcrisric oI
VcsrcrninrcrprcrarionsoI!ndia, and scvcraldincrcnrand compcring
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WES TERN IMAGINATION
conccprionsoIrharlargcandcomplcxculrurchavcbccninHucnrialin
rhcVcsr.1hcdivcrscinrcrprcrarionsoI!ndiainrhcVcsrhavcrcndcd
rovorkroaconsidcrablccxrcnrinrhc samcdirccrionrharoIacccn-
ruaring !ndia`s spirirualiry) and havc rcinIorccd cach orhcr in rhcir
cIIccrsoninrcrnalidcnriricsoI!ndians.1hisisnorbccauscrhcdisrincr
approachcsro!ndiaarcnorIundamcnrallydiIIcrcnr,rhcyccrrainlyarc
vcrydispararc.1hcsimilarirylicsmorcinrhcirimpacr - givcnrhcspc-
cialcircumsranccsandrhcdialccricalproccsscs- rhaninrhcirconrcnr.
1hcanalysisrobcpursucdhcrcvouldundoubrcdlyinvirccompar-
ison and conrrasr virh Ldvard Said`s j usrly Iamous analysis oI
' ricnraism` . Said analyscs rhc consrrucrion oI rhc ' ricnr` in
Vcsrcrnimaginarion. As hcpursir. '1hcricnr is an idcarharhas a
hisrory andarradirionoIrhoughr,imagcry, andvocabularyrharhavc
givcn ir rcaliry and prcscncc in and for the West. n 1his cssay has a
much narrovcr Iocus rhan Said`s, bur rhcrc is clcarly an ovcrlap oI
subjccrmarrcrsincc!ndiaisaparroIrhc' ricnr` .1hcmaindiIIcrcncc
isarrhc rhcmaric lcvcl. SaidIocuscsonuniIormiryandconsisrcncyin
a parricularly inIlucnrial Vcsrcrn characrcrizarion oI rhc ricnr,
vhcrcas ! shall bc dcaling virh scvcral conrrasring and conHicring
Vcsrcrn approachcs ro undcrsranding!ndia.
Said cxplains rhar his vork ' dcals principallynor virh a corrcs-
pondcnccbcrvccnricnralismandricnr,burvirhrhcinrcrnalcon-
sisrcncy oI ricnralism and irs idcas abour rhc ricnr` . ! vould
argucrhar, unlcssoncchooscsroIocus onrhccvolurionoIaspccihc
conccprualrradirion asSaid,incIIccr, docs) , 'inrcrnalconsisrcncy`is
prcciscly rhc rhing rhar is rcrribly hard ro Iind in rhc varicry oI
Vcsrcrnconccprions oI!ndia. 1hcrcarcscvcralIundamcnraly con-
rrary idcas andimagcs oI!ndia, andrhcyhavcguircdisrincrrolcsin
rhcVcsrcrnundcrsrandingoIrhccounrryandalso ininIucncingrhc
sclI-pcrccprionoI!ndians.
Arrcmprs Irom oursidc !ndia ro undcrsrand and inrcrprcr rhc
counrry`s rradirions can bc purinro ar lcasrrhrccdisrincrcarcgorics,
vhich ! shal call exoticist a_proachcs, magisterial approachcs and
curatol3
El
<C

` 1hc hrsr cxoricisr) carcgory conccnrrarcs on

rhcvondrousaspccrsoI!ndia.1hcIocushcrcis onvharis diIIcrcnr,
vhar is srrangc inrhc counrry rhar, as Icgcl pur ir, 'has cxisrcd Ior
millcnnia inrhcimaginarionoIrhcLuropcans` .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hcsccondmagisrcrial) carcgorysrronglyrclarcsrorhccxcrcisc oI
impcrialpovcrandsccs!ndiaas a subjccrrcrriroryIromrhcpoinroI
vicv oI irs rirish govcrnors. 1his ourlook assimilarcs a scnsc oI
supcrioriry and guardianhood nccdcd ro dcal virh a counrry rhar
|amcsNilldchncdas'rhargrcarsccncoIririshacrion` . Vhilcagrcar
many rirish obscrvcrs didnorIall inro rhis carcgory andsomc non-
rirish oncsdid) , irishardrodissociarcrhis carcgoryIromrhcraskoI
govcrningrhcKaj .
1hcrhirdcurarorial) carcgory isrhcmosrcarholicoIrhcrhrccand
includcs variousarrcmprs arnoring, classiIyingandcxhibiringdivcrsc
aspccrs oI!ndian culrurc. \nlikc rhc cxoricisr approachcs, a curaror-
ialapproach docsnorlook onlyIorrhcsrrangc cvcnrhoughrhc ' diI-
Icrcnr` musr havc morc 'cxhibir valuc` ) , and unlikc rhc magisrcrial
approachcs,irisnorvcighcddovnbyrhcimpacroIrhcrulcr`sprior-
irics cvcnrhoughrhc magisrcrialconnccrionvouldbchardro avoid
alrogcrhcrvhcnrhc aurhors arc alsomcmbcrs oIrhcrulingimpcrial
clirc, as rhcy somcrimcs vcrc) . !orrhcsc rcasons, rhcrc is morc Ircc-
dom Irom prcconccprions in rhis rhird carcgory. n rhc orhcr hand,
rhc curarorial approachcs havc inclinarions oI rhcir ovn, virh a
gcncral inrcrcsr in sccing rhc obj ccr - in rhis casc, !ndia - as vcry
spccialandcxrraordinarilyinrcrcsring.
rhcrcarcgoricscanbcproposcdrhararcnorcovcrcdbyanyoIrhc
rhrcc. Also, rhc csrablishcd approachcs can bc rcclassihcd according
rosomcother organizingprinciplc.!amnorclaiminganygranddchn-
irivc srarus oI rhis vay oI sccing rhc morc promincnr Vcsrcrn
approachcs ro !ndia. Iovcvcr, IorrhcpurposcoIrhis cssay, !bclicvc
rhisrhrccIoldcarcgorizarionisuscIul.
Curiosity, Power and Curatorial Approaches
! shall bcgin by considcring rhc curarorial approachcs. ur Iirsr !
musr dcal virh a mcrhodological issuc, in parricular, rhc prcvalcnr
doubrsinconrcmporarysocialrhcoryabourrhcsrarusoIinrcllccrual
curiosiryasamorivarionIorknovlcdgc.!nparricular,thcrcismuch
sccpricism abour rhcpossibiliry oIany approach ro lcarning rharis
innoccnr oIpovcr. 1har sccpricism isj usriIicdro somc cxrcnr sincc
rhcmorivarionalissucs undcrlyinganyinvcsrigarionmayvcllrclarc
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
ro povcr rclarions, cvcn vhcn rhar connccrion isnorimmcdiarcly
visiblc.
Ycr pcoplc scck knovlcdgc Ior many diIIcrcnr rcasons, and
curiosiry abour unIamiliar rhings is ccrrainly among rhc possiblc
rcasons. !r nccd nor bc sccn as a Iigmcnr oIrhc dcludcd scicnrisr`s
imaginarion, nor as a racrical cxcusc Ior somc orhcr, ulrcrior prc-
occuparion. or docs rhc pcrvasivc rclcvancc oI diIIcrcnr rypcs oI
morivarionhavcrhccIIccr oImakingallrhcdiIIcrcnr obscrvarional
Iindingscguallyarbirrary. 1hcrc arcrcallincs ro bcdravnbcrvccn
inIcrcnccs dominarcd by rigid prcconccprions Ior cxamplc, in rhc
'magisrcrial` approachcs, ro bc discusscd prcscnrly) and rhosc rhar
arcnorsodominarcd, dcspircrhcpossibiliryrharrhcyroomayhavc
biascs oIrhcir ovn.
1hcrc is an inrcrcsring mcrhodological hisrory hcrc. 1hc Iacr rhar
knovlcdgc is oIrcn associarcd virh povcr is a rccognirion rhar had
rcccivcdIarroolirrlcarrcnrioninrradirionalsocialrhcorics oIknov-
lcdgc. urinrcccnrsocial srudics,rhcrcmcdyingoIrharmcrhodolog-
ical ncglccr has bccn so comprchcnsivc rhar vc arc nov in somc
dangcr oI ignoring orhcr morivarions alrogcrhcr rhar may nor link
dirccrly virh rhc sccking oI povcr. Vhilc ir is rruc rhar any uscIul
knovlcdgcgivcsirsposscssorsomcpovcrinoncIormoranorhcr,rhis
may nor bc rhc mosr rcmarkablc aspccr oI rhar knovlcdgc, nor rhc
primary rcason Ior vhich rhis knovlcdgc is soughr. !ndccd, rhc
proccssoIlcarning canaccommodarcconsidcrablcmorivarionalvari-
arions virhour bccoming a Iuncrionalisr cnrcrprisc oI somc grosscr
kind.AncpisrcmicmcrhodologyrharsccsrhcpursuiroIknovlcdgcas
cnrirclycongrucnrvirhrhcscarchIorpovcrisagrcardcalmorccun-
ningrhanvisc. !rcannccdlcsslyundcrmincrhcvalucoIknovlcdgcin
sarisIying curiosiry and inrcrcsr, ir signihcanrly vcakcns onc oIrhc
proIoundcharacrcrisrics oIhumanbcings.
1hc curarorial approachrclarcsro sysrcmariccuriosiry. !coplcarc
inrcrcsrcd in orhcrculrurcs and diIIcrcnr lands, andinvcsrigarions oI
acounrryandirsrradirionshavcbccnvigorouslypursucdrhroughour
human hisrory. !ndccd, rhc dcvclopmcnr oI civilizarion vould havc
bccn vcrydiIIcrcnrhad rhis nor bccnrhc casc. 1hc cxacr morivarion
Iorrhcsc invcsrigarions canvary, burrhc cnguirics nccdnor bchopc-
lcssly bound by somc ovcrarching morivarional consrrainr such as
143
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhoscassociarcdvirhrhc cxoricisrormagisrcrialapproachcs) .Karhcr,
rhc pursuir maybc drivcnprimarilybyinrcllccrualinrcrcsrs andcon-
ccrns.1hisisnorrodcnyrharrhccIIccrsoIrhcscinvcsrigarivcpursuirs
may go vcll bcyond rhc morivaring inrcrcsrs and conccrns, nor rhar
rhcrc could bc mixcd morivarions oIvarious kinds, in vhich povcr
rclarions play a collarcral rolc. ur ro dcnyrhc rolc oIcuriosiry and
inrcrcsraspovcrIulmorivarionalIcarurcsinrhcirovnrighrvould bc
ro miss somcrhing rarhcr imporranr. !or rhc curarorial approachcs,
rharconnccrionisguircccnrral.
Curatorial Approaches in Early Arabic and
European Studies
A hnc cxamplc oIa curarorial approach ro undcrsranding !ndia can
bcIound in Albcruni`s Tarikh al-hind '1hc Iisrory oI!ndia` ) , vrir-
rcninArabicinrhccarlyclcvcnrhccnrury. Albcruni, an!ranianborn
in Ccnrral Asia in 973 CE, Iirsr camc ro !ndia accompanying rhc
marauding rroops oINahmud oIGhazni. Ic bccamc vcry involvcd
virh !ndia and masrcrcd Sanskrir, srudicd !ndian rcxrs on marhc-
marics, narural scicnccs, lircrarurc, philosophy and rcligion, con-
vcrscdvirh asmanycxpcrrs ashccouldhnd,andinvcsrigarcdsocial
convcnrions andpracriccs. Iis book on!ndiaprcscnrs a rcmarkablc
accounr oI rhc inrcllccrual rradirions and social cusroms oI carly
clcvcnrh-ccnrury!ndia.
LvcnrhoughAlbcruni`svasalmosrccrrainlyrhcmosrimprcssivcoI
rhcsc invcsrigarions, rhcrc arc a grcar many cxamplcs oI scrious
Arabic srudics oI!ndian inrcllccrual rradirions around rhar rimc.'
rahmagupra`s pionccring Sanskrir rrcarisc on asrronomy had hrsr
bccn rranslarcd inro Arabic in rhc cighrh ccnrury Albcruni rc-
rranslarcd ir rhrcc ccnrurics larcr) , and scvcral vorks on mcdicinc,
scicnccandphilosophyhadanArabicrcndcringbyrhcninrhccnrury.
!rvasrhrough rhc Arabsrhar rhc !ndian dccimalsysrcmandnumcr-
alsrcachcdLuropc,asdid!ndianvriringsinmarhcmarics,scicnccand
lircrarurc.
!nrhc concludingchaprcroIhis book on!ndia,Albcrunidcscribcs
rhc morivarion bchind his vork rhus. 'Vc rhink nov rhar vhar vc
havcrclarcd in rhis bookvillbcsuIIicicnrIor any oncvhovanrsro
I44
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
convcrsc virh rhc !ndiansj , and ro discuss virh rhcm gucsrions oI
rcligion, scicncc, orlircrarurc,onrhcvcrybasis oIrhcirovnciviliza-
rion. ` Ic is parricularly avarc oI rhc diIIiculrics oI achicving an
undcrsrandingoIaIorcignlandandpcoplc,andspccihcallyvarnsrhc
rcadcr abour ir.
In all manners and usages, [the Indians] differ from us to such a degree as to
frighten their children with us, with our dress, and our ways and customs,
and as to declare us to be devil's breed, and our doings as the very opposite
of all that is good and proper. By the bye, we must confess, in order to be just,
that a similar depreciation of foreigners not only prevails among us and [the
Indians] , but is common to all nations towards each other.?
Vhilc Arab scholarship on !ndia providcs plcnriIul cxamplcs oI
curarorial approachcs in rhc cxrcrnal dcpicrion oI!ndia, ir is nor, oI
coursc, uniguc in rhis rcspccr. 1hc Chincsc rravcllcrs !axian !a-
Isicn) andXuanzang Iiuan-rsang) , vhospcnrmanyycarsin!ndia
inrhc hIrh and scvcnrh ccnrurics CE rcspccrivcly, providcd cxrcnsivc
accounrs oIvharrhcysav.Vhilcrhcyhadgoncro!ndiaIoruddhisr
srudics,rhcirrcporrscovcravaricryoI!ndiansubjccrs, dcscribcdvirh
much carc and inrcrcsr.
QuircaIcvoIrhccarlyLuropcansrudicsoI!ndiamusralsobcpur
inrhis gcncral carcgory. Agoodcxamplcisrhc !ralian|csuirKobcrro
obili,vhovcnrrosourh!ndiainrhccarlyscvcnrccnrhccnrury,and
vhoscrcmarkablc scholarshipinSanskrirand1amilpcrmirrcdhimro
producc Iairly aurhorirarivc books on!ndianinrcllccrual discussions,
in!arinasvcllasin1amil.Anorhcr|csuir,!arhcr!onsIrom!rancc,
produccd a grammar oI Sanskrir in !arin in rhc carly cighrccnrh
ccnrury and also scnr a collccrion oI original manuscriprs ro Luropc
happily Ior him, rhc ombay cusroms aurhorirics vcrc nor ycr in
cxisrchcc) .
Iovcvcr,rhcrcalcruprionoILuropcaninrcrcsri n!ndiarookplacc
alirrlclarcr,indirccrrcsponscrorirish -rarhcrrhan!ralianor!rcnch
- scholarshipon!ndia.Arovcringhgurcinrhis inrcllccrualrransmis-
sionisrhcrcdoubrablcVilliam|oncs,rhclcgalscholar andoIIiccr oI
rhc Lasr !ndia Company, vho vcnr ro !ndia in t ;8 j and by rhc
Iolloving ycar had csrablishcd rhc Koyal Asiaric Socicry oI cngal
virhrhc acrivcparronagc oIVarrcnIasrings. !n collaborarionvirh
145
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
scholarssuch asCharlcsVilkins and1homasColc brookc,|oncs and
rhc Asiaric Socicry did a rcmarkablc j ob in rranslaring a numbcr oI
!ndianclassics - rcligiousdocumcnrs suchasrhc Gita) asvcllaslcgal
rrcariscs parricularly, Manusmriti) and lircrary vorks such as
Kalidasa`s
S
akuntala) .
|oncs vas obscsscdvirh !ndia anddcclarcdhis ambirion 'ro knov
!ndia bcrrcrrhananyorhcrLuropcancvcrkncvir` . IisdcscriprionoI
hissclccrcdhclds oIsrudyincludcdrhc Iollovingmodcsrlisr.
the Laws of the Hindus and the Mohamedans, Modern Politics and
Geography of Hindustan, Best Mode of Governing Bengal, Arithmetic and
Geometry, and Mixed Sciences of the Asiaticks, Medicine, Chemistry,
Surgery, and Anatomy of the Indians, Natural Productions of India, Poetry,
Rhetoric, and Morality of Asia, Music of the Eastern Nations, Trade,
Manufacture, Agriculture, and Commerce of India.
"
nccanhndmanyorhcrcxamplcs oIdcdicarcdscholarshipamong
rirish oIIiccrs in rhc Lasr !ndia Company, and rhcrc can bc lirrlc
doubr rhar rhc Vcsrcrn pcrccprions oI!ndia vcrc proIoundly inHu-
cnccd byrhcsc invcsrigarions. orsurprisingly, rhc Iocushcrcisguirc
oIrcnonrhoscrhings rhar arc disrincrivc in!ndia. Spccialisrson!ndia
poinrcdrorhcuncommonaspccrs oI!ndianculrurcandirsinrcllccrual
rradirions, vhichvcrc obviouslymorcinrcrcsringgivcn rhc pcrspcc-
rivc and morivarion oI rhc obscrvcrs. ' As a rcsulr, rhc curarorial
approachcscouldnorcscapcbcingsomcvharslanrcdinrhcirIocus.!
shall comc back rorhisissuclarcr.
The Magisterial Burden
! rurn nov ro rhc sccond carcgory, rhc magisrcrial approachcs. 1hc
rask oIruling a Iorcign counrry is nor an casy onc vhcnirs subjccrs
arcsccnascguals.!nrhisconrcxr,irisguircrcmarkablcrharrhccarly
rirish adminisrrarors in !ndia, cvcn rhc conrrovcrsial Varrcn
Iasrings, vcrc as rcspccrIul oI rhc !ndian rradirions as rhcy clcarly
vcrc. 1hc cmpirc vas srill in irs inIancy and vas bcing gradually
acguircd,rarhcrrcnrarivcly.
A good cxamplc oI a magisrcrial approach ro !ndia is rhc classic
book on !ndia vrirrcn by |amcs Nill, publishcd in t 8 t ;, on rhc
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WES TERN IMAGINATION
srrcngrh oIvhich hcvas appoinrcd asanoIIicial oIrhc Lasr India
Company. Nill`s The History of British India playcda maj or rolc in
inrroducing rhc rirish govcrnors oI!ndia ro a parricular characrcri-
zarion oIrhc counrry. Nill dispurcd and dismisscd pracrically cvcry
claim cvcrmadconbchalIoI!ndian culrurc andirs inrcllccrualrradi-
rions, concludingrharirvasrorallyprimirivcandrudc. 1his diagno-
sisvcnrvcllvirhNill`sgcncralarrirudc,vhichsupporrcdrhcidcaoI
bringing a rarhcr barbaric narion undcr rhc bcnign and rcIormisr
adminisrrarionoIrhcririshLmpirc. ConsisrcnrvirhhisbclicIs,Nill
vasancxpansionisrindcalingvirhrhcrcmainingindcpcndcnrsrarcs
inrhcsubconrincnr. 1hc obviouspolicyropursuc,hccxplaincd,vas
'romakcvaronrhoscsrarcs andsubducrhcm` .
`
Nillchasriscd carly rirish adminisrrarors likcilliam|oncs) Ior
having rakcn 'Iindus ro bc a pcoplc oIhigh civilizarion, vhilc rhcy
havc in rcalirymadc bur a Icv oIrhc carlicsr srcps inrhc progrcss ro
civilizarion` . Arrhc cnd oIa comprchcnsivc arrack onall Ironrs, hc
camc ro rhc conclusion rhar Indian civilizarion vas on a par virh
orhcrinIcrioroncsknovnroNill - 'vcryncarlyrhcsamcvirhrharoI
rhc Chincsc,rhc !crsians, andrhc Arabians` , hc alsopurinrhis carc-
gory,Ior good mcasurc, ' subordinarc narions, rhc |apancsc, Cochin-
chincsc, Siamcsc, urmans, andcvcnNalays and1ibcrans` .
l2
Iovvcll inIormcdvas Nillindcaling virh his subjccrmarrcr! '
Nill vrorc his book virhour cvcr having visircd !ndia. Ic kncv no
Sanskrir, nor any!crsianorArabic, hadpracricallyno knovlcdgc oI
any oIrhc modcrn!ndian languagcs, and rhus his rcading oI!ndian
marcrial vas oI ncccssiry mosr limircd. 1hcrc is anorhcr Icarurc oI
Nill rhar clcarly inIlucnccd his invcsrigarions, his inclinarion ro
disrrusranyrhingsrarcdbynarivcscholars,sinccrhcyappcarcdrohim
ro havc 'a gcncraldisposirionro dcccir andpcrhdy` .
!crhapssomccxamplcs oINill`s rrcarmcnr oIparricularclaims oI
achicvcmcnr may bc uscIul ro illusrrarc rhc narurc oIhis cxrrcmcly
inHucnrial approach.1hcinvcnrion oIrhc dccimal sysrcmvirhplacc
valucs and rhc placcd usc oIzcro, nov uscd cvcryvhcrc, as vcll as
*The assessment of Mill's analysis of Indian works on science and mathematics that
follows here corresponds to the discussion of Mill's critique, in Essay 4, though the
focus here is on the nature of external evaluation from the 'magisterial' perspective,
rather than on the impact of Mill's characterization on Indian self-identifcation.
147
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhc so-callcd Arabic numcrals, arc gcncrally knovn ro bc !ndian
dcvclopmcnrs. !n Iacr, Albcruni had alrcady mcnrioncd rhis in his
clcvcnrh-ccnrury book on !ndia, and many Luropcan as vcll as
Arab scholars hadvrirrcn onrhis subj ccr. Nill dismisscsrhc claim
alrogcrhcr onrhcgroundsrhar'rhcinvcnrionoInumcrical characrcrs
musr havc bccn vcry ancicnr` and 'vhcrhcr rhc signs uscd by rhc
Iindus arc so pcculiar as ro rcndcr ir probablc rhar rhcy invcnrcd
rhcm, orvhcrhcr ir is srill morcprobablcrharrhcyborrovcd rhcm,
arc gucsrions vhich,IorrhcpurposcoIasccrrainingrhcirprogrcssin
civilizarion, arcnorvorrhrcsolving` .
Nill procccds rhcn rocxplain rhar rhc Arabic numcrals 'arc rcally
hicroglyphics`andrharrhcclaimonbchalIoIrhc!ndiansandrhcArabs
rcIccrs rhc conIounding oI'rhc origin oIcyphcrs ornumcrical charac-
rcrs` virh 'rhar oI hicroglyphic vriring` .' Ar onc lcvcl Nill`s rarhcr
clcmcnrary crror lics in norknoving vhar a dccimal or a placc-valuc
sysrcm is, bur his ignoranr smugncss cannor bc undcrsrood cxccprin
rcrms oIhis implicirunvillingncss ro bclicvc rhar a vcrysophisricarcd
invcnrioncould havc bccnmanagcdbysuchprimirivcpcoplc.
Anorhcr inrcrcsring cxamplc conccrns Nill`s rcacrion ro !ndian
asrronomy and spccihcally rhc argumcnr Ior a roraringcarrh and a
modcl oIgravirarional arrracrion proposcd byryabha(a, vho vas
borninq;6CE, andinvcsrigarcdby,amongorhcrs,Varahamihiraand
rahmagupra in rhc sixrh and scvcnrh ccnrurics) . 1hcsc vorks vcrc
vcll knovn in rhc Arab vorld, as vas mcnrioncd carlicr, rahma-
gupra`s book vas rranslarcd inro Arabic in rhc cighrh ccnrury and
rcrranslarcdbyAlbcruniinrhcclcvcnrh.Villiam|oncshadbccnrold
abour rhcsc vorks in !ndia, and hc in rurn rcporrcd rhar srarcmcnr.
Nillcxprcsscsroralasronishmcnrar|oncs`sgullibiliry.
'
'AIrcrridicul-
ingrhc absurdiry oIrhis arrriburionandcommcnringonrhc 'prctcn-
sions andinrcrcsrs` oI|oncs`s!ndianinIormanrs, Nillconcludcsrhar
ir vas ' cxrrcmcly narural rhar SirVilliam|oncs, vhosc pundirs had
bccomcacguainrcdvirh rhcidcas oILuropcanphilosophcrsrcspccr-
ingrhcsysrcmoIrhcunivcrsc,shouldhcarIromrhcmrharrhoscidcas
vcrcconraincdinrhcirovnbooks` .
lb
!or purposcs oI comparison ir is uscIul ro cxaminc Albcruni`s
discussion oI rhc samc issuc ncarly cighr hundrcd ycars carlicr,
conccrning rhc posrularion oI a roraring carrh and gravirarional
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
arrracrion in rhc srill carlicr vrirings

oI ryabha(a and rah-

magupra.
Brahmagupta says in another place of the same book: 'The followers of
Aryabhata maintain that the earth is moving and heaven resting. People have
tried to refute them by saying that, if such were the case, stones and trees
would fall from the earth. ' But Brahmagupta does not agree with them, and
says that that would not necessarily follow from their theory, apparently
because he thought that all heavy things are attracted towards the center of
the earth. 1
9
Albcruni himsclIprocccdcd ro dispurc rhis modcl, raiscd a rcchnical
gucsrion abour onc oI rahmagupra`s marhcmarical calcularions,
rcIcrrcdro a diIIcrcnr book oIhisovnarguing againsrrhcproposcd
vicv,andpoinrcdourrharrhcrclarivccharacrcroImovcmcnrsmakcs
rhis issuc lcss ccnrralrhan oncmighrhrsrrhink. '1hcrorarion oIrhc
carrh docs in no vay impair rhc valuc oI asrronomy, as al appcar-
anccs oI an asrronomic characrcr can guirc as vcll bc cxpaincd
according ro rhisrhcoryas ro rhc orhcr.` ` Icrc, as clscvhcrc, vhilc
arguing againsr an opponcnr`s vicvs, Albcruni rrics ro prcscnr such
vicvs virh grcar involvcmcnr and carc. 1hc conrrasr bcrvccn
Albcruni`s curarorial approach and |amcs Nill`s magisrcria pro-
nounccmcnrscouldnorbcsharpcr.
1hcrc arc pcnry oI orhcr cxamplcs oI 'magisrcrial` rcadings oI
!ndiainNill`shisrory.1hisisoIsomcpracricalimporrancc,sinccrhc
book vas cxrrcmcy inIlucnria in rhc rirish adminisrrarion and
vidcly praiscd, Ior cxamplc by Nacaulay 'rhc grcarcsr hisrorical
vork . . . sincc rhar oIGibbon` j . Nacaulay`s ovnapproachand in-
clinarions cchocd|amcsNill`s asvas discusscd inLssayq) .
1his vicvoIrhc povcrryoI!ndian inrcllccrual rradirions playcd a
maj or parr in cducariona rcIorm in rirish !ndia, as is rcadily sccn
Irom rhc I 83 5 'Ninurc on !ndian Lducarion`, vrirrcn by Nacaulay
himsclI. 1hc priorirics in !ndian cducarion vcrc dcrcrmincd, hcncc-
Iorrh,bya diIIcrcnrcmphasis - byrhcnccd,asNacaulayargucd,Ior
a class oI Lnglish-cducarcd !ndians vho could ' bc inrcrprcrcrs
bcrvccnus andrhcmillionsvhomvcgovcrn`.
1hc impacr oIrhc magisrcria vicvs oI!ndia vas norconhncdro
rirainand!ndia. Nodcrndocumcnrsinrhc samcrradirionhavcbccn
I49
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
inHucnrialclscvhcrc,includinginrhc!nircdSrarcs.!nascricsoIlong
convcrsarions on !ndia and China conducrcd by Iarold !saacs in
I 9 8 virh I 8I Amcricans- acadcmics,proIcssionals in mass mcdia,
govcrnmcnroIIicials, missionarics andchurch oIIicials, and oIlicials
oIIoundarions,volunrarysocial-scrvicc groups, andpolirical organi-
zarions- !saacs Ioundrharrhcrvomosrvidclyrcadlircrarysourccs
on !ndia vcrc Kudyard Kipling andKarhcrinc Nayo, rhc aurhor oI
rhccxrrcmclydcrogaroryMother India. 21 Irhcsc,Kipling`svrirings
vould bcmorc rcadilyrccognizcdashavingsomcrhingoIrhc 'magis-
rcrial` approach ro rhcm. !loyd Kudolph dcscribcs Nayo`s Mother
India rhus.
First published in I927, Mother India was written in the context of oficial
and unoficial British efforts to generate support in America for British rule
in India. It added contemporary and lurid detail to the image of Hindu India
as irredeemably and hopelessly impoverished, degraded, depraved, and
corrupt. Mayo's Mother India echoed not only the views of men like
Alexander Duff, Charles Grant, and John Stuart Mill but also those of
Theodore Roosevelt, who glorifed in bearing the white man's burden in Asia
and celebrated the accomplishments of imperialism.
..
^aharma Gandhi, vhilc dcscribing ^ayo`s book as 'a drain
inspccror`s rcporr`, had addcd rharcvcry!ndian should rcad ir and
sccmcdro imply, asAshisandynorcs,rhariris possiblc 'ropurhcr
criricism ro inrcrnal usc` as an ovcr-srcrn drain inspccror`s rcporr
ccrrainlycanbc) . ` GandhihimsclIvasscvcrclyarrackcdinrhcbook,
bur, givcn his campaign againsr casrc and unrouchabiliry, hc mighr
havcacruallyvclcomcdcvcnhcr cxaggcrarionsbccauscoIirsuscIully
lurid porrrayal oI casrc incguirics. ur vhilc Gandhi may havc bccn
righrrovaluccxrcrnalcriricismasavayoIinducingpcoplcrobcsclI-
crirical, rhc impacr oI rhc ' magisrcrial approach` ccrrainly givcs
Amcricanpcrccprions oI!ndiaavcryclcarslanr.
Exoticist Readings of India
!rurnnovrorhc 'cxoricisr` approachcsro!ndia. !nrcrcsrin!ndia has
oIrcn bccn srimularcd by rhc obscrvarion oI cxoric idcas and vicvs
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
rhcrc.Arrian`sandSrrabo`saccounrsoIAlcxandcrrhcGrcar`sspirircd
convcrsarions virhvarious sagcsoInorrh-vcsr!ndiamayormaynor
bc aurhcnric, bur ancicnr Grcck lircrarurc is Iull oI uncommon
happcnings andrhoughrs arrriburcdro!ndia.
Ncgasrhcncs` Indika, dcscribing !ndia in rhc carly rhird ccnrury
BCE, canclaimrobcrhchrsroursidcr`sbookon!ndia, ircrcarcdmuch
Grcck inrcrcsr, as can bc sccn Irom rhc plcnriIulrcIcrcnccs ro ir, Ior
cxamplc, in rhc vrirings oI iodorus, Srrabo and Arrian.
Ncgasrhcncs had amplc opporruniry ro obscrvc !ndia sincc, as rhc
cnvoy oI Sclcucus icaror ro rhc courr oI Candragupra Naurya, hc
spcnrncarlya dccadc bcrvccn 3 02 and 29I BCE) in !a(alipurra rhc
sircoImodcrn!arnaj , rhccapiralciryoIrhcNauryancmpirc.urhis
supcrlarivcly admiring book is also so Iull oI accounrs oI Ianrasric
obj ccrs and achicvcmcnrs in !ndia rhar ir is hard ro bc surc vhar is
imagincd andvharis rcally bcing obscrvcd.
1hcrcarcvariousorhcraccounrsoIcxoric!ndianrravclsbyancicnr
Grccks.1hcbiographyoIApolloniusoI1yanaby!lavius!hilosrrarus
inrhcrhirdccnruryCE is a goodcxamplc.!nhis scarch Iorvharvas
our oIrhc ordinary, Apollonius vas, vc arc assurcd,richlyrcvardcd
in !ndia. '! havc sccn mcn living upon rhc carrh and nor upon ir,
dcIcndcd virhour valls, having norhing, and ycr posscssing all
rhings.` ` Iov such conrradicrory rhings can bc sccn by rhc samc
pcrsonIromrhcsamcobscrvarionalposirionmaynorbcobvious, bur
rhcbcvirchingcharmoIallrhisIorrhcscckcroIrhccxoriccanhardly
bc doubrcd.
Lxoricinrcrcsrsin!ndiacanbcsccnagainandagain,Iromirscarly
hisrory ro rhc prcscnr day. !rom Alcxandcr lisrcning ro rhc gymno-
sophisrs` lccrurcs ro conrcmporary dcvorccs hcaring rhc scrmons oI
Naharishi NahcshYogi and Shri Kajnccsh, rhcrc is a crovdcd linc-
agc. !crhaps rhc mosr imporranr cxamplc oI inrcllccrual cxoricism
rclarcdro!ndiacanbcsccninrhcLuropcanphilosophicaldiscussions
inrhccighrccnrhandcarlynincrccnrhccnrurics,amongrhcKomanrics
in parricular.
!mporranr Iigurcs in rhc Komanric movcmcnr, including rhc
Schlcgcl brorhcrs, Schclling and orhcrs, vcrcproIoundly inHucnccd
by rarhcr magniIicd rcadings oI !ndian culrurc. !rom Icrdcr, rhc
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Gcrmanphiosophcr and a criricoIrhc rarionaism oIrhc Luropcan
Lnighrcnmcnr,vcgcrrhcmagnihccnrncvsrhar 'rhcIindus arcrhc
gcnrcsr branch oIhumaniry` and rhar 'modcrarion and cam, a soIr
Iccinganda sicnr dcprhoIrhc sou characrcrizcrhcirvorkandrhcir
pcasurc,rhcirmoras andmyrhoogy, rhcir arrs` . !ricdrich Schcgc
noronypionccrcdsrudicsoI!ndo-Luropcaninguisricsarcrpursucd
parricuary by Nax Ncr) bur aso broughr !ndia Iuy inro his
cririguc oIrhc conrcmporary Vcsr. \hic in rhc Vcsr 'man himscI
has amosr bccomc amachinc` and 'cannorsinkany dccpcr`, Schcgc
rccommcndcd carning Irom rhc ricnr, cspcciay !ndia. Ic aso
guaranrccdrhar'rhc!crsian and Gcrman anguagcs andcururcs, as
vc asrhc Grcck andrhcodKoman, maya bc rraccd backrorhc
!ndian` . ' 1o rhis isr, Schopcnhaucr addcd rhc cv 1csramcnr,
inIormingusrhar,inconrrasrvirhrhcd,rhccv1csramcnr'musr
somchovbcoI!ndianorigin.rhisisarrcsrcdbyirscompcrcy!ndian
crhics,vhichrransIormsmorasinro asccricism,irspcssimism,andirs
avatar i. c. , rhcpcrsonoIChrisr) ` .

or surprisingy, many oI rhc cary cnrhusiasrs vcrc soon dis-

appoinrcdinnorhndingin!ndianrhoughrvharrhcyhadrhcmscvcs
pur rhcrc, and many oI rhcm vcnr inro a phasc oIvirhdrava and
criricism.SomcoIrhcsravarrs,Schcgcinparricuar,rccanrcdvigor-
ousy. rhcrs, incuding Icgc, ourincd Iairy ncgarivc vicvs oI
!ndian rradirions and prcscnrcd oud dcnias oI rhc caim oI prc-
cmincncc oI!ndiancururc- acaimrharvasoIdisrincryLuropcan
origin.VhcnCocridgc askcd. 'VhararcI 1hcscporcnrarcsoIinmosr
!nd! `' hc vas rcay asking a gucsrion abour Luropc, rarhcr rhan
abour !ndia.``
!n addirion ro vcridica vcakncss, rhc cxoricisr approach ro !ndia
hasanincscapabcIragiiryandrransicnccrharcanbcsccnagainand
again.AvondcrIurhingisimagincd abour!ndiaandscnrinroahigh
orbir, andrhcniris broughrcrashingdovn.Arhisnccdnorbcsuch
a rragcdy vhcn rhc acr oIaunching is donc by or virh rhc acrivc
coopcrarionoI) rhcpurarivcsrar.ormanyvoudvccp,Iorcxampc,
Ior Naharishi Nahcsh Yogi vhcn rhc carcs sroppcd ionizing him
andcIr suddcny, in ansvcrrorhc Naharishi`s gucsrionoIvhyrhcy
vcrccaving,|ohn !cnnon said. 'You arcrhc cosmic onc, you oughr
roknov. ` `'
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
uririsa diIIcrcnrmarrcr alrogcrhcrvhcnborhrhcboomandrhc
busr arc rhrusr upon rhc vicrim. nc oI rhc mosr discouraging
cpisodcsinlircraryrcccprionoccurrcdcarlyinrhisccnrury,vhcnLzra
!ound,V. . Ycars andorhcrs lcda chorus oIadorarionarrhclyrical
spirirualiry oI Kabindranarh 1agorc`s pocrry bur Iollovcd ir soon
aIrcrvards virh a rhorough disrcgardandhrm dcnunciarion. 1agorc
vas a cngali pocr oIrrcmcndouscrcariviryandrangc cvcn rhough
his pocrry docs norrranslarc casily- norcvcnrhc spirirual oncsrhar
vcrc soapplaudcd) and also agrcarsroryrcllcr, novclisrandcssayisr,
hc rcmains a dominanr lircraryhgurc in angladcsh and !ndia. 1hc
vcrsarilc andinnovarivcvrircrrharrhccngalisknovvcllisnorrhc
scrmonizingspirirual guru purrogcrhcrin!ondon, nor didhchrany
bcrrcrrhccaricarurcoI'Srupcndranarhcgorr`robcIoundincrnard
Shav`s ' AGlimpscoIrhcomcsriciryoI!ranklynarnabas` .
Interactions and Reinforcements
1hcsc diIIcrcnr approachcs havc had vcry divcrsc impacrs on rhc
undcrsrandingoI!ndianinrcllccrualrradirionsinrhcVcsr.1hccxori-
cisr and magisrcrial approachcs havc bcmuscd and bcIuddlcd rhar
undcrsrandingcvcnasrhcyhavcdravnarrcnrionro!ndiainrhcVcsr.
1hc curarorial approachcs havc bccn lcss guilry oIrhis, and indccd
hisrorically havc playcd a maj or parr in bringing our and draving
arrcnrionrorhc diIIcrcnr aspccrs oI!ndian culrurc, including irs non-
mysrical andnoncxoricIcarurcs. cvcrrhclcss,givcnrhcnarurcoIrhc
curarorialcnrcrprisc,rhcIocusincvirably lcans rovardsrharvhich is
diIIcrcnrin!ndia, rarhcrrhanvharis similar rorhcVcsr. !n cmpha-
sizingrhcdisrincrivcncssoI!ndia,cvcnrhccurarorialapproachcshavc
somcrimcs conrriburcd ro rhc acccnruarion oI conrrasrs rarhcr rhan
commonalirics virh Vcsrcrn rradirions, rhough nor in rhc rarhcr
cxrrcmcIormIoundinrhccxoricisrandmagisrcrialapproachcs.
1hcmagisrcrialapproachcsplaycdguircavigorousrolcinrhcrun-
ning oI rhc rirish Lmpirc. Lvcn rhough rhc Kaj is dcad and gonc,
rhc impacr oIrhc associarcd imagcs survivcs, nor lcasr in rhc !nircd
Srarcs as discusscd carlicr) . 1o somc cxrcnr, rhc magisrcrial aurhors
also rcacrcd againsr rhc admirarion oI!ndia rhar can bc sccn in rhc
1 5 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
vrirings oIcurarorialobscrvcrs oI!ndia.!orcxamplc, borh Nill and
Nacaulayvcrc vigorously crirical oIrhcvrirings oI aurhors such as
Villiam |oncs, and rhcrc arc somc imporranr dialccrics hcrc. 1hc
rcspccrIul curarorial approachcspainrcd apicrurc oI!ndianinrcllccr-
ual rradirions rharvas much roo Iavourablc Ior rhc impcrial culrurc
oI rhc nincrccnrh ccnrury, and conrriburcd ro rhc vchcmcncc oI rhc
magisrcrial dcnunciarions oI rhosc rradirions. y rhc rimc Nill and
Nacaulayvcrcvriring,rhcrirish!ndiancmpircvasvcllcsrablishcd
as a lasring and cxrcnsivc cnrcrprisc, and rhc 'irrcsponsibiliry` oI
admiring rhcnarivc inrcllccrual rradirions - pcrmissiblc inrhcprcvi-
ousccnruryIor carly scrvanrs oIrhc Lasr!ndia Company- vas hard
ro susrainasrhcIavourcdrcadingoI!ndiainrhcconsolidarcdcmpirc.
1hc ourbursrs oI Iascinarcd vondcr in rhc cxoricisr approachcs
bring!ndiainroVcsrcrn avarcncss in bigridcs oIbcvildcring arrcn-
rion. ur rhcn rhcy cbb, lcaving only a rricklc oIhardcncd cxoricisrs
holding Iorrh. 1hcrc may vcll bc, aIrcr a vhilc, anorhcr ridc. !n
dcscribing rhc risc and dcclinc oIKabindranarh 1agorc in !ondon`s
lircrary circlcs, L. N. !orsrcr rcmarkcd rhar !ondon vas a ciry oI
'boomand busr` , burrhardcscriprionapplicsmorcgcncrallyrharis,
norconhncdonlyrolircrarycirclcsin!ondon) rorhcVcsrcrnapprc-
ciarionoIcxoricaspccrs oILasrcrnculrurcs.
1hcridcs, vhilc rhcylasr,canbc hard vork, rhough. ! rcmcmbcr
Iccling guirc sad Ior a dcjccrcd racisr vhom ! sav, somc ycars ago,
ncarrhcAldvychsrarionin!ondon,vicvingvirhdisgusrarhousand
posrcrspasrcdcvcryvhcrccarryingpicrurcsoIrhcobcsc- andholy -
physiguc oIGuruNaharajj i rhcn a grcarragcin!ondon) . urdcdi-
carcd racisr vas busyvriring 'Iar vog` diligcnrly undcr cach oI rhc
picrurcs.!na shorrvhilcrharparricular vogvould bcgonc, bur!do
nor doubrrharrhc 'disgusrcd oIAldvych` vould scribblc 'lcanvog`
or 'mcdium-sizcdvog`undcrorhcrposrcrsnov.
!r mighr bcrhoughrrhar sincc rhc cxoricisrapproachcs givc crcdir
vhcrc ir may nor bc duc and rhc magisrcrial approachcs virhhold
crcdirvhcrc irmayvcll bc duc, rhc rvo mighrncurralizc cachorhcr
niccly.urrhcyvorkinvcryasymmcrricalvays.Nagisrcrialcririgucs
rcnd ro blasr rhc rarionalisr and humanisr aspccrs oI !ndia virh rhc
grcarcsr Iorcc rhis is as rruc oI|amcs Nill as oI Karharinc Nayo) ,
vhcrcascxoricisradmirarionsrcndrobuilduprhcmysricalandcxrra-
I 54
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WESTERN IMAGINATION
rarionalaspccrsvirhparricularcarcrhishasbccnsoIromApollonius
oI1yana dovnro rhcIarcKrishnaacrivisrsoIroday) . 1hc rcsulroI
rhcrvorakcnrogcrhcrisrovrcsrrhcundcrsrandingoI!ndianculrurc
IorccIullyavayIromirsrarionalisraspccrs.!ndianrradirionsinmarh-
cmarics, logic, scicncc, mcdicinc, linguisrics or cpisrcmology may bc
vcll knovn ro rhcVcsrcrn spccialisr, bur rhcy play lirrlc parr in rhc
gcncral Vcsrcrn undcrsranding oI!ndia. 'Nysricism and cxoricism,
inconrrasr, havc amorchallovcdposirion inrharundcrsranding.
The Dialectics of Internal and External Identity
Vcsrcrnpcrccprions and characrcrizarions oI!ndiahavchad consid-
crablcinHucncc on rhc sclI-pcrccprion oI!ndiansrhcmsclvcs. 1his is
clcarly connccrcdro !ndia`s colonial pasr andconrinucd dcIcrcncc ro
vharis valucd inrhcVcsr. Iovcvcr, rhc rclarionship nccdnorrakc
rhc Iorm oI simplc acccprancc - ir somcrimcs includcs srrarcgic
rcsponscsro rhc varicry oIVcsrcrnpcrccprions oI!ndiarharsuirrhc
inrcrcsrs oI inrcrnal imaging. Vc havc ro disringuish bcrvccn somc
disrincr aspccrs oI rhc inIlucncc rhar Vcsrcrn imagcs havc had on
!ndian inrcrnal idcnrirics.
!irsr, rhc Luropcancxoricisrs` inrcrprcrarions and praiscIound in
!ndiaavcrirablcarmyoI apprcciarivclisrcncrs, who vcrcparricularly
vclcoming givcn rhc badly damagcd sclI-conhdcncc rcsulring Irom
colonialdominarion.1hcadmiringsrarcmcnrsvcrcguorcdagain and
again, and rhc ncgarivc rcmarks by rhc samc aurhors Icrdcr,
Schlcgcl, Gocrhc andorhcrs) vcrc sysrcmaricallyovcrlookcd.
!n his Discovery of India, |avaharlal chru commcnrs on rhis
phcnomcnon. '1hcrc is a rcndcncy on rhc parr oI!ndianvrircrs, ro
vhich ! havc also parrly succumbcd, ro givc sclccrcd cxrracrs and
guorarions Irom rhc vrirings oILuropcan scholars in praisc oI old
!ndian lircrarurc and philosophy. !r vould bc cgually casy, indccd
much casicr, ro givc orhcr cxrracrs giving an cxacrly opposirc vicv-
poinr.` !n rhc proccss oI acccpring rhc cxoricisr praisc, rhc !ndian
inrcrprcrarion oI rhc pasr has cxrcnsivcly Iocuscd on rhc obj ccrs oI
cxoricisr praisc, conccnrraring morc on rhc mysrical and rhc anri-
rarionalisrIorvhichmanyinrhcVcsrhavcsuchadmirarion. '
1 5 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Sccond, rhc proccsshrrcdinrorhcpoiricsoIcirisrnarionaismin
coonia!ndiaand Icdrhc cra vingIorasrronginrcccruagroundro
srand onroconIronr rhc impcria rucrs. !arrha Charrcrj cc discusscs
rhccmcrgcnccoIrhisarrirudcvcryvc.
Anticolonial nationalism creates its own domain of sovereignty within
colonial society well before its political battle with the imperial power. It does
this by dividing the world of social institutions and practices into two
domains - the material and the spiritual. The material is the domain of the
'outside, ' of the economy and of statecraft, of science and technology, a
domain where the West had proved its superiority and the East had suc
cumbed. In this domain, then, Western superiority had to be acknowledged
and its accomplishments carefully studied and replicated. The spiritual, on
the other hand, is an 'inner' domain bearing the 'essential' marks of cultural
identity. The greater one's success in imitating Western skills in the material
domain, therefore, the greater the need to preserve the distinctiveness of one's
spiritual culture. This formula is, I think, a fundamental feature of anticolo
nial nationalisms in Asia and Africa. 36
1hcrcvasindccd suchanarrcmpr roprcscnrvharvaspcrccivcdro
bc rhc ' srrong aspccrs` oI !ndian cururc, disringuishcd Irom rhc
domain, as Charrcrjccpurs ir, 'vhcrcrhcVcsrhadprovcdirs supcri-
oriryandrhcLasrhadsuccumbcd`.
Charrcrj cc`sanaysiscanbcsuppcmcnrcdbyrakingIurrhcrnorcoI
rhcdiaccrics oIrhcrcarionship bcrvccn!ndianinrcrna idcnriryand
irs cxrcrna imagcs. 1hc diagnosis oIsrrcngrhin rharnon-marcriaisr
domain vas as much hcpcd by rhc cxoricisr admirarion Ior !ndian
spiriruairy as rhc acccprancc oI !ndia`s vcakncss in rhc domain oI
scicncc, rcchnoogy and marhcmarics vas rcinIorccd byrhc magisrc-
ria dismissas oI !ndia`s marcriaisr and rarionaisr rradirions. 1hc
cmphascs on inrcrna idcnriry rhar cmcrgcd in coonia !ndia bcar
povcrIumarksoIdiaccricacncounrcrsvirhVcsrcrnpcrccprions.
1hird,asrhcIocushasshiIrcdinrcccnrdccadcsIromcirisrcoonia
hisroryrorhc roc oIrhc non-circ, rhc conccnrrarion onrhcinrccc-
ruarradirionsoIrhccirchasvcakcncd. Icrcvcruninro oncoIrhc
mosrcxciringdcvcopmcnrsinhisroriographyin!ndia.1hcrchasbccn
a signihcanr shiIr oI arrcnrion Irom rhc circ ro rhc undcrdogs in rhc
vriringoIcooniahisrory, Iocusingmorc onrhcrura masscsandrhc
INDIAN TRADI TIONS AND THE WES TERN IMAGINATION
cxploircdplcbcians - a broadgroup oIrcn idcnrincdbyrhccapacious
rcrm' subalrcrns`.'1hcmovcis cnrirclyappropriarcinirsconrcxrin
Iacr, much ovcrduc) , and in undcrsrandingcolonialhisrory, rhisis a
vcry imporranr corrccrivc.
Vhilc rhis shiIrin Iocus rcjccrs rhc cmphasis onclirisr inrcllccrual
rradirions in gcncral borh oIrhc marcrialisr andrhc non-marcrialisr
kind) , ir is in many vays casicr ro rclarc rhc rcligious and spirirual
rradirions oIrhc clirc ro rhc pracriccs and bclicIs oIrhc non-clirc. !n
conrrasr, rhc curring cdgc oI scicncc and marhcmarics is incvirably
rclarcd ro Iormal cducarion and prcpararion. !n rhis conrcxr, rhc
immcnsc backvardncss oI !ndia in mass cducarion an inhcrirancc
Iromrhc ririshpcriod burnoradcguarclyrcmcdicdycr) compounds
rhc dissociarionoIclircscicncc andmarhcmaricsIromrhclivcs oIrhc
non-clirc. AcccpranccoIrhcachicvcmcnrs oI!ndian spirirualiryrcnds
rolooklcss 'alicnarcd`Iromrhcmasscsrhanrhcachicvcmcnrsinnclds
rhar dcmand morc cxacring Iormal cducarion. 1hus, rhc cxoricisrs`
praisc oI!ndia is morc casily acccprcd by rhosc vho arcparricularly
carcIul nor ro scc!ndiainclirisrrcrms.
1hcIacrrcmains,hovcvcr,rharillircracyisadcprivarion.1hcissuc
oI inrcr-class j usricc cannor bc a marrcr only oIrccognizing rhc rcal
rolcoIrhcsubalrcrnsinhisroryIorcxamplc,inanri-colonialnarional
movcmcnrs) , imporranrrhough iris. !r is also amarrcroIrcmcdying
rhc immcnsc incgualirics in cducarional andorhcr opporruniricsrhar
scvcrclylimir,cvcnroday, rhcacruallivcs oIrhcsubalrcrns.
!nrcrcsringly cnough, cvcn byrhc clcvcnrh ccnruryrhcscriousncss
oIrhis lossvasnorcdbyAlbcrunihimsclI oncoIrhcmaj orcuraror-
ialaurhorsvhoscvorkvasrcIcrrcdrocarlicr) . AlbcrunispokcoIrhc
rcal dcprivarionoI'rhosccasrcsvhoarcnorallovcdrooccupyrhcm-
sclvcs virh scicncc` .

1his subsranrivc dcprivarion rcmains largcly

unrcmcdicdcvcnroday cxccprin parricular rcgions such as Kcrala) .
!nundcrsrandingrhc narurc oI!ndian culrurcs andrradirions, Iocus-
ing mainly on rhc achicvcmcnrs - rarhcr rhan dcprivarions - oIrhc
!ndiansubalrcrncanyiclda dcccprivcconrrasr. '
*Indeed, in conceptualizing 'the good life' even from the perspective of the deprived
underdog, it would be a mistake to ignore altogether the intellectual achievements of
the elite, since part of the deprivation of the exploited lies precisely in being denied
participation in these achievements. While Marx might have exaggerated a little in his
I 5 7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1his shiIr in cmphasis has also, ro somc cxrcnr, pushcd rhc inrcr-
prcrarion oI !ndia`s pasr avay Irom rhosc achicvcmcnrs rhar rcguirc
considcrablc Iormal rraining. Vhilc rhis movc makcs scnsc in somc
conrcxrs, a comparison oI a sclI-consciously non-clirisr hisrory oI
!ndiavirhrhcrypicallyclassicalundcrsrandingoIrhcinrcllccrualhcr-
iragc oI rhc Vcsr produccs a Ialsc conrrasr bcrvccn rhc rcspccrivc
inrcllccrual rradirions. !n comparingVcsrcrn rhoughrs and crcarions
virhrhosc in !ndia, rhc appropriarc counrcrpoinrs oIArisrorclian or
SroicorLuclidian analyscsarcnorrhcrradirionalbclicIsoIrhc!ndian
rural masscs or oIrhc local visc mcn burrhc comparably analyrical
vriringsoI,say,Kau(ilyaoragarjunaor
_
ryabha(a. ' Socrarcsmccrs
rhc!ndianpcasanr` isnor agoodvayro conrrasrrhcrcspccrivcinrcl-
lccrualrradirions.
Concluding Remarks
1hc inrcrnal idcnrirics oI !ndians drav on diIIcrcnr parrs oI !ndia`s
divcrscrradirions.1hc obscrvarionallcanings oIVcsrcrn approachcs
havchadguirc a maj orimpacr - posirivcly andncgarivcly - onvhar
conrriburcs ro rhc !ndian sclI-imagc rhar cmcrgcd in rhc colonial
pcriod and survivcs roday. 1hc rclarionship has scvcral dialccrical
aspccrs,connccrcdrorhcscnsiriviryrovardssclccrivcadmirarionsand
dismissalsIromrhccosmopoliranVcsrasvcllasrorhcmcchanicsoI
colonialconIronrarions.
1hc diIIcrcnccs bcrvccn rhc curarorial, magisrcrial and cxoricisr
approachcsroVcsrcrnundcrsrandingoI!ndianinrcllccrualrradirions
lic, ro a grcar cxrcnr, in rhc varying obscrvarional posirions Irom
vhich !ndia has bccn cxamincd and irs ovcrall imagcs dravn. 1hc
dcpcndcncc onpcrspccrivc is nor a spccial characrcrisric oIrhc imag-
ingoI!ndiaalonc. !ris,inIacr, apcrvasivcgcncralIcarurcindcscrip-
rionandidcnrihcarion. ''Vharis!ndiarcallylikc! ` isagoodgucsrion
eloquence about 'the idiocy of the village life', there is nevertheless a substantial point
here in identifying the nature of social deprivation. There is, in fact, no basic contra
diction in choosing the subaltern perspective of history and taking systematic note of
the scholarly accomplishments of the elite.
INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE WES TERN IMAGINATION
Ior a Iorcign rourisr`s handbook prcciscly bccausc rhc dcscriprion
rhcrcmayscnsiblybcprcscnrcdIromrhcparricularposirionoIbcing
aIorcignrourisrin!ndia.urrhcrcarcorhcrposirions,orhcrconrcxrs,
orhcrconccrns.
1hc rhrcc approachcs invcsrigarcd hcrc havc produccd guirc
disrincrvicvs oI!ndian inrcllccrual hisrory, bur rhcir ovcrall impacr
has bccnro cxaggcrarc rhcnon-marcrialandarcanc aspccrs oI!ndian
rradirions comparcdro irs morc rarionalisric andanalyricalclcmcnrs.
Vhilc rhc curarorial approachcs havc bccn lcss guilry oI rhis, rhcir
IocusonvharisrcallydiIIcrcnrin!ndiahas,ro somccxrcnr, alsocon-
rriburcd ro ir. ur rhc bulk oI rhc conrriburion has comc Irom rhc
cxoricisr admirarion oI !ndia parricularly oI irs spirirual vondcrs)
and rhc magisrcrial dismissals parricularly oIirs claims in marhc-
marics, scicncc andanalyricalpursuirs) .
1hc narurcoI rhcsc slanrcd cmphascshasrcndcdro undcrminc an
adcguarcly pluralisr undcrsranding oI !ndian inrcllccrual rradirions.
Vhilc !ndia has ccrrainly inhcrircd a vasr rcligious lircrarurc, a largc
vcalrhoImysricalpocrry, grandspcculariononrransccndcnralissucs,
and so on, rhcrc is also a hugc - and oIrcn pionccring- lircrarurc,
srrcrchingovcrrvo andahalImillcnnia, onmarhcmarics, logic, cpis-
rcmology, asrronomy, physiology, linguisrics, phoncrics, cconomics,
polirical scicncc and psychology, among orhcr subj ccrs conccrncd
virhrhchcrc andnov.`
Lvcn on rcligious subjccrs, rhc only vorld rcligion rhar is hrmly
agnosric uddhism) is oI!ndianorigin, and, Iurrhcrmorc, rhc arhcis-
ric schools oICarvaka and !okayara havc gcncrarcd cxrcnsivc argu-
mcnrs rhar havc bccn scriously srudicd by !ndian rcligious scholars
rhcmsclvcs. 'Icrcrodoxyruns rhroughour rhc carlydocumcnrs, and
cvcn rhc ancicnr cpic Ramaya1a, vhich is oIrcn circd by conrcmpo-
rary Iindu acrivisrs as rhc holy book oI rhc divinc Kama`s liIc,
conrains disscnringcharacrcrs.!orcxamplc,Kamaislccrurcdro bya
vorldly pundir callcd |avali on rhc Iolly oI his rcligious bclicIs. '0
Kama, bcvisc, rhcrc cxisrs no vorld burrhis, rhar is ccrrainl Lnjoy
rharvhichisprcscnrandcasrbchindrhccrharvhichisunplcasanr. `'
VharisindispurchcrcisnorrhcrccognirionoImysricismandrcli-
gious iniriarivcs in !ndia,vhicharc ccrrainly plcnriIul, bur rhc ovcr-
lookingoIallrhcorhcrinrcllccrual acriviricsrhararc also abundanrly
I 59
THE ARGUMENTATIVE I NDIAN
prcscnr. !n Iacr, dcspirc rhc gravc sobricry oI!ndian rcigious prc-
occuparions, irvoudnorbccrroncousro sayrhar!ndiaisa counrry
oIIun and gamcs in vhich chcss vas probabyinvcnrcd, badminron
originarcd,poocmcrgcd,andrhcancicnrKimasutra rodpcopchov
ro havc j oy in scx. ' !ndccd, Gcorgcs !Irah guorcs a mcdicva Arab
pocrIromaghdadcacda-Sabhadi,vhosaidrharrhcrcvcrc'rhrcc
rhingsonvhichrhc!ndiannarionpridcdirscI. irsmcrhodoIrcckon-
ing, rhc gamc oI chcss, and rhc book rircd Kalila wa Dimna a
coccrion oIcgcnds and Iabcs) . ` 1hisi snor arogcrhcr a diIIcrcnr
isr Irom Vorairc`s caraoguc oI rhc imporranr rhings ro comc Irom
!ndia. ' ournumbcrs, ourbackgammon, our chcss, ourhrsrprincipcs
oI gcomcrry, and rhc Iabcs vhich havc bccomc our ovn.` 1hcsc
scccrions voud nor Iir rhc mainsrrcam Vcsrcrn imagc oI !ndian
rradirions, Iocuscd onrcigionorspiriruairy.
or voud rhcyhrrhcvaymany!ndianspcrccivcrhcmscvcs and
rhcir inrcccrua pasr, cspcciay rhosc vho havc comc ro rakc a
'scpararisr`posiriononrhcnarurcoI!ndiancururc.!havcrricdrodis-
cusshovrhardispariryhascomcabourandhovirissusraincd.!havc
asorricdrospccuarcabourhovrhcscccrivcaicnarionoI!ndiaIrom
a vcry subsranria parr oIirs pasr has bccn nourishcd by rhc asym-
mcrricarcarionshipbcrvccn!ndiaandrhcVcsr.!ris,oddycnough,
rhcrarionaisrparroI!ndia`srradirionrharhas bccnaIIccrcdmosrby
rhis diaccrica aicnarion.
* Gita Mehta makes excellent use of the Indian game of snakes and ladders to help
interpret modern India (Snakes and Ladders: Glimpses of Modern India, New York:
Anchor Books, I998) .
r 6o
- g
China and India:
'!s rhcrc anyonc in any parr oI !ndia vho docs nor admirc China! `
askcd Yi |ing i n rhc scvcnrh ccnrury, onrcrurning Irom !ndia ro
China. Yi|ingmay havcIallcna lirrlc Iorcxaggcrarcdrhcroric,bur
rhcrcvasccrrainlymuchinrcllccrualinrcrcsrabour Chinain!ndia ar
rharrimc, asrhcrcvasabour!ndiainChina.Yi|inghadj usrspcnrrcn
ycars ar rhc insrirurc oI highcr lcarning, alanda, vhich arrracrcd
many scholars Iromoursidc!ndia,inaddirionrodomcsricsrudcnrs.
Yi|ing,vhosrudicdmcdicincinalandainparricular, 'Ayurvcda`
or 'rhcscicncc oIlongcviry` ) inaddirionro uddhisrphilosophyand
pracricc, vas onc oImany Chincsc scholars vho visircd!ndia inrhc
hrsr millcnnium ro srudy uddhism and orhcr subjccrs and also ro
collccr Sanskrir documcnrs) , and many oI rhcm spcnr a dccadc or
morc in !ndia.| !n rhc orhcr dirccrion, hundrcds oI!ndian scholars
vcnr ro China and vorkcd rhcrc bcrvccn rhc hrsr ccnrury and rhc
clcvcnrh. 1hcy vcrc cngagcd in a varicry oI vork, vhich includcd
rranslaring Sanskrir documcnrs inro Chincsc mosrly uddhisr
vrirings) , buralsoorhcracrivirics,suchasrhcpursuiroImarhcmarics
and scicncc. Scvcral !ndian marhcmaricians and asrronomcrs hcld
high posirions in China`s scicnriIic csrablishmcnr, and an !ndian
scicnrisrcallcd Gaurama Siddharrha Quran Xida, in Chincsc) cvcn
For many useful comments and suggestions, I am extremely grateful to Patricia
Mirrlees, Sugata Bose, Geoffrey Lloyd, David McMullen, Emma Rothschild, Roel
Sterckx, Sun Shuyun and Rosie Vaughan. A shorter version of this paper was pub
lished in the New York Review of Books, 2 Dec. 2004.
tThere are accounts of more than 200 Chinese scholars who spent extensive peri
ods of time in India in this period; see Tan Yun-Shan, Sino-Indian Culture ( Calcutta:
Visva-Bharati, 1998) .
r6r
Xuanzang (Hiuan-tsang) returning to China with Sanskrit manuscripts from
India in 645 AD
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
bccamcrhcprcsidcnr oIrhc oIIicial oard oIAsrronomyin China in
rhccighrh ccnrury.
!nrcllccruallinks bcrvccn Chinaand!ndia, srrcrchingovcrmuchoI
rhchrsrmillcnniumand bcyond,vcrc imporranrinrhchisroryoIrhc
rvocounrrics.Andycrrhcyarc hardlyrcmcmbcrcdroday. Vharlirrlc
noriccrhcydogcrrcndsrocomcIromrhoscinrcrcsrcdinrcligioushis-
rory, parricularlyuddhism. urrcligion is only onc parr oI a much
biggcrsroryoISino-!ndianconnccrionsovcrrhchrsrmillcnnium, and
rhcrc is nccd Ior a broadcr undcrsranding oI rhc rcach oI rhcsc
rclarions. 1hisis imporranr Ior a Iullcr apprcciarion nor only oIrhc
hisrory oIarhird oIrhc vorld`s popularion, buralso Iorrhc conrinu-
ingrclcvanccoIrhcsc connccrions,linkcdasrhcyarcvirhconrcmpo-
rarypolirical andsocial conccrns.
!r is ccrrainly corrccr ro scc rcligion as a maj or rcason Ior rhc
hisroricalcloscncss oIChina and!ndia, andro apprcciarc rhc ccnrral
rolc oI uddhism in iniriaring rhc movcmcnr oI pcoplc and idcas
bcrvccnrhcrvocounrrics.Iovcvcr,cvcnrhoughuddhismscrvcdas
a crirically imporranr inHucncc, rhc inrcllccrual inrcracrions bcrvccn
rhcrvocounrricsiniriarcdbyuddhismvcrcnorconhncdrorcligion
only. 1hc non-rcligious or vhar, in currcnr rcrminology, may bc
callcd 'sccular` ) conscgucnccs oI rhcsc rclarions srrcrchcd vcll inro
scicncc, marhcmarics, lircrarurc, linguisrics, archirccrurc, mcdicinc
andmusic.VcknovIromrhcclaborarcaccounrslcIrbyanumbcroI
Chincsc visirors ro !ndia, such as !axian in rhc IiIrh ccnrury and
Xuanzang and Yi |ing in rhc scvcnrh,' rharrhcirinrcrcsrvas byno
mcans rcsrricrcd ro rcligious rhcory and pracriccs only. Similarly, rhc
!ndian scholars vho vcnr ro China, cspccially in rhc scvcnrh and
cighrh ccnrurics, includcd nor only rcligious cxpcrrs, bur also orhcr
proIcssionals, such asasrronomcrs andmarhcmaricians.
!risnor,hovcvcr,casyrorcscucrhcvaricryandrcachoIcarlySino-
!ndianinrcllccrualrclarionsIromrhcirinrcrprcrarionalconhncmcnrin
rhc rcligious baskcr. !ndccd, rcligious rcducrionism has bccn rcin-
IorccdinrcccnrycarsbyrhcconrcmporaryobscssionvirhclassiIying
rhcvorldpopularioninrodisrincr'civilizarions` dchncdprincipallyby
rcligion vcllillusrrarcd, Ior cxamplc, by SamuclIunringron`s parri-
rioning oI rhc vorld inro such carcgorics as 'Vcsrcrn civilizarion`,
'!slamic civilizarion`, ' uddhisr civilizarion`, 'Iindu civilizarion` ) .
CHINA AND INDIA
1hcrcis,asarcsulr,arcndcncyrosccpcoplcmainly - orcvcncnrircly
- inrcrms oIrhcirrcligion, cvcn rhough rhararrriburion oIasingular
idcnrirycanmissouronmuchrharisimporranr.1hisscgrcgarionhas
alrcady doncsignihcanrharmrorhc undcrsranding oIorhcrparrs oI
rhc gobal hisrory oI idcas and commirmcnrs, Ior cxamplc rhrough
rhc conIusion ir gcncrarcs bcrvccn rhc hisrory oI Nuslim pcoplc in
gcncral and !slamic hisrory in parricular, ignoring rhc Hovcring oI
scicncc,marhcmarics and lircrarurc pursucdby Nuslim inrcllccruas,
parricularlybcrvccnrhccighrhandrhcrhirrccnrhccnrurics.
1hcrcis,inIacr,anorhcrIacrorrharinIucnccsrhisinrcrprcrarional
bias. 1hcrcisanodddichoromyinrhcvayinvhichVcsrcrnandnon-
Vcsrcrn idcas and schoarship arc currcnry comprchcndcd, virh a
rcndcncy ro arrriburc aprcdominanrrolc ro rcigiosiryininrcrprcring
rhc vorks oI non-Vcsrcrn inrcllccruals vho had sccular inrcrcsrs
along virh srrong rcigious bclicIs. !r is, Ior cxamplc, nor assumcd
rhar, say, !saac cvron`s scicnriIic vork musr bc undcrsrood in
primarilyChrisrianrcrmscvcnrhoughhcdidhavcChrisrianbclicIsj ,
nor prcsumcd rhar his conrriburions ro vorldly knovlcdgc musr
somchov bc inrcrprcrcdinrhclighroIhis dccp inrcrcsrin mysricism
imporranrasmysricalspccularionscvidcnryvcrcrocvronhimsclI
andcvcn pcrhaps Iorsomc oIrhcmorivarion Iorhis cIIorrsj . !n con-
rrasr, vhcn ir comcs ronon-Vcsrcrnculrurcs, rcligious rcducrionism
rcndsrocxcrragrippinginHucncc.!orcxamplc,rhcrcisavidcsprcad
rcndcncy ro prcsumc rhar nonc oI rhc gcncra inrcllccrua vorks oI
uddhisr scholars or oI1anrricpracririoncrsin!ndia orChina could
bc 'propcrlyundcrsrood`cxccprin rhc spccial lighr oIrhcirrcigious
bclicIsandpracriccs.
1hc cxrcnsivc conracrs rhar vcrc gcncrarcd bcrvccn !ndia and
Chinarhroughuddhisrconnccrionsvcrcnorconhncdrorhcsubj ccr
*If the disaffected Arab activist today is induced to take pride only in the purity of
Islam, rather than in the many-sided richness of Arab history, the unique prioritiza
tion of religion has certainly played a big part in that interpretational enclosure.
There is an increased tendency also to see the broad civilization of India as j ust
'Hindu civilization' - to use the monothematic phrase favoured both by cultural clas
sifers like Samuel Huntington and by Hindu political activists (on this see Essay r
above) . The narrowing effects of some types of identity-based thinking, including the
privileging of a singular identity, are discussed in my forthcoming book, Identity and
Violence: The Illusion of Destiny, to be published by Norton, New York.
r6s
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
marrcroIuddhismonly.1hcyhad signihcanrcIIccrsinorhcrhclds as
vcll, including scicncc, marhcmarics, lircrarurc, linguisrics, mcdicinc
and music. 1hcy also broadcncd, in a gcncral vay, rhc inrcllccrual
horizonsoIpcoplcinrhcrvocounrrics,andcvcnhclpcdromakccach
oI rhcm lcss insular. 1his cssay is conccrncd spccihcally virh Sino-
!ndianhisroricalrclarionsinrhchrsrmillcnniumrharvcnrbcyondrhc
conhncsoIrcligiousinrcracrions.AparricularIocusoIarrcnrionisrhc
caralyricrolcrharrhcconnccrionsinspircdbyuddhism,andIosrcrcd
by uddhisr conracrs, playcd in advancing vhar can bc broadly
dcscribcdas sccularpursuirs.
Trade, Religion and Beyond
As ir happcns, uddhism vas nor rhc only vchiclc oI Sino-!ndian
rclarions, vhich bcgan almosr ccrrainlyvirh rradc. !ndian rradcrs
vcrccngagcdinimporringgoodsIromChinaIorrc-cxporrroCcnrral
Asia morc rhan rvo rhousandycars ago. Zhang Qian, an carlyIan
cmissaryroacrrianainrhcsccondccnruryBCE, vassurpriscdrohnd,
inrhc local markcrs, Chincscgoods IromYunnan mainlycorronand
bamboo producrsj , and on cnguiry hc lcarncd rhar rhcy had bccn
broughr rhcrc by !ndian caravans rhrough !ndia and AIghanisran.
!ndian inrcrmcdiarion in rradc bcrvccn China andrhcvcsr oIAsia
conrinucdovcrrhcccnrurics,rhoughrhccommodiryparrcrnvcnron
changing. Silk vas vcry imporranr inirially, bur ' by rhc clcvcnrh
ccnrury. . . porcclainhadalrcadyrcplaccdsilkasrhclcading Chincsc
commodiryrransshippcd rhrough!ndia`.
!n !ndia irsclI, consumprion habirs, parricularly oI rich !ndians,
vcrc radically inHucnccd a couplc oI rhousand ycars ago by inno-
varionsmadcinChina.Kau(ilya`sSanskrirrrcarisconcconomicsand
polirics, Arthasistra, hrsr vrirrcn in rhc Iourrh ccnrury BCE rhough
rcviscdandhnalizcdaIcvccnruricslarcr,givcs a spccialplaccro 'silk
and silk-clorh Irom rhc land oI China` among 'prccious arriclcs` and
' ob| ccrs oI valuc` . 1hcrc arc rcIcrcnccs in rhc ancicnr cpic rhc
Mahabharata ro Chincsc Iabric or silk ( cinarsuka) bcing givcn as
giIrs, and rhcrc arc similar rcIcrcnccs also in rhc ancicnr Laws of
Manu. 5
! 66
CHINA AND INDIA
1hc cxoric narurc oIChincscproducrsvascaprurcdin manylircr-
ary vorks in rhc carly parr oI rhc Iirsr millcnnium. !n a crirical
momcnr in rhc grcar hIrh-ccnrury play
S
akuntala by Kalidasa pcr-
hapsrhc grcarcsr pocr and dramarisrinclassicalSanskrir lircrarurcj ,
vhcn Kinguyanra sccs,inrhcmiddlc oIa hunring cxpcdirion, rhc
srunning hcrmir-girl

akunral a, and is alrogcrhcr srrickcn by hcr

bcaury, rhc lovcsick king cxplains rhc srarc oI his rranshxarion by
comparinghimsclIvirhrhcvayabanncrmadcoIChincscsilkIurrcrs
in rhc vind. 'Ny body gocs Iorvard, I ur my rclucranr mind runs
backI !ikc Chincsc silkona banncrI 1rcmblingagainsrrhcvind. ` !n
Har$acarita by apa, vrirrcn in rhc scvcnrh ccnrury, rhc cclcbrarcd
vcddingoIrhcbcauriIulKajyasrIismadcparricularlyrcsplcndcnrby
hcrdccisionrobcclorhcdinclcganrChincscsilk.1hcrcarcalsoplcn-
riIul rcIcrcnccs in rhc Sanskrir lircrarurc in rhis pcriod ro many
Chincscproducrsorhcrrhansilkrharmadcrhcirvayinro!ndia,vary-
ingIromcamphor ( cinaka) , Icnncl( cinaka) , vcrmilion( cinapi$ta) and
high-gualiry lcarhcr ( cinasi) ro pcar ( cinarajaputra) and pcach
( cinani) .
6
!I China vas cnriching rhc marcrial vorld oI !ndia rvo rhousand
ycars ago, !ndiavas busy, ir appcars, cxporringuddhismro China.
1har oIrcn-rccollccrcd proccss is ccrrainly a parr oIhisrory, and rhis
srraighrIorvard srory rcguircs acknovlcdgcmcnr hrsr, bcIorc morc
complcx corrclarcs oI rhosc rclarions arc cxamincd. 1hc Iirsr Iirm
rccord oIrhc arrival oI!ndianmonks in China gocs backro rhc hrsr
ccnrury CE, vhcn harmaraka and Kasyapa Naranga camc ar rhc
invirarion oI Lmpcror Ningdi oI rhc Ian dynasry. According ro
lcgcnd, rhc cmpcror had sccn Gaurama uddha in his drcam rhcrc
musr havc bccn somc knovlcdgc alrcady oIuddhism in China Ior
rhcccnrralcharacrcrinrhcroyaldrcamrobcrccognizcdasGauramaj ,
andhcdisparchcdascarchrcamroIcrchuddhisrcxpcrrsIrom!ndia.
harmaraka and Naranga, rhc rvo !ndian monks, arrivcd virh
masscs oIrcxrs and rclics on a vhirchorsc,vhcrcuponrhc Chincsc
builrIorrhcmrhc'VhircIorscNonasrcry`,Baima si, vhcrcrhcrvo
apparcnrly spcnr rhc rcsr oIrhcir livcs.
!romrhcnon,!ndianscholarsandmonkskcprcomingroChinain
an unbrokcn srrcam, and rhis vcnr on unril rhc clcvcnrh ccnrury.
1hcrc arcrccordsoIrhc livcs andvorks oIhundrcdsoIsuch scholars
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
and rranslarors, vho produccd Chincsc vcrsions oI rhousands oI
Sanskrir documcnrs. LvcnasrhcIlovcamcro ancndinrhcclcvcnrh
ccnrury no Iurrhcr arrivals arc rccordcd in rhc Chincsc chroniclcs
aIrcrtoj6) , rhcrranslarionsvcrcgoingonvirhasronishingrapidiry
vclcarnrharzotIurrhcrSanskrirvolumcsvcrcrranslarcdbcrvccn
p8 zand I OI I ) . ur by rhcn uddhism vas in long-rcrm dccinc in
China virh rhc groving dominancc oI co-ConIucianism. !r had
also, by rhis rimc, dcclincd in rhc counrry oI irs origin rhc lasr
uddhisr dynasry in !ndia, rhc !alas oI cngal, pcrcrcd our in rhc
rvclIrhccnrury) .'
1hcrcvas asimilar- rhough somcvhar smallcr- Ilovinrhcoppo-
sirc dirccrion, Irom China ro !ndia. 1hc rcporrs rhar rhc Chincsc
visirorsvrorcabour!ndiacovcrcdirs inrcllccrual pursuirs asvcllas
rcligious pracriccs, living srylcs and social sysrcms. Yi|ing, guorcd
carlicr, vcnrro !ndia in 6;5, onrhc sca rourc via
g
rvij aya, a Ilour-
ishing coasral ciry in scvcnrh-ccnrury Sumarra, vhich had srrong
!ndian inIlucnccs andvasvhcrcYi|ingacguircdhis Sanskrir) . Ic
srudicdarrhcinsrirurcoIhighcrlcarning,aralanda,locarcdcloscro
!a(alipurra nov!arna) , rhcancicnrcapiraloINaurya!ndia rhchrsr
all-!ndia srarc, csrablishcdinrhc IourrhccnruryBCE) . Yi|ingvrorc a
dcrailcd accounr, complcrcdin 6pt, onvharhc sav and assimilarcd
inhis dccadcin!ndia.8 IisinvcsrigarionoIvharro lcarn Irom!ndia
conccnrrarcd,asoncvouldcxpccr,onuddhisrphilosophyandprac-
ricc in parricular, bur ir also includcd orhcr hclds oI srudy such as
proccdurcs oIhcalrhcarc andmcdicinc - a subjccroIspccial inrcrcsr
ro him, ro vhich Yi |ing dcvorcd rhrcc chaprcrs oIhis book. ! shall
rcrurnlarcrroYi|ing`s obscrvarionsonrhissubjccr.
1hchrsrChincscscholarro lcavca scriousaccounroIhis visirro
!ndia vas !axian, a uddhisr scholar Irom vcsrcrn China vho
vanrcdrogoro!ndiarosccksomcSanskrirrcxrs suchas Vinaya) and
ro makc rhcmavailablc in China. Ic arrivcd in !ndia almosr rhrcc
hundrcd ycars bcIorc Yi |ing, in qoI . Ic undcrrook an arduous
j ourncy rhroughrhcnorrhcrnrourcviaKhoranvhich had a srrong
uddhisr prcscncc) , having srarrcd oII Irom China in jpp. AIrcrrcn
acrivc ycars in!ndia, !axian rcrurncd by sca, sailingIromrhc mourh
oI rhc Gangcs or Iooghly nor Iar Irom prcscnr-day Calcurra) , via
uddhisr Sri !anka, andhnallyIindu|ava. !axian spcnrhis rimcin
I 68
CHINA AND INDIA
!ndia rravclling vidcly, visiring ma| or cirics and uddhisr sircs,
collccring documcnrs vhichhc vouldlarcrrranslarc inro Chincsc),
andralking - irvouldappcar- virhcvcryoncaroundhim.Icvrorc
a highly illuminaring accounr oI!ndia and Sri !anka, A Record of
Buddhist Kingdoms.9 !axian`s ycars in !a(alipurra vcrc dcvorcd ro
srudying languagc and lircrarurc, in addirion ro rcligious rcxrs.
Iovcvcr, virha somcvharsimilar inrcrcsr inpublichcalrh asYi|ing
voulddisplaylarcr,!axianalsopaidparriculararrcnrionrorhc!ndian
arrangcmcnrs Iorhcalrh carc, androrhis, roo,! shallrcrurn.
1hc mosr Iamous visiror Irom China, Xuanzang, camc in rhc scv-
cnrhccnruryundcrrhclarcr1angdynasry. Xuanzang,vhovasaIor-
midablc scholar, collccrcd a grcar many Sanskrir rcxrs again, hc
vouldrranslarcmanyoIrhcmaIrcrhisrcrurnroChina) , andrravcllcd
rhroughour!ndia Ior sixrccnycars, includingrhcycars hc spcnr ikc
Yi|ingvhovouldIollovhimrhcrc) inrhcdisringuishcdcducarional
csrablishmcnr ar alanda. 1hcrc Xuanzang srudicd mcdicinc, philo-
sophy, logic, marhcmarics, asrronomy and grammar, in addirion ro
uddhism.'"XuanzangalsomcrrhcuddhisrcmpcroroInorrh!ndia,
King Iara, and had convcrsarions virh him on Sino-!ndian rca-
rions.
l l
Xuanzang`svisirvasvcllrcmcmbcrcdIormanyccnrurics, borhin
!ndia and China. Auddhisrvisirorro !ndia Irom|apaninrhc ninrh
ccnrury norcdvirh much inrcrcsr rhc Iacr rhar, in a largc numbcr oI
uddhisr rcmplcs in 'middlc !ndia` , Xuanzang vas rcprcscnrcd in
painrings virh his 'hcmp shocs, spoon and chop-sricks mounrcd on
mulricolourcd clouds` . !n China rhcrc vcrc a grcar many cgcnds
abour Xuanzang, vhich bccamc guirc popular by rhc rcnrh ccnrury
andvcrcIrcgucnrlypcrIormcd aspays onrhc Chincsc sragclarcron.
1hcbcsrknovnandmosrpopular oIrhcsc scmi-hcrional accounrs is
a sixrccnrh-ccnrury allcgorical novcl, Xi You ]i '1hc|ourncy ro rhc
Vcsr`, alsorranslarcdasMonkey) , byVuChcng`cn. '
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Insularity and Openness
cspircrhcrcspccrinvhichrhc!ndia-rcrurncd Chincscscholarsvcrc
vicvcdinrhcirovncounrry, includingrhcroyalparronagcrhcyoIrcn
rcccivcd, ir is imporranr nor ro ovcrlook rhc rcsisrancc ro !ndian -
parricularly uddhisr - inHucncc rharvas also vidcsprcadin China.
1hcrcsisranccrouddhisminvariouspcriodsoIChincschisrorycon-
raincd,amongorhcrclcmcnrs,asrrongbclicIinChina`sscnscoIinrcl-
lccrual invulncrabiliry, and in parricular rhc pcrsuasion rhar idcas
gcncrarcdoursidc Chinacouldnorrcallybcvcryimporranr. IanYu,
ananri-uddhisrinrcllccrualinrhcninrhccnrury,vhovouldbcmuch
championcd larcr on by ConIucians, pur rhc issuc srarkly in his
'Ncmorialonuddhism`vrirrcnin 8 tp.
The Buddha was of barbarian origin. His language differed from Chinese
speech; his clothes were of a different cut; his mouth did not pronounce the
prescribed words of the Former Kings; his body was not clad in garments
prescribed by the Former Kings. He did not recognize the relationship
between prince and subject, nor the sentiments of father and son.
Ian Yu cvcn oIIcrcd an illusrrarivc prooI oI rhc vrongncss oI
uddhisrvays.
[Emperor Wu of the Liang] dedicated himself to the service of the Buddha.
He refused to use animals in the sacrifces in his own ancestral temple. His
single meal a day was limited to fruits and vegetables. In the end he was
driven out and died of hunger. His dynasty likewise came to an untimely end.
In serving the Buddha he was seeking good fortune, but the disaster that over
took him was only the greater. Viewed in the light of this, it is obvious that
the Buddha is not worth serving.
aoisr or 1aoisr) opposirion ro uddhism also had a srrong
clcmcnroIChincscinrcllccrualnarionalismanda scnscoIsupcrior-
iry oI Chincsc vays. As ir happcns, uddhism and aoism havc
manysimilarirics,burrharonlymadcrhcbarrlccvcnhardcr, andrhc
issucoIrcmporalprioriry, roo,Iigurcdin rhisconIlicr. !orcxamplc,
inrhc carlyIourrhccnruryaaoisracrivisr,namcdVang!u,vrorc
a book callcd Laozi Hua Hu ]ing '1hc Classic abour !ao-rzu`s
I70
CHINA AND INDIA
Civiizingrhcarbarians ` ) . !nrhis accounr!aozi or!ao-rzu,rousc
rhcod burpcrhaps morc Iamiiar spcing) , rhcIoundcr oIaoism
vho is normay paccd in rhc rhird ccnrury BCE) , vas pur on an
imagincd civiizing mission ro !ndia, cspcciay ro inIucncc
Gaurama uddha vho, as ir happcns, had dicd a Icv ccnrurics
bcIorc!aozi`s acgcdarriva ) . CharcsIuckcrhaspirhiydcscribcd
rhis inrcnscy pocmica vork and rhc rarhcr bizarrc conrrovcrsy ir
gcncrarcd.
[Wang Fu's] basic thesis is that Lao-tzu, on departing China, traveled across
Central Asia into India and there either ( r) magically transformed an accom
panying disciple into the historic Buddha, ( 2) converted Buddha to Taoism,
or . ( 3 ) became Buddha himself, depending on which version of the text one
reads. Buddhists fought this Taoist attack primarily by moving the life of the
Buddha back to earlier and earlier times, and Taoists responded in kind by
reassigning dates to Lao-tzu.
1
4
As !con Iurvirz and 1sai Icng-1ing havc discusscd, rhc gucs-
rion, 'Vhy shoud a Chincsc aov himscI ro bc inIucnccd by
!ndian vays ! ` vas, in Iacr, ' onc oIrhc obj ccrions mosr Ircgucnry
raiscd by ConIucians and aoisrs oncc uddhism had acguircd a
Ioorhodon Chincscsoi` . 1hcossoIrhcccnrraposirionoIChina
in rhc ordcr oI rhings in rhc vord vas among rhc conccrns. 1hc
uddhisr rcsponsc rook varying Iorms, burhcpcdro opcn up somc
issucsoIunivcrsaisrcrhicsarcasrinsomcoIrhcrcsponscsroanri-
uddhisr pocmic. Nouzi, a vigorous dcIcndcr oIuddhism and oI
rhc comparibiiry oI rhc uddhisr ourook virh bcing a good
Chincsc, cvcn askcd rhc gucsrion in his combarivc Lihao lun
' isposing oI Lrror` ) vhcrhcr rhc Chincsc shoud caim ro bc
unigucy ccnrra in rhc vord, and arricuarcd a srrong caim in
Iavour oIuddhisrunivcrsaism.
The commentary says, 'The north polar star is in the center of Heaven and to
the north of man. ' From this one can see that the land of China is not neces
sarily situated under the center of Heaven. According to the Buddhist scrip
tures, above, below, and all around, all beings containing blood belong to the
Buddha-clan.
1
6
171
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ncoIrhcposirivcconrriburions uddhisrconnccrionsproduccdin
China is rhc gcncral scnsc rharcvcnrhc Chincsc musr, ro somc cxrcnr,
lookourvards.!ndccd,nor onlydiduddhismsuggcsrrharrhcrcvcrc
sourccs oIvisdomvcll oursidc China, burir also lcd ro rhc rcndcncy
oImany Chincsc inrcllccruals ro go abroad, inparricular ro !ndia, in
scarch oI cnlighrcnmcnr and undcrsranding. !urrhcrmorc, sincc rhcsc
visirorsro!ndiacamcbackvirhralcsoIvondcrIulrhingsrhcyhadsccn
in!ndia, irvas diIIiculrrorakcancnrirclySino-ccnrricvicvoIvorld
civilizarion. 1hcrc vcrc also orhcr admirablc sircs and achicvcmcnrs
rhcy could scc on rhc vay ro !ndia. !or cxamplc, Xuanzang in rhc
scvcnrh ccnrury marvcllcd ar rhc giganric amiyan srarucs oI
rhcuddhainAIghanisran,vhichhcsavashc approachcd!ndiaIrom
rhcVcsr onrhccircuirousrourchchadrakcnviaKhoran) .
!nIacr,somcChincsccommcnrarorsIclrrhrcarcncdnoronlybyrhc
dilurion oIChina`s ccnrraliry, bur - vorsc - byrhcrcndcncyoIsomc
uddhisrsrorakc!ndiaro bcacruallymorcccnrralrhanChina. Lvcn
rhough!ndia vascommonlyrcIcrrcd ro, arrharrimc, as 'rhcVcsrcrn
kingdom` giving China a morc ccnrral posirion) , rhc uddhisr pcr-
spccrivc rcndcd ro Iavour placing !ndia ar rhc ccnrrc oI rhings. !or
cxamplc,!axian`shIrh-ccnrurybookonhisrravcls dcscribcd!ndiaas
'rhcNiddlc kingdom`,virh ChinaasaIronricrcounrry.
Ib
Vhilc all rhis vas inrcnscly irriraring Ior bclicvcrs in China`s
ccnrraliry, such hcrcrodoxy did bring in a challcngc ro vhar vould
orhcrvisc havc bccn China`s monolirhic sclI-ccnrrcdncss. 1his vas
ccrrainlyamodcraringinIucncconChina`sinsulariry, andmighrcvcn
havc madc an indirccr conrriburion ro rhc inrcrcsr and cnrhusiasm
virhvhichChincscmarhcmaricians andasrronomcrs grccrcd!ndian
vorksinrhcschclds ro bcdiscusscdprcscnrly) .
nrhc orhcr sidc, uddhisr connccrions also hclpcd ro modcrarc
!ndian sclI-ccnrrcdncss and scnsc oI civilizarional cxclusivcncss.
SuspicionoIIorcigncrshasbccnaconrinuingIacrorinparrsoI!ndian
rhinking. Lvcn as larc as rhc clcvcnrh ccnrury, Albcruni, rhc rcmark-
ablc !ranian visiror, in his book Tarikh al-hind '1hc Iisrory oI
!ndia` ) , complaincd abour rhc!ndianarrirudcrovardsIorcigncrs.
These were the statues of Buddha that were destroyed recently by the Tali ban, thir
teen centuries after Xuanzang wrote eloquently about them.
172
CHINA AND INDIA
On the whole, there is very little disputing about theological topics among
themselves . . . . On the contrary all their fanaticism is directed against those
who do not belong to them- against all foreigners. They call them mleccha,
i. e. , impure, and forbid having any connection with them, be it by intermar
riage or any other kind of relationship, or by sitting, eating, and drinking
with them.
1hararrirudcdidrcccivc achallcngcIromuddhisrunivcrsalismand
IromrhcIacr rhar!ndians bccamc, Iormanyccnrurics, closcly linkcd
roorhcr pcoplcrhroughrhccommonbondoIa sharcdrcligion.
Asirhappcns, dcspircrhc sprcadoIuddhismbcyondrhcbordcrs
oI!ndia, locallyconhncd!ndianuddhisrs did noralvaysrccognizc
vhar a vorld rcligion uddhism vas bccoming. !n rhc carly IiIrh
ccnrury, !axiannorcdrhar vhcn hcmcr somcuddhisr monks arrhc
|cravana monasrcry in !ndia, hc vas surpriscd by rhcir scnsc oI
unigucncss. 1hcaccounr, inrhirdpcrson,rccounrs rhc cxpcricncc oI
!axianandao|ing,vhohadaccompanicd!axian.
The crowd of monks came out, and asked them from what kingdom they
were come. 'We are come, ' they replied, 'from the land of Han. ' 'Strange, '
said the monks with a sigh, 'that men of a border country should be able to
come here in search of our Law! ' Then they said to one another, 'During all
the time that we, preceptors and monks, have succeeded to one another, we
have never seen men of Han, followers of our system, arrive here.'20
-
1hcrcachoIuddhismandrhcprcscnccoIChincscuddhisrsin!ndia
vouldhavcdoncsomcrhingrochallcngcrhcrcndcncyrosccrhcvorld
innarrovly!ndianrcrms.
uddhisr cducarional insrirurions, parricularly rhar ar alanda in
casr !ndia, virh many disringuishcd Chincsc and orhcr Iorcign
srudcnrs, providcd a good basis Ior ovcrcoming rhar misrrusr. 1hc
conIicring arrirudcs camc ourvcrysharply arrhcpoinroIXuanzang`s
dcparrurc Iromaanda, in rhc scvcnrhccnrury. 1hc alandacsrab-
lishmcnrgrcarly admircd Xuanzang andvanrcdhimro srayon, and
rhcyhad oIIcrcd him a lcadingposirion in rhcacadcmicsraIIrhcrc.
Xuanzang`s disciplc Iui !i rcporrs rhc arrcmpr by rhc alanda
acadcmicsraIIrogivcaplcrhoraoIrcasonsropcrsuadcXuanzangro
makc !ndia hishomc.
173
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
The monks of Nalanda, when they heard of it [Xuanzang's plan to return to
China] , begged him to remain, saying: 'India is the land of Buddha's birth,
and though he has left the world, there are many traces of him . . . . Why then
do you wish to leave having come so far? Moreover, China is a country of
mlecchas, of unimportant barbarians, who despise the religious and the
Faith. That is why Buddha was not born there. The mind of the people is
narrow, and their coarseness profound, hence neither saints nor sages go
there. The climate is cold and the country rugged - you must think again.
21
1o rhis Xuanzang rcplicd virh rvo counrcrargumcnrs. 1hc hrsr dis-
purcd rhc syllogism by invoking uddhisr univcrsalism virhour
gucsrioningrhccmpiricalprcmisc. 'uddhacsrablishcdhisdocrrincso
rharirmighrbcdiIIuscdroalllands.Vhovouldvishrocnjoyiralonc,
and ro Iorgcrrhoscvho arc norycrcnlighrcncd! ` Xuanzang`ssccond
argumcnr dispurcd rhc cmpirical prcmisc abour China, in a spirir oI
narionalpridc,virhourconrradicringhisovnunivcrsalisrourlook.
Besides, in my country the magistrates are clothed with dignity, and the laws
are everywhere respected. The emperor is virtuous and the subjects loyal,
parents are loving and sons obedient, humanity and j ustice are highly
esteemed, and old men and sages are held in honour . . . . How then can you
say that Buddha did not go to my country because of its insignifcance?
Xuanzangrcrurncd ro Chinain 6q5, bur conrinucd his communi-
carionsvirh!ndia.AIcvycarsaIrcrvardshcrcccivcdalcrrcrIromhis
old Iricnd, !rajadcva, Irom alanda, vho scnr his rcgards along
virhrhoscoIorhcr!ndianIricnds oIXuanzang, andaddcd.
The Upasakas [students and trainees] always continue to offer their saluta
tions to you. We are sending you a pair of white cloths to show that we are
not forgetful. The road is long. So do not mind the smallness of the present.
We wish you may accept it. As regards the Sitras and the
S
astras [Sanskrit
texts] which you may require, please send us a list. We will copy them and
send them to you.
XuanzangrcplicdbyhrsrnoringrharhchadhcardrhcsadncvsoIrhc
dcarh oI onc oI his rcachcrs in alanda, and rhcn by raking up
!rajadcva`s oIIcrrohclpinscndinguscIuldocumcnrsIrom!ndia.
I
74
CHINA AND INDIA
I learnt from an ambassador who recently ca
m
e back from India that the
great teacher
S
ilabhadra was no more. This news overwhelmed me with grief
that knows no bounds . . . . I should let you know that while crossing the
Indus I had lost a load of sacred texts. I now send you a list of the texts
annexed to this letter. I request you to send them to me if you get a chance. I
am sending some small articles as presents. Please accept them.
1hroughrhcnormalsorrovs andrragcdicsoIhumanliIc,rhcbordcr-
lcsscngagcmcnrinpursuingacommonundcrsrandingconrinucd.ur
rhc Iorcign conracrs gcncrarcd rhrough uddhism had, ar lcasr
rcmporarily,shamcdrhcsclI-ccnrrcdarroganccoIsomcoIrhclcading
!ndianinrcllccrualsoIrhcrimc.
1hc broadcning cIIccrs oI uddhisr connccrions on rhc sclI-
ccnrrcdncss oI borh Chincsc and !ndian inrcllccruals arc among rhc
signihcanrsccularconscgucnccsoIrhcsc linkagcs.1hcyaddcda psy-
chological and pcrccprual dimcnsion ro rhc orhcr - morc palpablc -
sccularconscgucnccsoIuddhisrconnccrions,ovcrsuchdivcrschclds
as marhcmarics, asrronomy, lircrarurc, linguisrics, music, Iinc arrs,
mcdicinc andpublic hcalrh,vhich!rakcup nov.
Transmission of Ideas:
A Methodological Difficulty
!nrcracrions bcrvccn !ndian and Chincsc inrclccruals in rhc Iirsr
millcnniumvcrcparricularlysrronginmarhcmaricsandscicncccspc-
ciallyasrronomy) .cIorcasscssingrhcscinrcracrions,irvouldbcusc-
Iul ro considcr a scrious mcrhodological diIIiculry rclarcd ro rhc
proccdurcIordiagnosingrhcmovcmcnroIidcasIromonccounrryro
anorhcr. Lvcn rhough plausiblc connccrions arc casy ro poinr our,
dirccrcvidcnccoImovcmcnr oIidcasis oIrcn hardrohnd. '!nvorks
onrhc Chincsc scicnccs,`|can-ClaudcNarrzloIIhas norcdin his his-
roryoIChincscmarhcmarics,'nogucsrionhasbccnrouchcdonmorc
oIrcnrhanrharoIrhccircularionoIidcas, ` andycr'vcsrillknovvcry
lirrlcabourrhcsubj ccr. `'
|oscphccdham has arrcmprcd ro providc a lisr oImarhcmarical
idcas rhar 'radiarcd Irom China`, parriculary ro !ndia, and hc has
175
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
argucd rhar many morc idcasvcnrIrom Chinaro!ndiarhan camc in
rhc opposirc dirccrion. '!ndia vas rhc morc rcccprivc oI rhc rvo cul-
rurcs. ` NarrzloII criricizcs ccdham`s proccdurc ' bccausc oI irs
chronological and mcrhodological imprccision` , and gocs onro pro-
vidc somc scrious counrcrargumcnrs ro ccdham`s subsranrivc
conclusions.'!nrhcabscnccoIdirccrcvidcnccoIrhcmovcmcnroIan
idca, ccdham prcsumcs rharrhc idca in gucsrion acruallydidmovc
Iromrhccounrryvhcrcirsknovnusciscarlicrrorhccounrryvhcrc
rhc cvidcncc oIirs hrsrrccordcduscis ara larcr darc. 1hc proccdurc
is, rhus, csscnrially spccularivc, and can bc Iaulrcd, among orhcr
problcms, Ior ignoring rhc possiblc loss oI an carlicr rccord oIusc
vhichcouldaIIccrchronologicalprioriry, andnoracknovlcdgingrhc
possibiliryoIanindcpcndcnrdiscovcry.
1hc invcsrigarion oI rhc movcmcnr oI marhcmarical or scicnrihc
idcas bcrvccn Chinaand!ndiais also scriouslyhampcrcdbyrhcIacr
rharrhcrc is a subsranrial inIormarional asymmcrry bcrvccnrhcprc-
scrvcd rccords in rhc rvo counrrics. 1hc Chincsc rccords arc much
morccxrcnsivc andmuch bcrrcr prcscrvcd rhanrhcir!ndiancounrcr-
parrs. !r has bccomc incrcasingly common ro claim in rcccnr !ndian
discussions rhar rhc Iindu and uddhisr rccords Irom rhc Iirsr
millcnniumvcrcsubsranriallydcsrroycdduringandaIrcrrhcNuslim
congucsrs inrhc Iolloving ccnrurics. 1har did occur ro somccxrcnr,
parricularlyin norrh !ndia, bur, nolcss imporranrly, rhc gcncrallack
oIcnrhusiasminchroniclingcvcnrsandincidcnrsinancicnr!ndiadocs
conrrasr virh Chincsc mcriculousncss in vanring ro producc - and
kccp - dcrailcd rccords . |ohn Kicschnick has dravn arrcnrion ro
anorhcr possiblc cxplanarion oI rhc pauciry oI !ndian carly docu-
mcnrs.'Virhrhcinscriprionsonmcral,clay,orsronc,mosrvriringsin
ancicnr!ndiavcrcinscribcd onpicccs oIbirchbarkor palmlcavcs,
vhichvcrcrhcnboundrogcrhcr. !cvsuchmanuscriprs survivc Irom
ancicnrandmcdicval !ndia, oving pcrhaps morc ro rhc cphcmcraliry
oIpalm lcavcs andbirch barkrhanro disinrcrcsrinrhcmcdium. `'
Vharcvcrrhc causcs oIrhis asymmcrry oIrccords andvc donor
havc ro scrrlc rhar largcr issuc hcrc) , ir clcarly has vcry subsranrial
cIIccrs - as irhappcns in 'opposirc` dirccrions - onrhc mcrhods rhar
havc bccn uscd, rhar is, rhc rradirional rcliancc on dirccrcvidcncc oI
movcmcnr, and ccdham`s rcchniguc oI rclying on chronological
CHINA AND INDIA
prioriry oIrccords ro prcsumc a gcographical rransIcr. As Iar as rhc
rclianccondirccrcvidcnccisconccrncd,rhcinIormarionalasymmcrry
makcs ir a lor casicr ro shov rhar idcas movcd Irom!ndia ro China,
rarhcrrhanrhcopposirc,sinccrhcChincscrccordsoIdcrivarionIrom
!ndia arc much Iullcr and much bcrrcr prcscrvcdrhanrhc corrcspon-
ding !ndian rccords oI Chincsc inIucncc. 1his rcnds ro cxaggcrarc
China`s rcccpriviry, comparcd virh !ndia`s. n rhc orhcr hand,
ccdham`s prcsumprivc mcrhod oI comparing rhc darcs oI Iirsr
knovn usc in cach counrry rcnds ro rilr rhc diagnoscs in Iavour oI
movcmcnrs Irom China ro !ndia, rarhcr rhan rhc opposirc, sincc
Chincscrccords oIcarlyusc oIparricular idcas arcmuchIullcr and
much bcrrcr kcpr rhan rhc corrcsponding !ndian rccords. !ndccd,
givcnrhc asymmcrry oIrccords,rhcrcvould sccm ro bc no obvious
vayoIavoidingbiasinoncdirccrionorrhcorhcr.
!r is indccd hard ro scrrlc ccdham`s cnguiry inro vhar can bc
callcdrhc ' balancc oIrradc` inrhcmovcmcnr oIncv idcas bcrvccn
!ndia and China. urvc don`r rcallyhavcrorcsolvc rharrarhcr cso-
rcricissuc.Vharisimporranrronorchcrcisrharidcasinmarhcmar-
ics and scicncc, and also in orhcr non-rcligious subj ccrs, movcd
plcnriIully in borh dirccrions. orh counrrics can ro a considcrablc
cxrcnrbcabsolvcdIromrhcchargcoIabidinginrcllccrualinsulariry.
Mathematics and Science
ncoIrhcconnccrions onvhichcvidcnccoIinrcllccrualconnccrions
isplcnriIulis rhc impacr oIuddhisrs ingcncral, andoIadhcrcnrs oI
1anrricuddhisminparricular, on Chincsc marhcmarics and asrron-
omy in rhc scvcnrh andcighrhccnrurics, inrhc1angpcriod. Yi|ing,
virh vhosc rhcrorical gucsrion rhis cssay bcgan, vas onc oI many
rranslarors oI 1anrric rcxrs Irom Sanskrir inro Chincsc. Ic vas in
!ndia in rhc lasr guarrcr oI rhc scvcnrh ccnrury, ar a rimc vhcn
1anrrism vas bcginning ro gcncrarc a lor oI inrcrcsr in China.
1anrrism bccamc a maj or Iorcc in China in rhc scvcnrh and cighrh
ccnrurics, and had Iollovcrs among Chincsc inrcllcctuals oIrhchigh-
csr sranding. Sincc many 1anrric scholars had a dccp inrcrcsr in
marhcmarics pcrhaps connccrcd, ar lcasr inirially, virh rhc 1anrric
I77
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Iascinarion virh numbcrs) , 1anrric marhcmaricians had a signihcanr
inHucnccon Chincscmarhcmarics asvcll.
!ndccd, as ccdham norcs, 'rhc mosr imporranr 1anrrisr vas
!-Ising +6;z ro +;t;) , rhc grcarcsr Chincsc asrronomcr and marh-
cmaricianoIhisrimc` . ccdhamgocsonrorcmarkrhar'rhisIacralonc
shouldgivc us pausc, sincc ir oIIcrs a cluc ro rhc possiblc signihcancc
oI rhis Iorm oI uddhism Ior all kinds oI obscrvarional and cxpcri-
mcnralscicnccs`. '1hough1anrrismisoI!ndianorigin,rhcinIlucnccs,
as ccdham poinrs our, vcnrin borh dirccrions.'' !ndccd, ' CJnacara`
orChincscpracricc)hgurcspromincnrlyinparrsoIrhc!ndian1anrric
lircrarurc, asdo !ndianrcxrs in Chincsc1anrricvrirings. '
Yi Xing or !-Ising, ro usc ccdham`s spclling) vas Ilucnr in
Sanskrir. As a uddhisr monk,hcvas Iamiliarvirh!ndian rcligious
lircrarurc, burhc had acguircd a grcar cxpcrrisc also on!ndianvrir-
ings on marhcmarics and asrronomy. cspirc his ovn rcligious con-
nccrion,irvouldbcamisrakcroassumcrharYiXing`smarhcmarical
orscicnrihcvorkmusrhavcbccnmorivarcdbyrcligious conccrns. As
a gcncralmarhcmaricianvhohappcncdrobcalso a1anrrisr,YiXing
dcalrvirha varicry oIanalyricalandcompurarionalproblcms,many
oIvhichhadnoparricular connccrionvirh1anrrismoruddhismar
all. 1hc combinarorial problcms racklcd by Yi Xing includcd such
classic oncs as 'calcularingrhc roral numbcr oIpossiblc siruarions in
chcss` . Yi Xing vas parricularly conccrncd virh calcndrical cal-
cularions, and cvcn consrrucrcd, on impcrial ordcr, a ncvcalcndar
Ior China.
Calcndricalsrudics,invhich!ndianasrronomcrs locarcdin China
inrhccighrhccnrury, alongvirhYiXing,vcrcparricularlyinvolvcd,
madc good usc oI rhc progrcss oI rrigonomcrry rhar had alrcady
occurrcd in !ndia by rhcn going much bcyond rhc original Grcck
roors oI !ndian rrigonomcrry) . 1hc movcmcnr casr oI !ndian
rrigonomcrryroChinavasparroIaglobalcxchangcoIidcasrharalso
vcnr vcsr around rhar rimc. !ndccd, rhis vas also abour rhc rimc
vhcn !ndian rrigonomcrry vas having a maj or impacr on rhc Arab
vorld virh vidcly uscd Arabic rranslarions oI rhc vorks oI
^yabha(a, Varahamihira, rahmagupra and orhcrs) , vhich vould
larcr inIlucncc Luropcan marhcmarics as vcll, rhrough rhc Arabs.
Somcvcrbalsignposrsrorhc globalmovcmcnroIidcascanbcrcadily
CHINA AND INDIA
rraccd. AgoodcxamplcisrhcrransIormarionoIAyabha(a`sSanskrir
rcrmjya Iorvharvcnovcall sine: jya vasrranslarcd,rhroughprox-
imiry oIsound, inro Arabicjiba amcaninglcss vord in Arabic) and
larcrrransIormcdinrojaib a bayoracovcinArabic) , andulrimarcly
inro rhc!arinvordsinus mcaning a bayora covc) , Iromvhichrhc
modcrn rcrm ' sinc` is dcrivcd.
_
ryabhata`s jya vas rranslarcd in
Chincsc as ming and vas uscd in such rablcs as yue jianliang ming,
lircrally'sincoIlunar inrcrvals` . '"
1hcrc arc dcrailcd Chincsc rccords oIrhc Iacr rhar scvcral !ndian
asrronomcrs and marhcmariciansvcrc cmploycdin high posirions in
rhcAsrronomicalurcauarrhcChincsccapiral inrhispcriod.Asvas
mcnrioncd carlicr, onc oI rhcm, Gaurama Quran Xida) , bccamc
!rcsidcnroIrhcoardoIAsrronomyin China.Icproduccdrhcgrcar
Chincsc compcndium oI asrronomy Kaiyvan Zhanjing - an cighrh-
ccnruryscicnrihcclassic. `Icvasalsocngagcdin adapringanumbcr
oI !ndian asrronomical vorks inro Chincsc. !or cxamplc, ]iuzhi li,
vhichdravsonaparricularplancrarycalcndarin!ndia 'avagraha`
calcndar) , is clcarly bascd on rhc classical Paicasiddhantika, pro-
duccd around 5 5 0 CE by Varahamihira. !r is mainly an algorirhmic
guidc ro compurarion, csrimaring such rhings as rhc durarion oI
cclipscs bascdonrhcdiamcrcroIrhcmoonandorhcrrclcvanrparam-
crcrs. 1hcrcchnigucsinvolvcddrcvonmcrhodsrharvcrccsrablishcd
by ^yabha(a and rhcn Iurrhcr dcvclopcd by his Iollovcrs in !ndia
suchasVarahamihiraandrahmagupra.
Yang |ingIcng, an cighrh-ccnrury Chincsc asrronomcr, dcscribcd
rhcmixcdbackgroundoIoIIicial Chincscasrronomyrhus.
Those who wish to know the positions of the five planets adopt Indian
calendrical methods . . . . So we have three clans of Indian calendar experts,
Chiayeb (Kasyapa) , Chhiithan ( Gautama) , and Chiimolo (Kumara) , all of
whom hold office at the Bureau of Astronomy. But now most use is made of
the calendrical methods of Master Chhithan [Qutan] , together with his
'Great Art', in the work which is carried out for the government. 3 1
!n scrurinizing rhcsc Sino-!ndian connccrions i n scicncc, vhich
vcrccvidcnrlyimporranr,vchavcroasscssrhcrolcoIuddhismasa
caralysr. Lvcn rhough rhc !ndian asrronomcrs, such as Gaurama, or
I79
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Kasyapa or Kumara, voud nor havc bccn in China bur Ior rhc
rcarions gcncrarcd by uddhism, rhcir vork can hardy bc sccn
primariy asconrriburionsrouddhism.
Creative Arts, Literature and Language
1urningIrom scicncc andmarhcmaricsrorhcbroadcrhcd oIcururc,
rhc conscgucnccs oI uddhisr connccrions on China and !ndia vcrc
aso cxrcnsivc. 1hc Chincsc produccd somc oI rhc Iincsr uddhisr
monumcnrs, rcmpcs and monasrcrics, and among rhc grcarcsr
uddhisr scuprurc and painrings inrhcvord. Vhic rhcscmusr, ar
onc cvc, bc sccn as rcigious achicvcmcnrs, onc voud havc ro bc
guirc boorishro scc in rhcsc vorks oIarr norhing orhcr rhangraphic
rcigiosiry.Andcvcnrhough,asKicschnickhasiuminaringyargucd,
bridgc-buiding has spccia connccrions virh uddhisr idcas and
rhcorics,'rhc arrandcnginccringoIbridgc-buiding,vhichrcccivcd
much cncouragcmcnr Iromrhc sprcad oIuddhism, musrbcsccnro
bc oI considcrabc sccuar rccvancc, no marrcr vhar rhc iniria
rcigiousinspirarionmighrhavc bccn.
1hc samc can bcsaidoImusic,rhoughrhcinIucnccshcrc arccss
immcdiarc rhan in rhc visua arrs and marcria consrrucrion.
uddhisr chanrs as vc as !ndian music invarious Iorms such as
Tianzhu musicj pcncrrarcd inro China inrhc 1ang pcriod, andrhc
inrcracrions conrinucd ovcr rhc ccnrurics. !n 1404 Lmpcror
Chcngzu,asoknovnasrhcYonguocmpcror, oIrhcNingdynasry,
is supposcd ro havc compicd and cdircd ' Songs oI uddha` ,vhich
had bccnpopuarinChinaIromrhc1angroYuandynasrics 6r 8 ro
1 3 68) and various vcrsions oI rhis song book can bc Iound cvcn
rodayinChinaasvcasinsourh-casrAsia,IorcxampcinVicrnam
andurma.
1har uddhismhadanimpacr on Chincsc ircrarurc cannorcomc
asasurprisc. 1hcuscoIrcigiousandmyrhoogicarhcmcsIorpocrry,
hcrionand dramais srandardpracriccaroundrhcvord, and anyncv
sourcc oIinrcccruasrimuarion cannor burhavcirs impacr onvhar
isvrirrcnand rcad andcnjoycd. 1hcrcis aso norhing asronishing in
rhc Iacr rhar ovcr rimc vhar bcgan as a purcy rcigious rhcmc can
r 8o
CHINA AND INDIA
bccomcsuIIicicnry dcrachcd - and 'sccuarizcd` -ro bccnjoycdirrc-
spccrivc oIonc`s ovnrcigiouspcrsuasion.A Chincsc audicncccnjoy-
ing !cking opcras bascd on '1hc Icavcny Gir Scarrcring !ovcrs`
and'NaudgyayanaSavingIisNorhcr`docsnornccdcxpcrrisconrhc
!ndianuddhisrrradirionromakcscnscoIvharis goingon, andrhc
samcappicsrorhcapprcciarionoIrhcargcvoumcoIChincscpocrry
andprosc rhar vas inHucnccdbyuddhisridcas and irsrichrrcasury
oIanccdorcs.
Vhar is morc srriking is rhc indicarion rhar rhousands oIncv
vords and idioms vcrc inrroduccd inro rhc Chincsc anguagc
rhrough rransarions Irom Sanskrir. Vhic somc oI rhcsc Sanskrir
vords had rcigious connccrions, such as dhyana mcdirarionj ,
vhich bccamc ch'an i n Chincsc and rhcn zen) , orhcrs did nor.
!ndccd, cvcn rhcvord 'Nandarin` dcrivcs Irom rhcSanskrir vord
Mantr" an adviscror a minisrcr. rhc!rimcNinisrcroI!ndia issri
rhccounrry`s '!radhanNanrrI` j , rhoughrharcamcmucharcr - cvi-
dcnryviaNaaya. Sanskrir, ikccassica Chincsc, docs havc a rich
vocabuary, and rhc immcnsc voumc oI Sanskrir rcxrs rhar vcrc
rransarcdinro Chincsc providcdrhcoccasionIoraddingroChina`s
arcadyrichcxicon.
Anorhcr gcncra arca oI considcrabc inrcracrion vas inguisrics
and grammar, on vhich !apini, rhc Sanskririsr, had madc a major
brcakrhrough in rhc Iourrh ccnrury BCE. !n rhc scvcnrh ccnrury,
Xuanzang discusscs rhc conrriburions oI !apini and his discipcs.
VirhindccadcsoIrhar,Yi|ingscpararcsourrhishcdasoncinvhich
!ndiaand Chinahad borh madc signihcanrconrriburionsroschoary
undcrsrandinginrhcvhocvord.'Iovmuchmorcrhcn`,muscdrhis
!ndia-rcrurncd Chincsc schoar, ' shoud pcopc oI rhc ivinc !and
Chinaj , as vc as rhc Cccsria Srorc Iousc !ndiaj , rcach rhc rca
rucs oI anguagcl `` ` Iov dccp rhcsc conrriburions vcrc and hov
muchrhc rvo cururcs bcnchrcdIromrhcirinrcracrionsrcmainro bc
asscsscd, bur rhis arca roo, ikc orhcrs arcady idcnrihcd, dcmands
invcsrigarion Irom rhc pcrspccrivc oI broadcr conscgucnccs oI
uddhisrconnccrions.
I 8 I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Public Communication and Arguments
1hcmovcmcnroIidcas andskisinmarhcmaricsandscicnccrcmains
parricuaryrccvanrinrhcconrcmporaryvord,andcrcarivirybascd
ongivcandrakchasimmcdiarcimpicarionsIorgobacommcrccand
cnrcrprisc invoving,Iorcxampc,rhcuscanddcvcopmcnroIinIor-
marion rcchnoogy or modcrn indusrria mcrhods j . Vhar may bc
pcrhaps css immcdiarcy obviousisrhcimporranccoIcarningIro
cachorhcrinrhc commirmcnrropubiccommunicarionand inrhc arr
oI pubic hcarh carc. 1hcsc vcrc imporranr in rhc inrcccrua rca-
rions bcrvccn China and !ndia in rhc hrsr micnnium and rcmain
guircccnrracvcnroday.
1houghuddhismisarcigionikcany orhcr,irbcganvirh arcasr
rvo spccihc characrcrisricsrharvcrcguirc unusua, rovir,irsIoun-
dariona agnosricism and irs commirmcnr ro pubic communicarion
anddiscussion.1hcarrcrvasrcsponsibcIorrhcIacrrharsomcoIrhc
caricsr opcn pubic mccrings in rhc vord, aimcd spccihcay ar scr-
ring dispurcs bcrvccn diIIcrcnr vicvs, rook pacc in !ndia in cabo-
rarcy organizcd uddhisr 'councis` , vhcrc adhcrcnrs oI diIIcrcnr
poinrs oI vicv rricd ro arguc our rhcir diIIcrcnccs, parricuary on
pubicpracriccs asvcasrcigious bcicIs.Asvas discusscdin Lssay
t abovc,rhcsccouncisarcoIgrcarimporranccIorrhchisroryoIpub-
ic argumcnrs. 1hc hosr oI rhc argcsr oI rhcsc councis rhc rhirdj ,
Ashoka,cvcnrricdrocsrabish,i nrhcrhirdccnruryBCE, goodrucsIor
producrivcdcbaringrobcIoovcd bya, virh'rcsrrainrinrcgard ro
spccch` and virh rhc poinrs oI vicv oI a bcing 'duy honourcd in
cvcryvayon aoccasions` .
!n so Iar as pubic rcasoning is ccnrra ro dcmocracy as poirica
phiosophcrs ikc |ohn Sruarr Ni, |ohn Kavs and |ucrgcn
Iabcrmashavc argucdj,parrs oIrhcgoba roors oIdcmocracy can
indccd bc rraccd ro rhc rradirion oI pubic discussion rhar rcccivcd
much cncouragcmcnr in borh !ndia and China and aso in |apan,
Korca and cscvhcrcj , Irom rhc diaogic commirmcnr oI uddhisr
organizarion. !r is aso signihcanr rharncarycvcry arrcmpr ar cary
prinringinChina,Korcaand|apanvasundcrrakcnbyuddhisrrcch-
CHINA AND INDIA
noogisrs.` Asvasmcnrioncdin Lssay 4, rhchrsrprinrcdbookinrhc
vordvirha darc corrcspondingro 868 CE) , vhichvasrhc Chincsc
rransarion oI a Sanskrir rrcarisc, rhc so-cacd ' iamond Surra`
Kumarajvahadrransarcdirin402 CE) , carricdrhcrcmarkabcmori-
variona cxpanarion. 'IorunivcrsaIrccdisrriburion` .|
|ohn Kicschnickhas norcd rhar ' onc oIrhc rcasons Ior rhc impor-
ranrpaccIorbooksinrhcChincscuddhisrrradirionisrhcbcicIrhar
onccangainmcrirbycopyingorprinringuddhisrscriprurcs` , andhc
has argucd rhar 'rhc origins oI rhis bcicI can bc rraccd ro !ndia`.
1hcrcissomcgroundIorrhardiagnosis,burasidc Iromany bcicIin
rhc mcriroIrcproducrion,rhcrc is surcya connccrionhcrc asovirh
rhc imporrancc oI pubic communicarion, cmphasizcd by such
uddhisr cadcrs as Ashoka, vho covcrcd !ndia virh sronc rabcrs
bcaringinscriprionsongoodpubicbchaviour,incudingrucsonhov
ro conducr an argumcnr.
1hc dcvcopmcnr oIprinringvas, oIcoursc, imporranrinrhclong
run Ior dcmocracy asvc knovir, burcvcn inrhc shorrrun, irrrans-
Iormcd rhc possibiirics oI pubic communicarion in gcncra, virh
cnormousy imporranr conscgucnccs Ior socia and poirica iIc in
China. Among orhcr rhings, ir aso inHucnccd nco-ConIucian cduca-
rion, and, as 1hcodorc dc ary has norcd, 'vomcn`s cducarion
*It appears that there were early attempts at printing by Indian Buddhists as well.
Indeed, Yi Jing, the Chinese scholar who visited India in the seventh century, appar
ently encountered prints of Buddhist images on silk and paper in India, but these were
probably rather primitive image blocks. A little earlier, Xuanzang is said to have
printed pictures of an Indian scholar (Bhadra) as he returned to China from India. On
this early history, see Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, I 985 ), vol. V, part i, pp. q8-9.
tKumarajlva was a half-Indian and half-Kucian scholar (from east Turkestan), who
studied in India but had a leading position at the Institute of Foreign Languages and
Literatures in Xian [Changan], from 402 CE. Yao Xing, the king and the patron of
Kumarajlva, bestowed on him the title 'the Teacher of the Nation'. The 'Diamond
Sutra' was one of seventy or so Sanskrit books that Kumarajlva is reputed to have
translated (of these, more than thirty have been authenticated), in addition to writing
commentaries on Nagarjuna, the Indian Buddhist philosopher, and on Daode Jing
(also known as Tao to king), the Taoist classic. The Diamond Sutra itself was trans
lated into Chinese many - perhaps even a dozen - times. But it is the translation of this
Sanskrit document by Kumarajlva that has the distinction of being the frst dated
printed book in the world.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
achicvcdancvcvc oIimporranccvirhrhcriscoIrhc Song dynasryj
carningandirsnco-ConIuciancxrcnsionsinrhcNing,markcdbyrhc
grcarsprcad oIprinring,ircracyandschooing` . ` `
Health Care and Medicine
Asidc Irom pubic communicarion, rhc inrcr-counrry connccrions in
pubic hcarh carc arc aso oIimporrancc, andrhcrvo doinrcrrcarc
virhcachorhcr rhisinkagcvibcprcscnrydiscusscdj . Asvasmcn-
rioncdcaricr, !axian,vho arrivcdin!ndiain 401 CE, rookconsidcr-
abc inrcrcsrinconrcmporaryhcarh arrangcmcnrs in !ndia. Ic vas
parricuaryimprcsscd byrhc civic Iaciirics Ior mcdica carc inhIrh-
ccnrury !a(aipurra.
All the poor and destitute in the country . . . and all who are diseased, go
to these houses, and are provided with every kind of help, and doctors
examine their diseases. They get the food and medicine which their cases
require, and are made to feel at ease; and when they are better, they go away
of themselves. 3 6
Vhcrhcrornorrhisdcscriprionvasovcr-HarrcringrocaryhIrh-ccnrury
!arna vhich sccms vcryikcyj , vharis imporranr is rhc invovcmcnr
virhvhich!axianvanrcdroobscrvcandcarnIromrhcarrangcmcnrs
Ior mcdica carcinrhccounrryhcvisircdIor adccadc.
Yi|ing roo, rvo and a haI ccnrurics arcr, vas vcry cngagcd in
cxamininghcarhcarc,rovhichhcdcvorcdrhrccchaprcrsoIhisbook
on !ndia. Ic vas morc imprcsscd virh !ndian hcarh pracricc rhan
virh !ndian mcdicinc. Vhic giving !ndia crcdir Ior somc mcdica
rrcarmcnrs, mainyaimcd ar paiarion such as 'ghcc, oi, honcy, or
syrupsgivconcrcicIIromcod` j , hcconcudcd. '!nrhchcaingarrsoI
acupuncrurc andcaurcryandrhcskioIIccingrhc pusc, Chinahas
ncvcrbccnsurpasscdby!ndiaj,rhcmcdicamcnrIorproongingiIcis
onyIoundin China. ` nrhcorhcr hand,rhcrcvcrcrhings ro carn
Irom !ndia on hcarh bchaviour, such as 'rhc !ndians usc hnc vhirc
corhIor srrainingvarcr andin Chinahnc sik shoud bcuscd`, and.
' in China, pcopc oIrhc prcscnrrimc car hsh andvcgcrabcsmosry
uncookcd,no!ndiansdorhis. ` VhicYi|ingrcrurncdroChinahappy
CHINA AND INDIA
cnough virh his counrry oI origin, hc did nor omir ro discuss vhar
ChinacoudncvcrrhccsscarnIrom!ndia.
Public Health and Public Arguments
1hc cxrcnsivc inrcccrua rcarions bcrvccn China and !ndia in rhc
Iirsr micnnium arc oI obvious narrarivc signiIicancc borh Ior rhc
hisroryoIa bigparroIhumaniryandIorrhcrccvancc oIrhcscdcib-
crarions in rhc goba hisrory oI idcas. 1hc nccd ro srudy rhcsc
rcarionsismadccvcnsrrongcrbyrhcvayrhisrichhisroryhasrcndcd
ro bcignorcdin rhc conrcmporaryundcrsrandingoIourgobapasr.
NanyoIrhcconccrnsandinrcrcsrsrharinkcdChinaand!ndiainrhc
hrsrmicnnium varyingIrommarhcmarics and scicnccro ircrarurc,
arrsandpubiccommunicarionj , virhinrcracrions acrossrhcbordcrs,
havcconrinucdrocxcrrrhcirinHucnccinrhcrhousandycarsrharhavc
passcdsinccrhchrsrmicnnium.
1hcrc arc, hovcvcr, addiriona gucsrions oI conj ccrura inrcrcsr
abour rhc ighr rhar Sino-!ndian inrcccrua cngagcmcnrs in rhc hrsr
micnniummayrhrovonpoirica, sociaandcconomic discussionin
rhc vord roday. !s rhc odhisrory oIrhcsc cross-bordcr inrcracrions
bcrvccnChinaand!ndiaoIanyrccvanccrorhcprcscnr-dayconccrns
inrhcsccounrrics, andmorcbroady,inrhcconrcmporaryvord! Ior
cxampc, docs rhc ovcrcoming oInariona or civiizarionainsuariry
havc conrinuing inrcrcsr! !s rhcrc any conrcmporaryrccvancc inrhc
rradirions andpracriccsinrhcrvo counrrics rhar,rovarying cxrcnrs,
cngagcdborh counrrics inrhchrsrmicnnium, suchas 'rhcarroIpro-
onging iIc` or rhc cxrcnr ro vhich ' pubic argumcnrs` arc ro bc
cncouragcd!
!ubic hcarh is a subjccr in vhichcarning Irom cach orhcr can
indccd bc cxrrcmcyimporranr, andrhis - as vc sav caricr - vas a
subjccr oIconccnrrarion in Sino-!ndian rcarions cvcn as cary as rhc
hIrhccnrury. Vhic Chincsccommcnrarorsvcrcparricuarycngagcd
inaskingvharChinacoudcarnIrom!ndiainrhc 'arroIproonging
iIc`, in rhc modcrn conrcxr ir is much casicr ro scc vhar !ndia can
carnIromChina,rarhcrrhanrhcconvcrsc.1hccssonsIor!ndiaIrom
ChinavibcaparricuarIocusoIarrcnrioninLssay9 !nIacr, China
r 8 s
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
has cnjoycd a iIc cxpccrancy rhar is signihcanry

ongcr rhan !ndia`s

ovcrguirc aIcv dccadcs nov inIacr, Irom shorryaIrcrrhc Chincsc
rcvourionand!ndia`sindcpcndcncc, rcspccrivcyj .
Iovcvcr,rhchisroryoIprogrcssiniIccxpccrancyinrhcrvocoun-
rricsrcsa muchrichcrsroryrhanrharovcrasummarycomparison
can rcvca. Naoisr China madc an cary srarr in vidcsprcad hcarh
carcshorryaIrcrirs rcvourion, inrhcIorm oIsomchcarhinsurancc
Iora,dcivcrcdbyrhcsrarcorbyrhccoccrivcsorcommuncsinrhc
rura arcas. 1hcrc vas norhing comparabc in !ndia arrhar rimc. y
rhcrimc cconomicrcIormsvcrcinrroduccdin Chinain tp;p, China
hada cad oIIourrccnycars ovcr!ndia inongcviry. 1hc ChincsciIc
cxpccrancy - around 68 ycars by tp;p - vas amosr a dccadc and a
haI ongcr rhan !ndia`s puny hgurc oI q ycars, ar rhc rimc oI rhc
Chincsc cconomicrcIorms.
Virh rhc rcIorms oI tp;p, rhc Chincsc cconomy surgcd ahcad
spccracuary and grcvmuch Iasrcr rhan !ndia`s morc modcsr pcr-
Iormancc cvcnrhough!ndia`sgrovrhrarcIromrhc tp8os onvards
vashighcrrhanhcrovnpasrpcrIormanccj . Iovcvcr, dcspircChina`s
muchIasrcrcconomicgrovrh,rhcrarcoIcxrcnsionoIiIccxpccrancy
in!ndiahas bccn abour rhrccrimcs as Iasr, onrhc avcragc, asrharin
China,sincc tp;p. China`siIccxpccrancy,vhichisnovj usrabour;t
ycars, comparcs virh !ndia`s Iigurc oI 6q ycars, so rhar rhc iIc-
cxpccrancygapinIavouroIChina,vhichvasIourrccnycarsintp;p
ar rhc rimc oI rhc Chincsc rcIormsj , has nov bccn havcd ro ony
scvcnycars.
!ndccd, China`s iIc cxpccrancy oI ;t ycars is nov signiIicanry
ovcrrhanrharinparrs oI!ndia,mosrnorabyinrhcsrarc oIKcraa.
!risparricuaryinsrrucrivcroookarKcraa,dcspircrhcIacrrhariris
j usr onc srarc virhin a argc counrry. !n Iacr, virh irs j o miion
pcopc,Kcraacoudhavcbccnacounrryonirsovn,burmorcimpor-
ranry,Kcraa`scxpcricncchasbccnparricuarydisringuishcdincom-
bining!ndiansrycmuri-parrydcmocracyvirh sociainrcrvcnrionoI
rhcrypcinvhichprc-rcIormChinavaspcrhapsrhcvordcadcr.1hc
advanragc oIrharcombinarion shovs irscI noronyin achicvcmcnrs
in high iIc cxpccrancy, bur aso in many orhcr hcds. !or cxampc,
vhic rhc Icmac-mac rario in rhc rora popuarion in China is ony
o. pq and rhc !ndian ovcra avcragc is a irrc ovcr, namcy o.pj ,
r 8 6
CHINA AND INDIA
Kcraa`s rario is I . o6, cxacry asir is inorrh Amcrica andVcsrcrn
Luropc rcHccringrhcsurviva advanragcs oIvomcninrhcabscnccoI
uncgua rrcarmcnrj . ' 1hc Ia in rhc Icrriiry rarc in Kcraa has aso
bccn subsranriay Iasrcr rhan in China, dcspirc rhc cocrcivc birrh-
conrropoicics uscd in rhcarrcr.t
ArrhcrimcoIrhcChincscrcIormsin tp;p, Kcraa`siIccxpccrancy
vassighryovcrrhanChina`s.Iovcvcr, by tpp-p rhcasrpcriod
Ior vhich Iirm Iigurcs Ior iIc cxpccrancy in !ndia arc avaiabcj ,
Kcraa`siIccxpccrancyoIscvcnry-Iourycarsvasarcadysignihcanry
highcr rhan China`s asr hrm hgurc oI scvcnry-onc ycars Ior 2ooo. :
GoingIurrhcrinrospccihcpoinrsoIconccrn,rhcinIanr-morrairyrarc
in China has dccincd cxrrcmcy sovy sincc rhc cconomic rcIorms,
vhcrcas ir hasconrinucdroIavcryguickyin Kcraa. VhicKcraa
had roughy rhc samc inIanr-morrairy rarc as China - j; pcr rhou-
sand - ar rhc rimc oIrhc ChincscrcIorms in tp;p, Kcraa`s prcscnr
rarc, to pcrrhousand,isarhirdoIChina`s j opcrrhousand vhcrcir
has sragnarcd ovcrrhc asrdccadcj .
A coupcoIIacrors, borhoIvhichinkrorhc issucoIdcmocracy,
can hcp ro cxpain rhc sackcning oI Chincsc progrcss in rhc arr oI
proongingiIc, dcspirc bcinghcpcdbyirs cxrrcmcyrapidcconomic
grovrh. !irsr, rhc rcIorms oI tp;p cd ro rhc cnding oIIrcc pubic
hcarh insurancc, and ir vas nov ncccssary ro buy privarc hcarh
insurancc ar onc`s ovn cosr cxccprvhcnprovidcdbyrhc cmpoycr,
vhich covcrs ony a sma minoriry oI cascs j . 1his rcrrogradc
movcmcnr in rhccovcragc oI hcarh carc, virh rhcvirhdrava oI a
highy vaucd pubic Iaciiry, rcccivcd irrc poirica rcsisrancc -
*I have discussed the causal factors underlying the phenomenon of 'missing women'
in 'More Than Ioo Million Women Are Missing', New York Review of Books, 20 Dec.
I990; 'Missing Women', British Medica/Journal, 3 04 (7 Mar. I992) ; 'Missing Women
Revisited', British Medical Journal, 3 27 ( 6 Dec. 2003 ) . See also Essay I I in this
volume.
tOn this see my 'Population: Delusion and Reality', New York Review of Books,
22 Sept. I994, and 'Fertility and Coercion', University of Chicago Law Review,
63 (Summer I996) . See also Essay 9, below.
:See National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook 2003
(Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2003 ), table 4 I7, p. n8. Chinese big cities, in partic
ular Shanghai and Beijing, outmatch the state of Kerala, but most Chinese provinces
have life expectancy fgures far lower than Kerala's.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
as ir undoubrcdy voud havc mcr in any muri-parry dcmocracy.
Sccond,dcmocracyasomakcsa dirccrconrriburionrohcarhcarc
by bringing socia Iaiurcs inro pubic scruriny. '` !ndia oIIcrs high-
guairymcdicaIaciiricsrorhc!ndianrichandrorichIorcigncrs,bur
basichcarhscrviccsin !ndiaarcguirc bad, as vc knovIromcabo-
rarccriricisms oIrhcscscrviccsinrhc!ndianmcdia. urrhc possibi-
iryoIinrcnsccriricismisasoasociaopporruniryromakcamcnds.!n
Iacr,vigorousrcporringoIrhc dchcicncics oI!ndianhcarhscrviccsis,
urimarcy, a sourcc oI !ndia`s dynamic srrcngrh, vhich is parry
rcIccrcd in rhc sharp rcducrion in rhc China-!ndia gap in iIc
cxpccrancyandrhcbcrrcrachicvcmcnrsoIKcraabycombiningdcm-
ocraric parriciparion virh a radica socia commirmcnr. 1hc rcrribc
cIIccrsoIrhcsccrccysurroundingrhcSAKS cpidcmic,vhichsurIaccd
in China in ovcmbcr 2002 bur inIormarion abour vhich vas
supprcsscdunrirhcIoovingspring,asobringourrhcinkbcrvccn
pubic communicarion andhcarhcarc.|
So vhic !ndia has much ro carn Irom China abour hcarh carc
cspcciay Irom rhc povcrIu pubic commirmcnr oI rhc cary posr-
rcvourionary pcriodj and abour cconomic poicy making Irom
China`sposr-rcIormcxpcricnccj , rhcrccvancc oIpubiccommunica-
rion,vhichis ccnrrarodcmocracy, is a gcncra cssonrhar!ndiacan
*This connection is similar to the more prominent observation that major famines
do not occur in democracies, even when they are very poor, on which see my 'How Is
India Doing?' , New York Review of Books, Christmas Number 1982, and jointly with
Jean Dreze, Hunger and Public Action ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, r 9 8 9) . Large
famines, which continued to occur in British India right up to the end (the last - the
Bengal famine of 1943 - was j ust four years before India's independence) , disappeared
abruptly with the establishment of a multi-party democracy in India. In contrast,
China had the largest famine in recorded history during 19 5 8-6r , when nearly 30 mil
lion people, it is estimated, died.
tit is possible that the sharp increase of economic inequality in recent years in China
may have also contributed to the slowing down of the progress in life expectancy.
There has, in fact, been some increase in economic inequality in India as well, though
nothing as sharp as in China. But it is interesting - and relevant to the role of democ
racy - that even that more moderate increase in inequality seems to have played a
major part in the defeat of the ruling government in New Delhi in the elections held in
May 2004. There were other factors, too, that contributed to the defeat, in particular
the violation of the rights of the Muslim minority in the sectarian riots in Gujarat (it
is, of course, to the credit of a deliberative democratic system that maj ority voting can
respond to the plight of minorities and the need for less biased political priorities) .
r 8 8
CHINA AND INDIA
sri oIIcrro China. !nrcrcsringy, ir is rhcrradiri

n oIirrcvcrcncc and
dchancc oIaurhoriryvhichcamcvirhuddhismIrom!ndiarharvas
singcd our Ior a parricuary srrong chasriscmcnr in cary anri-
uddhisrcriricismsinChina.!u-yi,apovcrIuConIuciancadcr, sub-
mirrcd in rhc scvcnrh ccnrury rhc Iooving compainr abour
uddhisrsrorhc1ang cmpcror amosrparacingrhc conrcmporary
irc oI rhc Chincsc aurhorirics abour rhc disordcr gcncrarcd by rhc
prcscnr-day!aungongj .
Buddhism infiltrated into China from Central Asia, under a strange and
barbarous form, and as such, it was then less dangerous. But since the Han
period the Indian texts began to be translated into Chinese. Their publicity
began to adversely affect . the faith of the Princes and flial piety began to
degenerate. The people began to shave their heads and refused to bow their
heads to the Princes and their ancestors. 37
!u-yiproposcdnoronya banonuddhisrprcaching,burasoguirc
a novc vay oI dcaing virh rhc 'rcns oI rhousands` oI acrivisrs
rampaging around in China. '! rcgucsr you ro gcr rhcm marricd,`
!u-yiadviscdrhc1angcmpcror,and'rhcnbringuprhcir| chidrcnro
hrhcranks oIyourarmy` . 1hccmpcror, vc carn,rcIuscdroundcr-
rakcrhisimaginarivcprogrammcoIciminaringuddhisrdchancc.
China has j oincd - and bccomc a cadcr oI - rhc vord cconomy
virhsrunningsucccss, andIromrhis!ndia,ikcmanyorhcrcounrrics,
has bccn carning a grcar dca, parricuary in rcccnr ycars. 1hc
insuariry oI rhc caricr !ndian approach ro cconomic dcvcopmcnr
nccdcdrobcrcpaccd andhcrcrhccxpcricnccoIChinahasbccnpro-
Ioundy imporranr. 1hcrc arc grcar cssons aso Irom China`s cary
movcrounivcrsaizcdhcarhcarcandbasic cducarion. urrhcrocoI
dcmocraric parriciparion in !ndia suggcsrs rhar somc carning and
undcrsrandingmaygoinrhcorhcrdirccrionasvc.
As ir happcns, !ndia is rhc ony counrry in rhc oursidc vord ro
vhich schoars Irom ancicnr Chinavcnr Ior cducarion andrraining.
1hc ovcrcoming oI curura insuariry rhar vc can obscrvc borh in
China andin!ndia inrhchrsrmicnniumhas conrinuing inrcrcsr and
pracrica uscIuncss in rhc vord roday. Vhcn Xuanzang pur a
proIoundrhcrorica gucsrion abourhumanknovcdgcrohisrcachcrs
inaanda, 'Vho voudvishro cnjoyiraonc!` , hcvaspoinringro
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
a Ioundariona issuc rhc rccvancc oI vhich rcachcs Iar bcyond
uddhisrcnighrcnmcnrin parricuar.!ndccd,rharconccrn and com-
mirmcnrrcmain asrccvanr rodayasrhcyvcrc in Xuanzang`svord
inrhcscvcnrhccnrury. !ndiaandChinacarncdaorIromcachorhcr
in rhc hrsrmicnnium, burrhc signihcancc oIrhar cpisrcmic proccss
hasnordricdup cvcnarrhc bcginningoIrhcrhirdmicnnium.
PART THREE
Politics and Protest
9
Tryst with Destiny:
!rvas arhriingmomcnr. n 14 Augusr 1947, on rhc cvc oI!ndia`s
indcpcndcncc, vc gucd ourscvcs ro rhc radio in our irrc schoo a
hundrcd mics Irom Cacurra. !rvas amosr cxacry Iour ycars aIrcr
rhc rcrribc Iaminc vc had sccn as young chidrcn virh miions
dyingj , vhichgavcmanyoIus, unaIIccrcd byrhcIaminc,rhccndur-
ing rhoughr rhar 'rhcrc, bur Ior rhc gracc oI cass divisions, go !` .
1hoscvcrcrcrribcdays,burAugusr 1947 vasadiIIcrcnrandaj oy-
ous rimc. !n cccbrarion oIindcpcndcncc andin vccoming a dcmo-
craric!ndia,|avaharachru`svoiccroarcdoudandccarovcrrhc
radio, rcing us abour !ndia`s 'rrysr virh dcstiny` . 1hc 'rask ahcad`
incudcd ' rhc cnding oI povcrry and ignorancc and discasc and
incguairyoIopporruniry` . Vc hcardvirhrapr arrcnrionandvc Icr
povcrIuyinspircd.
The Pledge and the Record
Karhcrmorc rhan haIa ccnrury has passcd sinccrhcn, andir is nor
roosoonroaskvharcamcoIrhar'rrysr`virhdcsriny,andoIrhc'rasks
ahcad` . 1hc ansvcr is nor arogcrhcr simpc. !n inc virh chru`s
Iormuarion, vc can spir rhc cvauarion inro rhrcc broad hcds. t )
pracricc oI dcmocracy, zj rcmova oI socia incguairy and back-
vardncss, and ( j j achicvcmcnr oIcconomicprogrcss and cguiry. Vc
*This is an extended and updated text of an essay published in the Financial Times
on the occasion of the fftieth anniversary of Indian independence, on r 5 August I997.
19
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
musr aso askhovrhc succcsscs and Iaiurcs inrhcsc diIIcrcnr hcds
inrcrconnccrandrcarcrocachorhcr.
1hcrc arc rcasons Ior sarisIacrion in rhc Iirsr arca. ' Vhic rhc
corrcspondcnr oI The Times in tp6; did rcporr, virh somc scnsc oI
absourc ccrrainry, rhar hc had jusr virncsscd 'rhc asr gcncra ccc-
rions`in!ndia!ndiandcmocracy, hcconhdcd,coudnorburcndvcry
soonj , rhc doom did nor comc as anriciparcd. Sysrcmatic cccrions
havc conrinucd ro happcn virh rcguariry and rcasonabc Iairncss.|
!oirica parrics havc comc inro oIIicc aIrcr vinning cccrions, and
havccIraIrcrosingrhcm.1hcmcdiahavcrcmaincdargcyIrcc,and
rhc prcss has conrinucd ro rcporr, scrurinizc and prorcsr. Civi righrs
havc bccn rakcn scriousy, and rhc courrs havc bccn Iairy acrivc in
pursuingvioarions. 1hcmiiraryhassraycdvcinsidcrhc barracks.
1his is argcy a srory oI succcss. And ycr rhc achicvcmcnrs oI
!ndian dcmocracy havc bccn IarIrom unbcmishcd. Vhicpoirica
movcmcnrs havc bccn vcry cIIccrivc in dcaing virh somc vrongs,
orhcrvrongshavcnorrcccivcdanyrhingikcsuIIicicnrrcdrcssorcvcn
scrious cngagcmcnr. Sinccdcmocracyis noronya bcssing inirscI,
burcan aso bcrhcmostimporranrmcansropursuc pubic cnds, iris
*For an illuminating set of studies, see Atul Kohli (ed. ) , The Success of India's
Democracy ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2ooi ) . See also Granville
Austin's meticulous investigation, Working of a Democratic Constitution: The Indian
Experience (New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, I999) , along with his
earlier book on the nature and history of the constitution of India, Indian
Constitution: The Cornerstone of a Nation (New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford
University Press, I966) . See also Judith M. Brown, Modern India: The Origins of an
Asian Democracy (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I984) .
tindira Gandhi's brief attempt in the I97os at curtailing basic political and civil
rights was frmly rejected by the voters, thereby electorally ending the proposal as well
as her government. Even in that misguided initiative, there was, however, no attempt
to replace elections, nor any proposal for ignoring the electoral verdict. Indira Gandhi
took her defeat with good grace, and, after dropping her plans to prune political and
civil rights, she returned to being Prime Minister with a victory in general elections
within a few years with a strongly democratic platform.
:Among the more recent eforts of the Supreme Court is its attempt to have a fair
trial of the miscreants in Gujarat responsible for the killings - mostly of Muslims - in
2002. The Supreme Court found the acquittal of the accused in the judicial process in
Gujarat to be lacking in due pr9cess, and has insisted that the accused be retried
outside Gujarat, which is still ruled by the same state government which was in office
during the uncontrolled riots in 2002.
194
TRYST WITH DESTINY
nor cnough ro makc surc rhar !ndiandcmocracy survivcs. Vhicvc
musr givc crcdir vhcrc ir is duc, !ndian dcmocracy has ro bc j udgcd
aso by rhc srrcngrh and rcach oI pubic rcasoning and irs acrua
accompishmcnrs. AIrcr discussing rhc orhcr arcas oI conccnrrarion
idcnrihcdbychru,!shacomcbackrorhcscconccrnsabourdcmoc-
racyvhicharcmorccompcxrhanrhcmcrcsurvivaoIdcmocracy.
1hc sccond hcd - rhar oI socia progrcss and cguiry - has Iarcd
muchvorscrhan dcmocracyirscI. norguirc animmcasurabcIaiurc,
bur ccrrainy a mcasurabc undcrpcrIormancc.' Lducariona progrcss
has bccn rcmarkaby uncvcn. Lvcn rhough !ndia has many morc
univcrsiry-cducarcdpcrsonsrhanChinahas, Chinahasmadcrcmark-
abcprogrcss rovardsunivcrsaircracy, vhic!ndiaissriIar bchind.
1hcproporrionoIircrarcsamongadurmacsissribcov;5 pcrccnr
in !ndia in comparisonvirhChina`s abovc poj , and ony abourhaI
oI!ndian vomcn arc ircrarc comparcdvirh China`s 8o pcr ccnr or
morcj . !iIccxpccrancyarbirrhin!ndiahascimbcdroaround6qycars
Irom bcingncar jo arrhcrimc oIindcpcndcnccj , buriris sri signih-
canry bcov China`s iIc cxpccrancy oI ;t ycars. !urrhcr, morrairy
rarcsin!ndia sharpydiIIcrbcrvccndiIIcrcnrsrarcs, andaso bcrvccn
casscsandbcrvccnurbanandruraarcas.Nanyrurarcsidcnrs,cspc-
ciay rhc poorcr viagcrs, arc sri Iarrcmovcd Irom dcccnr mcdica
arrcnrion.| !ncguairics bcrvccn vomcn and mcn in cconomic and
sociaopporrunirics,andoIrcncvcninhcarhcarc,rcmainguircargc.`
Vhar abour rhc rhird hcd - rhar oI cconomic progrcss! !ndia`s
cconomic cxpansion vas parricuary sov bcIorc rhc tp8os, cspcc-
iay in comparison virh rhc spccracuar pcrIormancc oI Asian
cconomics Iurrhcr casr, such as Sourh Korca or 1aivan. AIrcr rhc
guickcning oI !ndian cconomic grovrh Irom rhc tp8os, !ndia has
donccompararivcybcrrcr, norj usrinrhcaggrcgarcmovcmcnroIrhc
*This static comparison is, however, somewhat deceptive since the life expectancy
gap between China and India has sharply declined after r98o, and some parts of lndia,
notably Kerala, have overtaken China and gone considerably ahead of it. In this
change over time, public reasoning and democracy in India have made, it would
appear, a signifcant contribution. These issues are discussed in the last part of Essay
8, and also in my 'Passage to China', New York Review of Books, 2 Dec. 2004.
t A new problem that is clearly serious in India is the rapid spread of HI infection
and AIDS. Public efforts to confront this new hazard are still extremely inadequate.
195
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
grossnarionaproducr G!j andgrossdomcsricproducr G!j,bur
asoinrcrms oIrcducrion oIincomc povcrry. 1hc cconomic rcIorms
inrroduccd in tpp:, cd by Nanmohan Singh rhcn rhc !inancc
Ninisrcr, and nov rhc !rimc Ninisrcr oI!ndia sincc rhc spring oI
:ooqj , havccd ro considcrabcibcraizarion andIrccing oIinrcrna-
riona rradc, and ro somc rcpaccmcnr oIvhar uscd ro bc cacd rhc
'iccncc Kaj ` virh pcrvasivc burcaucraric conrro ovcr privarc cco-
nomiciniriarivcsj . 1hishasgrcaryaddcdrobusincssopporruniricsin
!ndia and has aso hcpcd ro consoidarc !ndia`s Iasrcr cconomic
grovrh.!ibcraizarion,vhichsrihassomcdisranccrogo,hashcpcd
roIrcc!ndiancnrrcprcncursro scckgobarradc, and rhc succcsshas
bccn cspcciay argc in spccihc sccrors such as rhcdcvcopmcnrand
usc oI inIormarion rcchnoogy. ' 1hc ovcra pcrIormancc oI rhc
cconomymaynorhavcmarchcdrhar oIposr-rcIorm China virh irs
susraincd grovrh rarc oI 8 ro to pcr ccnr a ycarj , bur!ndia`s movc
Iromrhc rigid boxoIa 3 pcrccnrgrovrhrarc ro rhc 5 ro 8 pcrccnr
arcnaisccrrainynora ncgigibc dcvcopmcnr.
1hcproporrions oIrhc!ndianpopuarionvirhincomcs bcovrhc
srandardpovcrryincssccmrohavcIacnovcrrhc tp8os and tppos,
cvcn rhough rhcrc arcdispurcs abourrhccxrcnr oIrhis dccinc, and
somc doubrs abour rhc socia rcairyrharics bchind rhcsc srarisrica
hgurcs. Vhar is, hovcvcr, ccar cnough is rhar !ndia`s rcducrion oI
povcrryhasbccnIarcssrapidrhanvharhasoccurrcdinChinasincc
rhc cconomic rcIorms.
Poverty and Social Opportunity
1hcrc is indccd much abour rhc proccss oI cconomic grovrh and
dcvcopmcnr rhar !ndia can carn Irom rhc cxpcricncc oI China. '
Nakinggoodusc oI gobarradc opporrunirics is among thc cssons
rharChinaoIIcrsro!ndia, andrhccssonshcrccanbccriricayimpor-
ranr Ior !ndia`s cconomic progrcss. A simiar mcssagc had arcady
cmcrgcd Irom rhc cconomic succcss oI orhcr Lasr Asian cconomics,
*In Essay 8, I also consider the converse, that is, what China may fnd useful in
India's experiences. This issue is not taken up in the present essay.
TRYST WITH DESTINY
incudingSourh Korca, burgivcn China`s sizcandrhc inrcnsiryoIirs
prc-cxisringpovcrry, China`s cxpcricnccsarcparricuaryrccvanrIor
!ndia`scconomicpoicy-making.1hcgcncracssonrhargoodusccan
bc madc oIgoba opporrunirics oIrradc and commcrccto cnhancc
domcsricincomcandrorcduccpovcrryhascmcrgcdvcryccaryIrom
rhc succcss oIcconomics in Lasr and Sourh Lasr Asia - cd nov by
China.
!r is, hovcvcr, imporrant ro avoid rhc much-aircd simpihcarion
rharargucsrhara!ndianccdsrodoroachicvcIasrcconomicgrovth
and spccdy rcduction oI povcrry is grcarcr rciancc on thc goba
markcr and on inrcrnariona rradc. 1his rcIccrs, in Iacr, a scrious
misrcadingoIrhcvaricryoIIacrorsrharhavcconrributcdtorhckind
oI cconomic succcss achicvcdin China, Sourh Korca, 1haiand and
orhcr counrrics in Lasr and South Lasr Asia. 1hcsc counrrics did
cmphasizcinrcrnarionarradcandmadchncuscoIrhcgobamarkcr
mcchanism. urrhcyasomadcirpossibcrohavcbroad-bascdpubic
parricipationin cconomic cxpansion, rhrough such poicics as cxrcn-
sivc schooing and high ircracy, good hcath carc, vidcsprcad and
rcIorms, and somc considcrabc Iosrcring oIgcndcrcguiry norcasr
rhroughIcmaccducarionandcmpoymcnrj .
1hisi s norr odoubrthar!ndiacanachicvcrcasonabyhighgrovrh
rarcs oI aggrcgarc G! cvcn vith thc rarhcr imitcd socia opporru-
niricsrharcxisrin!ndia.!oroncrhing,itcanconrinucrodocxtrcmcy
vcinindustricsrhatmakc cxcccnrusc oI!ndia`s accompishmcnrs
in highcr cducation and rcchnica rraining. cv ccnrrcs oIrcchnica
cxcccncc, ikc angaorcandIydcrabad, can prospcr and Hourish,
and !ndia can cvcn accccrarc its progrcss aong rhc incs rhat ir has
arcady csrabishcd vc. 1his vi bc a substanria achicvcmcnr oI
considcrabc cconomicimporrancc.
Ycr cvcn a hundrcdangaorcs and Iydcrabads vinor, onrhcir
ovn, sovc!ndia`s rcnacious povcrry and dccp-scatcd inguairy. 1hc
vcry poorin !ndia gcr a sma - and basicay indirccr - sharc oIthc
cakc rharinIormarionrcchnoogyandrcarcddcvcopmcnrsgcncratc.
1hc rcmova oI povcrry, parricuary oI cxrrcmc povcrry, cas Ior
morc participarory grovrh on a vidc basis, vhich is nor casy ro
achicvc across thc barricrs oIiircracy, i hcarh, uncompcrcdand
rcIormsandorhcrsourccsoIscvcrcsocictaincguairy.1hcproccssoI
197
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cconomic advancc cannor bc divorccd Irom thc curivarion and
cnhanccmcnroIsociaopporruniricsovcrabroadIronr. '
1hc producrs rhar China cxporrs ro rhc oursidc vord incudc a
grcarmanyrhararcmadcbynorparricuaryhighyskicdabour, bur
schoocdandircrarc abourncvcrrhccss.1hcirproducriongcncrarcs
much cmpoymcnr, virh a grcar dca oI incomc going ro poorcr
sccrions oIrhc communiry. \riizarion oIrhcvordmarkcrIor such
cxporrs rcguircsproducrionaccordingro spccihcarion, guairy con-
rro and an inIormcd consciousncss oIrhc cconomic rasks invovcd.
Good schoo cducarion is ccnrra Ior rhcsc rasks. Simiary, good
hcarh is cxrrcmcy imporranr iI producrivc cIIorr and cconomic
schcducsarcnorrobcaIIccrcdbyincsscsandinrcrmirrcnrabscncc.|
asiccducarion,goodhcarh andorhcrhuman arrainmcnrs arcnor
ony dirccry vauabc as consrirucnr ccmcnrs oIhuman capabiirics
and guairy oIiIc rhcsc arc rhc dirccr pay-oIIs oIschooing, hcarh
carc and orhcr socia arrangcmcnrsj , bur rhcsc capabiirics can aso
hcpingcncraringcconomicsucccss oIa morc srandardkind, vhich
in rurn can conrriburc ro cnhancing rhc guairy oI human iIc cvcn
morc. !I rhcrc is somcrhing rhar !ndia can carn Irom China`s post
reform cxpcricnccinrhc tp8os onvards abourmakingskiIu usc oI
goba markcrs, rhcrc is aso much rhar !ndia can assimiarc Irom
China`s pre-reform cxpcricncc in rapidy cxpanding rhc dcivcry oI
basiccducarionandccmcnraryhcarhcarc.
Poli tical Voice and Social Opportunity
!Isociaandcconomicrasksarcsoinrcrrcarcd,vharabourinksvirh
rhc poirics oI dcmocracy! Vhic ir has Ircgucnry bccn caimcd rhar
dcmocracyis inimica ro Iasr cconomic grovrh !ndia irscIhas bccn
*On this and related issues, see Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: E

onomic
Development and Social Opportunity (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1996) , and the follow-up book: India: Development and Participation (Delhi and
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) .
tin addition to traditional problems of ill-health, the new epidemic of HIV infection
and AIDS will have devastating effects both on human lives and on economic and
social operations unless they are adequately confronted without any further delay.
TRYS T WITH DESTINY
circdoIrcncnoughroiusrrarcrhis sp

ciousrhcsisj , rhcrcisirrcsra-
risrica cvidcncc ro conhrm rhis. !ndccd, cvcn rhc imircd succcss oI
!ndia in rcccnrycars in raising cconomicgrovrh shovs rhar grovrh
canprohrmorcIromaIricndycconomiccimarcrhanIromacocrcivc
poiricacnvironmcnr. '
!ndia has ccrrainybcnchrcdIromrhc prorccrivc roc oIdcmocracy
in giving rhc rucrs cxcccnr poirica inccnrivc ro acr supporrivcy
vhcn disasrcrs rhrcarcn and vhcn an immcdiarc changc in poicy is
impcrarivc. !ndia has succcssIuy avoidcd Iamincs sincc indcpcnd-
cncc,t vhicChinacxpcricnccdamassivcIamincduringrhcIaiurcoI
rhc Grcar !cap !orvard vhcn Iaury poicics vcrc nor rcviscd Ior
rhrccycarsvhicIamincmorrairyrookIrom 23 ro 3 0 miion ivcs.
Lvcnroday!ndiais,byandargc,inabcrrcrposirionrhanChinaborh
roprcvcnrabusc oIcocrcivcpovcrandromakcguickcrcmcndarions
iI and vhcn poicics go bady vrong rhis issuc is discusscd, among
orhcrrhcmcs,inLssay8 j .
cmocracygivcsanopporruniryrorhcopposirionroprcssIorpoicy
changc cvcn vhcn rhc probcm is chronic and has had a ong hisrory
rarhcr rhan ony vhcn ir is acurc and suddcn, as is rhc casc virh
Iamincsj . 1hc vcakncss oI!ndian socia poicics on cducarion, hcarh
carc, andrcIormandgcndcrcguiryis asmuch aIaiurcoIrhc opposi-
rionparrics as oIrhc govcrnmcnrs in oIIicc. !ncompararivcrcrms, rhc
poiricacommirmcnroIcadcrsoIsomc oIrhccssdcmocrariccounrrics
hasoIrcncdromorcachicvcmcnrinrhcschcdsrhanhasbccnproduccd
by rhc vorking oI dcmocracy in !ndia. 1hc cducariona and hcarh
achicvcmcnrs oINaoisrChinaiusrrarcrhisvc. |!ndccd,posr-rcIorm
China has madc cxcccnr usc oI China`s prc-rcIorm accompishmcnrs
*This general issue is discussed in my Development U Freedom (New York: Knopf,
and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) .
tThe elimination of large famines in India must not, however, be seen as the removal
of undernutrition and hunger. Indeed, India has a very high proportion of undernour
ished people, who are chronically hungry, to varying extents. The problem of persist
ent underfeeding is discussed in Essay r o.
:We must, however, distinguish between cases of good results brought about by
strong political commitment and any expectation that authoritarian leadership would,
in general, produce such results. North Korea is authoritarian too, as was the Taliban's
Afghanistan, Idi Amin's Uganda and Mobutu's Congo. The central point at issue con
cerns political vision rather than coercive power.
199
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
parricuary, in raising basic cducarion and hca

lrh cvcs across rhc

counrryjromakcirsmarkcr-bascd cxpansionaIrcr1979 dravvidcyon
rhccapabiiricsoIabcrrcrcducatcdandhcarhicrpopuarion.
nyin somc parrs oI!ndia havcrhc Iaiurcs oIsocia achicvcmcnr
bccn adcguarcypoiricizcd. 1hcsrarcoIKcraaispcrhapsrhc ccarcsr
cxampc, vhcrc rhc nccd Ior univcrsa cducarion, basic hcarh carc,
ccmcnrarygcndcrcguiryandandrcIormshasrcccivcdcIIccrivcpoir-
icabacking.1hccxpanarioninvovcsborhhisroryandconrcmporary
dcvcopmcnr. rhc cducariona oricnrarion oIKcraa`s anri-uppcr-casrc
movcmcnrs oIvhichrhccurrcnrcIr-vingpoirics oIKcraais a suc-
ccssorj , rhc caryiniriarivcs oIrhcnarivckingdoms oI1ravancorcand
Cochin oursidcrhcririshKaj j , missionaryacrivirics inrhcsprcadoI
cducarionnorconhncdonyroChrisrians - ahIrhoIrhcpopuarionj ,
andasoa biggcrvoiccIorvomcninIamiydccisions,parryinkcdro
rhc prcscncc and promincncc oImarriinca propcrryrighrs Ior a sub-
sranriaandinHucnriasccrion - rhcairs - oIrhcIinducommuniry.
vcr avcry ong rimc Kcraa has madc goodusc oIpoirica acrivism
andvoicc ro cxpandrhcrangc oIsociaopporrunirics.
1hcconrriburion oImodcrnandradica poirics ro Kcraa`s socia
progrcss is somcrimcs undcrcsrimarcd. Ar rhc rimc oI!ndian indc-
pcndcncc,in r 94 7, rhc proporrion oIircrarcpcopc inKcraa,vhic
highcr rhaninrhc rcsr oI!ndia, vas sriguircov. 1hcvorkIor rhc
achicvcmcnr oIircracyIor ahappcncdmosry in rhc sccond haIoI
rhc rvcnricrh ccnrury. Aso, rhc srarc oI Kcraa vas Iormcd, on
inguisric incs, ar rhc rimc oIindcpcndcncc bypurring rogcrhcr rvo
'narivcsrarcs` - 1ravancorcandCochin - vhichvcrcIormayoursidc
rhcririshKaj andoncarca - Naabar - IromodNadrasinrhcKaj .
Ar rharrimc, Naabar`s cvc oIcducarionvas Iar ovcr rhanrharoI
1ravancorc and Cochin. ur roday rhc rhrcc rcgions arc vcry cosc
rogcrhcr, pracricay indisringuishabc Irom cach orhcr in rcrms oI
schoo cducarion. 1hc crcdir rhar is duc ro parriciparory and voca
poiricsshoudnorabcgivcnavayro Iavourabcpasrhisrory. '
,Along with the positive achievements of radical left-wing politics, its problematic
side should be recognized too. Kerala has been comparatively slow in reforming eco
nomic policies in a market-utilizing direction. While people from Kerala have easily
earned good money working elsewhere (often abroad - much in the Gulf), the oppor
tunity of taking economic initiatives at home has moved relatively slowly. This has not
200
TRYST WITH DESTINY
The Use of Voice
!rishardrocscapcrhcgcncraconcusionrharcconomicpcrIormancc,
socia opporruniry andpoirica voicc arc dccpyinrcrrcarcd. cspirc
rhcpoiricalIaciiricsprovidcdby!ndia`sdcmocraricsysrcm,rhcvcak-
ncss oI voiccs oI prorcsr has hcpcd ro makc rhc progrcss oI socia
opporrunirics unncccssariy sov. 1har, in rurn, has nor ony bccn a
scrious handicap in irscI Ior rhc guairy oI liIc in !ndia, ir has aso
scrvcdasamajordraginrhcproccssoIcconomicdcvcopmcnr,incud-
ingrhcrangc andcovcragcoIgrovrhandrhcacviarionoIcconomic
povcrry. As vas discusscd in Lssay 2, poirica voicc is cxrrcmcy
imporranrIorsociacguiry, androrharrccognirionvchavcroaddrhc
connccrion bcrvccn cguirabc cxpansion oI socia opporrunirics and
rhc Iorcc,rangcandrcachoIrhcproccss oIcconomicdcvcopmcnr.
!nrhosc hcds invhichrhcrc has rcccnrybccn amorc dcrcrmincd
usc oI poirica and socia voicc, rhcrc arc considcrabc signs oI
changc.1hc issuc oIgcndcrincguairyhasproduccdsomcvharmorc
poiricacngagcmcnrinrcccnrycars oIrcncdbyvomcn`smovcmcnrs
in diIIcrcnrhcdsj , andrhis has addcd ro dcrcrmincd poirica cIIorrs
arrcducinggcndcr asymmcrry insociaandcconomichcds. 1hcrc is
a ong hisrory in !ndia oI vomcn`s promincncc in somc parricuar
arcas, incuding in rhc sharing oI cadcrship posirions in poirics. '
Vhilc rhosc achicvcmcnrs vcrc rhcmsclvcs inkcd virh rhc usc oI
vomcn`svoicchcpcdbyrhcopporruniricsoIparriciparorypoiricsin
rcccnr ccnruricsj , rhcir rcach vas argcy conhncd ro rcarivcy sma
scgmcnrsoIrhcpopuarion oIrcnvomcnmcmbcrsoIrhcurbancircj .
An imporranr aspccr oIrhc srrcngrhcning oIvomcn`s voicc i ncon-
rcmporary!ndianpubiciIcisrhcbroadcningoIrhissociacovcragc.
1hcrc is, hovcvcr, sri a ongvayro go in rcmovingrhc uncgua
posirion oIvomcnin !ndia, burrhcincrcasingpoirica invovcmcnr
prevented Kerala from experiencing one of the fastest reductions of poverty in India,
but the full economic potentials of its social advantages still remain partly unreaped.
On this and related issues, see Dreze and Sen, India: Development and Participation.
< see Essay r, section headed 'Gender, Caste and Voice', and Essay 2.
20I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
abour vomcn`s socia roc has bccn an imporranr and consrrucrivc
dcvcopmcnr. ' 1hcrcis aso somc achicvcmcnrrhroughrhcincrcascd
poiricizarionoIcducarionaincguairicsingcncraandrhcncgccroI
basic hcarh carc, cspcciay Ior rhc poor. 1hcsc disparirics rcccivc
morc pubic arrcnrion rodayrhan rhcy did caricr, andrhc cIIccrs oI
rhar Iavourabc changc can, ro somc cxrcnr, bc arcady sccn in rhc
rcarivcprogrcssmadcinsprcadingmcdicaarrcnrionandcducariona
opporrunirics. Again,rhcrcis sriavcryongvayro go, burposirivc
dcvcopmcnrs dcmand acknovcdgcmcnr, iI ony ro ovcrcomc rhc
pcrsisrcnr cynicism rhar oIrcn characrcrizcs pubic pcrccprion abour
vhardcmocracycanorcannordo.
1hcpossibiirics oIpubicagirariononissucsoIsocicraincguairy
and dcprivarion arc nov bcginning ro bc morc uriizcd rhan bcIorc.
1hcrc has bccn much morc acrion rcccnry in organizcdmovcmcnrs
bascd broady on dcmands Ior human righrs, such as rhc righr ro
schoo cducarion, rhc righr ro Iood and, in parricuar, ro midday
schoo mcasj , rhc cnrircmcnr ro basic hcarh carc, guaranrccs oI
cnvironmcnraprcscrvarion, andrhcrighroIcmpoymcnrguaranrcc.
1hcsc movcmcnrs scrvc ro Iocus arrcnrion on parricuar socicra
Iaiurcs, parry as suppcmcnrs ro broad pubic discussions in rhc
mcdia, bur rhcy aso providc a poiricay hardcr cdgc ro sociay
imporranrdcmands. 1hcinrcrdcpcndcnccs bcrvccncconomic,socia
and poiricaIrccdoms givcsa criricay imporranr roc ro rhc usc oI
dcmocraricopporruniricsandrorhcdcpoymcnroIpoiricavoicc.
1hc rcmcdy Iormany oIrhc ccnrra Iaiurcs oI!ndian socicry is
coscy inkcd ro broadcning rhc Iorcc and rangc oI poirica
argumcnrsandsociadcmands.|1hc'rrysrvirhdcsriny`isrhusparry
an invirarion ro Iurrhcr cngagcmcnr and cncounrcr. Vhar chru
hopcd voud happcn auromaricay virhrhc indcpcndcncc oI!ndia
mayconrinucrobcncgccrcd uncssirisdcmandcdvirhaninsisrcncc
rhar makcs ir poiricay cririca in a dcmocraric sysrcm. !r is nor
cnoughroconrinucrohavcsysrcmariccccrions,rosaIcguardpoirica
*See Essay I I on a general assessment of gender inequality in India and its changes
over time.
tThe inadequacy of steps taken so far to confront the growing epidemic of HIV
infection and AIDS is also both a governmental failure (in the form of inaction) and a
failure of political engagement (in the form of comparative silence) .
202
P
TRYST WI TH DESTINY
ibcrricsandcivirighrs,roguaranrccIrcc spccchandanopcnmcdia.
orisiradcguarcrociminarcIaminc,orrorcduccrhccadoIChina
inongcviryand surviva. Amorc vigorous - andvoca- uscoIdcm-
ocraric parriciparion can do much morc in !ndia rhan ir has arcady
achicvcd.
20
3
I O
Class in India:
!nhisspccchon rhc 'rrysrvirhdcsriny` dcivcrcd on I4 Augusr I947,
wirh vhich rhc asr cssay bcgan, |avahara chru rakcd nor j usr
abourIrccdomIromririshruc, bur aso abour his grandvision oI
indcpcndcnr!ndia.t chruvasparricuarydcrcrmincdrorcmovcrhc
barricrsoIcasssrrarihcarionandrhcirIar-rcachingcIIccrsonincgua-
iryanddcprivarionincconomic,poirica andsocia sphcrcs. !rvasa
rhriing imagc rhar coud riva AIrcd 1cnnyson`s cogucncc. '!or !
dipr inro rhc Iururc, Iar as human cyc coud scc, I Savrhc Vision oI
rhc vord, and a rhc vondcr rhar voud bc. ` !r vas good Ior Ircc
!ndiaro bcrod, arrhcdchningmomcnroIirsbirrh, abourrhcpossi-
biiryoI'arhcvondcrrharvoudbc` .
chru`s vision vas nor Iuhcd during his ovn iIcrimc. 1hcrc is
norhing surprising in rhar, sincc rhc vision vas ambirious. Vhar is,
hovcvcr,morcdisrrcssingisrhcsovncssoIourprogrcssinrhcdircc-
rionrovhich|avaharachru sohrmypoinrcd. urrharisnora.
1hcrcis disrurbing cvidcnccrharrhcbarrcagainsrcass divisions has
vcry subsranriay vcakcncd in !ndia. !n Iacr, rhcrc arc ccar indi-
carionsrharardiIIcrcnrcvcsoIcconomic,sociaandpoiricapoicy,
rhc dcbiiraringrocoIcassincguairynovrcccivcsrcmarkabyirrc
arrcnrion. !urrhcrmorc, supporr Ior consoidarion oI cass barricrs
comcs nor ony Irom odvcsrcdinrcrcsrs, bur asoIromncv sourccs
oIprivicgc, andrhismakcsrhcraskmuchhardcr.
This essay is based on my Nehru Lecture, given in New Delhi on 1 3 Nov. 2oor.
tJawaharlal Nehru's speech, delivered at the Constituent Assembly, New Delhi, is
included in]awaharldl Nehru: An Antholog, ed. Sarvepalli Gopal (Oxford and Delhi:
Oxford University Press, r 9 8 3 ) .
204
CLAS S IN INDIA
Diverse Disparities
1hisis adiIIicursubj ccrro dca virh,Iorrvodisrincrrcasons. !irsr,
cass is nor rhc ony sourcc oI incguairy, and inrcrcsr in cass as a
sourcc oI dispariry has ro bc paccd virhin a biggcr picrurc rhar
incudcs orhcr divisivc inHucnccs. gcndcr, casrc, rcgion, communiry
andsoon. !orcxampc, incguairy bcrvccnvomcnandmcnis aso a
major conrriburor ro incguiry. 1his sourcc oI incguairy uscd ro bc
Iairycomprchcnsivcyncgccrcdin!ndiacvcnaIcvdccadcsago,and
in rhis ncgccr rhc singc-mindcd conccrn virh cass did pay a roc.
!ndccd, abourrhrccdccadcsago,inrhc cary tp;os,vhcn!hrsrrricd
ro vork on gcndcr incguairy in !ndia, ! vas srruck by rhc Iacr rhar
cvcnrhoscvhovcrccxrrcmcysymparhcricrorhcpighroIrhcundcr-
dogs oIsocicryvcrc rcucranrro rakc a scriousinrcrcsrin rhc cvi oI
gcndcrdiscriminarion.1hisvasroagrcarcxrcnrbccauscoIrhchrmy
csrabishcd rradirion oI conccnrraring amosr cnrircy on cass divi-
sions as a sourcc oIincguairy. 1har singc-mindcdncss is no ongcr
dominanr, and rhcrc is incrcasing rccognirion oI rhc imporrancc oI
causcs oI dispariry orhcr rhan cass divisions, incuding incguairy
bcrvccnvomcnandmcn.Lvcnrhoughgcndcrandorhcrconrriburors
ro incguairy sri rcguirc, ! voud arguc, morc sysrcmaric arrcnrion,
ncvcrrhccss rhcrc has bccn a considcrabc cnrichmcnr oI rhc vcrsa-
riiryandrcachoIpubic discussion in!ndia.
1hcrc is, hovcvcr, an inrcrcsring issuc rhar gocs bcyond rhc
'vhcrhcr` gucsrion ro rhc ' hov` gucsrion. Shoud rhcsc diIIcrcnr
sourccs oI incguairy bc sccn as primariy ' addirivc` ro cach orhcr
'rhcrc is cass and rhcnrhcrcis aso gcndcr, andIurrhcrmorc, casrc,
andso on` j , orshoudrhcyinsrcad bcrrcarcdrogcrhcr, makingmorc
cxpicir room Ior rhcir cxrcnsivc inrcrdcpcndcnccs ! 1hcsc diIIcrcnr
sourccs oIvuncrabiiry arc cach signihcanr, bur no lcss imporranry,
vcmusrsccrharrhcycansrrcngrhcnrhc impacroIcachorhcrbccausc
oIrhcircompcmcnrariry.
Cass,inparricuar, has avcry spccia rocin rhc csrabishmcnr and
rcachoIsociaincguairy, andircanmakcrhcinHucnccoIorhcrsourccs
oIdispariry such as gcndcrincguairyjmuchsharpcr. 1hc inrcccrua
gainin broadcningourcomprchcnsionoIorhcrrypcsoIincguiryhasro
205
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
bcIoovcdvirhamorcinrcgrarcdundcrsrandingoIrhcIuncrioningoI
cass in aianccvirhorhcr causcs oIinjusricc. r,ro purirdiIIcrcnry,
cassisnoronyimporranronirsovn,ircanasomagniIyrhcimpacroI
orhcr conrriburors ro incguairy, cnarging rhc pcnarics imposcd by
rhcm.1hcinrcgrarionoIcassinaconsoidarcdundcrsrandingoIinjus-
riccis oIparamounrimporranccgivcnrhcnccdro addrcss, simuranc-
ousy, diIIcrcnr sourccs oI incguairy, rcarcd ro cass, gcndcr,
communiry, casrc and so on, and givcnrhcovcrvhcmingroc oIcass
inrhcvorkingoIcachoIrhcorhcrconrriburorsroincguairy.
AsccondsourccoIcompcxiryics inrhcIacrrhar somc oIrhcncv
socia barricrs rcinIorcing rarhcr rhan vcakcning rhc hod oI cass
divisionscomc - as ir vcrc- Iromrhc 'Iricndy` sidc oIrhc dividing
inc, rhcy can, in Iacr, bc roorcd in insriruriona dcviccs rhar arc
inrcndcdrobc amongrhc rcmcdiaIcarurcsagainsrcass division. !or
cxampc, pubic programmcs oIinrcrvcnrion can prorccr vuncrabc
inrcrcsrs and rhus scrvc as a good insrrumcnr in rhc barrc againsr
cass-bascd incguairy. Iovcvcr, rhcy can aso havc rcgrcssivc con-
scgucnccsiIrhcbarrcincsarcvrongydravn,oriIrhcrcmcdicsarc
vrongydcviscd.
!nIacr,vharrhcarmcdIorccsca'Iricndyhrc`- vhcrcbyanarmy
ishirbyirsovnhringrarhcrrhanbycncmyshcing - isaconccprrhar
mayhavc rccvancc norj usrinrhcmiirarysphcrcsburinsociahcds
asvc. 1hcacruaimpacroIsupporrivcpubicinsrirurionsandpubic
poicics has ro bc consranry scrurinizcd. 1hc opcrarivc impacr oI
insrirurions and programmcs rhar havc bccn insrirurcd as anri-
incguairydcviccsrcguircsprobinginvcsrigarioninanopcn-mindcd -
rarhcrrhanin a hxcd, Iormuaic - vay.
!sharakcuprhcsc rvo issucsinrurn. hrsr, rhc nccdIor aninrcg-
rarcd undcrsranding oI rhc conrriburion oI cass in rhc combincd
impacroIdivcrscsourccsoIincguairy, andsccond,rhcpossibiiryoI
'Iricndyhrc`,vhichrcguircsusrorcrhinkrhc odbarrcincsagainsr
incguairy. !n parricuar, rhc rccvancc oI ncv barricrs srrongy
suggcsrsrhcnccdrorc-cxaminc rhcvays andmcans oIconIronring
cass incguairy.
!nrhiscssay, !sharryroidcnriIyrvo spccihcissucsro cxaminc in
rryingroundcrsrandrhcIar-rcachingrccvanccoIcassin!ndia. hrsr,
rhc 'inrcgrarion issuc` ro scc rhc inIucncc oI cass as nor mcrcy
206
CLAS S IN INDIA
addirivc, bur aso asrransIormarionaj andsccond,rhc 'insriruriona
issuc` , in parricuarrhc rolc oIinsriruriona Icarurcs - ncv and od -
inrcinIorcingandcvcn srrcngrhcning cassbarricrs.
Class, Gender, Caste and Community
1hcsignihcanrprcscnccoInon-casssourccsoIincguairyisanimpor-
ranrrccognirionrharcanbccombincdvirhrhcacknovcdgcmcnrrhar
rhcrc is hardy any aspccr oIour ivcs rhar sraysguircunrouchcdby
ourpaccinrhc cass srrarihcarion. Cass docsnoracraoncin crcar-
ingandrcinIorcingincguairy, andycrnoorhcrsourccoIincguairyis
IuyindcpcndcnroIcass.
Considcr gcndcr. Sourh Asian counrrics havc a rcrribc rccord in
gcndcr incguairy, vhich is maniIcsr in rhc unusua morbidiry and
morrairyrarcsoIvomcn,comparcdvirhvharissccninrcgionsrhar
do nor ncgccr vomcn`s hcarh carc and nurririon so bady. Ar rhc
samc rimc, vomcnIromrhcuppcrcasscs arc oIrcnmorc promincnr
inSourhAsiarhancscvhcrc. !ndccd,!ndia,!akisran,angadcshand
Sri !anka havc a had, orcurrcnryhavc, vomcn !rimc Ninisrcrs -
somcrhingrharrhc \nircd Srarcs aongvirh Irancc, !ray, Gcrmany
and|apanjhasncvcrhadanddocsnorsccmpoiscdrohavcinrhcncar
Iururc iI! amanyj udgcj .
conging ro a privicgcd cass can hcp vomcn ro ovcrcomc
barricrsrharobsrrucrvomcnIromcssrhrivingcasscs. Gcndcrisccr-
rainy anaddirionaconrriburorro socicraincguairy, burir docs nor
acrindcpcndcnry oIcass. !ndccd, a congrucncc oIcass dcprivarion
andgcndcr discriminarioncan bighrrhc ivcs oIpoorcrvomcnvcry
scvcrcyindccd. !r is rhcinrcracrivcprcscncc oIrhcsc rvo Icarurcs oI
dcprivarion - bcingov cass and bcing Icmac - rharcanmassivcy
impovcrish vomcnIromrhc cssprivicgcdcasscs.
Simiary, rurning ro casrc, cvcn rhough bcing ovcr casrc is
undoubrcdyascpararccauscoIdispariry, irs impacrisarhc grcarcr
vhcnrhcovcr-casrcIamiics aso happcnrobcvcrypoor. 1hcbighr-
ingoIrhcivcsoIairs orpcopcIromorhcrdisadvanragcdcasrcs,or
oImcmbcrs oI rhc Schcducd1ribcs, is parricuary scvcrc vhcn rhc
casrc orrribaadvcrsiricsarcIurrhcrmagnihcdbyabj ccrpcnury.Lvcn
207
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhcviocncc associarcdvirhcasrc-rcarcd conIi

rs rcndsro invovc a
grcar dca morcrhanj usrcasrc.
!orcxampc,rhcKanvccrScnainiharmaybcaprivarcarmyrhar
dravs irs susrcnancc Irom rhc uppcr in rhis casc, humihar and
Kajpurjcasrcs,andrhcvicrims oIbrurairymayrypicaybcov-casrc
airs, ycr rhc prcdicamcnr oIrhc porcnria vicrims cannor bc adc-
guarcygraspcdiIvcdonorrakcnorcoIrhcpovcrryandandcssncss
oIairs, orpaccrhcconHicrs in a broadsociaandcconomicback-
ground. 1hisrccognirion docs norsuggcsrrharcasrc is unimporranr
guirc rhc conrraryj , bur ir docs makc ir ncccssary ro pacc casrc-
rcarcd viocncc in a broadcr conrcxr in vhich cass, inter alia,
bcongs. 1hc basic issuc is compcmcnrariry and inrcrrcarion rarhcr
rhanrhc indcpcndcnrIuncrioningoIdiIIcrcnrdispariricsrharvorkin
sccusion ikc ships passing ar nighrj . Givcn rhc vidc rcach and
gcncric rccvancc oI cass, rcarcd ro povcrry and vcarh, ovncrship
andindigcncc, vork and cmpoymcnr, andso on,ir is nor surprising
rharirrcnds ro rcar irs ugy hcad ina grcarmanyconHicrs rharhavc
orhcridcnrihcarionsandcorrcarcs.
!nIacr,rhcrcisasoconsidcrabccvidcnccrharaIIirmarivcacrionin
Iavour oI ovcr casrcs has rcndcd ro do much morc Ior rhc ccono-
micaycss srraincdmcmbcrs oIrhosc casrcs rhanIor rhosc vho arc
vcighcd dovn byrhc combincd burdcn oI cxrrcmc povcrry and ov-
ncss oIcasrc.!or cxampc, 'rcscrvcd`posrsoIrcngororcarivcyaIIu-
cnrmcmbcrs oI disadvanragcdcasrcs. o poicy oIaIIirmarivc acrion
aimcdarcasrcdisadvanragccanbcadcguarcycIIccrivcvirhourraking
accounr oIrhccass backgroundoImcmbcrs oIrhc ovcr casrcs. 1hc
impacr oIcasrc,ikc rharoIgcndcr,is subsranriaysvaycd bycass.
r considcr rhc dcprivarion rhar is gcncrarcd by communa
viocncc.Ncmbcrs oIa minorirycommunirycanindccdhavcrcason
IorIcarcvcnvhcn rhcy comc Iroma prospcrouscass. Ycr rhcrav
dangcr ro vhich rargcrcd communirics arc cxposcd is immcnscy
magnihcdvhcn rhc pcrsons invovcd noronybcong ro rhosc com-
munirics, burasocomcIrompoorcrandcssprivicgcdIamiics.1his
is broughr our byrhc cass disrriburion oIvicrims oI Iindu-Nusim
riors aroundrhcrimc oIindcpcndcnccandrhcparririon oI!ndia.1hc
casicsrro ki amongrhcmcmbcrs oIarargcrcdcommuniryarcrhosc
oIrhar group vho havc ro go our unprorccrcd ro vork, vho ivcin
208
CLAS S IN INDIA
sums, andvhocad,in oncvay oranorhcr, arhoroughyvuncrabc
iIc. or surprisingy, rhcy providc rhc ovcrvhcming proporrion oI
rhcvicrimsincommunariors.
Nyovnhrsrcxposurcromurdcr, arrhcagc oI tt, occurrcdvhcn
!cncounrcrcdaproIuscybccdingNusimdaiyabourcr,KadcrNia,
vho had bccn kniIcd by Iindu assassins j usr oursidc our homc in
haka hc dicdinrhchospirarovhichmyIarhcrrookhimj . Amosr
his asrvordsro mcvcrcrharhckncvhcvasrakingahcavyriskin
comingroaargcyIindurcgionoIrhcciry,burhchadrodoirinrhc
hopc oIcarning a irrc moncy Irom somc vork hc vas on his vay
rhcrcvhcnhcvas kniIcdj . Kadcr Nia dicd as avicrimizcdNusim,
burhcasodicdasanuncmpoycdabourcr,ookingdcspcrarcyIora
biroIvork andmoncy.
1his vas in tpqq. 1hc riors roday arc nor any diIIcrcnr in rhis
rcspccr. !nrhcIindu-Nusimriors in rhc tpqos,Iindurhugs kicd
rhc unprorccrcd Nusims, vhic Nusim rhugs assassinarcd rhc
impovcrishcd Iinduvicrims. LvcnrhoughrhccommuniryidcnriryoI
rhc cxrcrminarcd prcys vas guirc diIIcrcnr Iindu and Nusim,
rcspccrivcyj , rhcir cass idcnrirics vcrc oIrcn cxrrcmcy simiar. 1hc
cass dimcnsion oI sccrarian viocncc rcnds ro rcccivc inadcguarc
arrcnrion,cvcninncvspapcr accounrs, bccausc oIuniIocarcporring
rhar conccnrrarcs on rhc divisivc communa idcnriry oI rhc vicrims
rarhcrrhanonrhcirunihcd cass idcnriry.
1his rcmarkvoudappy aso rorhcrcccnrcommunakiings and
vicrimizarions in !ndia, Ior cxampc rhc anri-Sikh riors rhar vcrc
organizcd in chiIooving!ndira Gandhi`s assassinarion, rhc anri-
Nusim brurairics rhar accompanicd rhc rcrribc days rhar Ioovcd
rhcdcmoirionoIrhcabrimasjid,andsoon. Cassisancvcr-prcscnr
IcarurcoIcommuna and sccrarianviocncc.
Vharvc nccd,rhcrcIorc,issomckindoIa duarccognirionoIrhc
roc and rcach oIcass rhar rakcs inro accounr irs non-unigucncss as
vc as irs rransIormariona Iuncrion. Vc havc ro rccognizc, simura-
ncousy, rhar
( I ) there are many sources of disparity other than class: we must avoid the
presumption that class encompasses all sources of disadvantage and
handicap; and
209
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
( 2) nevertheless, class disparities are not only impotant on their own, but
they also tend to intensify the disadvantages related to the other forms of
disparity.
Cass is ncirhcr rhc ony conccrn, nor an adcguarc proxy Ior orhcr
IormsoIincguairy, andycrvcdonccdcass anaysisrosccrhcvork-
ing andrcachoIorhcrIormsoIincguairyanddiIIcrcnriarion.
Inequality, Concurrence and the Underdogs
AsidcIromrhcvaricryoIIacrorsrharconrriburcroincguairy,rhcrcis
asorhcimporranrissuc oIrhcIormrharincguairymayrakc. Icrc, ir
maybcrhoughr,cassspcaksinmanyvoiccs,virhmuchdiscordancc.
1hcrcisrrurhinrhisrccognirion,buronccagainrhismaynorvcakcn
rhc ovcrvhcming rccvancc oIprc-cmincnr cass divisions in undcr-
srandingrhcpighroIrhc undcrdogs oIsocicry. Vc havcrosccsimu-
rancousyrhcdisrincrions asvcasrhcinrcrconnccrions.
1hcrc arc many dincrcnr Iorms oI dcprivarion. cconomic povcrry,
iircracy,poiricadiscmpovcrmcnr,abscnccoIhcarhcarc,andso on.
1hcsc disrincr dimcnsions oIincguairy arcnor cnrircy congrucnr in
rhcir incidcncc. !ndccd,rhcycanyicdvcrydiIIcrcnr sociarankings.`
1hc rcndcncyro sccdcprivarionsimpyinrcrms oIincomcpovcrry is
oIrcn srrong andcanbcguircmiscading. Andycrrhcrc arc aso pov-
crIuyuniringIcarurcsinrhcmaniIcsrarion oIscvcrcdcprivarion.1his
is parry bccausc diIIcrcnr rypcs oI handicap rcinIorcc cach orhcr, bur
aso bccausc rhcyoIrcnrcndrogorogcrhcrarrhccxrrcmccnds, divid-
ing rhc gcncra ' havcs` Irom rhc comprchcnsivc ' havc-nors` . 1hc
abscncc oIa conccprua congrucncc bcrvccndiIIcrcnrrypcs oIdcpri-
variondocsnorprccudcrhcircmpiricaproximiryaongabigdividing
inc,vhichisaccnrraIcarurcoIcassicacass anaysis.
Somc!ndians arcrich, mosrarc nor. Somc arc vcryvc cducarcd,
orhcrsarciircrarc.SomccadcasyivcsoIuxury,orhcrsroihardIor
irrc rcvard. Somc arc poiricay povcrIu, orhcrs cannor inHucncc
anyrhing. Somc havc grcar opporrunirics Ior advanccmcnr in iIc,
orhcrs ack rhcm arogcrhcr. Somc arc rrcarcd virh rcspccr by rhc
poicc, orhcrs arc rrcarcd ikc dirr. 1hcsc arc diIIcrcnr kinds oI
2!0
CLASS IN INDIA
incguairy, and cach oI rhcm rcguircs scrious arrcnrion. Ycr oIrcn
cnough- andrhisisrhcccnrra issucinrhcccnrrairyoIcass anaysis
- rhc samcpcopc arc poor in incomc andvcarh, suIIcrIromiircr-
acy, vork hard Ior irrc rcmuncrarion, arc uninHucnria in poirics,
ack socia and cconomic opporrunirics, and arc rrcarcdvirh brura
caousncssbyrhcpoicc.1hc dividingincoI 'havcs` and 'havc-nors`
isnorj usrarhcroricaciche,burasoanimporranrparroIdiagnosric
anaysis, poinring us rovards a prc-cmincnr division rhar can dccpy
inIorm our socia, cconomic and poirica undcrsranding. 1his
concurrcncc oIdcprivarionaddsrorhcovcrarchingrccvanccoIcass
asa sourccoIincguairyanddispariry.
Vhcn !comc ro discuss rhc issuc oIvhar!cacd 'Iricndyhrc`,rhc
rocoIsuchmaniIcsrconcurrcnccinrhcivcsoIrhccxrrcmcundcrdogs
oIsocicryvibccomcparricuaryrccvanr.NanyoIrhcdisrriburiona
insrirurionsrharcxisrin!ndiaandcscvhcrcarcdcsigncdrodcIcndrhc
inrcrcsrs oIgroupsvirh somcdcprivarion or somcvuncrabiiryj bur
vho arcnorbyanymcansrhcabsourcundcrdogsoIsocicry. 1hcrcis
anundcrsrandabcrarionacIorsccingrhcmas'Iricndy`insrirurionsin
rhc barrc againsr cass divisions. Ycr iI rhcy aso havc rhc cIIccr oI
vorscningrhcdcarharrhcrcaundcrdogsgcr, arrhcborromaycrsoI
socicry, rhcovcraimpacrmaybc ro srrcngrhcncass divisions rarhcr
rhanvcakcn rhcm. 1his isrhc scnsc invhichrhcircIIccrs canbcsccn
as 'Iricndyhrc`,and!amaIraidrhcrcisagrcatdcaoIrhisphcnomc-
nonin!ndianpubicpoicyasirsrands.
!riscxrrcmcyimporranrrosrudyrhcissucoI'Iricndyhrc`, rhough
nor bccausc ir is rhc argcsr conrriburor ro cass divisions in !ndia.
rradiriona Iacrors, such as massivc incguairy oIvcarh and asscrs,
immcnsc gapsincducarionandorhcrsociaopporrunirics andso on,
rcmain ccnrra ro ourundcrsrandingoIrhc brurc Iorcc oIcass divi-
sions. Ycr rhcsc rradiriona Icarurcs arc nov suppcmcnrcd by ncv
barricrs, somc oI vhich vcrc crcarcd prcciscy ro ovcrcomc rhc
inHucncc oIcass, burcnduphavingrhcopposirccIIccr.
!caniusrrarcrhcpoinrvirhagrcarmanycxampcs.!sha,hov-
cvcr, conccnrrarc in rhis cssay on cxacry rvo paradigmaric iusrra-
rions, dcaingrcspccrivcyvirhIoodpoicyandccmcnraryschooing,
borhoIvhichhavcamaj orbcaringonrhcivcsoIrhcmosrdcprivcd
amongrhc!ndianpcopc, rharis,rhchungryandrhciircrarc.
2I I
THE ARGUMENTA
!
IVE INDIAN
Food Policy and Hunger
!ndia`s rccord in counrcring hungcr and Iaminc is srrangcy mixcd.
1hcrapidciminarionoIIamincsinccindcpcndcnccisanachicvcmcnr
oIgrcarimporrancc rhcasrrcaIamincoccurrcdin1943 - Iourycars
before indcpcndcnccj , and rhis is cspcciay so in conrrasrrorhc Iai-
urc oI many orhcr counrrics - mosr noraby China - ro prcvcnr
Iaminc.Vhcncvcr aIaminchasrhrcarcncd,rhcsaIcguards oIa dcm-
ocraricproccss havccomcinro opcrarion, virhrapidyarrangcdpro-
rccrivc poicics, incuding rcmporary pubic cmpoymcnr, vhich givc
rhc rhrcarcncd dcsrirurcs rhc moncy ro buyIood. 1hc mcchanism oI
Iaminc prcvcnrion in!ndia has bccn discusscdinmyj oinr bookvirh
|can rczc, Hunger and Public Action. 4 !r is a rccord, vc arguc, oI
considcrabcachicvcmcnr.
And ycr !ndia`s ovcra rccord in ciminaring hungcr and undcr-
nurririon is guirc rcrribc. or ony is rhcrc pcrsisrcnr rccurrcncc oI
scvcrchungcrinparricuarrcgions,burrhcrcisasoadrcadIuprcva-
cncc oI cndcmic hungcr across much oI !ndia. !ndccd, !ndia docs
vorscin rhisrcspccrrhancvcn sub-SaharanAIrica.' Cacuarions oI
gcncraundcrnourishmcnr - vharissomcrimcscacd'prorcin-cncrgy
manurririon`- shovrhariris ncaryrviccas highin!ndiaasin sub-
SaharanAIrica onrhcavcragc.!ris asronishingrhardcspircrhcinrcr-
mirrcnr occurrcncc oIIaminc rhcrc, AIrica sri managcs ro cnsurc a
highcr cvc oIrcguarnourishmcnrrhan docs !ndia. |udgcd in rcrms
oIrhc usua srandardsoIrcrardarioninvcighrIoragc, rhcproporrion
oIundcrnourishcdchidrcninAIricais 20 ro40 pcrccnr,vhcrcasrhc
pcrccnragc oIundcrnourishcd !ndianchidrcn is a giganric 40 ro 6o
pcrccnr.AbourhaIoIa!ndian chidrcn arc, irappcars,chronicay
undcrnourishcd, and morc rhan haIoIa adurvomcn suIIcr Irom
anacmia. !n marcrna undcrnourishmcnr as vc as rhc incidcncc oI
undcrvcighr babics, and aso in rhc Ircgucncy oI cardiovascuar
discasc in arcriIc ro vhich adurs arc parricuary pronc iI nurri-
rionaydcprivcdinrhcvombj , !ndia`srccordisamongrhcvcryvorsr
inrhc vord.
A srrikingIcarurc oIrhcpcrsisrcnccoIrhisdrcadIusiruarionisnor
ony rhar ir conrinucs ro cxisr, bur rhar rhc irrc pubic arrcnrion ir
2I 2
CLASS IN INDIA
gcrs, vhcn ir gcrs anyar a, is so bady dividcd. '!ndccd, ir is amaz-
ing ro hcar pcrsisrcnr rcpcririon oI rhc Iasc bcicI rhar !ndia has
managcdrhc chacngc oIhungcrvcryvc sincc indcpcndcncc. 1his
is bascd on a proIoundconIusion bcrvccnIamincprcvcnrion,vhich
isasimpcachicvcmcnr,andrhcavoidanccoIcndcmicundcrnourish-
mcnrandhungcr,vhichisamuchmorccompcxrask. !ndiahasdonc
vorscrhanncarycvcrycounrryinrhcvordinrhcarrcrrcspccr.
!n rhis conrcxr, ir is parricuary rcmarkabc rhar !ndia has con-
rinucdro amasscxrraordinariyargcsrocksoIIoodgraininrhcccn-
rragovcrnmcnr`srcscrvc,virhourhndinggooduscIorrhcm.!ntpp8
rhc srock vas around t8 miion ronncs - coscro rhc oIIicia ' buIIcr
srock`norms.!rhas cimbcdandcimbcdsinccrhcn,hrmysurpassing
62 miion ronncs ar rhc rimc rhis cssay vas vrirrcn as a chru
!ccrurc in 2ooi ) . 1orakc|canrczc`s graphicdcscriprion, iIa rhc
sacks oIgrain vcrc aidup in a rov, rhis voudsrrcrchmorc rhan a
miion kiomcrrcs, raking us ro rhc moon and back. 1o scc ir in
anorhcr vay, rhc srocks subsranriay cxcccdcd onc ronnc oI Iood
grainIor cvcryIamiybcovrhcpovcrryinc.
1hccounrcrinruirivcncss- norromcnrionrhcincguiry- oIrhchis-
roryoIrhisdcvcopmcnris sogrossrharirishardrocxpainirbyrhc
prcsumprionoImcrcinscnsiriviry - irooksmorcandmorcikcinsan-
iry. Vhar coud bc rhc pcrccivcd rarionac oI a rhis ! Vhar coud
cxpain rhc simurancous prcscncc oI rhc vorsr undcrnourishmcnr
andrhcargcsrunuscdIoodsrocksinrhcvordvirhrhcsrocksbcing
consranry augmcnrcdarcxrrcmcyhcavycosrj !
1hc immcdiarc cxpanarion is nor hard ro hnd. 1hc accumuarion
oIsrocksrcsursIromrhcgovcrnmcnr`scommirmcnrrohighminimum
supporrpriccsIor Iood grain- Iorvhcarandriccinparricuar. ura
rcgimc oIhighpriccs in gcncra dcspirc a gap bcrvccn procurcmcnr
priccs and consumcrs` rcrai priccs j borh cxpands procurcmcnr
and dcprcsscs dcmand. 1hc bonanza Ior Ioodproduccrs and sccrs
is marchcd by rhc privarion oI Iood consumcrs. Sincc rhc bioogica
*We discuss the role of inadequacy of public discussion in the formulation and per
sistence of faulty public policy in our joint book, Dreze and Sen, India: Economic
Development and Social Opportunity (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
I996) , and in the follow-up monograph, India: Development and Participation (Delhi
and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) .
2I3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
nccd Ior Iood is nor rhc samc rhing as rhc cconomic cnrircmcnr ro
Iood vhar pcopc can aIIord ro buy givcn rhcir cconomic
circumsranccs andrhcpriccsj , rhcargc srocksprocurcd archardro
gcrridoI,dcspircrampanrundcrnourishmcnracrossrhccounrry. 1hc
vcry pricc sysrcm rhar gcncrarcd a massivc suppy kcpr rhc hands -
andrhcmourhs - oIrhcpoorcrconsumcrs avayIromIood.
ur docs nor rhc govcrnmcnr auromaricay rcmcdyrhis probcm
rhrough subsidizing Iood priccs comparcd virh rhc procurcmcnr
priccs - surcyrharshoud kccp Ioodpriccsov ro consumcrs! or
guirc.1hcissucs invovcd arcdiscusscdmorc Iuy in myj oinr book
virh|canrczc, India: Development and Participation :oo:) , bur
onc bigparr oIrhc sroryis simpyrhcIacrrharmuchoIrhcsubsidy
docs in Iacr go ro payIor rhc cosr oI maintaining a massivcyargc
srockoIIoodgrain,virhamammorhandunvicdyIoodadminisrra-
rionincudingrhc!oodCorporarionoI!ndiaj . Aso,sinccrhccurring
cdgc oIrhcpricc subsidyisrosubsidizcIarmcrsroproduccmorc and
carn morc, rarhcr rhan ro sc cxisring srocks ro consumcrs arovcr
priccs rharhappcns roo, buronyroaimircdcxrcnrandrorcsrricrcd
groupsj , rhc ovcracIIccroIrhc subsidyismorcspccracuarinrrans-
IcrringmoncyromcdiumandargcIarmcrsvirhIoodrosc,rhanin
givingIoodrorhcundcrnourishcdconsumcrs.
!IrhcrcvcrccvcracascIorradicacassanaysis,invhich'rhccIr`
coudrakc'rhcrighr`rorhcccancrs,oncvoudhavcrhoughrrhar rhis
voud bcir.1osomccxrcnr,vc dosccsuch criricism, burnorncary
cnough.1hcdogrhardocsnorbarkisrhccxpccrabchovoIcriricism
Iromrhcpcrspccrivc oIcass anaysis.
Vhy! 1his is vhcrc rhc diagnosis oI 'Iricndy hrc` bccomcs rcc-
vanr. Vhcnrhc poicy oIIood procurcmcnrvas inrroduced andrhc
cascIorpurchasingIoodIromIarmcrs arhighpriccsvascsrabishcd,
variousbcnchrsvcrcIorcsccn,andrhcyvcrcnorarogcrhcrpoinrcss,
norvirhour somc caim ro cguiry. !irsr, buiding up srocks up ro a
ccrrain poinr is uscIu Ior Iood sccuriry - ncccssarycvcnIor rhc prc-
vcnrion oIIamincs. 1harvoud makciragoodrhingro havc a argc
srockuprosomcimir - inroday`scondirions,pcrhapscvcnasrockoI
:o miionronncs or so. 1hc idca rhar sincc ir is good ro buid up
srocksasnccdcd,irmusrbccvcnbcrrcrrobuidupcvcnmorcsrocks,
isnoronymisrakcn, burasocadsroshooringoncscIinrhc Ioor.
214
CLAS S IN INDIA
! musr aso cxaminc a sccondinc oIrcasoning in dcIcncc oI high
Iood priccs, vhich aso comcs in as a good idca and rhcn rurns
counrcrproducrivc. 1hosc vho suIIcr Irom ov Iood priccs incudc
somcvho arc noraIIucnr- rhc sma Iarmcr orpcasanr vho scs a
parr oIhis crop. 1hc inrcrcsrs oIrhis group arc mixcd up irhrhosc
oIbigIarmcrs, andrhis produccs a crha conIusion oIIoodpoirics.
VhicrhcpovcrIuobbyoIprivicgcdIarmcrsprcsscsIorhighcrpro-
curcmcnrpriccsandpushcsIorpubicIundsrobcspcnrrokccprhcm
high, rhc inrcrcsrs oIpoorcr Iarmcrs, vho aso bcnchr Iromrhc high
priccs, is championcd by poirica groups rhar rcprcscnr rhcsc non-
aIfucnr bcnchciarics. Srorics oIhardship among rhcsc pcopc pay a
povcrIu parr nor onyin rhc rhcroric indcIcncc oIhigh Iood priccs,
bur aso in rhc gcnuinc convicrion oImany cguiry-oricnrcd acrivisrs
rharrhis voudhcpsomcvcrybadyoIIpcopc.Andsoirvoud, bur
oIcourscirvoudhcprhcrichIarmcrsmuchmorc,andcarcrrorhcir
prcssurc groups, vhic rhc inrcrcsrs oI rhc much argcr numbcr oI
pcopcvho buy Ioodrarhcrrhansc ir voud bc bady sacrihccd.
1hcrcisanccdIormorccxpiciranaysisoIrhccIIccrsoIrhcscpoi-
cics on rhc diIIcrcnr casscs, andin parricuar onrhccxrrcmc undcr-
dogs oI socicry vho, aong virh rhcir orhcr dcprivarions arcady
discusscdj , arc aso rcmarkaby undcrIcd and undcrnourishcd. !or
casua abourcrs, sum dvccrs, poor urban cmpoyccs, migranr
vorkcrs, rura arrisans, rura non-Iarm vorkcrs, cvcn Iarm vorkcrs
vhoarcpaid cashvagcs,highIoodpriccsbircinrovharrhcycancar.
1hcovcracIIccr oIhighIoodpriccsis ro hirmanyoIrhcvorsr-oII
mcmbcrs oIsocicry cxrrcmcy hard. And vhic rhcydohcp somc oI
rhcIarm-bascdpoor, rhcncrcIIccrisguirc rcgrcssivc on disrriburion.
1hcrcis,oIcoursc,rccnrcsspoiricaprcssurcinrhcdirccrionoIhigh
Iood priccs coming IromIarmcrs` obbics, and rhc sighry muddicd
picrurc oIbcnchring somc Iarm-bascd poor makcs rhc poicy issucs
suIIicicnrybcIuddcdroaovrhcconIusionrharhighIoodpriccsarc
a pro-poor srancc, vhcnin ovcra cIIccrrhcyarc vcryIarIromrhar.
!rissaidrharairrcknovcdgcisadangcrousrhing.SounIorrunarcy
is a irrc bir oIcguiryvhcn irs championing coincidcs virh massivc
injusriccrovasrnumbcrsoIpcopc.!ris,again,acascoI'Iricndyhrc`,
cvcn rhough rhc invovcmcnr oI rhc rich Iarmcrs` prcssurc groups
rh|kcnsrhcpor.
21 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Elementary Education
!or my sccond cxampc, ! rurn ro primary cducarion in !ndia. !r
suIIcrs, oI coursc, Irom many dchcicncics.8 1hc pauciry oIhnancia
rcsourccs is obviousy a principa probcm. rhcrc arc nor cnough
schoosandrhcIaciiricsavaiabcinrhconcsrharcxisrarcoIrcnvcry
imircd. ur rhcrc arc scvcra orhcr probcms as vc. A maj or diIIi-
cury ics in rhc vcak insriruriona srrucrurc oI primary schoos in
much oI!ndia, vhich arc oIrcn incIIicicnry run. A Iurrhcr probcm
conccrns incguiry oI schooing arrangcmcnrs, and rhc chacngc oI
bringinghrsr-gcncrarionschooarrcndcrsinro a symparhcricandj usr
sysrcmoIprimarycducarion.'
! havc had rhc opporruniry oI gcrring a sampc oIrhc probcms
invovcdrhroughasmasrudyconducrcdonrhissubjccrbyrhc!rarichi
1rusr, vhich ! vas privicgcd ro scr up in 1999 virh rhc hcp oI rhc
procccds oImyobcavard. Vc invcsrigarcdrhcvorking oIanum-
bcr oI ccmcnrary schoos Irom rhrcc disrricrs in Vcsrcnga iniriay
burarcrrhcsrudyvascxrcndcdrosixdisrricrsinVcsrcngaandonc
Irom rhc ncighbouring srarc oI|harkhandj . 1hc ovcra picrurc rhar
cmcrgcs Iromrhcscinvcsrigarions isvcry dcprcssing. Asignihcanrpro-
porrionoIrcachcrsvcrcabscnrIromschooonrhcdaysvcvisircdrhcm
unannounccd. 1cachcr abscnrccism vas vcry much grcarcr in schoos
vhcrcrhc buk oIrhcpupiscomcIromSchcducd CasrcorSchcducd
1ribcIamiics,indccd, 7 5 pcrccnroIrhoscschoosin ourisrhadscri-
ousprobcms oIrcachcrabscnrccism- muchhighcrrhanin schoosin
vhichrhc pupis comc Iromcss disadvanragcdIamiics. Avcry argc
proporrion oIrhc chidrcnrcy onprivarcruirion as a suppcmcnr ro
vharrhcygcrIromrhcschoos,andrhoscvhodonorarccvidcnryprc-
vcnrcd Irom doing so bccausc oIpcnury, rarhcr rhan bccausc oIbcing
sarishcdvirhrhc rcachingrhcchidrcngcrinrhcschoo.!ndccd, oIrhc
pupisin Casscs 3 andqvccoudrcsr,rhcvasrmaj oriryoIrhoscvho
didnorgcrprivarc ruirioncoudnorcvcnsignrhcirnamcs.
''The investigation cited was carried out by Kumar Rana, Abdur Rafique and
Amrita Sengupta, working with me. Our frst Education Report presents the main
fndings from the frst part of the study: The Delivery of Public Education: A Study in
West Bengal (New Delhi: Pratichi Trust, 2002) .
2I 6
CLASS IN INDIA
LIIccrivc ccmcnrary cducarion has inpracricc

ccascdro bcIrcc in
subsranriaparrsoIrhccounrry,vhichoIcourscisavioarionoIabasic
righr.ArhissccmsrobcrcinIorccdbyasharpcassdivisionbcrvccn
rcachcrs andrhcpoorcr Iamiics. Ycrrhc rcachcrs` unions - rcarcdro
rhcrcspccrivcparrics- somcrimcsvicvirh cachorhcrinchampioning
rhcimmuniryoIrcachcrsIrom discipinc. 1hcparcnrs Iromdisadvan-
ragcdIamiicshavcirrcvoiccinrhcrunning oIschoos, andrhc oIIi-
cia inspccrors sccm roo scarcd ro discipinc rhc dcingucnr rcachcrs,
cspcciayvhcnrhcparcnrscomcIromrhcborromaycroIsocicry.1hc
rcachcrs`unionshavc,oIcoursc,hadguircaposirivcrocinrhcpasrin
dcIcndingrhcinrcrcsrsoIrcachcrs,vhcnrhcyuscdrobcpaidvcryirrc
andvcrcrhoroughycxpoircd.1hcrcachcrs` unionsrhcnscrvcdasan
imporranr parr oIrhc insriruriona supporr in Iavour oImorc jusricc.
ov,hovcvcr,rhcscinsrirurionsoIj usriccsccmrovorkargcyagainsr
j usricc rhrough rhcir inacrion - or vorsc - vhcn Iaccd virh rcachcr
abscnrccismandorhcrirrcsponsibiirics.
1hcprobcmis, insomcvays,compoundcdbyrhcIacrrharschoo
rcachcrsarcnovcompararivcyvcpaid - noongcrrhcrccipicnrsoI
miscrabycxpoirarivcvagcs. 1hcrcccnrboosrinrhcsaaryoIpubic
scrvanrs in !ndia caving Iar bchind rhosc vho arc scrvcd by rhc
pubic scrvanrs, suchasagricururaandindusrriaabourcrsj hascd
ro a vcry subsranria risc in rhc rcmuncrarion oI schoo rcachcrs as
pubicscrvanrsj , a ovcr!ndia. 1hc primaryschoo rcachcrs inVcsr
cnga,vhcrcoursrudyvasconducrcd,novrcndrogcrbcrvccnKs.
s, ooo and Io,ooo pcr monrh, in rhc Iorm oIsaary and aovanccs,
vhich comparcs virh rhc rora saary oI rcachcrs in rhc arcrnarivc
schoos - cacd Sishu Siksha Kcndras - oIKs. I,ooo pcrmonrh.
1hc saaryoIrcachcrsin rcguar schoos hasgoncupdramaricay
ovcrrcccnrycars, cvcnin rcarcrms,rharis,aIrcrcorrccringIorpricc
changcs.1hisisanobviouscauscIorcccbrarionaronccvc indccd,
! rcmcmbcr bcing pcrsonay invovcd, as a srudcnr ar !rcsidcncy
CocgchIryycars ago, inagirarionsroraiscrhc dcspcrarcyovprc-
vaiing saarics oI schoo rcachcrsj . ur rhc siruarion is nov vcry
diIIcrcnr. 1hcbigsaaryincrcascsinrcccnrycarshavcnoronymadc
schoo cducarion vasry morc cxpcnsivc making ir much hardcr ro
oIIcrrcguarschoocducarionrorhoscvhoarcsricxcudcdIromirj ,
bur havc aso rcndcdrodrav rhc schoo rcachcrs asa group Iurrhcr
2I7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
avay Irom thc Iamiics oI chidrcn, cspcciay thosc Irom disadvan-
tagcdbackgrounds.1hcrcisconsidcrabccvidcnccthatthccass bar-
ricr that dccpy impairs thc dcivcry oI schoo cducation to thc
vorst-oIImcmbcrsoIsocictyisnovIurthcrrcinIorccdbythcincrcasc
incconomicandsociadistanccbctvccnthctcachcrs and thcpoorcr
andcssprivicgcdj chidrcn.
A Concluding Remark
chru`s hopc oI ovcrcoming cass divisions in thc cconomic, socia
andpoiticaprogrcssoIthccountryrcmains argcyunIuhcd.1hc
barricrs to progrcss comc not onyIrom od dividingincs, but aso
Iromncv oncs. Somctimcsthcvcryinstitutionsthatvcrccrcatcdto
ovcrcomc disparitics and barricrs havc tcndcd to act as rcactionary
inHucnccs in rcinIorcingincguity. 1hcrc arc many cxampcs oI such
'Iricndyhrc` , oIvhich!havc discusscdtvoparticuarcascs.
1hc tcrribc combination that vc havc in !ndia oI immcnsc Iood
mountainsonthconchandandthcargcstcongomcrationoIundcr-
nourishcdpopuationinthcvordonthcothcrisonccxampcoIthis.
1hcpositivchopcsoIcguitythroughhighsupportpriccsoIIoodand
paymcnt oI subsidics havc, to a considcrabc cxtcnt, tcndcd to pro-
ducccxactythc oppositc cncct. Anothcrcxampcrcatcsto thcinsti-
tutiona Icaturcs oI dcivcry oI primary cducation. 1hc tcachcrs`
unions,vhichhavcavcrypositivcroctopayinprotcctingthcintcr-
csts oItcachcrs and havc paycdthatpart vc in thc past, arc oItcn
turningintoaninHucncc thatrcinIorccs thc ncgcct oIthc intcrcsts oI
chidrcnIrom dcspcratcyundcrprivicgcdIamiics. 1hcrc is cvidcncc
oI a hardcning oI cass barricrs that scparatc thc ncvy aIIucnt
tcachcrsIromthcimpovcrishcdrurapoor.
! do notvant to cnd on a notc oIpcssimism. 1hc point oIdiag-
nosinga probcmis to usc itto rcmcdythcidcntihcddchcicncics. !n
thctvocascsconsidcrcd,possibcincs oIrcIormarcnothardtoscc.
nthcattcr, thcrcportoIthc!ratichi1rustmakcsanumbcroIpo-
icysuggcstions,vhichincudccmphasizingthcnccdtostrcngthcnthc
voiccoIparcnts,cspcciayoIthosc Iromthcundcrprivicgcdscctions,
in schoo managcmcnt. 1his voud rcguirc a rcstructuring oI thc
2I8
CLAS S IN INDIA
adminisrrarion oIprimarycducarion, rhoughmaking room Ior cIIcc-
rivc parcnr-rcachcr commirrccs Ior individua schoos, virh cga
aurhoriry. Virh rhchcp oIrhc counrcrvaiing povcr oIrhc inrcrcsr
group mosr dirccryinvovcd- rharis, parcnrs- rhc roc oIrcachcrs`
unions can bc madc morc consrrucrivc. Simiary, on rhc Iormcr
probcm, rhc Iood mounrains can bc rurncd inro asscrs rarhcr rhan
iabiirics,virhanappropriarcIocus onrhcinrcrcsrs oIrhcvorsr-oII
mcmbcrs oIrhcsocicry Iorcxampcrhroughuscin schoomcasj . '
1hcsc and orhcr poicy changcs ca Ior urgcnr acrion and consid-
crarion. 1harproccss can bcIaciirarcd byccaranaysisoIrhc cxacr
cIIccrsoIacruaandpossibcpubicpoicics.!risimporranrroprcvcnr
'Iricndy hrc` as vc as ro prcss Ior poicics rhar can makc a rca
diIIcrcnccrorhcincguairics oIcassdivisionin!ndia. !r iscruciaro
scrurinizcrhcbcnchrsrobcobraincdandrhcosscsrobcsusraincdby
rhcdiIIcrcnrcasscsandoccupariongroups,rcsuringIromcachpoicy
proposa. 1hc ubiguirous roc oI cass divisions inIucnccs socia
arrangcmcnrsinrcmarkabydivcrscvaysanddcscrvcsaIucrrccog-
nirionrhanirhasrcndcdrogcrinrhcmakingoI!ndianpubicpoicy.
1hcrcis somcrhingscriousro argucabourhcrc.
The recent initiative of the Indian government (in late 2004) to help provide
cooked midday meals in schools across the country is a very positive move that has
emerged since the Nehru Lecture was given in 2001 . This initiative, which followed
directly from the Indian Supreme Court's visionary decision to cover this right among
the entitlements of children, has favourable potential in simultaneously addressing the
twin problems of child undernourishment and school absenteeism. It has had much
success in states (such as Tamil Nadu) where it has been in use for many years, and it
is beginning to have positive effects where it is j ust being introduced. Investigations by
the Pratichi Trust team in West Bengal record higher school attendance and a high level
of satisfaction from the poorer families.
219
I I
Many Faces of Gender Inequality
!ncguairy bcrvccn vomcn and mcn can appcar in many diIIcrcnr
Iorms- irhas manyIaccs. Gcndcr dispariryis,inIacr, noroncaIIic-
rion bur a murirudc oI probcms. Somcrimcs rhc diIIcrcnr asymmc-
rrics arc guirc unrcarcd ro cach orhcr. !ndccd, rhcrc may bc no
signihcanr incguairy in onc sphcrc bur a grcar dca oIincguairy in
anorhcr.!orcxampc,|apanhasnoparricuargcndcrbiasinnurririon
orhcarh carc orschoocducarion, burmcn do sccmro havc consid-
crabc rcarivc advanragc in sccuring high cadcrship posirions in
adminisrrarionorbusincss.
Iovcvcr, in orhcr cascs, gcndcr incguairy oI onc rypc rcnds ro
cncouragc and susrain gcndcr incguairy oI orhcr kinds. Consc-
gucnriaanaysiscanrhcnbccriricayimporranrcvcnvirhinrhcargc
corpusoIgcndcrrcarionsingcncra, inordcrrocxamincandscruri-
nizchovrhcdiIIcrcnraspccrsoIgcndcrincguairyrcarcrocachorhcr.
!or vhic gcndcr incguairy has many Iaccs, rhcsc arc nor indcpcnd-
cnrikcrhoscinrhc ausrcrcimagcoIrahmaincary!ndianiconog-
raphyj . Karhcr, rhcy spcak ro cach orhcr and somcrimcs srrongy
cncouragc onc anorhcr. !or cxampc, vhcn vomcn ack dccisiona
povcrvirhinrhcIamiy,vhichamounrsroadcprivarionoIvomcn`s
cIIccrivc agcncy, rhis can aso advcrscyaIIccrrhcirovn vc-bcing.
This essay is based on the text for the Sunanda Bhandare Memorial Lecture I gave
in Delhi (titled 'The Nature an
d
Consequences of Gender Inequality' ) on I4 Nov.
2ooi . Sunanda Bhandare was an outstanding Indian judge and a leading social and
legal thinker, and it was a great privilege for me to j oin in the celebration of her mem
ory. I am also grateful for helpful discussions with Bina Agarwal, Satish Agnihotri,
Jean Dreze, Devaki Jain and V. K. Ramachandran.
220
WOMEN AND MEN
1hc rvo kinds oI dcprivarion may nor ony movc rogcrhcr - bc
'covarianr` - burrhcymaybc inkcd virhcachorhcr rhrough causa
connccrions.
Well-being and Agency
!r is uscIu ro rcarc rhc ropic oIrhis cssayro rhc gcncra disrincrion
bcrvccnrvoIcarurcs oIhumaniIc,rovir, 'vc-bcing` and 'agcncy`,
vhich!havccxporcdcscvhcrc.'1hisdisrincrioncorrcspondsrorhc
od dichoromy, much uscd in mcdicvaLuropcanircrarurc, bcrvccn
'rhc paricnr` and 'rhc agcnr`. 1hc disrincrionis norony imporranrin
irscI, ir aso hasavcrysubsranria bcaring onrhccausaconnccrions
rcarcdrogcndcrrcarions. '`
1hc agcncy aspccr rcIcrsrorhc pursuir oIgoasandobj ccrivcsrhar
a pcrson has rcason ro vauc and advancc, vhcrhcr or nor rhcy arc
connccrcd virh rhc pcrson`s ovn vc-bcing. !copc may acrivcy
choosc ro pursuc orhcr obj ccrivcs rhar is, orhcr rhan pcrsonavc-
bcingj , vhich coud, guircpossiby, bcvcrybroad,suchasindcpcnd-
cncc oI onc`s counrry, rhc ciminarion oIIamincs and cpidcmics, or
rcarcd ro rhc prcscnr conrcxrj rhc rcmova oI gcndcr incguairy in
gcncra. Lvcn rhough rhcrc may bc somc ovcrap bcrvccn diIIcrcnr
obj ccrivcs,ncvcrrhccssasagcncrarucinchampioningrhcscbroadcr
cnds pcopc may nor bcprimariyinHucnccd by rhc cxrcnr ro vhich
rhcsc gcncra obj ccrivcsaIIccrrhcir ovn guairyoIiIc orvcIarc.
1hc disrincrion bcrvccn 'agcncy` and 'vc-bcing` is conccpruay
rich, sinccrhcyrcIcrrorvo disrincrvays invhicha pcrson`svaucs,
cnds,ambirions,Irccdomsandachicvcmcnrscanbcundcrsrood,using
rvodiIIcrcnrpcrspccrivcsoIasscssmcnr.Asirhappcns,rhcdisrincrion
isoIsubsranriarccvancc, ingcncra,ininrcrprcringpracricapoicics
and acrivirics, and, in parricuar, in undcrsranding rhc priorirics oI
socia movcmcnrs, incuding rhc incrcasingy povcrIu 'vomcn`s
movcmcnrs` in manyparrs oIrhcvord.
*The role of agency, in addition to that of well-being, is quite central to the process
of development, as I have tried to discuss in Development U Freedom (New York:
Knopf, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, I999) .
22!
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!ndccd,unri rcccnry rhc acrivirics oI rhcsc movcmcnrsvcrcrypi-
cay aimcd, arcasrro a grcar cxrcnr, arvorking rovards achicving
bcrrcrrrcarmcnrIorvomcn, inparricuar amorc 'sguarc dca` . 1his
invovcd a Iocus onvomcn`s vc-bcing inparticuar. 1hc choicc oI
rhis Iocus has, oI coursc, an obvious rarionac, givcn rhc vay
vomcn`sinrcrcsrsandvc-bcinghavcbccnncgccrcdinrhcpasrand
conrinuc ro bcncgccrcd cvcn roday. urin rhc coursc oIrhc cvou-
rion oIvomcn`s movcmcnrs, rhcir obj ccrivcs havc graduay broad-
cncdIromrhisnarrovy 'vcIarisr`Iocusrovardsincorporaringand
cmphasizing rhc acrivc roc oI vomcn as agcnrs in doing rhings,
asscssing priorirics, scrurinizing vaucs, Iormuaring poicics and
carrying ourprogrammcs.
Vomcnarc,inrhisbroadcncdpcrspccrivc,norpassivcrccipicnrsoI
vcIarc-cnhancinghcp broughr abourbysocicry, bur arcacrivcpro-
morcrs and Iaciirarors oI socia rransIormarions. Such rransIorma-
rionsinHucncc,oIcoursc, rhcivcsandvc-bcingoIvomcn,buraso
rhoscoImcnandachidrcn - boysasvcasgirs.1hisisamomcn-
rouscnrichmcnroIrhcrcachoIvomcn`smovcmcnrs.
Interconnections and Reach
AsIarasvomcn`sovnvc-bcingisconccrncd,iris asoimporranrro
rakcnorcoIrhccxrcnsivcinrcrconnccrionsbcrvccnrhcagcncyaspccr
andrhcvc-bcingaspccroIvomcn`sivcs.!risobviousrharrhcacrivc
agcncyoIvomcncannorignorcrhcurgcncyoIrccriIyingmanysocia
inIucnccs rhar bighr rhc vc-bcing oIvomcn and subjccr rhcm ro
dcprivarions oIvarious kinds. 1hus rhc agcncy roc musr bc dccpy
conccrncd inter alia virh vomcn`s vc-bcing as vc. Simiary, ro
considcr rhc inkIromrhc orhcr dirccrion, irisnoronyrhc casc rhar
avomanvhoscagcncyisscvcrcyrcsrricrcdvi - Iorrharrcasonand
ro rhar cxrcnr- bc handicappcd in vc-bcing as vc, bur aso, any
pracricaarrcmprarcnhancingrhcvc-bcingoIvomcncannorignorc
rhc agcncyoIvomcnrhcmscvcsinbringingaboursucha changc. So
rhcvc-bcing aspccr and rhc agcncyaspccroIvomcn`s movcmcnrs
incvirabyhavcsubsranriainrcrconnccrions.
cspircrhcsc connccrions,hovcvcr, agcncyandvc-bcingarcrvo
222
WOMEN AND MEN
guirc diIIcrcnrpcrspccrivcs, sincc rhc roc oIa pcrsonas an ' agcnr` is
Iundamcnray diIIcrcnr Irom rhc roc oI rhc samc pcrson as a
' paricnr` . !r is, oIcoursc,rrucrhar agcnrs mayhavcrosccrhcmscvcs,
ar casr ro somc cxrcnr, as paricnrs as vc. !or cxampc, rhc od
admonirion, 'physician,hcarhyscI`, is aninvirarionrorhcphysician
robcborhanagcnrandaparicnr.urrhisdocsnorarcrrhcaddiriona
modairics and rcsponsibiirics rhar arc incscapaby associarcd virh
rhc agcncy oIa pcrson. An agcnrhas anacrivc roc in pursuing vau-
abcgoas,andvhicrhcscgoasvoudrypicayincudc,amongorhcr
obj ccrs,rhcpcrson`sovnvc-bcing,rhcycanbc,arrhcsamcrimc,Iar
morc spacious and cxrcnsivc in rhcir covcragc. 1hc agcncyroc can,
rhus, bcmuchbroadcrrhanrhcpromorionoIscIvcIarc.
1hc changing Iocus oI vomcn`s movcmcnrs rovards rhc agcncy
aspccr is, rhus, a crucia broadcning oIrhc scopc and rcach oIrhcsc
movcmcnrs, and invovcs subsranria addirions ro odcr conccrns
virhour dcnying rhc conrinuing rccvancc oI rhosc conccrnsj . 1hc
caricr conccnrrarion on rhc vc-bcing oI vomcn, or ro bc morc
cxacr,onrhc'i-bcing`oIvomcnandrhc dcprivarionsrharyicdrhar
i-bcing, vas nor, oI coursc, siy or misrakcn. cprivarions in rhc
vc-bcing oIvomcn vcrc ccrrainy scrious - somcrimcs arrocious -
and rhcir rcmova is ccary imporranr Ior socia j usricc. 1hcrc arc
cxcccnr rcasons Ior bringing rhcsc dcprivarions oI vomcn`s vc-
bcingroighr,androhghrIorrhcrcmova oIrhcsciniguirics.urncv-
crrhccss, conccpruaizing vomcn`s dcprivarion basicay in rcrms oI
vc-bcing, andrhusconccnrraringonrhc 'paricnr` aspccr oIvomcn,
cannor bur miss our somcrhing cxrraordinariy imporranr abour
vomcn as acrivc agcnrs oI changc, vhich can rransIorm rhcir ovn
ivcs andrhcivcs oIorhcrvomcn,andindccdrhcivcs oIcvcryonc in
socicry- vomcn, mcn and chidrcn. Vomcn`s movcmcnrs as vc as
rhcgrovingvoumcoIIcminisrircrarurc havc borhbccninvovcd,in
rcccnrdccadcs,inrhis broadcningoIIocus.Asaconscgucncc,rhcncv
agcnda has rcndcdro rransccndrhc vicv oIvomcn asparicnr soici-
rors oI socia cguiry, and scc vomcn as harbingcrs oI maj or socia
changc, inmakingrhc vord a morcivcabcpaccIor a. 1hcIocus
onvoicc in rhis book hrs vc parricuaryvirhrhc agcncyaspccr oI
gcndcrrcarions.
223
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Distinct Faces of Gender Inequality
1hcdiIIcrcncc bcrvccnvc-bcingandagcncyhas rcmarkabcanayr-
ica rcach, and! sha dravagain onrhis conccprua disrincrionarcr
oninrhiscssay. urbcIorcrhar!voudikcrodiscussrhcvidcrangc
oIvariarions bcrvccnrhcdincrcnr 'Iaccs` oIgcndcrincguairy. `
! sha cxaminc rhc disrincr phcnomcna undcr rhc Iooving
hcadings.
( I ) survival inequality;
( 2) natality inequality;
(
3
) unequal facilities;
( 4) ownership inequality;
( 5 ) unequal sharing of household benefts and chores; and
( 6) domestic violence and physical victim
,
ization.
Givcn rhc dcmographic and socia compcxiry in idcnriIying and
undcrsrandingrhchrsrrvo carcgorics,!shaconccnrrarconrhcmin
parricuar, andrcIcrrorhcorhcrsonyrarhcrrapidy.
Survival Inequality
!nmanyparrs oIrhcvord,gcndcrincguairyrakcs rhcsavagcIorm
oIunusuay high morrairyrarcs oIvomcn and a conscgucnrprc-
pondcrancc oImcn in rhcrorapopuarion. 1his conrrasrsparricu-
ary sharpyvirh rhc prcpondcrancc oIvomcn Iound in socicrics
virhirrcornogcndcrbiasinhcarhcarcandnurririon.!rhasbccn
vidcy obscrvcd rhar, givcn simiar hcarh carc and nurririon,
vomcnrcnd rypicay ro havc ovcr agc-spcciIic morrairy rarcs
rhan mcn. !r is inrcrcsringrhar cvcn Icmac Icruscs rcnd ro havc a
ovcr probabiiry oI miscarriagc rhan mac Icruscs. Lvcn rhough,
cvcryvhcrc in rhc vord, morc mac babics arc born rhan Icmac
babics andancvcnhighcrproporrionoImacIcruscsarcconccivcd
rhan Icmac Icruscsj , in rhosc paccs in vhich mcn and vomcn
rcccivcsimiarhcarhcarcandarrcnrion,rhcovcrabundanccoImcn
is graduay rcduccd and rhcn rcvcrscd. So rhc popuarions oI
Luropc and orrh Amcrica havc abour 1 05 or morc Icmacs pcr
224
WOMEN AND MEN
I OO macs, and rhis highcr Icmac-mac rario

oI abour I . o5 or
I . o6) comcs abour as a rcsur oI rhc grcarcr surviva chancc oI
Icmacs in diIIcrcnr agc groups.
!nconrrasrvirhrhisparrcrn,inmanyrcgionsoIrhcvord,vomcn
rcccivc css - somcrimcs Iar css - carc rhan mcn, and in parricuar,
girsoIrcnrcccivcvcrymuch csssupporrrhanboys.AsarcsuroIrhis
gcndcr bias in hcarh carc and socia arrcnrion, morrairy rarcs oI
Icmacs arc unusuay high comparcd virh vhar may bc cxpccrcd
Irom rhc oca macmorrairy rarcs. !ndccd, guirc oIrcnIcmac mor-
rairyrarcsacruaycxcccdrhcmacrarcs,inroraconrrasrvirhvhar
is bioogicay cxpccrcd andvhar is acruay obscrvcd in rhc parrcrn
oImorrairy in Luropc andorrhAmcrica.
1hc conccpr oI'missingvomcn` vas dcviscdro givc somcidca oI
rhccnormiryoIrhisphcnomcnonbyIocusingonrhcvomcnvho arc
simpynorrhcrc,primariy ducrounusuayhighmorrairycomparcd
virhnormaIcmac-macmorrairyrarios.1hcmcrhodoogyinvovcs
Iinding somc vay - unavoidaby rarhcr rough - oI csrimaring rhc
guanrirarivc diIIcrcnccbcrvccnrhcacruanumbcroIvomcninrhcsc
counrrics,andrhcnumbcrvccoudcxpccrroscchadrhcgcndcrrario
insurvivabccnsimiar, inrhcsccounrrics, ro rharin orhcrrcgions oI
rhc vord vhcrc rhcrc is nor such a signihcanr anri-Icmac bias in
hcarhcarc and orhcrsociainIucnccs rccvanr Ior surviva. '
!or cxampc,iIvcrakcrhcrariooIvomcnromcninsub-Saharan
AIrica as rhc srandard on rhc grounds rhar rhcrc is rcarivcy irrc
bias againsr vomcn in hcarh carc, socia srarus and morrairy rarcs
in sub-Saharan AIrica, cvcn rhough rhc absourc morrairy rarcs arc
vcry high Ior borh mcn and vomcnj , rhcn irs Icmac-mac rario oI
I . 022 can bc uscd ro cacuarc rhc numbcr oI missing vomcn in
vomcn-shorrcounrrics. Virh!ndia`sIcmac-macrariooI0.9 3 , rhcrc
is a 'rcarivc dchcir` oIvomcn oI9 pcr ccnr oIrhc!ndianmacpop-
uarion bcrvccn rhar rario and rhc srandard uscd Ior comparison,
rhar is, I . 02 bascd on rhc sub-SaharanAIrican rarioj . 1his arcady
*I have discussed the methodology involved in estimating the number of missing
women and the principal results in 'Missing Women' , British Medical Journal, 3 04 (7
Mar. I992) , and 'Missing Women Revisited', British Medical Journal, 3 27 (6 Dec.
2003 ) . See also my joint book with Jean Dreze, Hunger and Public Action ( Oxford:
Clarendon Press, I 9 8 9) .
225
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
yicdsa hgurc oI j ; miionmissingvomcnin!ndia in I 986 vhcn!
hrsr did rhc csrimarionj . Simiary, rhc usc oIrhc samc 'srandard` oI
I . 02 bascdonrhcsub-SaharanAIricanrariojproduccsahgurcoI44
miion Iormissing vomcn in China arrhcsamcpoinr oIrimc. y
addingrhcsccounrrycsrimarcs rogcrhcr, irsooncmcrgcsrharIorrhc
vordasavhocrhcmagnirudcoIshorrIaoIvomcncasiycxcccds
I OO miion, arcady 'missing` in I98 6 sincc rhcnrhcnumbcrs havc
grovn virh rhc grovrh oI absourc sizc oI rhc rcspccrivc popua-
rionsj . ' rhcr srandards and diIIcrcnr dcmographic proccdurcs can
aso bcuscd,ashasbccndoncbyAnscyCoacandSrcphanKascn.
1hcscproccdurcsyicdsomcvhar diIIcrcnr numbcrs, bur invariaby
vcry argc oncs. !or cxampc, Kascn`s rora numbcr Ior rhc caricr
pcriod as inrhc csrimarcs by Coac and Scnj vas abour 8o miion
missing vomcn. !or morc rcccnr ycars, Srcphan Kascn`s mcrhod
yicdsnumbcrsrhararcargcrrhan Ioo miion.Anri-Icmac biasin
carc and morrairy imposcs a massivc pcnary across rhc vord
againsrrhcsurvivaoIvomcn.
Natality Inequality and an Indian Divide
Lvcnvirhinrhc dcmographic domain, gcndcrincguairycanmaniIcsr
irscInorj usrinrhc od Iorm oImorrairyasymmcrry, bur aso inrhc
ncv Iorm oI scx-spcciIic aborrions aimcd ar ciminaring Icmac
Icruscs. 1his 'narairy incguairy` rcHccrs rhcIacrrharmanyparcnrs
vanrrhcncvbornrobcaboyrarhcrrhanagir,givcnagcncraprcI-
crcncc Iorboysinmanymac-dominarcdsocicrics.1hcavaiabiiryoI
modcrnrcchnigucsrodcrcrmincrhcgcndcroIrhcIcrushas madcsuch
scx-scccrivcaborrionpossibcandcasy, andirhasbccomcvcrycom-
mon in many socicrics. !r is parricuary prcvacnr in casr Asia, in
China and SourhKorcainparricuar, burrhcrcis cvidcncc rhariraso
occursroasrarisricayidcnrihabccxrcnrinSingaporcand1aivan.!r
isbcginningrocmcrgcasasignihcanrphcnomcnonin!ndiaandsourh
Asiaasvc.
1his'high-rcchscxism`haschangcd - andisconrinuingrochangc
- rhc Icmac-mac rarios ar birrh. Comparcd virh rhc bioogicay
dcrcrmincdsrandardrario oIabour9 5 girsbcingbornpcr Ioo boys
vhichisrhcrariovcobscrvcinLuropcandorrhAmcricasinccscx-
226
WOMEN AND MEN
spccihc aborrion docs nor cxisr as a signihcanr phcnomcnon rhcrcj ,
Singaporcand1aivanhavc92, SourhKorca8 8, andChinaamcrc 86
girs bornpcr I oo boys.
GivcnrhcincompcrcncssoIbirrhrcgisrrarionin!ndia,irisnorcasy
rogcrcxacrycomparabcIcmac-macrariosarbirrh,burthcrariooI
Icmacsromacsamongchidrcncanscrvc,inter alia, asaguidcrorhc
narairy bias as vc, cvcn rhough diIIcrcnccs in chid morrairy rarcs
oIIcmacs and macs can aso inIucncc rhcsc srarisrics. !ndccd, borh
rhcscphcnomcna scx-scccrivc aborrionsandIcmacdisadvanragcin
morrairy oIchidrcnj rcIccr anri-Icmac bias, andrhcy can ccrrainy
vorkrogcrhcr. As Iar as!ndian srarisrics arc conccrncd ovcra, cvcn
rhough morrairy rarcs oI boys and girs arc novvcry cosc ro cach
orhcr, ncvcrrhccss rhcIcmac-macrario oIrhcpopuarionundcragc
6 has Iacn Irom pq. girs pcr Ioo boys in tppt vhich vas rhus
muchinincvirhrhcrarioinLuropcandorrhAmcricajro92. 7 girs
pcr I oo boysin 20oi. 1his drop basicayrcHccrs rhc sprcad oIscx-
scccrivc aborrions andnarairyincguairy, rarhcrrhan anyriscinrhc
morrairyoIIcmacchidrcnrcarivcromacchidrcn.
1hcrc is a rcmarkabc rcgiona parrcrn associarcd virh rhis ncv
phcnomcnonin!ndia.1hcrchasbccn,inIacr, irrc ornoj dccincin
somc parrs oIrhc counrry, mainy in rhc casr and sourh, bur ir has
Iacnsharpyinorhcrrcgions,mainyinrhcnorrhandvcsroI!ndia.
1hcrc havc bccn, Ior cxampc, cxrrcmcy sharp dccincs in rhc
Icmac-mac rarios oI chidrcn in !unj ab, Iaryana, Guj arar and
Naharashrra, and signihcanry ov rarios can bc obscrvcd in mosr
orhcrsrarcsinrhcnorrhandvcsroIrhccounrry.
ccausc oI rhc cgirimarc Icar rhar scx-scccrivc aborrions mighr
occur in !ndia and scrvc as a ncv vchicc oI!ndia`s rradiriona anri-
Icmac bias, somcycars agorhc !ndianpariamcnr banncdrhcuscoI
scxdcrcrminarionrcchnigucsIorIcruscs,cxccprvhcnasaby-producr
oI somc ncccssary mcdica invcsrigarion. ur ir appcars rhar rhc
cnIorccmcnroIrhisavhasbccncomprchcnsivcyncgccrcd.
ConsoarionmighrbcsoughrinrhcIacrrharcvcnrhcarcsrrariooI
Icmacsromacsamong!ndianchidrcn pjgirspcr Ioo boysj , vhic
ovcr rhan rhc hgurc rcn ycars ago, is sri much highcr rhan Sourh
Korca`sIcmac-macrario amongchidrcnoI8 8 girsand China`s 86
girs pcr I oo boys. ' 1hcrc arc, hovcvcr, addiriona grounds Ior
227
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
conccrn, vhich rcguirc us ro go bcyondrhccurcnr a-!ndia avcragc
oIIcmac-macrariooIchidrcn.!irsr,rhcrcarcbigvariarionsvirhin
!ndia, and rhc a-!ndia avcragc hidcs rhc Iacrthar rhcrc arc scvcra
srarcs - inrhcnorrhandvcsroI!ndia - vhcrcrhcIcmac-macrario
Ior chidrcn is vcrymuch ovcr rhan rhc !ndian avcragc, and ovcr
cvcnrhanrhc Chincsc andKorcan numbcrs.Sccond,irmusrbcaskcd
vhcrhcrrhcscarc 'carydays` andvhcrhcr - asrhcrcchnoogyoIscx
dcrcrminarion bccomcs morc vidcy avaiabc across !ndia - rhc
!ndianrarioviconrinucroIa,carchingupvirh - andpcrhapscvcn
going bcov- rhc Korcan and Chincscnumbcrs.
1hcrc appcarsro bc somcrhing oIa sociadividcarrhisrimc run-
ning righr across !ndia and spirring rhc counrrycIIccrivcyinro rvo
conriguous havcs, in rhc cxrcnr oI anri-Icmac bias in narairy and
posr-narairy morrairy. Sincc morc boys rhan girs arc born cvcry-
vhcrc in rhc vord Ior bioogica rcasons, vc musr usc as our com-
pararivcsrandardnoraonc-ro-oncrario,burrhcproporrionsrharcan
bc obscrvcd in advanccd indusrriacounrrics in Luropc and orrh
Amcrica, Ior cxampcj , vhcrc scx-scccrivc aborrion is nor a signih-
canr phcnomcnon. 1hc Icmac-mac rario Ior rhc o- agc group is
pq. 8inGcrmany,p.oinrhc\nircdKingdom,andp . ;inrhc\nircd
Srarcs, andpcrhapsvccan scnsiby pickrhc Gcrmanrario oIpq. 8as
rhc 'cur-oII poinr` bcov vhich signihcanr anri-Icmac inrcrvcnrion
canbcsuspccrcd.
1hisdividingincproduccs arcmarkabcgcographicaspir oIrhc
counrry. 1hcrc arc srarcs in rhc norrh and vcsr, cd by !unj ab,
Iaryana,chiandGujarar,vhcrcrhcIcmac-macrariooIchidrcn
isvcrysubsranriaybcovrhcbcnchmarkhgurc virhrarios bcrvccn
;p. j and 8;. 8j . rhcr srarcs inrhcsc rcgions aso havc rarios signih-
canry bcov rhc dividing inc oI pq. 8 girs pcr too boys, such as
Iimacha !radcsh, Nadhya !radcsh, Kaj asrhan, \rrar !radcsh,
Naharashrra,|ammu andKashmir, andihar.8 nrhcorhcrsidcoI
rhc dividc, rhc srarcs in rhc casr and sourh oI !ndia rcnd ro havc
Icmac-mac rariosrhararc abovc rhc bcnchmarkinc rhar is, pq. 8
girs pcr t oo boys, rakcn as our cur-oII srandardj . virh Kcraa,
Andhra !radcsh, Vcsr cnga and Assam cach bcrvccn p6. j and
p6. 6girsj , andaso rissa,Karnarakaandrhcnorrh-casrcrnsrarcsro
rhc casr oI angadcsh Ncghaaya, Nizoram, Nanipur, agaand,
228
WOMEN AND MEN
Arunacha !radcshj . 1hc counrry ooks spir in thc middc, Iaing
ncaryinrorvodivcrgcnrscgmcnrs. "
AparriacxccprionrorhissharpparrcrnoIrvoIodrcgionaspiris
providcdbyrhcsourhcrnsrarcoI1amiadu,vhcrcrhcIcmac-mac
rario isj usrbcov94 Asirhappcns,1amiadu`s Icmacchid rario
issri highcrrhanrhcrario oIanysrarcinrhcnorrhandvcsr,vhich
Iormrhc 'dchcirisr`,burncvcrrhccss1amiadu`srarioissomcvhar
bcov rhc Gcrmancur-oIIpoinr. Iovcvcr,rhc asronishing hnding is
norrhar onc parricuar srarc sccms ro providc a margina mishr, bur
rharrhcvasrmaj oriryoI!ndiansrarcsIahrmyinrorvo conriguous
havcs, cassihcd broadyinrorhcnorrhandvcsrononcsidc andrhc
sourh and casr onrhc orhcr. !ndccd- and rhis is guirc rcmarkabc -
cvcry srarc in rhc norrh and vcst" has a srricry ovcr Icmac-mac
rario oI chidrcn rhan cvcry srarc in rhc casr and sourh cvcn 1ami
adu hrs inro rhis cassihcarionj , and rhc counrry srands hrmy and
sharpydividcd.
!rmaybcaskcdvhcrhcrrhcIcmac-macrarioinchidmorrairyis
aso simiary divisivc. 1hcrc is a srarisrica connccrion rhcrc, bur
ncvcrrhccssrhcparrcrnoIIcmac-macrariooIrhcnumbcroIchidrcn
vhich incorporarcs rhc impacr oI scx-spccihc aborrionj produccs a
much sharpcrrcgiona cassihcarionrhan docs rhc Icmac-mac rario
oImorrairyoIchidrcn, cvcnrhoughrhc rvo arc asoIairysrrongy
corrcarcd. 1hc Icmac-mac rario in chid morrairy varics bcrvccn,
aronccnd,0. 91 inVcsrcngaand0. 93 inKcraa inIavouroIgirsj
in rhc sourhcrn and casrcrn rcgions, on onc sidc, ro 1. 3 in !unj ab,
Iaryana and \rrar !radcsh, ar rhc orhcr, virh high rarios againsr
girsj aso in Gujarar,iharandKaj asrhan,inrhcnorrhcrnandvcsr-
crnrcguns.
1hc cmpirica conrrasrs makc ir diIIicur ro cscapc rhc concusion
rharrhcnorrhandvcsrhavcccarcharacrcrisrics oIanri-Icmac bias,
inHucncing rhc composirion oI chidrcn, in a vay rhar is nor guirc
prcscnr- ar casr, nor ycr- in mosr oIrhc casr and sourh. Aso, rhc
incidcncc oIscx-spccihc aborrions cannor bc cxpaincd byrhc avai-
abiiry oImcdica rcsourccsIordcrcrminingrhc scxoIrhc Icrus,rhar
is, by rhc prcsumprion rhar rhc srarcs rhar havc morc scx-scccrivc
aborrions arcrhconcsinvhichmcdicaIaciiricsarcmorcdcvcopcd
and rhus usabc Ior rhis purposc. !or cxampc, Kcraa and Vcsr
229
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cnga in rhc non-dchcir isr, borh virh a rario

oI p6. j girs ro 1 00
boys comIorraby highcr rhan rhc bcnchmark cur-oII oIpq. 8 j , havc
ar casr as many mcdica Iaciirics as cxisr in such ov-Icn1ac-rario
srarcsasNadhya!radcshorKajasrhan.SorhcavaiabiiryoImcdica
opporrunirics cannor providc an adcguarc cxpanarion - guirc rhc
conrrary- andvc havcro ook arIacrors rhargo bcyondrhc suppy
sidc oI mcdica rcchnoogy. !I Iaciirics spccihcay Ior scx idcnrih-
carion and subscgucnr aborrion havc bccn morc cxrcnsivcy dcvc-
opcdin somc srarcs rhan in orhcrs, rhc cxpanarionhas ro bc soughr
argcyonrhc dcmand sidc, andnorinrcrms oIgcncradcvcopmcnr
oImcdicaopporrunirics.
!urrhcrmorc, rhc conrrasr docs nor sccm ro havc any immcdiarc
and ccary cxpicabc cconomic connccrion. 1hc srarcs virh srrong
anri-Icmac bias incudc rich oncs !unj ab and Iaryanaj as vc as
poor Nadhya !radcsh and \rrar!radcshj , and Iasr-groving srarcs
GujararandNaharashrraj asvcasgrovrhIaiurcsiharand\rrar
!radcshj . !r is rhus ccar rharvc havc roookbcyondmarcriapros-
pcriryorcconomicsucccssorG!grovrhinrobroadycururaand
sociainIucnccs.
A varicry oI porcnria connccrions musr bc considcrcd hcrc, and
rhcrc is a nccd Ior Ircsh rcscarch ro cxpain rhc ink bcrvccn rhcsc
dcmographic Icarurcs and rhc subjccrmarrcr oIsocia anrhropoogy
and cu!rura srudics. 1hcrc is, oI coursc, a vcarh oI subsranria
socia anrhropoogica srudics, undcrrakcn in rhc pasr, rhar havc
cxamincd rcgiona conrrasrs virhin !ndia.
l2
1hcsc voud ccrrainy
provc uscIu, rhough rhcymusr bc Iurrhcr cxrcndcd, cspcciay sincc
rhcrcgionadivisionoI!ndiaappcarsrarhcrdiIIcrcnrinrhcncvighr
oInarairyincguairy. !ndccd,rhcdivisionbcrvccnrhcnorrhandvcsr
on rhc onc hand and rhc casr and sourh on rhc orhcr is csscnriay
diIIcrcnrIromrhcvc-knovn rradiriona division bcrvccnrhc broad
norrhandrhcbroadsourhrharhasrcccivcdmucharrcnrionarcadyin
!ndian socia anrhropoogy, ar casr sincc !ravari Karvc`s pionccring
vork, Kinship Organization in India.
Iovcvcr, bcIorc ! cnd rhis sccrion oImycssay, ! musr aso sound
rvo norcs oIcaurion, conccrningrhcrcmprarion ro rakc rhc obscrv-
abcparrcrnoIrcgionaconrrasrro bcsomcrhingbiggcrand sharpcr
rhanir,guircconccivaby, mighrcvcnruayprovcro bc.!irsr,anycul-
230
WOMEN AND MEN
rurarcsisranccinrhccasrandsourhroscccrivcaborrionagainsrgirs
mighrnorbcimmurabc,andvcmusrarcasrconsidcrrhcpossibiiry
rhar,vhicrhccasrandsourhsccmmorccgairarianin rhisrcspccrar
prcscnr,rhcrc can bca graduasprcadoIncv pracriccs - slovcr rhan
inrhcnorrhandvcsr, bururimarcy simiarypcrvasivc.1hcsc arc, oI
coursc, rcay pcssimisric Icars, bur ir is imporranr ro avoid compa-
ccncy abour rhc Iururc oIgcndcr cguiryinrhccasrcrn and sourhcrn
rcgions oI !ndia cvcn as Iar as narairy asymmcrry is conccrncd. !I
counrcracring mcasurcs arcro bc uscd, rhcymusrbcconsidcrcdcvcn
Ior rhosc arcas oI!ndiavhichsccm rcarivcysccurcarrhcmomcnr.
Iaving said rhar, hovcvcr, ir is ccrrainy appropriarc ro norc rhc
obscrvcd rcgiona division, Irom rhc gcndcr pcrspccrivc, bcrvccn
rhcnorrhandvcsrononcsidcandrhccasrandsourhonrhcorhcr.1hc
causa anrcccdcnrs oIrhis division undoubrcdy dcscrvc invcsrigarivc
arrcnrion. 1his is aso broady, rhough nor cxacry, in inc virh rhc
rcarivcy ovcr rcarivc morrairy oI Icmac chidrcn vis-a-vis mac
chidrcn,inrhccasrandsourh,comparcdvirhrhcnorrhandvcsr.1hc
Icmac-mac rario in chid morrairyvarics, as vas norcd caricr, Irom
as ov as o. pt inVcsrcngaando. pj inKcraa, ononc sidc, arhc
vayro t . j oin!unj ab, Iaryana and\rrar!radcsh,onrhc orhcr.
Sccond, cvcninrhc casrcrn and sourhcrnsrarcs invhich rhc ovcr-
aIcmac-macrarioissrivirhinrhcLuropcanrangc,rhcrcarcsigns
rhar urban ccnrrcs havc, by and argc, a somcvhar ovcr rario rhan
ruraparrsoIrhoscvcrysrarcs. !orcxampc,rhcIcmac-chidrcnrario
pcr too boys is pj . ;inurbanrissaas opposcdrorhcrarioIorrura
rissa oI p5 .q Karnaraka`s urban rario is pj. p, comparcd virh irs
rurarariooIp5 . q. Vcsrcnga`s urbanrariooIpq. 8, vhicmuchrhc
samc asrhc Gcrman cur-oIIinc, is sri bcov irs rurarario oIp6. ;.
1hcrcmaybcsomccvidcncchcrcoIrhcuscoIscx-scccrivcaborrions
inrhcurbanarcasoIrhccasrandsourhasvc,cvcnrhoughrhcysccm
IarcssIrcgucnrrhaninrhcnorrhandvcsr.!ndccd,vhicrhccasrcrn
andsourhcrnurbanrariosoIgirsroboys suchaspj . ;inrissa,pj . p
inKcraa andpq. 8inVcsrcngajarcrypicayovcrrhanrhccorrcs-
ponding rura rarios, rhcyarcsricoscro- or cvcnsimiarro- rhc
inrcrnarionabcnchmarkpq. 8j andvcrymuchhighcrrhanrhcurban
rarios in rhc norrh and vcsr, such as 8 6. 6 in chi, 8q. q in
Chandigarh, 8z. ;in Gujarar, 8o. p inIaryanaand;8. p in!unj ab.
23 1
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!r is nor casy ro scrrc, virhour Iurrhcr scrur
,
ny, hov dccp rhcsc
rcgiona or curura inIucnccs arc. ur rhc rcmarkabc gcographica
divisionoI!ndiainrorvohavcsinrcrmsoIIcmac-macrarioamong
chidrcnrcHccringrhccombincdinHucnccoIrhcincguairygcncrarcd
by scx-spccihc aborrions and diIIcrcnria posr-nara morrairyj docs
ca Ior acknovcdgcmcnr and Iurrhcr anaysis. !r vi aso bc
cxrrcmcyimporranrro kccp a coscvarchonvhcrhcrrhc incidcncc
oIscx-spccihcaborrionssignihcanryincrcascsinrhcsrarcsinrhccasr
andsourh,vhcrcrhcyarcarrhisrimcrcarivcyuncommon.
Unequal Facilities
arairyincguairyandsurvivadispariryborhhavcimporranrdcmo-
graphic Icarurcs, vhich mcans rhar gcndcr bias can bc idcnrihcd, in
rhcsc cascs, on rhc basis oI dcmographic srarisrics. Iovcvcr, cvcn
vhcnrhcsrarisricsoIiIcanddcarhdonorshovmuch - orany - anri-
Icmac bias,rhcrc arc orhcrvays invhichvomcncanhavc css rhan
a sguarc dca. !or cxampc, rhcrc arc many counrrics in Asia and
AIrica,andinparrsoI!arinAmcrica,vhcrcgirshavcIarcss oppor-
runiryIorschooingrhan boys. 1hisisccrrainyrruc oImosrparrs oI
!ndia, and cvcn morc so in !akisran, rhough rhc siruarion in
angadcsh,vhicsriguircuncgua,sccmsrobcchangingIairyrap-
idy. !ncguairy in schooing has Iar-rcaching conscgucnccs Ior rhc
Iabric oI socicry and ir can proIoundy inIucncc many diIIcrcnr
aspccrs oIgcndcr incguairyand aso dcprivarionin gcncraIormcn
asvc asvomcn onvhichmorcprcscnryj .
1hcrc arc aso orhcr basic Iaciirics rhar arc oIrcn asymmcrricay
disrriburcd. !or cxampc, rhc opporruniry ro cnrcr poirics or com-
mcrccmay bcparricuaryrcsrricrcdIorvomcn.1hcrcarcincguai-
rics aso in sociaparriciparion,cspcciayvhcnvomcnarcconhncd
rorhcirhomcsandincarccrarcdvirhinrradirionaIamiyivcs.1hcsc
can imposc signihcanr handicaps Ior borh rhc vc-bcing and rhc
agcncy oIvomcn, andrhcy can, as ! sha arguc prcscnry, havc Iar-
rcaching socia conscgucnccs - vc bcyond rhc immcdiarc dcpri-
varionrhcydirccryrcIccr.!urrhcrmorc,cvcnvhcnrhcrcisrcarivcy
irrcdiIIcrcnccin basicIaciirics incuding schooing, rhcopporruni-
rics oI spccia Iaciirics, such as highcr cducarion or rcchnica
23 2
WOMEN AND MEN
rraining, may bc Iar Icvcr Ior young vomcn rhan Ior young mcn.
1radirionay, rhisrypcoIasymmcrry has bccn inkcdrorhc supcr-
Iiciay innocuous idca rhar rhc rcspccrivc 'provinccs` oI mcn and
vomcn arc diIIcrcnr. 1his rhcsis has bccn championcd in diIIcrcnr
Iorms ovcrrhcccnrurics,andhas hadmuchimpicirasvcascxpicir
Iooving. !r vas prcscnrcd virh parricuar dirccrncss in Lngand by
rhcKcvcrcnd|amcs!ordyccinhisSermons to Young Women t;66j ,
a bookvhich, asNaryVosronccraIrnorcdinhcrA Vindication of
the Rights of Women t ;pzj , hadbccn 'ongmadcaparroIvoman`s
ibrary` . !ordycc varncd rhc young vomcn ro vhom his scrmons
vcrc addrcsscdagainsr'rhoscmascuincvomcnrharvoudpcadIor
your sharing any parr oI rhcir provincc virh us` , idcnriIying rhc
provincc oI mcn as incuding nor ony 'var` , bur aso 'commcrcc,
poirics, cxcrciscs oIsrrcngrh and dcxrcriry, absrracr phiosophy and
arhc absrruscrscicnccs` .
Lvcnrhoughsuchccar-curbcicIsabourrhc'provinccs`oImcnand
vomcn arc nov rarhcr rarc or ar casr, cxprcssing such bcicIs has
bccomc guirc unIashionabcj, ncvcrrhccss rhc prcscncc oIcxrcnsivc
gcndcr asymmcrry can bc sccn in many arcas oIcducarion, rraining
andproIcssionavork cvcninrhc advanccd indusrria counrrics, Ior
cxampcinLuropcandorrhAmcrica. !I!ndiahasgcndcrincguairy
in basic cducarionin avay,say, rharLuropc ororrhAmcrica docs
nor,rhcarrcrhasnorycrbccnabcroovcrcomccnrircyrhcincguairy
oIcducarionaIaciiricsingcncra.
1hcrc is a simiariry hcrcvirh proIcssiona incguairy as vc. !n
rcrms oIcmpoymcnrasvc aspromorion in vork and occuparion,
vomcn oIrcnIacc much grcarcrhandicap rhan mcn. 1his rcmains a
probcm cvcn in rhc Vcsr. !ndccd, iI! may indugc in a bir oI a pcr-
sona rcminisccncc, as ! vorkcd scgucnriay ar chi \nivcrsiry,
xIord\nivcrsiryand Iarvard\nivcrsiry, rhcproporrionoIvomcn
amongmyrcnurcd cocagucs srcadiydccincd.
SinccsomuchoIrhiscssayisbascdonprobinginsomcdcraisuch
ccmcnrarymaniIcsrarions oIgcndcrincguairyasasymmcrryinmor-
rairy and narairy, in vhich many dcvcoping counrrics incuding
!ndiaj do vcry bady bur vhich do nor aIIccr ivcs in rhc morc
cconomicay advanccd counrrics, ir is parricuary imporranr ro
rcmcmbcrrharrhcabscnccoIonckind oIgcndcrincguairydocsnor
23 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cnrai immuniryIromorhcrrypcs oIgcndcr incguairy. Acounrry ikc
|apan may bc guirc cgairarian in marrcrs oI dcmography or basic
Iaciirics, and cvcn, ro a grcar cxrcnr, in highcr cducarion, and ycr
rhcrc is cvidcncc ro indicarc rharprogrcssro scnior cvcs oIcmpoy-
mcnr and occuparion can bc much morc probcmaric Ior |apancsc
vomcnrhanIor|apancscmcn.
!n rhis cssay ! am payingparricuar arrcnrionro rhccxpcricncc oI
gcndcr incguairy in rhc subconrincnr and !ndia in parricuar, bur !
musr varn againsrrhc rcmprarionro rhink rhar rhc \nircd Srarcs or
Vcsrcrn Luropc or|apan is in gcncra Ircc Irom gcndcr bias simpy
bccausc somc oI rhc cmpirica cvidcncc oI gcndcr incguairy rhar is
rcadiyobscrvabcinrhcsubconrincnrcannorbcIound,inrharIorm,
inrhcsccconomicayadvanccdsoccrics.
!nIacr,somcrimcsrhcpicrurcmaybcguircconrrary. !orcxampc,
!ndia, angadcsh, !akisran and Sri !anka a havc - or havc had -
Icmac hcadsoIgovcrnmcnr,vhichrhc\nircd Srarcs has norycrhad
and docs nor, iI ! am any j udgc, sccm vcry ikcy ro havc in rhc
immcdiarc Iururcj . !ndccd, in rhc casc oI angadcsh, vhcrc borh
rhc!rimcNinisrcrandrhc cadcroIrhc pposirionarc vomcn, onc
mighr bcgin ro vondcr vhcrhcr any angadcshi man coud, in rhc
ncar Iururc, pausiby aspirc ro risc ro rhc rop poirica cadcrship
rhcrc.GivcnrhcmanyIaccsoIgcndcrincguairy,muchvouddcpcnd
onvhichIaccvcchooscroookar.
Ownership Inequality
1urningnovroadiIIcrcnrrypcoIdispariry, incguairyinrhcovncr-
ship oIpropcrry is a cassic carcgory oI socia incguairy. 1his is, oI
coursc, rhc primary Iacror bchind cass divisions. Vhic ovncrship
diIIcrcnccs bcrvccn casscs and rhcir Iar-rcaching impicarions havc
Also, as was discussed in Essay I, there has been a higher involvement of women
in leadership positions in the Indian struggle for independence than in the Russian or
Chinese revolutionary movements, and the Congress Party had women Presidents ffty
years earlier than any major British political party. On the other hand, the ratio of
women members of the Indian parliament is at this time signifcantly lower than in
Britain. There is a strong move in India to fnd ways and means of making sure that a
third of the parliamentary members are women, but there is much disagreement on
how to bring this about.
234
WOMEN AND MEN
rcccivcd considcrabc arrcnrion Ior cxampc IromNarx, vho vas
parricuary conccrncd virh rhc cass-bascd incguairy in rhc ovncr-
shipoI'mcans oIproducrion` j , gcndcrdivisionsinovncrshipcanaso
bcasourccoImuchsociaincguairy. !nmanysocicricsrhcovncrship
oIpropcrry, cvcnrharoIbasic asscrs suchas homcs andandj , rcnds
ro bc vcry asymmcrricay dividcd bcrvccn mcn and vomcn. 1hc
abscnccoIcaimsropropcrrycannoronyrcduccrhcvoiccoIvomcn,
ir can aso makc ir hardcr Ior vomcn ro cnrcr and Iourish in
commcrcia, cconomic and socia acrivirics. ina Agarva has pro-
vidcd a Iar-rcaching invcsrigarion oI rhc discmpovcring cIIccrs oI
andcssncssoIvomcninmanysocicrics.
vncrship incguairy bcrvccn vomcn and mcn is nor a ncvy
cmcrgingincguairy, in conrrasrvirhnarairyincguairy, Iorcxampc.
!rhascxisrcdinmosrparrsoIrhcvordIoravcryongrimc.Iovcvcr,
rhcrc arc aso imporranr oca variarions in rhc prcvacncc oI rhis
incguairy. !orcxampc, cvcnrhoughrradirionapropcrryrighrsrcnd
roIavourmcnovcrvomcninmosrparrsoI!ndia,ncvcrrhccssinrhc
srarc oI Kcraa, ovcr a ong pcriod oI hisrory rhcrc has bccn marri-
inca inhcrirancc Ior an inIucnria parr oI rhc communiry, mosr
norabyrhcayars,vhoconsrirurc aboura hIrh oIrhcrorapopua-
rion oIKcraa andvho havc ong bccninHucnria inrhcgovcrnancc
and poirics oI Kcraa. !n rhc cxccpriona narurc oI Kcraa`s socia
achicvcmcnrs, rhc grcarcr voicc oI vomcn sccms ro havc bccn an
imporranr Iacror, and inrhis rhc ongrradirionoImarriinca inhcri-
rancconrhcparr oIaninHucnriascgmcnroIrhc socicryhaspaycd a
signihcanrroc.
Unequal Sharing of Household Benefts and Chores
1hc common Iamiy rradirion in many parrs oIrhc vord by vhich
mcnrcndro ovnmuch oIrhc asscrs oIrhchouschodcan aso bc an
imporranr Iacror in rhc incguairy oI povcr virhin rhc Iamiy. ur
houschodincguairyhasorhcrcauscsasvc,andrhisisanimporranr
subj ccr vhich has ony rcccnry srarrcd ro rcccivc rhc arrcnrion ir
dcscrvcs. 1hcrc arc, oIrcn cnough, basic incguairics in gcndcr rca-
rionsvirhinrhcIamiyorrhchouschod,vhichcanrakcmanydiIIcr-
cnrIorms,invovingvariabcs!havcarcadydiscusscd, suchashcarh
2
3 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
andnurririonaarrcnrion orrhcopprruniryoIschooingandoIposr-
schoocducarion.
Lvcnin rhc cascs invhichrhcrc arc no ovcrrsigns oIcrudc anri-
Icmac bias in rhc Iorm, say, oI surviva incguairy, Iamiy arrangc-
mcnrs can sri bc guirc uncgua in rcrms oI sharing rhc burdcn oI
houscvorkandchidcarc. !r is,Iorcxampc, guirccommoninmany
socicricsrorakc Ior granrcdrharvhic mcn vinaruray vork our-
sidcrhchomc, irisacccprabcIorvomcnrodorhisiIandonyiIrhcy
coud cngagc in such vork in addirion ro rhcir incscapabc - and
uncguaysharcd - houschoddurics. ' 1his is somcrimcs cacd ' divi-
sion oI abour`, rhough ir may bc morc dcscriprivc ro scc ir as rhc
'accumuarionoIabour` onvomcn.
1hccnrrcnchcdrradirionoIsuch 'division` oIabourcanaso havc
Iar-rcachingcIIccrsonrhc knovcdgc andundcrsranding oIdiIIcrcnr
rypcs oIvorkinproIcssionacirccs. VJcn!hrsr srarrcd vorking on
gcndcr incguairy, in rhc tp;os, ! rcmcmbcr bcing srruck by rhc Iacr
rhar rhc much-uscdHandbook of Human Nutrition Requirement, in
prcscnring 'caoric rcguircmcnrs` Ior diIIcrcnr carcgorics oI pcopc,
chosc ro cassiIy houschod vork as ' scdcnrary acriviry` , rcguiring
irrcdcpoymcnroIcncrgy. 1hcinHucnriaHandbook vas bascdon
rhcrcporr oIa high-cvcLxpcrrCommirrccj oinry appoinrcd byrhc
VI VordIcarh rganizarionj and!A !oodandAgricururc
rganizarionj . !rvashardnorrorhinkrharrhcack oIcxpcricncc oI
houschodvorkonrhc parr oIrhc parrician mcmbcrs oIrhar augusr
commirrcc mighr havc had a roc in rhc rcmarkabc diagnosis rhar
houschodvorkvas 'scdcnrary` .
Domestic Violence and Physical Victimization
ncoIrhcmosrbruraIcarurcsoIgcndcrincguairyrakcsrhcIormoI
physica viocncc againsr vomcn. 1hc incidcncc oI such viocncc is
I have tried to discuss this issue in my 'Gender and Cooperative Conflict', in Irene
Tinker (ed. ) , Persistent Inequalities (New York: Oxford University Press, I99o) ; see
also the extensive literature on household inequalities cited there. See also Nancy
Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household Economics' , World Develop
ment, I4 ( I 98 6) , and Marianne A. Ferber and Julie A. Nelson ( eds. ) , Beyond
Economic Man ( Chicago: Chicago University Press, I993 ) .
WOMEN AND MEN
rcmarkaby high, nor ony in poorcr and css dcvcopcd cconomics,
bur aso invcarhy and modcrn socicrics. !ndccd, rhc Ircgucncy oI
barrcring oI vomcn cvcn in rhc richcsr and rhc mosr dcvcopcd
cconomics is asronishingy high. Somc srudics havc suggsrcd rhar
rhcrc arc as many as I . 5 miion cascs pcr ycar oIrapc and physica
assaur onvomcninrhc\nircdSrarcsaonc.
1urningro!ndia,irmusrbcacknovcdgcdhrsrrharrhcIrcgucncy
oI assaur on vomcn is high in rhc counrry. 1o rhar rcrribc gcncra
rccognirionhasrobcaddcdrhcspcciarocoIviocnccconnccrcdvirh
parricuar socia Icarurcs, such as dovry and cconomic scrrcmcnrs.
Lvcn rhough rhc numbcrs invovcd in viocnr dcarhs arc dvarIcd by
rhc argcr numbcrs rhar pcrish Irom ncgccr oIhcarh carc andsocia
arrcnrion, rhc crudc and brura narurc oI rhis Iorm oI gcndcr in-
cguairymakcs ir a parricuary scvcrcmaniIcsrarion oIrhc dcpriva-
rionoIvomcn.
1hisincguairyhasbccnrraccdbysomccommcnrarorsrorhcphys-
icaasymmcrryoIvomcnandmcn,virhmcnhavinggrcarcrimmcdi-
arcpovcrinrhcgrossbodiyscnsc.\ndoubrcdy,rhisasymmcrrydocs
havc a subsranriaroc in rhcprcvacncc andsurvivaoIrhis rcrribc
srarc oIaIIairs, madcvorsc by pcriods oIparricuarvuncrabiiryIor
vomcn, such as prcgnancy and cary posr-nara phascs. ur in addi-
rionrorhcphysica aspccrs oIrhis incguairy, arrirudinaIacrors can-
nor burbcmaj orinHucnccs. 1hc possibiiry oIphysicaviocncc can
acruay bc uscd ro scrrc a dispurc or ro gain an advanragcj ony
vhcnrhcpcrmissibiiryoIsuchbchaviouris acccprcd,cxpiciryorby
impicarion. Vhic physica diIIcrcnccscan bc counrcrcd ro a imircd
cxrcnr rraining in scI-dcIcncc righry rcccivcs arrcnrion in rhis con-
rcxrj, arrirudinaIacrorscanbcmorccomprchcnsivcyrargcrcdinany
programmc oI socia rcIorm addrcsscd ro physica viocncc againsr
vomcn. Lducariona, curura andpoiricamovcmcnrs havc rocsro
payinrhisrransIormarion.
Free Agency and the Role of Critical Scrutiny
! rcrurn nov ro a subj ccr inrroduccd caricr, rhc roc oI vomcn`s
agcncy, andrhcinrcrdcpcndcncc bcrvccnrhc'agcncy` aspccrandrhc
2
3
7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
'vc-bcing` aspccr oI vomcn`s disadvanragc. !crhaps rhc mosr
immcdiarc argumcnrIorIocusing onvomcn`s agcncyisprcciscyrhc
roc rhar agcncy can pay in rcmoving rhc iniquirics rhar dcprcss rhc
vc-bcing oI vomcn. Kcccnr cmpirica vork has broughr our vcry
ccary hovrhc rcarivc rcspccr and rcgard Iorvomcn`svc-bcingis
srrongy inHucnccd by such variabcs as vomcn`s abiiry ro carn an
indcpcndcnr incomc, ro hnd cmpoymcnr oursidc rhc homc, ro havc
ovncrshiprighrs,androhavcircracyandbccducarcdparricipanrsin
dccisionsvirhinandoursidcrhcIamiy. !ndccd, cvcnrhcsurvivadis-
advanragc oI vomcn comparcd virh mcn in dcvcoping counrrics
sccmsrodccrcascsharpy - andmaycvcnbcciminarcd - asprogrcss
ismadcinrhcscagcncyaspccrs.
1hc diIIcrcnccs bcrvccn such disrincr characrcrisrics as vomcn`s
carningpovcr, cconomic roc oursidc rhc Iamiy, ircracyandcduca-
rion, propcrryrighrs and so on may ar hrsr sighr appcar ro bc guirc
dispararc andnorinkcdvirh cachorhcr. Vharrhcyahavcincom-
mon,hovcvcr, isrhcposirivc conrriburion oIcachinaddingIorccro
vomcn`s agcncy - rhrough making vomcn morc indcpcndcnr and
cmpovcrcd. !or cxampc, cmpiricainvcsrigarions havc broughr our
rhcvayinvhichvomcn`svorkingoursidcrhchomc andcarningan
indcpcndcnr incomc rcnds ro havc a povcrIu impacr on cnhancing
vomcn`ssrandingandvoiccindccision-makingvirhinrhchouschod
andmorcbroadyinsocicry.1
6
1hcconrriburionoIIcmacmcmbcrsoI
rhc Iamiy ro irs prospcriry, vhich is oIrcn ignorcd vhcn vomcn`s
vork - rypicayvcryhard - is insidcrhc homc, bccomcs muchmorc
diIIicurroncgccrvhcnvomcnvorkoursidcrhchomc.Vomcnrcnd,
asarcsur,rohavcmorc'say`,borhbccauscoIcnhanccdsrandingand
aso bccausc oIrcduccdhnancia dcpcndcncc on mcn. !urrhcrmorc,
oursidccmpoymcnroIrcnhasuscIu 'cducariona`cIIccrs, inrcrmsoI
cxposurc ro rhc vord oursidc rhc houschod, making a voman`s
agcncy bcrrcr inIormcd and morc cIIccrivc. Simiary, Icmac cduca-
rion srrcngrhcns vomcn`s agcncy and aso rcnds ro makc ir bctrcr
inIormcdandIuncrionaymorcpovcrIuI1hcovncrshipoIpropcrry
canaso addrorhcinIucnccandpovcroIvomcnindccisionsvirhin
rhc Iamiy and bcyond.
1hcdivcrscvariabcsrharcnhanccvomcn`ssociacapabiiryand
cIIccrivcncss rhus havc cmpovcring rocs, borh individuay and
WOMEN AND MEN
j oinry. 1hcir combincd opcrarion has ro bc rca

rcd ro rhc undcr-

sranding rharvomcn`s povcr - cconomic indcpcndcncc as vc as
socia cmanciparion - can havc Iar-rcaching cIIccrs on rhc Iorccs
and organizing principcs rhar govcrn divisions virhin rhc Iamiy,
and can, in parricuar, inIucncc vhar arc impiciry acccprcd as
vomcn`s 'cnrircmcnrs` . !romrhc crudc barbariry oIphysica vio-
cnccrorhccompcxinsrrumcnrairyoIhcarhncgccr,rhcdcpriva-
rion oI vomcn is urimarcy inkcd nor ony ro rhc ovcr srarus
oIvomcn, buraso rorhcIacrrharvomcnoIrcnackrhcpovcrro
inIucncc rhc bchaviour oI orhcr mcmbcrs oI socicry and rhc
opcrarionoIsociainsrirurions.
!r is imporranr in rhis conrcxr ro undcrsrand rhc consrrucrivc roc
noronyoIinIormarionandknovcdgc,burasorharoIcouragcand
rcmcriryrorhinkdiIIcrcnry, ingivingvomcn`sagcncyrhc indcpcnd-
cncc and povcr roovcrrurn iniguirous burcnrrcnchcdpracriccs and
socicra arrangcmcnrsrhararcoIrcnacccprcdasparrandparccoIan
assumcd 'narura ordcr` . !or cxampc, in China or Sourh Korca rhc
srandard rourcs ro vomcn`s cmpovcrmcnr, such as Icmac ircracy
andIcmac cconomic indcpcndcncc invhich borh Korca and China
havc had maj or achicvcmcnrs and vhich havc donc much Ior rhcsc
counrricsinrcmovingsomcsrandardIormsoIgcndcrincguairy, such
as surviva asymmcrryj , havc nor bccnabcro srcmrhcridc oInara-
iryincguairyvorkingrhroughscx-spccihcaborrionsvhichspcciay
rargcr Icmac Icruscs. !n !ndia, roo, cvcn as vomcn`s incrcascd
cmpovcrmcnrhasconrriburcdrorhcrcducrionoIcxccssIcmacmorr-
airy, rhcrcndcncyrouscncvrcchnoogyro aborr IcmacIcruscs has
grovn, inmanyparrs oIrhc counrry.
!ndccd, rhcrc is somc cvidcncc rhar rhc immcdiarc agcncy Ior
raking dccisions on scx-scccrivc aborrions is oIrcn rhar oI rhc
morhcrs rhcmscvcs . ' 1his raiscs imporranr issucs as ro hov ro
inrcrprcr rhc agcncy oIvomcn andirs socia inIucncc. !r is impor-
ranr ro scc rhc conccpr oI agcncy as srrcrching bcyond immcdiarc
*In her insightful reports on India in the New York Times in 2ooi, Celia Dugger
noted that the officials in charge of enforcing the ban on sex determination of fetuses
frequently cited difficulties in achieving successful prosecution due to the reluctance of
mothers to give evidence for the use of such techniques, which are often requested
specifcally by the mothers involved.
2
3
9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
'conrro`ovcrdccisions. 1hcIucr scnsc oI'agcncy`musr,inter alia,
invovc rhc Irccdom ro gucsrion csrabishcd vaucs and rradiriona
priorirics.
AgcncyIrccdommusr, inIacr,incudcrhc Irccdomro rhinkIrccy,
virhourbcingscvcrcyrcsrraincdbyprcssurcdconIormismorbyrhc
ignorancc oI hov rhc prcvaiing pracriccs in rhc rcsr oI rhc vord
diIIcrIromvharcan bc obscrvcdocay. !or cxampc, vhar is par-
ricuarycriricainrcmcdyingrhc rcrribc biascs in narairy discrim-
inarion is rhc roc oI vomcn`s inIormcd and indcpcndcnr agcncy,
incuding rhc povcr oIvomcn ro ovcrcomc ungucsrioningy inhcr-
ircdvaucsand arrirudcs.Vharmaymakc a rca diIIcrcnccindcaing
virhrhisncv - and'high-rcch` - IaccoIgcndcrdispariry, isrhcvi-
ingncss, abiiry and couragc ro rcasscss criricayrhc dominancc oI
rcccivcd and cnrrcnchcd norms. Vhcn anri-Icmac bias in acrion
rcIccrsrhchodoIrradirionamascuinisrvaucsIromvhichmorhcrs
rhcmscvcsmaynorbcimmunc,vhariscruciaisnorj usrIrccdomoI
acrionburasoIrccdomoIrhoughr. !nIormcdandcriricaagcncyis
imporranr in combaring incguairy oI cvcry kind, and gcndcr in-
cguairyisnocxccprion.
Inequality within Families as
Cooperative Conficts
Aparricuarhcdinvhichrhcscinrcrdcpcndcnccs arccspcciaysrrong
and baranr conccrns incguairy bcrvccnvomcn andmcnvirhin rhc
houschod.1oundcrsrandrhcproccssmorcIuy, vccansrarr bynor-
ingrhcIacrrharvomcnandmcnhavcborhcongrucnrandconHicring
inrcrcsrs aIIccring Iamiy iIc. ccausc oI rhc cxrcnsivc arcas oI con-
grucncc oI inrcrcsr, dccision-making in rhc Iamiy rcnds ro rakc rhc
Iorm oIrhc pursuir oIcoopcrarion, virh somc agrccd sourion - usu-
ayimpicir- oIrhcconHicring aspccrs. Lach oIrhcparricshasmuch
ro osc iIcoopcrarion vcrc ro brcak dovn, andycr rhcrc arc various
on this, see my 'Well-being, Agency and Freedom: The Dewey Lecture 1984',
Journal of Philosophy, 83 (Apr. r98 5); ' Open and Closed Impartiality', Journal of
Philosophy, 99 ( Sept. 2002) ; and Rationality and Freedom ( Cambridge, Mass. :
Harvard University Press, 2002) .
WOMEN AND MEN
arcrnarivc 'coopcrarivcsourions`,cachoIvhichis bcrrcrIor borhrhc
parricsrhannocoopcrarionara,burvhichrcspccrivcygivcdiIIcrcnr
- possibycxrrcmcy diIIcrcnr - rcarivc gains rorhcrvoparrics.
1hcIormanarurcoIrhisrypcoIrcarionshipvirhparriacongru-
cncc oIinrcrcsr aong virh subsranria conHicrs vas ourincd byrhc
marhcmarician|ohn ash in a cassic papcr, cacd '1hc argaining
!robcm` rhough hc vas nor parricuary conccrncd virh Iamiy
arrangcmcnrsj . ` 1hcnarurc oIrhc probcmisvcrygcncraand ariscs
aso in many orhcr rca-iIc conrcxrs, incuding rradc bargaining,
abour rcarions, poirica rrcarics, and cvcn in undcrsranding rhc
narurcoIrhcgains andosscsIromrhcconrcmporarygobaizarion.t
ash`s Iormuarion and rcarcd oncs aso hcp ro providc a basic
undcrsranding oIvhar is invovcd in asscssingrhcIairncss oIIamiy
division- oIborhchorcs and bcnchrs. 1hc simurancous prcscncc oI
coopcrarionand conHicr is indccd a maj or Icarurc oIIamiy arrangc-
mcnrs vhich dcmand borh prcdicrivc and normarivc scruriny, cvcn
rhough, as! havc argucd cscvhcrc, rhc crhics andrhc poirics oIrhc
probcm havc ro bc sccn somcvhar diIIcrcnry Irom rhc vay ash
himscIcharacrcrizcdir. |
Lxacry hov docs a probcmoIinrcracrivc rcarions invovc borh
coopcrarion and conHicr! oth rhc parrics havc a srrong inrcrcsr in
having somc coopcrarivc sourion rarhcr rhan nonc, and ycr rhcy
rank rhc diIIcrcnr coopcrarivc sourions in guirc dissimiar vays -
indccd, rypicay in opposirc dirccrions. !or cxampc, bcrvccn rvo
coopcrarivc sourions A and rhc Iormcr morc Iavourabc ro rhc
hrsrpcrsonandrhcarrcrrorhcsccondj , cachparryisbcrrcroIIvirh
cirhcrA or rhanno coopcrarion ar a, burvhic rhchrsrpcrson`s
inrcrcsrs arc bcrrcr scrvcd byA rhan by , rhc sccondgcrs a signih-
canrybcrrcrdcain rhaninA. 1hchrsrpcrsonhasascI-inrcrcsrcd
rcason ro vork rovards rhc j oinr acccprancc oI A, vhcrcas rhc
sccond pcrson has a simiar rcason Ior rryingro gcr ro . 1hcrc is,
*Published in Econometrica, 19 so. This was among the papers cited by the Royal
Swedish Academy in awarding Nash the Nobel Prize in economics in 1994
tOn the last, see my 'How to Judge Globalism', American Prospect, Jan. 2002.
:On this, see my Collective Choice and Social Welfare (San Francisco: Holden-Day,
1970; repr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1979 ) , chs. 8 and 8 \ and also 'Gender and
Cooperative Confict', in Tinker (ed. ) , Persistent Inequalities.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhcrcIorc, rhc simurancous prcscncc oIcoopcrarion as vc as con-
IicrinrcarionshipsoIrhiskind.
!amiyarrangcmcnrs arcguinrcsscnriacxampcs oIsuchcoopcra-
rivcconIicr. 1hcchoicc oIonccoopcrarivcarrangcmcnrIromrhcscr
oI many arcrnarivc possibiirics cads ro a parricuar disrriburion oI
j oinrbcnchrs.SomcoIrhcscdivisionsarcparricuaryunIavourabcro
vomcn,andiIcoopcrarionisarrangcdrhroughsuchadivision,ircan
yicdrrcmcndousgcndcrincguairy.1hcsrrucrurcoI'coopcrarivccon-
Hicr`isagcncraIcarurcoImanygrouprcarions,anda bcrrcrundcr-
sranding oIrhcnarurcandcIIccrsoIcoopcrarivcconHicrscanhcpro
idcnriIy rhc inIucnccs rhar opcrarc on rhc ' dca` rhar vomcn gcr in
Iamiy divisions. ConIicrs bcrvccn parriay dispararc inrcrcsrs
virhin Iamiy iving arc rypicay rcsovcdrhrough impiciry agrccd
parrcrnsoIbchaviourrharmayormaynorbcparricuarycgairarian.
1hc spccia narurc oIIamiyiIc - cading j oinr ivcs and sharing a
homc - rcguircs rhar rhc ccmcnrs oI conIicr musr nor bc cxpiciry
cmphasizcd. !ndccd, dvcing on conIicrs rarhcr rhan rhc Iamiy`s
'uniry`rcndsrobcsccnasabcrranrbchaviour. Somcrimcsrhcdcprivcd
voman maynoronybc sicnr, shcmaynorcvcnhavc accar asscss-
mcnroIrhccxrcnroIhcrrcarivcdcprivarion.
1hc pcrccprionoIvhois doinghovmuch 'producrivc` vork, or
vhois'conrriburing`hovmuchrorhcIamiy`sprospcriry,canbc,in
rhis conrcxr, vcry inIucnria, cvcn rhough rhc undcrying 'rhcory`
rcgarding hov ' conrriburions` or 'producriviry` arc ro bc asscsscd
mayrarcybcdiscusscdcxpiciry. 1hcinrcrprcrarionoIindividua
conrriburions and appropriarc cnrircmcnrs oI vomcn and mcn
pays a maj or roc in rhc division oI rhc Iamiy`s j oinr bcncIirs
bcrvccnmcn and vomcn. As a rcsur, rhc circumsranccs rharinIu-
cncc rhcsc pcrccprions oI conrriburions and appropriarc cnrirc-
mcnrs such asvomcn`s abiiry ro carn anindcpcndcnrincomc, ro
vork oursidc rhc homc, ro bc cducarcd, ro ovnpropcrryj can havc
a crucia bcaring on rhcsc divisions. 1hc impacr oIgrcarcr cmpov-
crmcnr andindcpcndcnr agcncyoIvomcnrhusincudcsrhc corrcc-
rion oIrhc iniguirics rhar bighr rhc ivcs and vc-bcing oIvomcn
vis-a-vis mcn. 1hc ivcs rhar vomcn savc rhrough morc povcrIu
agcncyccrrainy incudc rhcir ovn.
WOMEN AND MEN
Women's Agency and the Survival of Children
!havcbccnconccnrraring so Iar onrhc impacroIvomcn`sagcncyon
rhc vc-bcing and Irccdom oIvomcn rhcmscvcs. 1har is nor rhc
vhoc srory, hovcvcr. rhcr ivcs - mcn`s and chidrcn`s - arc aso
invovcd. So rhc conscgucnccs oI gcndcr asymmcrry, bcyond rhc
domainoIgcndcrincguairyinairsIorms,musrasobcconsidcrcd.
1o iusrrarc, ir is parricuary imporranr ro scc rhc roc oIvomcn`s
agcncyinrcducingchidmorrairyandrcsrrainingIcrriiry.orhrcarc
roconccrnsrhararc ccnrrarorhc proccss oIdcvcopmcnr, andvhic
rhcy ccary do inIucncc thc vc-bcing oI vomcn as vc, rhcir
rccvanccisundoubrcdyvcrymuchvidcr.
Kcccnr cmpirica vork has broughr our rhc inIucncc oIvomcn`s
agcncy and vomcn`s cmpovcrmcnr in rcducing chidmorrairy. 1hc
inHucncc vorks rhrough many channcs, bur, pcrhaps mosr immcdi-
arcy, ir vorks rhrough rhc imporrancc rhar morhcrsrypicayarrach
rorhcvcIarcoIrhcirchidrcn, andrhcopporruniryrhcyhavc,vhcn
rhciragcncyisrcspccrcdandcmpovcrcd,roinIucnccIamiydccisions
in rhar dirccrion. 1his has bccn a marrcr oI parricuar inrcrcsr in
cmpiricasrudicsin!ndia.
2C
1hcrc is, hovcvcr, an inrcrcsring diIIcrcncc bcrvccn disrincr
channcsrhroughvhichvomcn`sagcncymaybccnhanccd,Iorcxam-
pcrhcdisrincrionbcrvccnvomcn`sgainIucmpoymcnrinrhcabour
Iorccandvomcn`sircracyandcducarion. !risnarurarocxpccrrhar
rhcimpacroIIcmacircracyandcducarionmusrbccnrircyposirivc,
andrhariscxacryvharis obscrvcd.Iovcvcr,inrhccascoIvomcn`s
abourIorccparriciparion,rhcrcarcIacrorsvorkingindiIIcrcnrdircc-
rions. !irsr, invovcmcnr in gainIu cmpoymcnr has many posirivc
cIIccrs on a voman`s agcncy rocs, and rhis, in rurn, may cnrai
incrcascd cmphasis bcing paccd on chid carc and aso a grcarcr
abiiryoIvomcnrocmphasizcrhcinrcrcsrsoIchidrcninj oinrIamiy
dccisions. Sccond, sincc mcnrypicay shov grcar rcucrancc ro sharc
domcsric chorcs, rhc grcarcr incinarion rovards morc prioriry on
chidcarc rcsuringIromaargcrvoiccoIvomcninIamiydccisionsj
maynorbccasyrocxccurcvhcnvomcnarcsaddcdvirhrhc 'doubc
burdcn` oIhouschodvork and oursidc cmpoymcnr. 1hc ncr cIIccr
24
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
coud rhus go in cirhcrdirccrion. or surprisingy, rhcrcIorc, in rhc
imporranr comparison oI inrcr-disrricr dara in !ndia by Namra
Nurrhi, Annc-CarhcrincGuioand|canrczc,vc donorgcra ccar-
curandsrarisricaysignihcanrrcsurincirhcrdirccrionIorrhcimpacr
oIIcmaccmpoymcnronchidmorrairy.
"

!n conrrasr, Icmac ircracy and cducarion arc Iound ro havc an

unambiguousypovcrIu andsrarisricay signihcanr impacrinrcduc-
ingundcr-5 morrairy, cvcn aIrcrconrroingIormacircracy. 1his is
consisrcnr virh groving cvidcncc oI a cosc rcarionship bcrvccn
Icmacircracyandchidsurvivainmanyorhcrcounrricsasvc.
""
!risinrhisconrcxrasoinrcrcsringro cxamincrhcimpacr oIrhcsc
agcncyvariabcs ongcndcr biasin chidsurviva as opposcd ro rora
chidmorrairyandsurviva j . !orrhisparricuarvariabc, irrurnsour
rhar borh Icmac abour Iorcc parriciparion andIcmacircracyhavc
vcrysrrongamcioraringcIIccrs onrhc cxrcnr oIIcmacdisadvanragc
in chid surviva, so rhar highcr cvcs oIIcmacircracy and abour
IorccparriciparionarcsrrongyassociarcdvirhovcrcvcsoIrcarivc
Icmac disadvanragc in chid surviva. y conrrasr, variabcs rhar
rcarcro rhc gcncracvcoIcconomic dcvcopmcnr and modcrniza-
rionrurn our, inrhcsc srarisrica srudics, ro havc no signihcanrcIIccr
on gcndcr bias in chid surviva, and can somcrimcs - vhcn nor
accompanicd by cmpovcrmcnr oIvomcn - cvcn srrcngrhcn, rarhcr
rhanvcakcn,rhcgcndcr bias inchid surviva. 1his appics inter alia
ro urbanizarion, mac ircracy, rhc avaiabiiry oI mcdica Iaciirics,
andrhccvcoIpovcrry virhovcrcvcsoIpovcrrybcingsomcrimcs
associarcd virh lower Icmac-mac rariosj .
"
!n so Iar as a posirivc
connccrion docs cxisrin!ndia bcrvccn rhc cvc oIdcvcopmcnr and
rcduccd gcndcr bias in surviva, ir sccms ro vork mainy rhrough
variabcsrhar arc dirccry rcarcdrovomcn`s agcncy, such asIcmac
ircracyandIcmacabourIorcc parriciparion.
Emancipation, Agency and Fertility Reduction
1o cxaminc anorhcr causaconnccrion, vc can scrurinizc rhc agcncy
roc oIvomcninrhcrcducrion oIIcrriiryrarcs.1hc advcrsccIIccrsoI
vcry high birrh rarcs incudc rhc dcnia oI vomcn`s Irccdom ro do
244
WOMEN AND MEN
orhcr rhings - rhrough pcrsisrcnr bcaring and rcaring oI chidrcn -
rourincyimposcdonmanyAsianandAIrican vomcn. !ris rhus nor
surprising rhar rcducrions in birrh rarcs havc oIrcn Ioovcd rhc
cnhanccmcnr oIvomcn`s srarus and povcr. 1hc ivcsrhar arc mosr
consrraincdbyovcr-IrcgucnrbcaringandrcaringoIchidrcnarcrhosc
oIyoungvomcn,andanysociachangcrharincrcascsrhcirvoiccand
inHucncc on Icrriiry dccisions can bc cxpccrcd ro havcrhc cIIccr oI
rcducingrhcIrcgucncyoIbirrhs.
1his cxpccrarion is indccd conIirmcd in invcsrigarions oI inrcr-
disrricrvariarions oIrhcroraIcrriiryrarcin!ndia. !nIacr, amonga
rhcvariabcsincudcdinrhccompararivccmpiricaanaysisprcscnrcd
byrczc, GuioandNurrhi,rhconyoncsrharhavcasrarisricaysig-
niIicanr cIIccr in rcducing Icrriiry arc Icmac ircracy and Icmac
abour Iorcc parriciparion. ncc again, rhc imporrancc oIvomcn`s
agcncycmcrgcsIorccIuyIromrhisanaysis,cspcciayincomparison
virh rhc vcakcr cIIccrs oI variabcs rcaring ro gcncra cconomic
progrcss,suchasariscinpcrcapirarcaincomc.
1hcinkbcrvccnIcmacircracyandIcrriiryisparricuaryccar.
1his connccrion has bccn vidcy obscrvcd in orhcr counrrics aso,
and ir is nor surprising rhar ir shoud cmcrgc in !ndia, roo. 1hc
unviingncss oI cducarcd vomcn ro bc shackcd ro conrinuous
chid-rcaring ccary pays a roc in bringing abour rhis changc.
Lducarion aso hcps ro broadcn rhc horizon oI vision, and, ar a
morc mundanc cvc, assisrs in disscminaring knovcdgc oI Iamiy
panning. And oIcoursccducarcdvomcn rcndro havc grcarcr Ircc-
dom ro cxcrcisc rhcir agcncy in Iamiy dccisions, incuding in
marrcrsoIIcrriiryandchidbirrh.
1hccascoIKcraa,rhcmosrsociayadvanccdsrarcin!ndia,isaso
vorrhnoringhcrc, bccauscoIirsparricuarsucccssinIcrriiryrcduc-
rion bascd onvomcn`s agcncy.Vhicrhc roraIcrriiryrarc Ior!ndia
asavhocissriashighas3 .o, rharrarcinKcraahasnovIacnvc
bcovrhc 'rcpaccmcnr cvc` oI 2. t ro t . ; cvcn ovcr rhan China`s
Icrriiry rarcj . !cmac agcncy and ircracy arc imporranr aso in rhc
rcducrion oI morrairy rarcs, and rhis is anorhcr - morc indirccr -
conscgucnriarourc rhroughvhichvomcn`s agcncyincudingIcmac
ircracyj may havc hcpcd ro rcducc birrh rarcs, sincc rhcrc is somc
cvidcnccrhar arcducrionoIdcarhrarcs, cspcciay oIchidrcn,rcnds
245
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ro conrriburc ro rhc rcducrion oI Icrriiry rarcs. Kcraa has aso had
orhcr Iavourabc Icarurcs Ior vomcn`s cmpovcrmcnr and agcncy,
incuding a grcarcrrccognirion oIvomcn`spropcrryrighrs Ior a sub-
sranriaandinHucnriaparroIrhccommuniry. '
Kcccnry, rhcrc has bccn a good dca oI discussion on rhc impcra-
rivc nccdro rcducc birrhrarcs in rhc vord. 1hc issuc has hgurcd in
rhcconrcxroI!ndiainparricuar, andirhasbccnprcdicrcdrhar!ndia
vi ovcrrakc China in popuarion sizc in a Icv dccadcs. China`s
achicvcmcnrincurringdovnbirrhrarcsovcra shorrpcriodrhrough
rarhcr draconian mcasurcs has suggcsrcd romanyrhc nccdIor coun-
rrics such as !ndia ro cmuarc China in rhis rcspccr. 1hcsc cocrcivc
mcrhods doinvovcmany socia cosrs,incudingrhcdirccroncoIrhc
oss oIrhccIIccrivcIrccdomoIpcopc - inparricuar oIvomcn- ro
rakc dccisionsonmarrcrs rhar arc ccaryrarhcrpcrsona.
!rispcrhapsvorrhnoringinrhisconrcxrrharcompusionhasnor
produccdaovcrbirrhrarcinChinacomparcdvirhvharKcraahas
arcady achicvcd cnrircyrhrough vounrary channcs, rcying on rhc
cducarcdagcncyoIvomcn.VhcnChinainrroduccdirs 'oncchidpo-
icy` and orhcr cocrcivc mcasurcs, China had a Icrriiry rarc oI :.8
vhicKcraa`sIcrriiryrarcvas somcvhar highcr, ar 3 . o. yrhccary
tppos, China`s Icrriiry rarc vas dovn Irom :. 8 ro :. o, vhcrcas
Kcraa`s had Iacn Irom 3 . o ro t . p. Kcraa has rcmaincd ahcad oI
China as Icrriiryrarcshavc conrinucd ro Ia borhinKcraa and in
China. Somcorhcr!ndiansrarcs,suchas 1ami aduand Iimacha
!radcsh, havc aso cxpcricnccdIasrcrIcrriirydccincrhan Chinahas
hadvirh irs cocrcivc mcasurcs. 1hc Icrriirydccincinrhc succcssIu
!ndian srarcs has bccn coscy inkcd virh vomcn`s cmpovcrmcnr,
parricuary rhrough Icmac cducarion, cconomic indcpcndcncc and
invovcmcnrinrcmuncrarivcvorkoursidcrhchouschod.
!nIacr, irisnorguircccarcxacryhovmuchcxrrarcducrioninirs
birrh rarc China has bccn abc ro achicvc by rcsorring ro cocrcivc
mcrhods.Chinahasbroughrabourmanysociaandcconomicchangcs
rharhavccnhanccdrhcpovcroIvomcnIorcxampc,rhroughraising
*On these and related general issues, see my 'Population: Delusion and Reality',
New York Review of Books, 22 Sept. I994; 'Fertility and Coercion', University of
Chicago Law Review, 63 (Summer I996) ; Development as Freedom, chs. 6, 8 and 9
WOMEN AND MEN
Icmac ircracy rarcs and cxpanding Icmac parriciparion rarcs in rhc
abour Iorccj , and rhcsc changcs havc madc condirions morc
Iavourabc ro Icrriiry rcducrion rhrough vounrary channcs. 1hcsc
Iacrorsvoudrhcmscvcshavcrcduccdrhcbirrhrarcs vcbcovrhar
oI rhc !ndian avcragc, Ior cxampcj . Vhic China sccms ro gcr roo
muchcrcdirIor irs cocrcivc and brura mcasurcs, ir gcrs Iarroo irrc
crcdir Ior irs supporrivc and Iaciiraring poicics rhar havc acruay
hcpcdirrocurirsbirrhrarc.
Kcraa`sovbirrhrarc- ovcrrhanChina`s - asosuggcsrsrharrhc
conscgucnria cIIccrs oIrhcscsupporrivcdcvcopmcnrsmay bccIIcc-
rivc cnoughrorcndcrcompusionargcy rcdundanr, cvcniIir vcrc
acccprabc orhcrvisc. !r so happcns rharKcraa nor ony has a much
highcr cvc oI Icmac ircracy rhan !ndia as a vhoc, ir is aso vc
ahcad oI China`s Icmac ircracy rarc and highcr indccd rhan cvcry
provincc oI Chinaj . 1hc Iacr rhar rhc ranking oI Icmac ircracy is
cxacryrhcsamc asrharoIbirrhrarcsisinincvirhorhcrcvidcnccIor
rhccoscconnccrionbcrvccn rhcrvo. 1hcrcisa 'virruouscircc` rhar
dcscrvcs morc arrcnrion rhanirrcnds ro gcr.
Gender Inequality and Adult Diseases
!rurn hnayroah'cxrcrna` conscgucncc oIgcndcrincguairy rhar is
ony nov bcginning ro rcccivc scrious arrcnrion. !rom Lngish dara,
avidarkcr, and orhcrsvorkingona simiar inc, havc Ioundrhar
ov birrh vcighr is oIrcn coscy associarcd virh highcr incidcncc -
many dccadcs arcr - oIa numbcr oI adur discascs, incuding hypcr-
rcnsion, gucosc inrocrancc and orhcr cardiovascuar hazards.` 1hc
'arkcrrhcsis` , iIIurrhcrconhrmcd,vioIIcrapossibiiryoIidcnriIy-
ing diIIcrcnr cmpirica rcguarirics rhar havc bccn obscrvcd as
promincnrhcarh-rcarcdphcnomcnainSourhAsia.
( r) high rate of maternal undernourishment;
( 2) high incidence of underweight births;
(
3
) widespread prevalence of undernourished children; and
( 4) high incidence of cardiovascular diseases.
247
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!Irhc arkcr rhcsis gcrs Iurrhcr conhrmario

rhc dcbarc on rhis

subj ccr is guirc inrcnsc ar rhis momcnrj , ir voud oIIcr rhc 'missing
ink` in a chain oIcausaconnccrions rhar havc much poicyimpor-
ranccin !ndia andSourh Asia. !ndccd, inundcrsrandingrhc diIIcrcnr
- andapparcnrydispararc - cmpiricaobscrvarions t ) ro qj abovc,
sociaandmcdicarcarionshavcrobccxamincdrogcrhcrandinkcd
up. 1hcrc is much pausibiiry in sccing a causa parrcrn rhar gocs
IromrhcnurririonancgccroIvomcnromarcrnaundcrnourishmcnr,
and Irom rhcrc ro Icra grovrh rcrardarion and undcrvcighr babics,
rhcncc ro grcarcr chid undcrnourishmcnr and - rhrough rhc arkcr
connccrion- ro ahighcrincidcncc oIcardiovascuaraIIicrionsmuch
arcrin adur iIc.Vharbcgins asa ncgccr oIrhc inrcrcsrs oIvomcn
cnds up causing advcrsirics inrhc hcarh andsurvivaoIa- cvcn ar
advanccdagcs.
Aronc cvc rhis hnding isnorsurprising. Givcnrhc uniguc roc oI
vomcn inrhc rcproducrivcproccss,irvoud bchard ro imaginc rhar
rhc dcprivarionrovhich vomcn arc subj ccrcd voud nor havc somc
advcrsc impacr on rhc ivcs oI a human bcings vho arc 'born oIa
voman` as rhc ook oI|ob dcscribcs cvcry pcrson, nor parricuary
daringyj . !nrcrcsringy cnough, sincc mcn suIIcr disproporrionarcy
morc Irom cardiovascuar discascs rhan vomcn, rhc suIIcring oI
vomcn parricuary in rhc Iorm oI marcrna undcrnourishmcnrj
urimarcyhirs mcn cvcnhardcrrhanvomcn rhroughhcarrdiscasc
andprcmarurcdcarhsj . 1hccxrcnsivcpcnaricsoIncgccringvomcn`s
inrcrcsrs rcbounds,ir appcars, onmcnvirh avcngcancc.
!risccarIromrhcsc bioogicaconnccrions rharrhc conscgucnccs
oIncgccringvomcn`s inrcrcsrscxrcndIar bcyond rhc vc-bcing oI
vomcn ony. ioogy is nor, hovcvcr, rhc ony conscgucnria ink.
1hcrc arc orhcr, non-bioogica, connccrions rhar opcrarc rhrough
vomcn`sconsciousagcncy.1hccxpansionoIvomcn`scapabiiricsnor
ony cnhanccs vomcn`s ovn Irccdom and vc-bcing, bur aso has
many orhcr cIIccrs onrhc ivcs oIa. ' AcrivcagcncyoIvomcncan,
in many circumsranccs, conrriburc subsranriay ro rhc ivcs oI a
*On the extensive role and reach of capabilities of women, see particularly Martha
Nussbaum, Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2ooo) .
WOMEN AND MEN
pcopc- mcnasvcasvomcn,chidrcnasvcasadurs.!ndccd,rhc
cIIccrs, discusscd caricr, oIrhc impacr oIvomcn`s cmanciparion on
chid morrairy and Icrriiry arcady iusrrarc rhcsc broadcr - morc
consciousandcss bioogica- connccrions.
1hcrcis asoncvcvidcnccrharrhc Iuncrioning oIvomcnin orhcr
arcas, incuding in cconomic andpoiricahcds, makcs aradicadiI-
Icrcncc ro rhc socia ourcomc. Subsranria inks bcrvccn vomcn`s
agcncy and socia achicvcmcnrs havc bccn norcd in many diIIcrcnr
counrrics. 1hcrc is, Ior cxampc, pcnry oI cvidcncc rhar vhcncvcr
socia andcconomicarrangcmcnrs dcparrIrom rhc srandard pracricc
oImac ovncrship,vomcncanscizcbusincssandcconomiciniriarivc
virh much succcss. !ris aso ccar rharrhc rcsur oIvomcn`s parrici-
parion is normcrcyrogcncrarcincomc Ior vomcn, burasoropro-
vidc many orhcr socia bcnchrs rhar comc Irom vomcn`s cnhanccd
srarus, cnrcrprisc and indcpcndcncc. 1hc rcmarkabc succcss in
angadcsh oI organizarions ikc rhc Gramccn ank and KAC,
dirccrcdparricuaryarrhccconomicandsociarocsoIvomcn,ius-
rrarc hov vomcn`s agcncy can hcp ro rransIorm rhc ivcs oI a
humanbcings. !ndccd, in rhc graduarransIormarion oIangadcsh,
vhichvas sccn nor ong ago as a ' baskcr casc` , inro a counrry virh
signihcanrcconomicandsociasucccssandmuchpromisc,rhcagcncy
roc oI vomcn is paying a criricay imporranr parr. 1hc prccipirarc
Ia oI rhc rora Icrriiry rarc in angadcsh Irom 6.t ro 2. 9 in rhc
coursc oI rvo dccadcs pcrhaps rhc Iasrcsr dccinc in rhc vordj is
mcrcy onciusrrarionoIrhcdynamic povcr oIvomcn`s agcncyand
rhcconscgucnriacorrcarcs oIgcndcrcguiry.
A Concluding Remark
Vhcn Quccn Vicroria vrorc ro Sir 1hcodorc Narrin compaining
abour 'rhis mad, vickcdIoy oI Voman`sKighrs" ` , shc mayhavc
undcrrarcd rhc rcach oI rhar ' vickcd Ioy` , vhich can acruay
inIucncc rhc ivcs oI a, vomcn, mcn and chidrcn. Iovcvcr,
VicroriahcrscIcoudnorhavcbccn,!vcnrurcro say,unavarcoI rhc
Iacr rhar vomcn - indccd, cvcn onc voman - coud makc a diIIcr-
cnccrorhcivcs oImany.Vhichosriiryrovomcn`srighrs,rovhich
249
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhc Iormidabc guccn-cmprcss gavc cxprcssion, has subsranriay
vcakcncd sincc rhar indicrmcnr vas cxprcsscd in t 8 ;oj , rhc Iacr
rharvomcn`srcasoncdagcncyhasIar-rcachingconscgucnccsonrhc
ivcs oI a dcscrvcs a argcr rccognirion rhan ir rcnds ro gcr, cvcn
roday. cspircvarious achicvcmcnrs oI!ndianvomcn,rhcnccdIor
a gcncrarccognirionoIrhisbasicpoinrrcmainssrrong.
!cndvirhrvohnapoinrs,bascdonrhcconccpruaandcmpirica
discussions arcady prcscnrcd. !irsr, rhc imporrancc oI vomcn`s
agcncy andvoiccrcHccrs irscIin ncary cvcryhcdoIsociaiIc. Lvcn
rhough Ior manypurposcs such simpc indicarors as vomcn`s cduca-
rion, cmpoymcnrand and ovncrship havc much prcdicrivc povcr,
rhcrc arc broadcr inHucnccs on vomcn`s agcncy rhar aso nccd con-
sidcrarion.!orcxampc,rhcparrsoIrhccounrryvhcrcrhcrciscxrcn-
sivc usc oI scx-spccihc aborrion incudc somc rcgions in vhich rhc
simpccharacrcrisrics oIvomcn`s cducarion and cmpoymcnrarc nor
cxccprionayov.Asociaandcurura cimarcinvhichmorhcrs may
rhcmscvcs sccksonsrarhcr rhandaughrcrs may rcguirc a morc radi-
cadcparrurcrhanmcrcschooingoroursidccmpoymcnrcanprovidc
cvcnrhoughrhcyroovoud,rosomcimircdcxrcnr,hcpj . 1hcissuc
oIagcncyhas ro bc broadcncd ro Iocus parricuary on dcibcrarivc
agcncy.1hcsociaandpoiricaundcrsrandingrharcanmakcacrucia
diIIcrcncc dcmands broad pubic discussion and inIormcd agirarion.
1hcargumcnrarivcrourchassomcrhingrooIIcrhcrc,burirrcguircsa
vcry broadcngagcmcnrindccd.
Sccond, ir is ncccssary ro vidcn rhc Iocus oI arrcnrion Irom
vomcn`svc-bcing, sccn onirs ovn, rovomcn`sagcncy incuding,
inter alia, irs associarion virh vomcn`s vc-bcing bur raking on,
aong virh ir, vcry many orhcr aspccrs oIsocicryj . Vc nccd a Iucr
cognizancc oIrhc povcr and rcach oIvomcn`s cnighrcncd andcon-
srrucrivc agcncy and an adcguarc apprcciarion oI rhc Iacr rhar
vomcn`spovcrandiniriarivc canupiIrrhcivcsoIahumanbcings
- vomcn, mcn and chidrcn. Gcndcr incguairy is a Iar-rcaching
socicraimpairmcnr,normcrcyaspcciadcprivarionoIvomcn.1har
sociaundcrsranding isurgcnrasvcasmomcnrous.
1 2 '
India and the Bomb):
Vcapons oI mass dcsrrucrion havc a pccuiar Iascinarion. 1hcy can
gcncrarc avarmgovoIsrrcngrhandpovcrcarcIuydivorccdIrom
rhc brurairy and gcnocidc on vhich rhc porcncy oI rhc vcapons
dcpcnds. 1hc grcar cpics - Irom rhc Iliad and Rimaya1a ro rhc
Kalevala andNibelungenlied - providcrhriingaccounrsoIrhcmighr
oIspccia vcapons, vhich arc nor ony povcrIu in rhcmscvcs, bur
aso grcarycmpovcr rhcirposscssors.As !ndia, aongvirh!akisran,
gocs dovn rhc rourc oI curivaring nuccar vcapons, rhc imagincd
radiancc oIpcrccivcdpovcrishardro miss.
The Moral and the Prudential
!crccprionscandcccivc.!rhasrobcaskcdvhcrhcrpovcrIuvcapons
in gcncra and nuccar armamcnrs in parricuar can bc cxpccrcd -
invariaby or cvcn rypicay - ro srrcngrhcn and cmpovcr rhcir pos-
scssor. An imporranr prudcnria issuc is invovcd hcrc. 1hcrc is, oI
coursc, aso rhc gucsrion oIcrhics, and in parricuarrhc righrncss or
vrongncss oI a nuccar poicy. 1har imporranr issuc can bc disrin-
guishcdIromrhc gucsrionoIpracricabcnchrorossroanarionIrom
aparricuarpoicy.Vchavcgoodgroundsrobcinrcrcsrcdinborhrhc
gucsrions - rhc prudcnria and rhc crhica - bur aso rcason cnough
*This essay is based on the frst Dorothy Hodgkin Lecture at the Annual Pugwash
Conference in Cambridge, England, on 8 August 2000. For helpful comments, I am
grateful to Jean Dreze, Ayesha Jalal, V. K. Ramachandran and Emma Rothschild. A
considerably shortened version of this essay was published earlier in the New
Republic, 2 5 Sept. 2ooo.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
norrosccrhcrvoissucsasdispararcandrorayunconnccrcdrocach
orhcr. ur bchaviour rovards cach orhcr cannor bc divorccd Irom
vharvcmakcoIrhccrhicsoIoncanorhcr`spursuirs, andrhcrcasons
oImorairyhavc, as arcsur,prudcnria imporrancc asvc. ' !r is in
rhisighrrhar!vanrrocxamincrhcchacngcsoInuccarpoicyinrhc
subconrincnringcncraandin!ndiainparricuar.
Vhcrhcr, or rovhar cxrcnr, povcrIuvcapons cmpovcr a narion
isnorancvgucsrion.!ndccd,vcbcIorcrhcagcoInuccararmamcnr
bcgan,Kabindranarh1agorchadcxprcsscdagcncradoubrabourrhc
IorriIying cIIccrs oI miirary srrcngrh. !I 'in his cagcrncss Ior povcr`,
1agorc had argucd in tpt ;, a narion 'muripics his vcapons ar rhc
cosr oIhissou,rhcniris hcvho is inmuch grcarcr dangcrrhanhis
cncmics` . t 1agorcvasnorasuncompromisingypacihsras^aharma
Gandhi, and his varning againsr rhc dangcrs oI acgcd srrcngrh
rhrough morc and biggcr vcapons rcarcd ro rhc nccd Ior crhicay
scrurinizing rhc Iuncrions oI rhcsc vcapons and rhc cxacr uscs ro
vhich rhcy arc ro bcpur, as vc as rhc pracrica imporrancc oIrhc
rcacrions and counrcracrions oI orhcrs. 1hc 'sou` ro vhich 1agorc
rcIcrrcd incudcs, ashccxpaincd, rhc nccd Ior humaniry and undcr-
sranding in inrcrnariona rcarions.
1agorcvasnormcrcymakingamorapoinr,burasooncoIprag-
maricimporrancc,rakinginroaccounrrhcrcsponscsIromorhcrsrhar
voudbcgcncrarcdbyonc`spursuiroImiirarymighr.Iisimmcdiarc
conccrninrhcguorcdsrarcmcnrvasvirh|apanandirsmovcrovards
cxrcnsivc narionaism. 1agorc vas a grcar admircr oI|apanand rhc
|apancsc,bur

IcrvcrydisrurbcdbyirsshiIrIrom cconomic andsocia

dcvcopmcnr ro aggrcssivc miirarizarion. 1hc hcavy sacrihccs rhar
vcrc Iorccd on|apan arcr on, rhrough miirary dcIcar and nuccar
dcvasrarion, 1agorc did nor ivc ro scc hc dicd in tpqt j , bur rhcy
voud havc ony addcd ro 1agorc`s inrcnsc sorrov. ur rhc conun-
drumrharhc invokcd, abourrhcvcakcningcIIccrsoImiirarypovcr,
*I have tried to explore the co_nnections between the two sets of questions in the
analysis of economic problems in my 'Rational Fools: A Critique of the Behavioral
Foundations of Economic Theory', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 6 ( 1977) , and On
Ethics and Economics ( Oxford: Blackwell, 1987) .
tRabindranath Tagore, Nationalism (London: Macmillan, 1917; new edn. with an
Introduction by E. P. Thompson, 1991) .
INDIA AND THE B OMB
hasrcmaincdacrivci nrhcvriringsoIonrcmporary|apancscvrircrs,
pcrhaps mosr noraby Kcnzaburo c. `
Science, Politics and Nationalism
1hc cadingarchirccroI!ndia`s baisricmissicprogrammc and a kcy
hgurc in rhc dcvcopmcnr oInuccar vcapons is r AbduKaam, a
scicnrisroImuch disrincrion.t rKaam,vho comcs IromaNusim
IamiyandisarcscarchcroIgrcarachicvcmcnr,hasavcrysrrongcom-
mirmcnrro !ndian narionaism. Ic is aso an cxrrcmcy amiabcpcr-
son as!haddiscovcrcdvhcn!hadrhcprivicgcoIhiscompanyaran
honorary dcgrcc ccrcmony ar |adavpur \nivcrsiry in Cacurra in
tppo) . Kaam`sphianrhropicconccrns arcvcrysrrong, and hc has a
rccord oI hcping in vcIarc-rcarcd causcs, such as charirabc vork
Ior mcnray impaircd chidrcnin!ndia.
Kaam rccordcd his proud rcacrion as hc varchcd rhc !ndian
nuccar cxposions in !okhran, on rhc cdgc oI rhc 1har dcscrr in
Kaj asrhan,inNay tpp8. '!hcardrhccarrhrhundcringbcovourIccr
and rising ahcadoIus inrcrror. !r vas a bcauriIu sighr. `!r is rarhcr
rcmarkabcrharrhc admirarion IorshccrIorcc shoud bcso srrongin
rhc rcacrions oI cvcn such a kind-hcarrcd pcrson, bur pcrhaps rhc
povcr oInarionaismpaycda roc hcrc, aongvirhrhc gcncra Iasci-
narion rhar mighry vcapons sccm ro gcncrarc. 1hc inrcnsiry oI
Kaam`s srrongnarionaismmaybcvcconccacdbyrhcmidncssoI
his manncrs, bur ir vas cvidcnr cnough in his srarcmcnrs aIrcr rhc
basrs 'Ior z, oo ycars !ndia has ncvcr invadcd anybody` j , no css
rhanhis j oy ar!ndia`sachicvcmcnr ' arriumph oI!ndianscicnccand
rcchnoogy` j .
1his vas, i nIacr, rhc sccond round oI nuccar cxposions in rhc
samc sirc, in !okhran, rhc Iirsr vas undcr !ndira Gandhi`s !rimc
Ninisrcrshipintp;q. urarrharrimcrhcvhoccvcnrvaskcprundcr
a shroud oI sccrccy, parry in inc virh rhc govcrnmcnr`s ambiguiry
*Kenzaburo Oe, Japan, the Ambiguous, and Myself (Tokyo and New York:
Kodansha International, I99 5) .
t Postscript: since this essay was written for the 2ooo Pugwash conference, Dr
Kalam has been elected as the President of the Republic of India.
25 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
abour rhc corrccrncss oI rhc nuccar vcaponizarion oI !ndia. Vhic
China`snuccarizarionccaryhadasrronginHucnccinrhcdccisionoI
rhcGandhigovcrnmcnrrodcvcopirsovnnuccarporcnria bcrvccn
tp6q and tp;q China had conducrcdhIrccn nuccar cxposionsj , rhc
oIIiciagovcrnmcnrposirionvas rharrhc tp;q cxposionin!okhran
vassrricryIor'pcaccIupurposcs`,andrhar!ndiarcmaincdcommir-
rcdro doing virhour nuccar vcapons. 1hc hrsr !okhran rcsrs vcrc
rhus Ioovcd by numcrous aIIirmarions oI !ndia`s rcjccrion oI rhc
nuccar parh, rarhcr rhan any cxpicir savouring oI rhc dcsrrucrivc
povcr oInuccarcncrgy.
!r vas vcry diIIcrcnr in rhc summcr oI tpp8 Iooving rhc cvcnrs
rhar havc comc ro bc cacd !okhran-!!. y rhcn rhcrc vas srrong
supporrIromvariousguarrcrs.1hisincudcd,oIcoursc,rhcharariya
|anara !arry or rhc |!j , vhich had incudcd rhc dcvcopmcnr oI
nuccarvcaponsinirscccroramaniIcsro,andvhichcdrhcpoirica
coairion rhar camc ro oIIicc aIrcr rhc !cbruary cccrions in tpp8 .
Vhic somc oI rhc prcvious !ndian govcrnmcnrs had rakcn srcps ro
makc ir casicr ro Ioov up rhc tp;q basr by ncv oncs, rhcy had
sroppcdshorroImaking Ircsh cxposions, bur virh rhcncv- morc
inrcnscynarionaisr- govcrnmcnrrhcidvasiIrcd, andrhcbasrs oI
!okhran-!! occurrcdvirhinrhrccmonrhsoIirscomingropovcr. 1hc
|!, vhichhas buirupirs basc inrcccnrycars bycapruringandro a
grcarcxrcnrIanningIindunarionaism,rcccivcdinrhccccrionsony
a modcsr minoriry oIIindu vorcs, and a fortiori a minoriry oIrora
vorcs in rhc muri-rcigious counrry !ndia has ncary as many
Nusims as !akisran and manymorcNusims rhan angadcsh, and
aso oI coursc Sikhs, Chrisrians, |ains, !arsccs and orhcr commu-
niricsj . ur cvcnvirh a minoriry oIpariamcnrary scars t 8z our oI
qj cccrcd mcmbcrsj , |! coud hcad an aiancc - a Iairyad hoc
aiancc - oImany diIIcrcnr poirica Iacrions, varying Irom srricry
rcgiona parrics such as A!NK, !NK and NNK oI 1ami
adu, Iaryana !ok a andIaryanaVikas !arry oIIaryana, ij u
|anara a oIrissa,1rinamoo Congrcss oIVcsrcngajrospccihc
communiry-bascdparrics incuding rhc Akai a, rhc parry oISikh
narionaismj , and somc brcakavay Iacrions oIorhcr parrics. As rhc
argcsrgroupvirhinrhccoairion, rhc|!vasrhcdominanrIorccin
rhc tpp8 !ndian govcrnmcnr as ir vas again aIrcr rhc tppp gcncra
254
INDIA AND THE B OMB
cccrionsj , vhichgivcsi rmuchmorc aurhoriryrhan a minoriryparry
coud orhcrvisc cxpccrrogcrin!ndian poirics.
1hc |!`sinrcrcsrin Iooving up rhc I974 basr by Iurrhcr rcsrs
andbyacruay dcvcoping nuccar vcapons rcccivcd srrong supporr
Irom an acrivc pro-nuccar obby, vhich incudcs many !ndian
scicnrisrs.
"
1hcadvocacybyscicnrisrs and dcIcncc cxpcrrs vas guirc
imporranr in making rhc idca oIa nuccar !ndia ar casr pausibc ro
many,iInorguircIuyacccprabcycrasaparroIarcHccrivccguiib-
riumoI!ndianrhinking.As !raIuidvaiandAchinVanaikpuririn
rhcir vc-rcscarchcd andvc-argucd book. '1hc mosr ardcnr advo-
carcs oI nuccar vcapons havc consranry soughr ro invcsr rhcsc
vcaponsvirharcigious-ikcaurhoriry andimporrancc - ro cmpha-
sizcrhcavcandvondcrrarhcrrhanrhcrcvusionandhorror - rogivc
rhcmanacccprcdandrcspccrabcpaccinrhcmasspopuarcururcoI
ourrimcs. ` `
The Thrill of Power
Kaam`s cxcircmcnr ar rhcpovcr oI nuccar cxposions vas nor, oI
coursc,unusuaasarcacrionrorhcmighroIvcapons.1hccxcircmcnr
gcncrarcdbydcsrrucrivcpovcr, dissociarcdIromanyhinroIporcnria
gcnocidc, has bccn a vc-obscrvcdpsychoogica srarcinrhc hisrory
oIrhcvord. LvcnrhcnormayunruIIcd|.Kobcrrppcnhcimcr,rhc
principa archirccr oIrhc vord`s hrsr nuccar cxposion, vas movcd
ro guorc rhc rvo-micnnia-odBhagavad Gita ppcnhcimcr kncv
Sanskrirvccnoughrogcrhis Gita righrj ashcvarchcdrhc armos-
phcriccxposionoIrhchrsrarombombina\nircdSrarcsdcscrrncar
rhc viagc oI scuro on I 6 |uy I 94 5 : 'rhc radiancc oI a rhousand
suns . . . bursrinrorhcsky.
As vas discusscd in Lssay I, ppcnhcimcrvcnronro guorc Iur-
rhcr Irom rhc Bhagavad Gita: '! am bccomc dcarh, rhc dcsrroycr oI
vords. ` 1har imagc oIdcarh voud shov irsnakcdandrurhcss Iacc
ncxr monrh in Iiroshima and agasaki vhar Kcnzaburo c has
cacd ' rhc mosr rcrriIying monsrcr urking in rhc darkncss oI
Iiroshima` ` j . AsrhcconscgucnccsoInuccarizarionbccamcccarcrro
ppcnhcimcr,hcvcnronrocampaignagainsrnuccararms,andvirh
25 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
spccia Icrvour againsr rhc hydrogcn bomb. ur in|uy tpq , in rhc
cxpcrimcnrasrarioninrhc\S dcscrr, '|ornaadcNucrro` rransar-
abc as 'carh 1racr` j , rhcrc vas ony sanirizcd absrracrncss hrmy
dcrachcdIrom any acrua kiing.
1hc rhousand suns havc nov comc homc ro rhc subconrincnr ro
roosr. 1hc hvc !ndiannuccar cxposions in !okhran on tt and t3
^aytpp8vcrcguicky Ioovcd bysix!akisrani basrs inrhcChagai
his rhc Iooving monrh. '1hc vhoc mounrainrurncdvhirc` , vas
rhc!akisranigovcrnmcnr`s charmcdrcsponsc. 1hc subconrincnrvas
by nov caughr in an ovcrrnuccar conIronrarion, masgucrading as
IurrhcrcmpovcrmcnroIcachcounrry.
1hcsc dcvcopmcnrs havc rcccivcd Iairy uniIorm condcmnarion
abroad,burconsidcrabcIavourinsidc!ndiaand!akisran,rhoughvc
musr bc carcIu nor ro cxaggcrarc rhc acrua cxrcnr oIdomcsric sup-
porr. !ankaj Nishradidhavc rcasoncnoughroconcudc, rvovccks
aIrcr rhc basrs, rhar 'rhc nuccar rcsrs havc bccn cxrrcmcy popuar,
parricuaryamongrhc urbanmiddccass` . ur rhar vas roosoonro
scc rhc ong-run cIIccrs on !ndian pubic opinion. !urrhcrmorc, rhc
cnrhusiasm oI rhc cccbrarors is morc casiy picrurcd on rccvision
rhanarcrhcdccpdoubrsoIrhcsccprics. !ndccd,rhccuphoriarharrhc
rccvisionpicrurcscaprurcdonrhc!ndiansrrccrsimmcdiarcyIoov-
ingrhc basrsconccnrrarcdonrhcrcacrionoIrhoscvhodid cccbrarc
andchoscrocomcourandrcj oicc.!rvas accompanicdbydoubrsand
rcproachcs byagrcarmanypcopcvhorooknoparrinrhcIcsrivirics,
vho didnorhgurc in rhc caryrccvisionpicrurcs, andvhosc doubrs
and opposirion Iound incrcasingy voca cxprcssion ovcr rimc. As
Amirav Ghosh, rhc novcisr, norcd in his cxrcnsivc rcvicv oI!ndian
pubic rcacrions ro rhc bomb Ior rhc New Yorker, 'rhc rcsrs havc
dividcdrhc counrrymorcdccpyrhancvcr` . '
!r is aso ccar rhar rhc main poirica parry rhar chosc ro cscaarc
!ndia`snuclcaradvcnrurc,namcyrhc|!, didnorgcranysubsranria
cccrora bcnchrIromrhc!okhranbasrs.!nIacrguircrhcconrrary, as
anayscs oIocavoringsinccrhc tpp8basrsrcndroshov.yrhcrimc
!ndiavcnrrorhcpos again, inScprcmbcr tppp, rhc |! hadcarncd
rhc csson suIIicicnryvcrorcIrainIrombraggingabourrhcnuccar
rcsrsinrhcircampaignvirhrhcvorcrs.Andycr,as. Kamrhcpoir-
icacommcnraror and cdiror oIFrontline) has cogcnryargucdin his
INDIA AND THE B OMB
anri-nuccar bookRiding the Nuclear Tiger, vc 'musrnormakc rhc
misrakc oIassumingrharsinccrhcIinduKighrhasdoncbadyouroI
!okhran-!!,rhc issuc has bccn dccisivcyvon` . 8
!ndian arrirudcs rovards nuccar vcaponizarion arc characrcrizcd
nor ony by ambiguiry and mora doubrs, bur aso by somc unccr-
rainryasrovharis invovcdin makinggainIuusc oIrhcscvcapons.
!rmaybcrhccasc,asscvcraopinionposhavcindicarcd,rharpubic
opinion in !ndia has a much smacr incinarion, comparcd virh
!akisranipubicopinion,roassumcrharnuccarvcaponsvicvcrbc
acruay uscd in a subconrincnravar." ur sincc rhc cIIccrivcncss oI
rhcscvcapons dcpcnds urimarcy onrhcviingncss ro uscrhcmin
somc siruarions, rhcrcis anissucoIcohcrcncc oIrhoughrrharhasro
bcaddrcsscdhcrc.!mpiciryorcxpiciry,ancvcnruairyoIacruausc
hasro bcamongrhcpossibcsccnariosrharmusrbcconrcmparcd,iI
somcbcnchrisrobcobraincdIromrhcposscssionanddcpoymcnroI
nuccar vcapons.1ohodrhc bcicIrharnuccarvcapons arc uscIu
burmusrncvcr bc uscd acks cogcncyandcanindccd bc sccnrobc a
parr oIrhc odd phcnomcnonrhar Arundhari Koy rhc aurhor oIThe
God of Small Things) has cacd 'rhccndoIimaginarion` .
'
`
AsKoyhasasobroughrourvirhmuchcariry,rhcnarurcandrcsurs
oIan acrua a-our nuccarvar arc amosrimpossibcroimaginc in a
rcayinIormcdvay.ArundhariKoydcscribcs aikcysccnariorhus.
Our cities and forests, our felds and villages will burn for days. Rivers will
turn to poison. The air will become fre. The wind will spread the flames.
When everything there is to burn has burned and the fres die, smoke will rise
and shut out the sun.
II
!rishardrorhinkrharrhcpossibiiryoIsuchancvcnruairycanbc a
parroIa visc poicyoInarionascI-dcIcncc.
Established Nuclear Powers and
Subcontinental Grumbles
nc oIrhc probcms in gcrring rhings righr ariscs Irom a pcrccivcd
scnsc oIinadcguacy, prcvacnrin!ndia, oIanyarcrnarivcpoicyrhar
voud bc cnrircy sarisIacrory and voud rhus hcp ro Iirm up a
25 7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rcjccrion oI nuccar vcapons rhrough rhc rra
_
sparcnr virrucs oI a
rcsourcynon-nuccarparh as opposcdrorhc horrors oIrhcnuccar
rourcj . 1his is pcrhaps vhcrc rhc gap in pcrccprions is srrongcst
bcrvccn rhc disconrcnr and disgusr virhvhich rhc subconrincnra
nuccar advcnrurcs arc vicvcd in rhc Vcsr and rhc ambiguiry rhar
cxisrs onrhis subjccrvirhin!ndia norromcnrionrhc supporroIrhc
nuccar rourc rhar comcs Irom rhc govcrnmcnr, rhc |! and !ndia`s
pro-nuccarobbyj .!risdiIIicurroundcrsrandvharisgoingoninrhc
subconrincnrvirhourpacing irsoidyin agobaconrcxr.
uccar srrarcgisrs in Sourh Asia rcnd ro rcscnr dccpy rhc inrcr-
narionacondcmnarionoI!ndianand!akisranipoicics anddccisions
rhar docs nor rakc norc oI rhc nuccar siruarion in rhc vord as a
vhoc. 1hcy arc surcy j usrihcd in rhis rcscnrmcnr, and aso righr ro
gucsrion rhc ccnsoriousncss oI Vcsrcrn crirics oI subconrincnra
nuccaradvcnrurcs virhour adcguarcy cxamining rhc crhics oIrhcir
ovn nuccar poicics, incuding prcscrvarion oI an csrabishcd and
dccpyuncgua nuccarhcgcmony, virhvcryirrcarrcmprro achicvc
goba dcnuccarizarion. 1hc cIcncc Ninisrcr oI !ndia, Gcorgc
!crnandcs,rodAmiravGhosh.'Vhyshoudrhchvcnarionsrharhavc
nuccarvcapons rcushovro bchavcandvharvcaponsvcshoud
havc! ` 1hisvasmarchcdbyrhcrcmarkoIQaziIussainAhmcd,rhc
cadcr oI |amaar-c-!sami !akisran`s principa rcigious parryj , ro
Ghosh. ' vc don`r acccpr rhar Iivc narions shoud havc nuccar
vcaponsandorhcrsshoudn`r.Vc say, !crrhchvcasodisarm.
T :2
1hccnguiryinrorhcgobaconrcxrisindccdj usrihcd,burvharvc
havcrocxamincisvhcrhcrrhcpacingoIrhcsubconrincnrasubsrory
virhinrhc gcncraIramc oI a biggcr goba srory rcay changcs rhc
asscssmcnrrharvc can rcasonabymakc oIvhar is going onin!ndia
and !akisran. !n parricuar, ro arguc rhar rhcir nuccar poicics arc
dccpymisrakcndocs norrcguircusro dismiss rhcvidcsprcadrcscnr-
mcnr in rhc subconrincnr oI rhc smugncss oI rhc dominanr goba
ordcr. 1hcsc compainrs, cvcn iI cntircy j usriIicd and cxrrcmcy
momcnrous, do nor csrabish rhc sagaciry oI a nuccar poicy rhar
dramaricay incrcascs unccrrainricsvirhinrhc subconrincnrvirhour
achicving anyrhing ro makc cach counrry morc sccurc. !ndccd,
angadcsh is probaby nov rhc saIcsr counrry ro ivc in, in rhc
subconrincnr.
INDIA AND THE B OMB
Moral Resentment and Prudential Blunder
1hcrc arc, !rhink,rvo disrincrissucs,vhich nccdrobccarcIuy scpa-
rarcd.!irsr,rhcvordnuccarordcriscrrcmcyunbaanccdandrhcrc
arc cxcccnr rcasons ro compain abour rhc miirary poicics oI rhc
majorpovcrs,parricuaryrhchvcrharhavc amonopoyovcroIIicia
nuccar srarus as vc as ovcr pcrmancnr mcmbcrship in rhc Sccuriry
CouncioIrhc \nircd arions. 1hc sccondissuc conccrns rhc choiccs
rharorhcrcounrrics- orhcrrhanrhc bighvc- Iacc, andrhishasrobc
propcry scrurinizcd, rarhcrrhanbcinghijackcdby rcscnrmcnr oIrhc
oigopoy oI rhc povcr ro rcrrorizc. 1hc Iacr rhar orhcr counrrics,
incuding !ndia and !akisran, havc grounds cnough Ior grumbing
abourrhcnarurcoIrhc vord ordcr, sponsorcd and supporrcdbyrhc
csrabishcdnuccarpovcrsvirhouranyscriouscommirmcnrrodcnu-
ccarizarion, docs norgivcrhcmanyrcasonropursucanuccarpoicy
rharvorscnsrhcirovnsccuriryandaddsrorhcpossibiiryoIa drcad-
Iuhoocausr.Norarcscnrmcnrcannorj usriIyaprudcnriabundcr.
! havc so Iar nor commcnrcd on rhc cconomic and socia cosrs oI
nuccarizarion and rhc gcncra probcm oIaocarion oI rcsourccs.
1harissucis, oIcoursc,imporranr,cvcnrhoughirishardrohndour
cxacryvharrhccosrs oIrhcnuccarprogrammcs arc. 1hccxpcnscs
oIrhis arc carcIuyhiddcn in borh counrrics. Lvcn rhough ir is pcr-
haps casicr ro csrimarc rhc ncccssary inIormarion in !ndia givcn a
grcarcr nccd Ior discosurc in rhc !ndian poiryj , rhc csrimarcs arc
boundro bc guircrough.
Kcccnry, C. Kammanohar Kcddy, a disringuishcd commcnraror,
hascsrimarcdrharrhc cosroInuccarizarionis somcrhingaroundhaI
oIonc pcr ccnr oIrhc gross domcsric producrpcrycar.
1
3 1his mighr
norsoundikcmuch, buririsargccnoughiIvcconsidcrrhcarcrna-
rivc uscs oIrhcsc rcsourccs. !or cxampc, ir has bccn csrimarcd rhar
rhcaddirionacosrsoIprovidingccmcnrarycducarionIorcvcrychid
virhncighbourhood schoos ar cvcry ocarion in rhc counrry voud
cosrroughyrhcsamcamounroImoncy. ' 1hcproporrionoIiircracy
*The so-called PROBE report cites two distinct estimates made by two government
committees, which came to roughly the same figure; see Public Report on Basic
Education in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I999) .
259
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
inrhc!ndianadurpopuarionissriabourqoperccnr,andirisabour
pcrccnrin!akisran.Jurrhcrmorc,rhcrcarcorhcrcosrs andosscs
asvc, suchasrhcdcHccrion oI!ndia`s scicnrihcracnrs ro miirary-
rcarcdrcscarchavayIrommorcproducrivcincsoIrcscarchandaso
Iromacruacconomicproducrion.1hcprcvacnccoIsccrcrivcmiirary
acrivirics aso rcsrrains opcn discussions in rhc pariamcnr and rcnds
ro subvcrrrradirions oIdcmocracy andIrcc spccch.
cspircarhis,rhcprincipaargumcnragainsrnuccarizarionisnor
urimarcy an cconomic onc. !r is rarhcr rhc incrcascd insccuriry oI
humanivcsrharconsrirurcs rhc biggcsrpcnaryoIrhc subconrincnra
nuccar advcnrurcs. 1har issuc nccdsIurrhcrscruriny.
Does Nuclear Deterrence Work?
Vhar oI rhc argumcnr rhar nuccar dcrcrrcncc makcs var bcrvccn
!ndia and !akisran css ikcy! Vhy voud nor rhc acgcdy provcn
abiiryoInuccarbaancc,vhichissupposcdrohavckcprpcaccinrhc
vord, bc cIIccrivc aso in rhc subconrincnr! ! bcicvc rhar rhis gucs-
rioncanbcansvcrcdIromIour diIIcrcnrpcrspccrivcs.
!irsr, cvcn iI ir vcrc rhc casc rhar rhc nuccarizarionoI!ndia and
!akisranrcduccsrhcprobabiiryoIvarbcrvccnrhcrvo,rhcrcvoud
bc a rradc-oII hcrc bcrvccn a ovcr chancc oI convcnriona var
againsr somc chancc oI a nuccar hoocausr. o scnsibc dccision-
makingcanconccnrrarconyonrhcprobabiiryoIvarvirhourraking
norc oIrhc sizc oIrhc pcnarics oI var shoud ir occur. !ndccd, any
signihcanr probabiiry oI rhc sccnario caprurcd by Arundhari Koy`s
dcscriprionoI'rhccndoIimaginarion`canhardyIairoourvcighrhc
grcarcr probabiiry, iI any, oI rhc compararivcy midcr pcnarics oI
convcnrionavar.
Sccond,rhcrc is norhingro indicarcrharrhc ikcihood oIconvcn-
riona var is, in Iacr, rcduccd by rhc nuccarizarion oI !ndia and
!akisran. !ndccd, hor on rhc hccs oI rhc nuccar basrs, rhc rvo
counrrics did undergo a major miirary conIronrarion in rhc Kargi
disrricrinKashmir. 1hcKargiconIicr,vhichoccurrcdvirhinaycar
oIrhc nuccar basrs oI!ndia and !akisran, vasin Iacrrhc hrsrmii-
rary conIicr bcrvccn rhc rvo in ncary rhirry ycars. Nany !ndian
INDIA AND THE B OMB
commcnrarorshavcargucdrharrhcconIronrarion,vhichvasprovokcd
byscpararisrgucrriascomingacrossrhcincoIconrroIrom!akisran
inrhcirvicv,| oincdbyarmyrcguarsj , vashcpcdby!akisran`sundcr-
sranding rhar!ndiavoudnorbc abc rouscirs massivc supcrioriryin
convcnriona Iorccs ro aunch a biggcr var in rcraiarion, prcciscy
bccauscirvoudIcaranuccarhoocausr.Vhcrhcrornorrhisanaysis
is righr, rhcrc is ccary subsrancc in rhc gcncra rcasoning rhar rhc
cncmy`s Icar oInuccar annihiarion can bc an argumcnr in Iavour oI
miirary advcnrurism virhour cxpccrarion oI a Iucr rcraiarion Irom
rhccncmy. c rhar asirmay, rhc prooI oIrhc pudding is inrhc caring,
and nomarrcr vhar rhc cxpanarion, nuccarizarion cvidcnry has nor
prcvcnrcdnon-nuccarconIicrsbcrvccn!ndiaand!akisran.
1hird, rhc dangcr oIaccidcnranuccarvaris muchgrcarcrinrhc
subconrincnrrhanirvasinrhccodvarirscI.1hisisnoron

bccausc
rhc chccks and conrros arc much ooscr, bur aso bccausc rhc dis-
ranccsinvovcd arc sosmabcrvccn!ndia and!akisranrharrhcrcis
irrcrimcIor anyconvcrsarionvhcn a crisismighroccur and a hrsr
srrikcvcrc Icarcd. Aso,rhc much discusscdhod oIIundamcnraisr
miiranrsvirhinrhc !akisranimiiraryandrhc abscncc oIdcmocraric
conrro addrorhcIcar oIa suddcnIashpoinr.
!ourrh, rhcrc is a nccd aso ro asscss vhcrhcr rhc pcacc rhar rhc
vord cnjoycd virh nuccar dcrcrrcncc during rhc goba cod var
vas, in Iacr, prcdicrabc and causay robusr. 1hc argumcnr Ior rhc
baanccoIrcrrorhasbccnccarcnoughIoraongrimc,andvasmosr
cogucnrypurbyVinsronChurchiinhisasrspccchrorhcIouscoI
Commons on I Narch I 9 5 5 . Iisringingvords onrhis 'saIcryvi
bcrhc srurdychidoIrcrror, andsurvivarhc rvin brorhcr oIannihi-
arion` j havc a mcsmcrizing cIIccr, bur Churchi himscI did makc
cxccprionsrohisruc,vhcnhc said rharrhc ogic oIdcrcrrcncc ' docs
norcovcrrhccascoIunaricsordicrarorsinrhcmoodoIIircrvhcn
hcIoundhimscIin hishnadug-our` .
icrarorsarcnorunknovninrhcvord cvcninrhcsubconrincnrj ,
andarcasrparr-unaricscanbcIoundvirhsomcIrcgucncyinborhrhc
counrrics, [ udging by vhar somc cogucnr commcnrarors sccm ro bc
* Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches I897-1963, ed. Robert Rhodes
James (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1974), pp. 8629-3 0.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
abc rovrirc onrhcnuccar issuc irsc

I.urpcrhaps morcimporranry,
vchavcrcasonro norcrhar riskshavcbccnrakcnaso bypcopcvirh
impcccabccrcdcnriasonsaniryanducidiry.1ogivc|usronccxampc
a rarhcr promincnr oncj , in choosing rhc parh oI conIronrarion in
vhar has comc ro bc cacd rhc Cuban Nissic Crisis, !rcsidcnr
KcnncdycvidcnryrooksomcsignihcanrrisksoIannihiariononbchaI
oI humaniry. !ndccd, 1hcodorc C. Sorcnson, Spccia Counsc ro
!rcsidcnrKcnncdy,purrhcIacrsrhus inagcncrayadmiringpassagcj .
John Kennedy never lost sight of what either war or surrender would do to
the whole human race. His U Mission was preparing for a negotiated peace
and his Joint Chiefs of Staff were preparing for war, and he intended to keep
both on rein. . . . He could not aford to be hasty or hesitant, reckless or
afraid. The odds that the Soviets would go all the way to war, he later said,
seemed to him then 'somewhere between one out of three and even. '
Vc, a chancc oIannihiarion bcrvccn onc-rhird and onc-haIis nor
ancasydccisionrobcrakcnonbchaIoIrhchumanracc.
! rhink vc havc rorccognizcrharrhcpcacc oInuccar conIronra-
rioninrhccodvarparryrcsurcdIromuck,andmaynorhavcbccn
prcordaincd.1o rakcpost hoc ro bcpropter hoc is a uxuryrharcan
bc guirc cosry Ior charring our Iururc poicics in rhc nuccar - or
indccdanyorhcr - hcd.Vc havcrorakcaccounrnorony oIrhcIacr
rharcircumsranccs arc rarhcrdiIIcrcnrinrhc subconrincnr comparcd
virh vhar obraincd during rhc nuccar conIronrarion in rhc goba
cod var, bur aso rharrhcvord vas acruay rarhcr Iorrunarc ro
cscapc annihiarion cvcnin rhc cod var irscI. Andrhc dangcrs oI
cxrcrminariondidnorcomconyIromunaricsordicrarors.
So, ro concudc rhis sccrion, rhc nuccarizarion oI rhc subconri-
ncnraconIronrarionsnccdnorrcduccrhcriskoIvar cirhcrinrhcory
or inpracriccj , andir cscaarcs rhc pcnaryoIvar in a dramaricvay.
1hcun|usr narurc oIrhc vord miirary baancc docs nor changc rhis
cruciaprudcnriarccognirion.
Theodore C. Sorenson, Kennedy ( London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1 965 ) ,
p. 70 5 . The 'Kennedy Tapes', too, bring out how close the world came t o a nuclear
annihilation.
INDIA AND THE B OMB
Were the Indian Government 's Goals
Well Served?
!comcnovroagucsrionoIrarhcrimircdinrcrcsr,burvhichisaskcd
oIrcncnough,addrcsscdparricuaryro!ndia.LvcniIirisacccprcdrhar
rhcsubconrincnriscss sccurcasarcsuroIrhcrir-Ior-rarnuccarrcsrs,
ircoudbcrhc cascrhar!ndia`s ovnscI-inrcrcsrhas bccnvc scrvcd
byrhc|!-cdgovcrnmcnr`snuccarpoicy. !ndiahasrcasonrogrum-
bc, ir is argucd, ar nor bcing rakcn as scriousy as onc oIrhc argcsr
counrrics in rhc vord shoud bc. 1hcrc is unhappincss aso ar rhc
arrcmpr by somc counrrics, ccrrainy rhc \nircd Srarcs in rhc pasr, ro
achicvcsomckindoIa 'baancc` bcrvccn!ndiaand!akisran,vhcrcas
!ndiaisncaryscvcnrimcs asargc as!akisranandmusrnorbcrakcn
robcarparvirhir. Karhcr, rhccomparisonshoudbcvirhChina,and
Ior rhis - aongvirhorhcr causcs, such asgcrring!ndia a pcrmancnr
scarinrhcSccuriryCounci- !ndia`snuccaraccompishmcnrcoudbc
cxpccrcdromakcaconrriburion.1hcsubconrincnrmaybccss sccurc
asarcsuroIrhcnuccardcvcopmcnrs, bur,iris argucd,!ndiadidgcr
somc bcnchr. IovsoundisrhisincoIargumcnr!
!havc somc diIIicuryinpursuingrhiscxcrcisc.Lvcnrhough!ama
cirizcnoI!ndia, !don`rrcayrhink!cancgirimarcycnguirconyinro
rhc advanragcs rhar !ndia aonc may havc rcccivcd Irom a ccrrain
poicy, cxcuding rhc inrcrcsrs oI orhcrs vho vcrc aso aIIccrcd.
Iovcvcr, irispossibcroscrurinizc rhc cIIccrs oIa ccrrain poicyin
rcrmsoIrhcgivcngoas oIrhc!ndiangovcrnmcnrincudingsrrarcgic
advanragcs ovcr !akisran as vc as cnhanccmcnr oI!ndia`s inrcrna-
rionasrandingj , andaskrhcrarhcrcody' scicnrihc`gucsrionvhcrhcr
rhosc goas havc bccn vc scrvcd by !ndia`s rcccnr nuccar poicy.
Vcdonor havc ro cndorsc rhcsc goasro cxamincvhcrhcrrhcy havc
acruay bccn bcrrcr promorcd.
1hcrcarc goodrcasonsrodoubrrharrhcscgoashavcindccdbccn
bcrrcrscrvcdbyrhcscgucnccoIcvcnrs ar!okhranandChagai. !irsr,
!ndia had - and has - massivc supcrioriry ovcr !akisran in convcn-
riona miirarysrrcngrh. 1harsrrarcgic advanragc has bccomc Iarcss
signiIicanr as a rcsur oI rhc ncv nuccar baancc. !ndccd, sincc
!akisran has cxpiciry rcIuscd ro acccpr a 'no hrsr usc` agrccmcnr,
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!ndia`s abiiryrocounronconvcnrionasupcrioriryisnov, roa grcar
cxrcnr, css cIIccrivc aong virh incrcasing rhc cvc oI insccuriry in
borh counrricsj . !n rhc Kargi conIronrarion, !ndia coud nor cvcn
makc usc oI irs abiiry ro cross inro rhc !akisrani-adminisrcrcd
Kashmir ro arrack rhc inrrudcrs Irom rhcrcar, vhich miirary racri-
cianssccmrorhinkvoudhavcmadcmuchmorcscnscrhanrryingro
cncounrcrrhc inrrudcrsbycimbingsrccpyup ahighmounrainIrom
rhc !ndian sidc ro barrc rhc occupanrs ar rhc rop. 1his nor ony
madcrhc!ndianrcsponsccss cIIccrivc andrapid, irasocdromorc
oss oI!ndian sodicrs t, joo ivcs, according ro rhc govcrnmcnr oI
!ndia`s csrimarc and t , ; o according ro !akisran`s csrimarcj and
addcd grcary ro rhc cxpcnscs oI rhc var conducrcd Irom an
unIavourcd posirion $z.5 biion in dirccr cxpcnscsj . 14 Virh rhc
dangcroIanuccarourbursr,rhc!ndiangovcrnmcnr`sdccisionnorro
counrcrcrossrhcinc oIconrroinrcraiarionvasccaryrighr,burir
hadnorcaoprioninrhisrcspccr,givcnrhcsrrarcgicbindvhichirhad
irscIhcpcdrocrcarc.
Sccond, rhc Iacr rhar !ndia can makc nuccar vcapons vas vc
csrabishcdbcIorcrhcprcscnrrir-Ior-rarnuccarrcsrsvcrcconducrcd.
!okhran-! in tp;q had arcady csrabishcd rhc poinr, cvcn rhough
!ndianoIIiciasrarcmcnrsrricdropaydovnrhc miiraryuscs oIrhar
basr a guarrcr oI a ccnrury ago. AIrcr rhc tpp8 rcsrs, !ndia`s and
!akisran`s posirions sccm ro bc much morc cvcn, ar casr in inrcr-
narionapubicpcrccprion. Asirhappcns, !akisranvasguircmodcsr
in irs rcsponsc. ! rcmcmbcr rhinking in rhc middc oI Nay tpp8,
Iooving rhc !ndian rcsrs, rhar surcy !akisran voud nov basr a
argcr numbcr oIbombs rhan !ndia`s hvc. ! vas agrccabyimprcsscd
by !akisran`s modcrarion in basring ony six, vhich is rhc smacsr
vhocnumbcrargcrrhanhvc. 1hc govcrnmcnr oI!ndiamaydccpy
disikc any pcrccprion oI pariry virh !akisran, bur did irs bcsr, in
cIIccr,roarcraI

vourabcsiruarionoIacknovcdgcdasymmcrryinro
oncoIpcrccivcdpariry.
1hird,asidcIrompcrccprions,inrcrmsoIrhc scicnrihcrcguircmcnr
Iorrcsring,!akisranccaryhadagrcarcrcascIorrcsring,ncvcrhaving
con

ucrcd a nuccar rcsr bcIorc tpp8. 1his conrrasrcd virh !ndia`s

cxpcricncc oI!okhran-! in tp;q. Aso,virha muchsmacrcommu-
niry oI nuccar scicnrisrs and a css cxrcnsivc dcvcopmcnr oI rhc
INDIA AND THE B OMB
possibiirics oI compurcrizcd simuari

n, rhc scicnriIic nccd Ior an

acrua rcsr may havc bccn much grcarcr in !akisran rhan in !ndia.
Vhic!akisranvas conccrncd abourrhccondcmnarionoIrhcvord
communiryshoudirhavcrcsrcdonirs ovn,rhc!ndianbasrsinNay
tpp8 crcarcd a siruarioninvhich!akisran coud go inrhardirccrion
virhourbcingbamcdIorsrarringanynuccaradvcnrurc. LricArncrr
purs rhcissucrhus.
In contrast to its Indian counterparts, Pakistan's political elite is less abashed
about the need for nuclear deterrence. Military fears that the Pakistani
nuclear capability was not taken seriously in India combined with a feeling of
growing military inferiority after being abandoned by the USA after the cold
war to create an imperative to test that was resisted before May 1998 only
because of the threat of sanctions. The Indian tests created a situation in
which the Pakistani leadership saw an even greater need to test and a possible
opening to j ustify the test as a response that was both politically and strat
egically understandable.
1hc rhcsis, oIrcn arricuarcd by!ndia`s pro-nuccar obby, rhar !ndia
vas in a grcarcr dangcr oI a Iirsr srrikc Irom !akisran bcIorc rhc
summcroItpp8acks scicnrihc asvcaspoiricacrcdibiiry.
!ourrh,rhcrcvas normuch succcssingcrringrccognirionIor!ndia
as bcing in rhc samc caguc as China, or Ior irs grumbc rhar in-
adcguarc arrcnrion is inrcrnarionay paid ro rhc dangcrs !ndia is
supposcd ro IaccIromChina. Spokcsmcn oIrhc!ndian govcrnmcnr
vcrc voca onrhcsc issucs. AvcckbcIorcrhc !okhran rcsrs in tpp8,
!ndian cIcncc Ninisrcr Gcorgc !crnandcs said in a much guorcd
rccvision inrcrvicv. ' China is porcnriarhrcarnumbcr onc. . . . 1hc
porcnriarhrcarIrom China is grcarcrrhan rharIrom!akisran. `!n
bcrvccn rhc rcsrs on t1 and tj Nay, rhc !ndian !rimc Ninisrcr
Va| payccvrorcro!rcsidcnrCinronropoinrroChinaasbcingrcarcd
rorhcmorivarionIorrhcrcsrs.1hiscrrcr, pubishcdinrhcNew York
Times aIrcr bcing cakcdj on t j Nay, did nor namc China, bur
rcIcrrcdroirinvcrycxpicirrcrms.
We have an overt nuclear weapon state on our borders, a state which com
mitted armed aggression against India in 1962. Although our relations with
that country have improved in the last decade or so, an atmosphere of
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
distrust persists mainly due to the unres
o
lved border problem. To add to the
distrust that country has materially helped another neighbour of ours to
become a covert nuclear weapons state.
'

Iovcvcr, as a rcsur oI rhc rir-Ior-rar nuccar rcsrs by !ndia and

!akisran,Chinacoudsrandvcabovc!ndia`sirrc grumbcs, gcnry
admonishingirIorirscriricismoIChina, andpacingirscIinrhcposi-
rion oIbcing a subconrincnrapcacc-makcr. Vhcn!rcsidcnr Cinron
visircd China in |unc tpp8, China and rhc \nircd Srarcs rccascd a
| oinr srarcmcnr dccaring rhar rhc rvo counrrics voud coopcrarc in
non-proiIcrarioncIIorrs inrhc subconrincnr.
Nark !razicr`s asscssmcnr oIrhc gap bcrvccn rhc govcrnmcnr oI
!ndia`s arrcmprsandirs achicvcmcnrinrhis hcdcaprurcsrhc csscncc
oIrhispoicyIaiurc.
Had it been India's intention to alert the world to its security concerns about
China as a dangerous rising power, the tests managed to do just the opposite
- they gave the Chinese officials the opportunity to present China as a coop
erative member of the international community seeking to curb nuclear
weapons proliferation. Far from looking like a revisionist state, China played
the role of a status quo power, and a rather assertive one at that.
' "
!iIrh,rhcbasrsdidnoradvanccrhccauscoI!ndia`spurarivcccv-
arionroapcrmancnrmcmbcrshipoIrhcSccuriryCounci. !Iacoun-
rrycoud basrirsvayinrorhcSccuriryCounci,rhisvoudgivcan
inccnrivc ro orhcr counrrics ro do rhc samc. !urrhcrmorc, rhc ncv
parirycsrabishcdbcrvccn !ndia and!akisranaIrcr !okhran-!! and
rhc Chagaihis aso miirarcs againsrrhcpausibiiry oIrharrourc
ropcrmancncyinrhcSccuriryCounci,andrhisroocoudhavcbccn
vcprcdicrcd. !pcrsonaydon`rsccvhyirissoimporranrIor!ndia
robcpcrmancnryonrhc SccuriryCounci irmaybcinrhcinrcrcsr
oI orhcrs Ior rhis ro happcn, givcn !ndia`s sizc and groving cco-
nomic srrcngrh, burrhar is a diIIcrcnr issuc arogcrhcr) . Iovcvcr,
Ior rhc govcrnmcnr oI !ndia, vhich ccary arrachcd imporrancc ro
rhis possibiiry, ir voud surcy havc bccn viscr ro cmphasizc irs
rcsrrainrinnordcvcopingnuccarvcapons, dcspircirsprovcnabi-
iryro do sosincc tp;q, andasouscrhcprc- tpp 8 asymmcrryvirh
!akisran,inconrrasrvirhrhc symmcrry rhar dcvcopcd- Iooving
266
INDI A AND THE B OMB
rhc !ndian govcrnmcnr`s ovn iniria

ivc - aIrcr !okhran-!! and

Chagai.
nc oIrhc inrcrcsring sidcighrs rharcmcrgc Irom a scruriny oI
!ndian oIIicia pcrccprions is rhc cxrcnr ro vhich rhc govcrnmcnr
undcrcsrimarcd !ndia`s imporrancc asama| orcounrry, a dcmocraric
poiry, a rich muri-rcigious civiizarion, virh a vcl-cstabishcd
rradirion in scicncc and rcchnoogy incuding rhc curring cdgc oI
inIormarion rcchnoogyj , and virh a Iasr-groving cconomy rhar
coudgrov,virhairrccIIorr,cvcnIasrcr.1hcovcrcsrimarionoIrhc
pcrsuasivc povcr oI rhc bomb vcnr virh an undcrcsrimarion oI
rhc poirica, curura , scicnriIic and cconomic srrcngrhs oI rhc
counrry.1hcrcmighrhavcbccnpcasurcinoIIiciacirccsarrhcsuc-
ccss oI !rcsidcnr Cinron`s visir ro !ndia and rhc asymmcrricay
Iavourcdrrcarmcnrirgorinrharvisirvis-a-vis!akisran,burrhcrcn-
dcncy ro arrriburc rhar asymmcrry ro !ndian nuccar advcnrurc,
rarhcrrhanro!ndia`sargcsizc,dcmocraricpoiricsandirsgroving
cconomy andrcchnoogy, is diIIicurroundcrsrand.
On Separating the Issues
1o concudc, ir is cxrrcmcy imporranr ro disringuish rvo disrincr
probcms, borh oIvhich havc a bcaring on subconrincnra nuccar
poicics. !irsr, rhc vord ordcr on vcapons nccds a changc and in
parricuarrcguircsancIIccrivcandrapiddisarmamcnr,parricuaryin
nuccararscnas.Sccond,rhcnuccaradvcnrurcsoI!ndiaand!akisran
cannorbc| usrihcdonrhcgroundoIrhcun|usrncssoIrhcvordordcr,
sincc rhc pcopc vhosc ivcs arc madc insccurc as a rcsur oI rhcsc
advcnrurcsarcprimariyrhcrcsidcnrsoIrhcsubconrincnrrhcmscvcs.
Kcscnringrhc obruscncss oIorhcrsisnora good groundIorshooring
oncscIinrhcIoor.
1hisdocsnor,oIcoursc,impyrhar!ndiaor!akisranhasrcasonro
Icc happy abour rhc inrcrnariona baancc oIpovcr rhar rhc vord
csrabishmcnr sccms kccn on mainraining, virh or virhour Iurrhcr
dcvcopmcnrs, such as an arrcmprcd 'nuccar shicd` Ior rhc \nircd
Srarcs. !ndccd, ir musr aso bcsaidrharrhcrcis aninadcguarc apprc-
ciarion in rhc Vcsr oI rhc cxrcnr ro vhich rhc roc oI rhc big hvc
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
arouscs suspicion andrcscnrmcnr in rhc 1hirdVord, incudingrhc
subconrincnr. 1his appics nor ony ro rhc monopoy ovcr nuccar
armamcnr, bur aso, on rhc orhcr sidc, ro rhc 'pushing` oI convcn-
riona, non-nuccararmamcnrsinrhcvordmarkcrIorvcapons.
!orcxampc, as rhcHuman Development Report I994, prcparcd
undcrrhccadcrshipoIrharvisionary!akisranicconomisrNahbubu
Iag,poinrcdour,noronyvcrcrhcrophvcarms-cxporringcounrrics
in rhc vord prcciscy rhc hvc pcrmancnr mcmbcrs oI rhc Sccuriry
Counci oIrhc \nircd arions, bur rhcy vcrc aso, rogcrhcr, rcspon-
sibcIor 86pcrccnroIarhcconvcnrionavcaponscxporrcdduring
I p88-p2. 1
9 orsurprisingy, rhcSccuriryCouncihasnorbccnabcro
rakcanyscriousiniriarivcrharvoudrcayrcsrrainrhcmcrchanrs oI
dcarh. !r is nor hard ro undcrsrand rhc sccpricism in !ndia and
!akisran- andcscvhcrc- abourrhcrcsponsibiiryandcadcrshipoI
rhccsrabishcdnuccarpovcrs.
AsIaras!ndiaisconccrncd,rhcrvopoicics- oInuccarabsrincncc
and dcmanding a changc oIvord ordcr- can bcpursucdsimuranc-
ousy. uccarrcsrrainrsrrcngrhcnsrarhcrrhanvcakcns!ndia`svoicc.
1o dcmandrhar rhc Comprchcnsivc 1csr an 1rcary bc rcdchncdro
incudcadarcdprogrammcoIdcnuccarizarionmayvcbcamongrhc
discussabc arcrnarivcs. ur making nuccar bombs, nor ro mcnrion
dcpoyingrhcm,andspcndingscarccrcsourccs onmissics andvharis
cuphcmisricaycacd'dcivcry`,canhardybcsccnasascnsibcpoicy.
1hc bcicIrhar subconrincnranuccarizarionvoudsomchovhcp ro
bring abourvordnuccardisarmamcnris a vid drcamrhar can ony
prcccdc a nighrmarc. 1hc mora Ioy in rhcsc poicics is subsranria,
burvhar is aso ccar and dccisivc is rhc prudcnria misrakc rhar has
bccncommirrcd.1hcmoraandrhcprudcnriaarc,inIacr,rarhcrcosc
in a vord oIinrcrrcarcd inrcracrions,Iorrcasons rharKabindranarh
1agorcdiscusscdaroundahundrcdycars ago.
!inay, ona morc spccihc poinr, no counrry has asmuch srakc as
!ndiainhavingaprospcrousandciviiandcmocracyin!akisran.Lvcn
rhough rhc avaz ShariI govcrnmcnr vas ccary corrupr in many
vays, !ndia`s inrcrcsrs arc nor vc scrvcd by rhc undcrmining oI
civiian ruc in !akisran, ro bc rcpaccd by acrivisr miirary cadcrs.
Aso, rhc cncouragcmcnr oI cross-bordcr rcrrorism, vhich !ndia
accuscs!akisranoI, isikcyrobcdampcncdrarhcrrhancncouragcd
268
INDIA AND THE B OMB
by!akisran`s cconomic prospcriry and civiian polirics. !r i sparricu-
ary imporranr in rhis conrcxr ro poinr ro rhc dangcrousncss oIrhc
argumcnr,oIrcnhcardin!ndia,rharrhc burdcnoIpubiccxpcndirurc
voud bc morc unbcarabc Ior !akisran, givcn irs smacr sizc and
rcarivcysragnanrcconomy, rhanirisIor!ndia. 1hismayvc bcrhc
casc, burrhc pcnaryrhar coud visir!ndiaIromanimpovcrishcdand
dcspcrarc !akisran, in rhc prcscnr siruarion oI massivc insccuriry,
coud bc guirc carasrrophic. Srrcngrhcning oI!akisran`s srabiiry and
cnhanccmcnroIirsvc-bcinghas prudcnriaimporranccIor!ndia,in
addirionroirs obvious crhica signihcancc. 1harccnrra connccrion -
bcrvccn rhc mora andrhc prudcnria- musr bcurgcnrygraspcd.
PART F OUR
Reason and Identity
The Reach of Reason:
V. . Ycars vrorc on rhc margin oI his copy oI The Genealogy of
Morals, ' urvhydocsicrzschcrhinkrhcnighr hasnosrars,norhing
burbarsandovsandrhcinsancmoon! ` icrzschcourincdhissccp-
ricismoIhumaniryandprcscnrcdhischiingvision oIrhcIururc| usr
bcIorcrhcbcginningoIrhcasrccnrury- hcdicdin tpoo. 1hccvcnrs
oIrhcccnruryrharIoovcd, incudingvordvars, hoocausrs,gcno-
cidcsandorhcrarrociricsrharoccurrcdvirhsysrcmaricbrurairy,givc
us rcason cnough ro vorry vhcrhcr icrzschc`s sccprica vicv oI
humanirymaynorhavcbccnrighr.
Instinct and Humanity
|onarhan Govcr, an xIord phiosophcr, argucs in his rcccnr and
cnormousy inrcrcsring 'mora hisrory oIrhc rvcnricrh ccnrury` rhar
vcmusrnoronyrcIccronvharhashappcncdinrhcasrccnrury, bur
aso'nccdroookhardandccaryarsomcmonsrcrsinsidcus` andro
considcr vays andmcans oI'caging andramingrhcm` . I 1hccndoIa
ccnrury - and oIamicnnium- isccrrainyagoodmomcnrrocngagc
incriricacxaminarionsoIrhiskind.!ndccd,asrhchrsrmicnniumoI
rhc!samicIi|ricacndarcamcroancndin t pt-z arhousandunar
ycars - shorrcr rhan soar ycars - aIrcr Nohammcd`s cpic | ourncy
Irom Nccca ro Ncdina in 6zz CL) , Akbar, rhc Nogha cmpcror oI
!ndia, cngagcdin| usrsuch aIar-rcachingscruriny. Icpaidparricuar
'This essay was previously published in the New York Review of Books, 20 July
2000. For helpful suggestions, I am most grateful to Sissela Bok, Mozafar Qizilbash,
Emma Rothschild and Thomas Scanlon.
27
3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
arrcnrion ro rcarions among rcigio

s communirics and ro rhc nccd

IorpcaccIucocxisrcnccinrhcarcadymuricurura!ndia.
1aking norc oIrhc dcnominariona divcrsiry oI!ndians incuding
Iindus,Nusims, Chrisrians,|ains, Sikhs, !arsccs,|cvsand orhcrsj ,
hc aid rhc Ioundarions oI rhc sccuarism and rcigious ncurrairy oI
rhcsrarcvhichhcinsisrcdmusrcnsurcrhar' nomanshoudbcinrcr-
Icrcdvirh on accounr oIrcigion, and anyoncis ro bc aovcdro go
ovcrroarcigionrharpcascshim` .
"
Akbar`srhcsisrhar'rhcpursuiroI
rcason` rarhcrrhan 'rciancc on rradirion` isrhcvayro addrcss diIIi-
cursociaprobcmsisavicvrharhasbccomcarhcmorcimporranr
Iorrhcvordroday.
!r is srriking hov irrc cririca asscssmcnr oIrhc cxpcricncc oIrhc
micnnium rook pacc during irs rcccnr vordvidc cccbrarion. As
rhcccnruryandrhcsccondGrcgorianmicnniumcamcroancnd,rhc
mcmoryoIrhcdrcadIucvcnrsrharGovcrdcscribcsvirhdcvasraring
cIIccrdidnorsccmrosrirpcopcmuch,norvasrhcrcmuchdcrccrabc
inrcrcsr in rhc chacnging gucsrions rhar Govcr asks. 1hc ighrs oI
cccbrarorygorynoronydrovncdrhcsrarsburasorhcbarsandrhc
ovsandrhcinsancmoon.
icrzschc`s sccpricismabourcrhicarcasoningandhisanriciparion
oIdiIIicuricsrocomcvcrccombincdvirhanambiguousapprovaoI
rhc annihiarion oI mora aurhoriry - 'rhc mosr rcrribc, rhc mosr
gucsrionabc,andpcrhaps asorhcmosrhopcIuoIaspccraccs`,hc
vrorc. Govcrargucsrharvcmusrrcspondro'icrzschc`schacngc` .
'1hc probcm i s hovro acccpr icrzschc`sj sccpricism abour a
rcigious aurhoriry Ior morairy vhic cscaping Irom his appaing
concusions. ` 1his issucisrcarcdro Akbar`s rhcsisrharmorairycan
bc guidcd by cririca rcasoning, inmaking mora| udgcmcnrs, Akbar
argucd, vc musr nor makc rcasoning subordinarc ro rcigious
command,norrcyon'rhcmarshyandoIrradirion` .
!nrcrcsr in such gucsrions vas parricuary srrong during rhc
Luropcan Lnighrcnmcnr, vhich vas oprimisric abour rhc rcach oI
rcason. 1hc Lnighrcnmcnr pcrspccrivc has comc undcr scvcrc arrack
in rcccnr ycars, and Govcr adds his ovn povcrIu voicc ro rhis
rcproach.` Ic argucs rhar 'rhc Lnighrcnmcnr vicv oI human psy-
choogy` has incrcasingy ookcd 'rhin and mcchanica` , and
'LnighrcnmcnrhopcsoIsociaprogrcssrhroughrhcsprcadoIhuman-
274
THE REACH OF REAS ON
irarianism and rhc scicnriIic ourook` nov appcar rarhcr ' naivc` .
!oovinganincrcasingycommonrcndcncy, Govcrgocsonroarrrib-
urcmanyoIrhchorrorsoIrhcrvcnricrhccnruryrorhcinHucnccoIrhc
Lnighrcnmcnr.Icinksmodcrnryrannyvirhrharpcrspccrivc,noring
noronyrhar 'SrainandhishcirsvcrcinrhrarorhcLnighrcnmcnr` ,
burasorhar!o!or'vasindirccryinIucnccdbyir` . ursinccGovcr
docs nor vish ro scck sourions rhrough rhc aurhoriry oI rcigion
or oI rradirion in rhis rcspccr, hc norcs, 'vc cannor cscapc rhc
Lnighrcnmcnr` j , hc conccnrrarcs his Iirc on orhcr rargcrs, such as
rciancconsrrongyhcdbcicIs. '1hccrudiryoISrainism`,hcargucs,
'had irs origins in rhc bcicIs Srain hcd| . ` 1his caim is pausibc
cnough,asis Govcr`srcIcrcnccro'rhcrocoIidcoogyinSrainism` .
Iovcvcr, vhyisrhis a criricismoIrhcLnighrcnmcnrpcrspccrivc!
!r sccms airrcunIair ropurrhc bamc Ior rhc bindbcicIsoIdicra-
rors onrhcLnighrcnmcnrrradirion, sinccsomanyvrircrsassociarcd
virhrhcLnighrcnmcnrinsisrcdrharrcasoncdchoiccvassupcriorro
anyrciancconbindbcicI.Surcy'rhccrudiryoISrainism`coudbc
opposcd, as irindccdvas, rhrough arcasoncddcmonsrrarion oIrhc
hugcgap bcrvccn promisc andpracricc, andbyshovingirs brurairy
- a brurairyrharrhc aurhorirics hadroconccarhroughsrricrccnsor-
ship.!ndccd,oncoIrhcmainpoinrsinIavouroIrcasonisrharirhcps
usrorransccndidcoogyandbindbcicI. Kcasonvasnor,inIacr,!o
!or`s main ay. Ic and his gang oIIoovcrsvcrc drivcn by Ircnzy
and bady rcasoncd bcicI and did nor aov any gucsrioning or
scruriny oI rhcir acrions. Givcn rhc cogcncy oI Govcr`s orhcr argu-
mcnrs,rhcrcissomcrhingdccpypuzzingabourhisviingncssro| oin
rhc Iashionabc chorus oIarracks onrhcLnighrcnmcnr.
1hcrc is, hovcvcr, an imporranr gucsrion rhar cmcrgcs Irom
Govcr`sdiscussiononrhis sub| ccr, roo. Arcvcnor bcrrcr adviscdro
rcyonourinsrincrsvhcnvcarcnorabcrorcasonccarybccausc oI
somc hard-ro-rcmovc impcdimcnrs ro our cririca rhinking! 1hc
gucsrion isvc iusrrarcd by Govcr`s rcmarks ona cssharshhgurc
rhan Srainor!o !or, namcyikoai ukharin, vho, Govcrnorcs,
vas nor ar a incincd ro 'rurn inro vood` . Govcr vrircs rhar
ukharin 'had ro ivc virh rhc rcnsion bcrvccnhis human insrincrs
and rhc hard bcicIs hc dcIcndcd` . ukharin vas rcpccd by rhc
acrions oIrhcrcgimc, burrhc surroundingpoiricacimarc,combincd
275
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
virh his ovn Iormuaic rhinking, prcvcnrcd
_
im Irom rcasoning
ccary cnough abour rhcm. 1his, Govcr vrircs, cIr him dirhcring
bcrvccnhis 'humaninsrincrs` andhis 'hardbcicIs` , virhno 'ccarvic-
roryIorcirhcrsidc` . Govcrisarrracrcdbyrhcidca- pausibccnough
inrhis casc - rharukharin voud havc donc bcrrcr ro bc guidcd by
hisinsrincrs.VhcrhcrornorvcsccrhisasrhcbasisoIagcncraruc,
Govcr hcrc poscs an inrcrcsring argumcnr abour rhc nccd ro rakc
accounr oI rhc siruarion in vhich rcasoning rakcs pacc - and rhar
argumcnrdcscrvcsarrcnrionnomarrcrvharvcmakc oIrhc acgcd
criminarcndcncics oIrhcLnighrcnmcnrj .
Reason and Enlightenment
1hcpossibiiry oIrcasoningisasrrong sourcc oIhopc andconhdcncc
in a vord darkcncd byhorribc dccds. !r is casyro undcrsrandvhy
rhis is so. Lvcn vhcn vc hnd somcrhing immcdiarcy upscrring, or
annoying,vc arc Ircc ro gucsrion rhar rcsponsc andaskvhcrhcriris
anappropriarcrcacrionandvhcrhcrvcshoudrcaybcguidcdbyir.
Vccan rcason abour rhc righr vay oIpcrcciving and rrcaringorhcr
pcopc, orhcr cururcs, orhcr caims, and cxaminc diIIcrcnr grounds
Iorrcspccrandrocrancc.Vc canasorcasonabourourovnmisrakcs
andrryrocarnnorrorcpcarrhcm.!orcxampc,rhc|apancscnovc-
israndvisionarysociarhcorisrKcnzaburocargucspovcrIuyrhar
rhc|apancscnarion, aidcd byanundcrsrandingoIirs ovn 'hisroryoI
rcrriroria invasion`, has rcason cnoughrorcmain commirrcdro 'rhc
idcaoIdcmocracyandrhcdcrcrminarionncvcrrovagcavaragain` .
!nrcccrua cnguiry, morcovcr, is nccdcd ro idcnriIy acrions and
poicicsrhararcnorcvidcnryin|uriousburvhichhavcrharcIIccr.!or
cxampc,Iamincscanrcmainunchcckcdonrhcmisrakcnprcsumprion
rhar rhcy cannor bc avcrrcd rhrough immcdiarc pubic poicy.
SrarvarioninIamincsrcsursprimariyIromascvcrcrcducrioninrhc
Iood-buying abiiry oI a sccrion oIrhc popuarion rhar has bccomc
dcsrirurcrhrough uncmpoymcnr, diminishcdmarkcrs, disruprion oI
agricurura acrivirics, or orhcr cconomic caamirics. 1hc cconomic
vicrims arc Iorccd inro srarvarion vhcrhcr or nor rhcrc is aso a
diminurion oI rhc rora suppy oI Iood. 1hc uncgua dcprivarion oI
THE REACH OF REAS ON
suchpcopccanbcimmcdiarcycounrercd byprovidingcmpoymcnr
arrcarivcyovvagcs rhroughcmcrgcncypubicprogrammcs,vhich
can hcp rhcm ro sharc rhc nariona Iood suppy virh orhcrs in rhc
communiry.
!aminc, ikc rhc dcvi, rakcs rhc hindmosr rarcymorc rhan 5 pcr
ccnr oI rhc popuarion is aIIccrcd - amosr ncvcr morc rhan ro pcr
ccnrj , and rcducing rhc rcarivc dcprivarion oI dcsrirurc pcopc by
augmcnring rhcirincomcs canrapidy and dramaricayrcduccrhcir
absourc dcprivarion in rhc amounr oI Iood obraincd by rhcm. y
cncouragingcriricapubic discussion oIrhcsc issucs, dcmocracy and
a Ircc prcss can bc cxrrcmcy imporranr in prcvcnring Iaminc.
rhcrvisc,unrcasoncdpcssimism,masgucradingascomposurcbascd
on rcaism and common scnsc, can scrvc ro ' | usriIy` disasrrous
inacrionandanabdicarionoIpubicrcsponsibiiry. '
Simiary, cnvironmcnra dcrcriorarion Ircgucnry ariscs nor Irom
anydcsircro damagcrhc vord burIromrhoughrcssncss and ack oI
rcasoncd acrion - scpararc or | oinr - and rhis can cnd up producing
drcadIu rcsurs. '1o prcvcnr carasrrophcs causcd by human ncgi-
gcncc or obruscncss or caous obduracy, vcnccdpracricarcason as
vcassymparhyandcommirmcnr.
Arracksoncrhicsbascdonrcason havc comcrcccnryIromscvcra
diIIcrcnr dirccrions. Aparr Irom rhc caim rhar 'rhc Lnighrcnmcnr
vicv oI human psychoogy` ncgccrs many human rcsponscs as
Govcr argucsj , vc aso hcar rhc caim rhar ro rcy primariy on
rcasoning in rhc crhics oI human bchaviour invovcs a ncgccr oI
cururc-spccihc inIucnccs on vaucs and conducr. !copc`s rhoughrs
and idcnrirics arc Iairy comprchcnsivcy dcrcrmincd, according ro
rhiscaim,byrhcrradirionandcururcinvhichrhcyarcrcarcdrarhcr
rhan by anayrica rcasoning,vhichis somcrimcs sccn as a 'Vcsrcrn`
pracricc. Vc musr cxaminc vhcrhcr rhc rcach oI rcasoning is rcay
'I have tried to discuss the causes of famines and the policy requirements for famine
prevention in Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 198 1 ) and, jointly with Jean Dreze, in Hunger and
Public Action (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) . Famine prevention requires diverse
policies, among which income creation is immediately and crucially important (for
example, through emergency employment in public works programmes) ; but,
especially for the long term, they also include expansion of production in general and
food production in particular.
277
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
compromiscd cirhcr by rhc undoubrcdy povcrIu cIIccrs oI human
psychoogy, or by rhc pcrvasivc inIucncc oI curura divcrsiry. ur
hopcs Ior rhc Iururc and rhc vays and mcans oIiving in a dcccnr
vordmaygrcarydcpcndonhovvc asscssrhcsccriricisms.
|onarhanGovcr`s argumcnrsIorrhcnccdIora 'ncvhumanpsy-
choogy`rakcaccounroIrhcvaysrharpoiricsandpsychoogyaIIccr
cach orhcr. !copc can indccd bc cxpccrcd ro rcsisr poirica bar-
barismiIrhcyinsrincrivcyrcacragainsrarrocirics. Vchavcrobcabc
ro rcacrsponrancousyand rcsisr inhumaniry vhcncvcr ir occurs. !I
rhis is ro happcn, rhc individua and socia opporrunirics Ior dcvc-
opingandcxcrcisingmoraimaginarionhavcrobccxpandcd.Vc do
havcmorarcsourccs, incuding, as Govcrvrircs, ' our scnsc oIour
ovn mora idcnriry` . ur ro ' Iuncrion as a rcsrrainr againsr arrociry,
rhc scnsc oI mora idcnriry mosr oI a nccds ro bc roorcd in rhc
human rcsponscs` . 1vo rcsponscs, Govcr argucs, arc parricuary
imporranr. 'rhcrcndcncyro rcspond ro pcopcvirhccrrainkinds oI
rcspccr` and 'symparhy. caring abourrhc miscrics andrhchappincss
oIorhcrs` . IopcIorrhcIururcicsincurivaringsuchrcsponscs, and
rhis inc oIrcasoning cads Govcr ro concudc. '!r is ro psychoogy
rharwc shoudnovrurn. `
!ndccd, rhc imporrancc oIinsrincrivc psychoogy and symparhcric
rcsponscshoudbcadcguarcyrccognizcd, and Govcris aso righrin
bcicvingrhar our hopcIorrhcIururcmusr,ro a considcrabc cxrcnr,
dcpcndonrhcsymparhyandrcspccrvirhvhichvcrcspondrorhings
happcningro orhcrs.!orGovcr,irisrhcrcIorc criricay imporranrro
rcpacc 'rhc rhin, mcchanica psychoogy oIrhc Lnighrcnmcnr virh
somcrhing morc compcx,somcrhingcoscrrorcairy`.
Vhic appauding rhc consrrucrivc Icarurcs oI rhis approach, vc
musrasoaskvhcrhcrGovcrisbcingguircIairrorhcLnighrcnmcnr
cvcn virhour !o !or and assorrcd criminas bocking our visionj .
Govcr docs nor rcIcr ro Adam Smirh, burrhc aurhor oI The Theory
of Moral Sentiments voud, in Iacr, havc grcaryvccomcd Govcr`s
diagnosis oI rhc ccnrra imporrancc oI cmorions and psychoogica
rcsponsc. Vhic ir has bccomc Iashionabc in modcrn cconomics ro
arrriburcroSmirhavicvoIhumanbchaviourrharisdcvoidoIacon-
ccrnscxccprcoocacuarionoIanarrovy dchncdpcrsonainrcrcsr,
rhosc vho rcad his basicvorks knovrharrhisvasnorhisposirion.8
THE REACH OF REAS ON
!ndccd, many issucs inhuman psychoogy rhar Govcr discusscs as
parr oIrhc dcmands oI 'humaniry` j vcrc discusscdby Smirh asvc.
ur Smirh - no css rhan idcror or Condorccr or Kanr - vas vcry
much an 'Lnighrcnmcnr aurhor` , vhosc argumcnrs and anayscs
dccpyinHucnccdrhcrhinkingoIhisconrcmporarics.'
Smirh may nor havc gonc as Iar as anorhcr cadcr oI rhc
Lnighrcnmcnr, avidIumc,inasscrringrhar'rcasonandscnrimcnr
concur in amosr a mora dcrcrminarions and concusions` , bur
borh sav rcasoning and Iccing as dccpy inrcrrcarcd acrivirics. !n
Iacr, Iumc ro vhom Govcr aso docs nor rcIcrj is oIrcn sccn as
having prcciscy rhc opposirc bias by giving prcccdcncc ro passion
ovcrrcason. !ndccd, as 1homasagcpursir inhissrrongy argucd
dcIcncc oIrcason,
Hume famously believed that because a 'passion' immune to rational assess
ment must underlie every motive, there can be no such thing as specifcally
practical reason, nor specifcally moral reason either. n
1hc crucia issuc is nor vhcrhcr scnrimcnrs and arrirudcs arc sccn
as imporranr rhcy vcrc ccary sorccognizcd by mosr oIrhc vrircrs
vhomvcrcndrorhink oIasparroIrhcLnighrcnmcnrj , burvhcrhcr
- and ro vhar cxrcnr - rhcsc scnrimcnrs and arrirudcs can bc inHu-
cnccd and curivarcd rhrough rcasoning.
12
Adam Smirh argucdrhar
our'hrsrpcrccprions`oIrighrandvrong'cannorbcrhcob| ccroIrca-
son, bur oIimmcdiarc scnsc and Iccing` . ur cvcn rhcsc insrincrivc
rcacrionsroparricuarconducr musr, hcargucd,rcy- iIonyimpic-
iry - on our rcasoncdundcrsranding oI causa connccrions bcrvccn
conducr and conscgucnccs in 'a vasr varicry oI insranccs` . !urrhcr-
morc, our hrsr pcrccprions may aso changc in rcsponsc ro cririca
cxaminarion, Ior cxampconrhc basis oIcmpiricainvcsrigarionrhar
may shov rhar a ccrrain ' ob| ccr is rhc mcans oI obraining somc
orhcr`.
1vo piars oILnighrcnmcnr rhinking arc somcrimcs vrongy
mcrgcd and | oinry criricizcd. rhc povcr oIrcasoning, and rhc pcr-
Iccribiiry oIhuman narurc. 1hough coscyinkcd in rhc vrirings oI
many Lnighrcnmcnr aurhors, rhcy arc, in Iacr, guircdisrincr caims,
andundcrminingoncdocsnor discsrabishrhc orhcr. !or cxampc, ir
mighr bc argucd rhar pcrIccribiiry is possibc, bur nor primariy
279
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhroughrcasoning.r, arcrnarivcy,ircanbcrhccascrharinsoIaras
anyrhing vorks, rcasoning docs, and ycr rhcrc may bc no hopc oI
gcrringanyvhcrcncarvharpcrIccribiirydcmands.Govcr,vhogivcs
a richy characrcrizcd accounr oIhuman narurc, docs nor arguc Ior
humanpcrIccribiiry, burhis ovnconsrrucrivchopcsccarydravon
rcasoning as an inIucncc on psychoogy rhrough 'rhc socia and
pcrsonacurivarion oIrhcmora imaginarion` . Govcr has morc in
common virh ar casr somc parrs oIrhc Lnighrcnmcnr ircrarurc -
Adam Smirhinparricuar- rhan voud bc gucsscdIrom his sringing
criricisms oIrhcLnighrcnmcnr.
Cultural Contentions
Vhar oIrhc sccpricavicvrhar rhc scopc oIrcasoning isimircdby
cururadiIIcrcnccs! 1vo parricuar diIIicurics - rcarcdburscpararc
- havcbccncmphasizcdrcccnry.1hcrcis,hrsr,rhcvicvrharrciancc
on rcasoning and rarionairy is a parricuary 'Vcsrcrn` vay oI
approaching socia issucs. Ncmbcrs oInon-Vcsrcrnciviizarions do
nor,rhcargumcnrruns,sharcsomcoIrhcvaucs,incudingibcrryor
rocrancc,rhararcccnrraroVcsrcrnsocicryandarcrhcIoundarions
oI idcas oI | usricc as dcvcopcd by Vcsrcrn phiosophcrs Irom
!mmanuc Kanr ro |ohn Kavs. 1har ccnrrairy is nor in dispurc,
indccd rhc ong-avaircd pubicarion oI Kavs`s coccrcd papcrs
aovsusroscc,inavondcrIuyinrcgrarcdvay,| usrhovsignihcanr
andpivora'rhcprincipcsoIrocrarionandibcrryoIconscicncc` arc
in rhc crhica and poirica anayscs oIrhc Iorcmosr mora phioso-
phcr oIour ovn rimc. ' Sincc ir has bccn caimcd rhar many non-
Vcsrcrn socicrics havc vaucs rharpacc irrccmphasis onibcrry or
rocrancc rhc rcccnry championcd ' Asian vaucs` havc bccn so
dcscribcd) , rhis issuchasrobcaddrcsscd. Vaucs suchasrocrancc,
ibcrryandrcciprocarcspccrhavcbccndcscribcdas'cururc-spccihc`
and basicay conIincd ro Vcsrcrn civiizarion. ! sha ca rhis rhc
caimoI'cururaboundary` .
*John Rawls, Collected Papers, ed. Samuel Freeman (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard
University Press, r 9 9 9) .
280
THE REACH OF REAS ON
1hcscconddiIIicuryconccrnsrhcpossibiiryrharpcopcrcarcdin
diIIcrcnr cururcs maysysrcmaricayackbasicsymparhyandrcspccr
Ior onc anorhcr. 1hcy may nor cvcn bc abc ro undcrsrand onc
anorhcr, andcoudnorpossibyrcasonrogcrhcr. 1hiscoud bccacd
rhc caim oI 'curura disharmony`. Sinccarrocirics andgcnocidc arc
rypicay imposcd by mcmbcrs oI onc communiry on mcmbcrs oI
anorhcr, rhc signihcancc oI undcrsranding among communirics can
hardybcovcrsrarcd.AndycrsuchundcrsrandingmighrbcdiIIicurro
achicvc iIcururcs arcIundamcnraydiIIcrcnrIromonc anorhcrand
arc pronc ro conHicr. Can Scrbs and Abanians ovcrcomc rhcir 'cu-
ruraanimosirics` ! CanIurusand1ursis,orIindusandNusims,or
!sraci|cvs and Arabs! Lvcnro askrhcscpcssimisric gucsrions may
appcar ro bc sccprica oI rhc narurc oI humaniry and rhc rcach oI
humanundcrsranding,burvccannorignorcsuchdoubrs,sinccrcccnr
vrirings on curura spccihciry vhcrhcr in rhc scI-procaimcd 'rca-
ism` oIrhc popuar prcss or in rhc acadcmiccriricismoIthcIoyoI
'univcrsaism` j havcgivcnrhcmsuchscrioussranding.
1hc issuc oI curura disharmony is vcry much aivc in many
cururaandpoirica invcsrigarions,vhichoIrcnsoundas iIrhcyarc
rcporrsIrombarrcIronrs,vrirrcn byvarcorrcspondcnrsvirhdivcr-
gcnroyarics.vchcaroIrhc 'cash oIciviizarions` , rhcnccdro 'hghr`
Vcsrcrncururaimpcriaism,rhcirrcsisribcvicroryoI'Asianvaucs`,
rhc chacngc roVcsrcrn civiizarionposcdbyrhcmiirancy oIorhcr
cururcs, and so on. 1hc goba conIronrarions havc rhcir rcHccrions
virhin rhc nariona Ironricrs as vc, sincc mosr socicrics nov havc
divcrsc cururcs, vhich can appcar ro somc ro bc vcry rhrcarcning.
'1hcprcscrvarion oIrhc\nircdSrarcs andrhcVcsrrcguircs` , Samuc
Iunringron argucs, 'rhcrcncvaoIVcsrcrnidcnriry.
Walls in Theory
1hcsub| ccroI'rhcrcachoIrcason`isrcarcdroanorhcrrhcmc,vhich
has bccn imporranr in rhc anrhropoogica ircrarurc. ! rcIcr ro vhar
CiIIord Gccrrz has cacd ' cururcvar`,vciusrrarcdbyrhc much-
discusscd diIIcrcnccs ovcr rhc inrcrprcrarion oI Caprain Cook`s sad
dcarh in 1779 ar rhc hands oI cub-vicding and kniIc-brandishing
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Iavaiians.IS !n his arricc, Gccrrz conrrasrs rhc rhcorics oI rvo
cading anrhropoogisrs. Narsha Sahins, hc vrircs, is 'a rhorough-
goingadvocarc oIrhcvicvrharrhcrc arcdisrincrcururcs, cachvirh
a rora curura sysrcm oIhuman acrion", andrhcyarcro bcundcr-
srood aong srrucruraisrincs` . 1hc orhcr anrhropoogisr, Gananarh
bcycsckcrc, is 'a rhoroughgoing advocarc oIrhc vicv rharpcopc`s
acrions and bcicIs havc parricuar, pracrica Iuncrions in rhcir ivcs
and rhar rhosc Iuncrions and bcicIs shoud bc undcrsrood aong
psychoogicaincs` .
Vharcvcr vicv vc Iind pcrsuasivc, hovcvcr, rhc gucsrion sri
shoudbcaskcdvhcrhcrrhcpcopcinvovcdmusrrcmainincscapaby
conIincd ro rhcir rradiriona modcs oI rhoughr and bchaviour as
curura dcrcrminisrs argucj . cirhcr Sahins`s nor bcycsckcrc`s
approach rucs our communicarion bcrvccn cururcs, cvcn rhough
rhismaybcamorcarduousraskiIvcIoovSahins`sinrcrprcrarion.
ur vc havc ro ask vhar kind oI rcasoning rhc mcmbcrs oI cach
cururc can usc ro arrivc ar bcrrcr undcrsranding and pcrhaps cvcn
symparhy and rcspccr. !ndccd, rhis is onc oI rhc gucsrions Govcr
poscsvhcn hcadvocarcsmoraimaginarionas a sourionro rhc bru-
rairy and rurhcssncss virhvhich groups rrcar onc anorhcr. Nora
imaginarion, hc hopcs, can bc curivarcd rhrough murua rcspccr,
rocranccandsymparhy.
1hc ccnrra issuc hcrc is nor hov dissimiar disrincr socicrics may
bcIrom onc anorhcr, burvharabiiryand opporruniry rhc mcmbcrs
oIonc socicry havc - orcan dcvcop - ro apprcciarc and undcrsrand
hov orhcrs Iuncrion. 1his may nor, oIcoursc, bc an immcdiarc vay
oI rcsoving such conHicrs. 1hc kicrs oI Caprain Cook coud nor
insranry rcvisc rhcir cururc-bound vicv oI him, nor coud Cook
acguirc ar oncc rhc comprchcnsion or acumcn nccdcd ro hod his
pisrorarhcrrhanhrcir.Karhcr,rhchopcisrharrhcrcasoncdcuriva-
rion oI undcrsranding and knovcdgc voud cvcnruay ovcrcomc
suchimpusivc acrion.
1hcgucsrionrharhasrobcIaccdhcrcisvhcrhcrsuchcxcrciscs oI
rcasoningmayrcguircvaucsrhararcnor avaiabcinsomccururcs.
1hisisvhcrcrhc 'curura boundary` bccomcs a ccnrra issuc. 1hcrc
havc, Ior cxampc, bccn Ircgucnr dccararions rhar non-Vcsrcrn
civiizarions rypicay ack a rradirion oI anayrica and sccprica
THE REACH OF REAS ON
rcasoning, and arc rhus disranr Irom vhar is somcrimcs cacd
'Vcsrcrn rarionairy` . Simiar commcnrs havc bccn madc abour
'Vcsrcrnibcraism`,'VcsrcrnidcasoIrighrand| usricc`andgcncray
abour 'Vcsrcrn vaucs` . !ndccd, rhcrc arc many supporrcrs oI rhc
caim arricuarcd by Gcrrrudc IimmcIarb virh admirabc cxpicir-
ncssj rharidcasoI'| usricc`, 'righr`, 'rcason`and'ovcoIhumaniry`arc
'prcdominanry, pcrhapscvcnunigucy, Vcsrcrnvaucs`.
l6
1hisandsimiar bcicIshgurcimpiciryinmanydiscussions,cvcn
vhcnrhc cxponcnrs shy avay Irom sraringrhcmvirh suchcariry. !I
rhcrcasoning and vaucs rhar can hcp inrhc curivarion oIimagina-
rion, rcspccr and symparhy nccdcd Ior bcrrcr undcrsranding and
apprcciarion oI orhcr pcopc and orhcr socicrics arc Iundamcnray
'Vcsrcrn`,rhcnrhcrcvoud indccdbc ground cnough Iorpcssimism.
urarcrhcy!
!ris,inIacr,vcrydiIIicurroinvcsrigarcsuchgucsrionsvirhourscc-
ingrhcdominanccoIconrcmporaryVcsrcrncururcovcrourpcrccp-
rions andrcadings. 1hcIorccoIrhardominanccisvciusrrarcdby
rhcrcccnrmicnniaIcccbrarions. 1hccnrirc gobc vasrranshxcdby
rhccnd oIrhcGrcgorianmicnniumas iIrharvcrcrhc onyaurhcn-
riccacndarinrhcvord, cvcnrhoughrhcrcarcmanyHourishingca-
cndars in rhc non-Vcsrcrn vord in China, !ndia, !ran, Lgypr and
cscvhcrcj rhar arc considcraby odcrrhanrhc Grcgoriancacndar. '`
!r is, oI coursc, cxrrcmcy uscIu Ior rhc rcchnica, commcrcia and
cvcncururainrcrrcarionsinrhcvordrharvccansharcacommon
cacndar. uriIrharvisibcdominanccrcIccrsaracirassumprionrhar
rhc Grcgorian is rhc ony 'inrcrnarionay usabc` cacndar, rhcn rhar
dominancc bccomcs rhc sourcc oI a signiIicanr misundcrsranding,
sincc scvcra oIrhc orhcrcacndars coud bc uscdin much rhc samc
vayiIrhcyvcrc| oinry adoprcdinrhcvayrhcGrcgorianhasbccn.
VcsrcrndominancchassimiarcIIccrsasoonrhcundcrsrandingoI
orhcraspccrsoInon-Vcsrcrnciviizarions. Considcr,Iorcxampc,rhc
idca oI 'individua ibcrry`, vhich is oIrcn sccnas an inrcgraparroI
'Vcsrcrn ibcraism` . Nodcrn Luropc and Amcrica, incuding rhc
Luropcan Lnighrcnmcnr, havc ccrrainy had a dccisivc parr in rhc
*The different Indian calendars are discussed (both on their own and as ways of
interpreting India's history and traditions) in my essay 'India through Its Calendars',
Little Magazine, I (May 2ooo) , Essay 15 below.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cvourion oIrhc conccpr oIibcrry and rhc manyIorms ir has rakcn.
1hcscidcashavcdisscminarcdIromonccounrryroanorhcrvirhinrhc
Vcsrandasorocounrricscscvhcrc,invaysrhararcsomcvharsim-
iar ro rhc sprcad oIindusrria organizarion and modcrn rcchnoogy.
1o scc ibcrrarian idcas as 'Vcsrcrn` in rhis imircd and proximarc
scnsc docs nor, oI coursc, rhrcarcn rhcir bcing adoprcd in orhcr
rcgions.!orcxampc,rorccognizcrharrhcIormoI!ndiandcmocracy
isbascdonrhcririshmodcdocsnorundcrmincirinanyvay.!ncon-
rrasr, ro rakc rhc vicv rhar rhcrc is somcrhing guinrcsscnriay
'Vcsrcrn` abour rhcsc idcas and vaucs, rcarcd spcciIicay ro rhc
hisroryoILuropc,canhavcadampcningcIIccronrhcirusccscvhcrc.
urisrhchisroricacaimcorrccr! !sirindccdrruc as caimcd,Ior
cxampc, by Samuc Iunringronj rhar 'rhc Vcsr vas rhc Vcsr ong
bcIorcirvasmodcrn` !''1hccvidcnccIorsuchcaimsisIarIromccar.
Vhcn civiizarions arc carcgorizcd roday, individua ibcrry is oIrcn
uscd asacassihcarorydcviccandis sccn asa parr oIrhc ancicnrhcr-
iragc oIrhcVcsrcrnvord, norrobcIoundcscvhcrc.!r is, oIcoursc,
casyrohndrhcadvocacyoIparricuaraspccrs oIindividuaibcrryin
Vcsrcrn cassicavrirings. !orcxampc,Irccdomandrocranccborh
gcr supporr Irom Arisrorc cvcn rhough ony Ior Ircc mcn - nor
vomcn and savcsj . Iovcvcr, vc can hnd championing oIrocrancc
and Irccdominnon-Vcsrcrn aurhors asvc. A good cxampc is rhc
cmpcror Ashoka in!ndia, vho duringrhc rhird ccnrury BCE covcrcd
rhc counrryvirhinscriprions on sronc rabcrs abour good bchaviour
andviscgovcrnancc,incudingadcmandIorbasicIrccdomsIora -
indccd,hcdidnor cxcudcvomcnandsavcs asArisrorc did, hccvcn
insisrcd rhar rhcsc righrs musr bc cn|oycd aso by 'rhc Iorcsr pcopc`
iving in prc-agricurura communirics disranr Irom !ndian cirics.
lb
Ashoka`schampioningoIrocranccandIrccdommaynorbcaravc
knovn in rhc conrcmporary vord, bur rhar is nor dissimiar ro rhc
goba unIamiiariryvirhcacndars orhcrrhanrhc Grcgorian.
1hcrc arc, ro bc surc, orhcr !ndian cassica aurhors vho cmpha-
sizcddiscipincandordcrrarhcrrhanrocranccandibcrry,Iorcxam-
pc Kauiya in rhc Iourrh ccnrury BCE in his book Arthasistra -
rransarabc as 'Lconomics` j . ur Vcsrcrn cassica vrircrs such as
!aro andSrAugusrinc aso gavc prioriryrosociadiscipinc. !nvicv
oIrhcdivcrsiryvirhincachcounrry, irmaybcscnsibc,vhcnircomcs
THE REACH OF REAS ON
roibcrryandrocrancc,rocassiIyArisrorcandAshokaononcsidc,
and, onrhc orhcr, !aro,Augusrinc andKauiya.Suchcassihcarions
bascdonrhcsubsranccoIidcasarc,oIcoursc,radicaydiIIcrcnrIrom
rhoscbascdoncururc orrcgion.
Lvcn vhcn bcicIs and arrirudcs rhar arc sccn as 'Vcsrcrn` arc
argcyarcHccrionoIprcscnr-daycircumsranccsinLuropcandorrh
Amcrica,rhcrcisarcndcncy - oIrcnimpicir - roinrcrprcrrhcmasagc-
odIcarurcsoIrhc'Vcsrcrnrradirion`oroI'Vcsrcrnciviizarion` . nc
conscgucncc oIVcsrcrn dominancc oIrhc vord roday is rhar orhcr
cururcs and rradirions arc oIrcn idcnrihcd and dchncd byrhcir con-
rrasrs virhconrcmporaryVcsrcrncururc.
iIIcrcnr cururcs arcrhus inrcrprcrcd invays rhar rcinIorcc rhc
poirica convicrion rharVcsrcrn civiizarion is somchovrhc main,
pcrhaps rhc ony, sourcc oIrarionaisric and ibcra idcas - among
rhcmanayricascruriny, opcn dcbarc,poiricarocranccandagrcc-
mcnrrodiIIcr. 1hcVcsrissccn,incIIccr,ashavingcxcusivcacccss
rorhcvaucsrharicarrhcIoundarionoIrarionairyandrcasoning,
scicncc andcvidcncc, ibcrryandrocrancc,andoIcourscrighrsand
| usricc.
ncccsrabishcd,rhisvicvoIrhcVcsr,sccninconIronrarionvirh
rhc rcsr, rcnds ro vindicarc irscI. Sincc cach civiizarion conrains
divcrscccmcnrs,anon-Vcsrcrnciviizarioncanrhcnbccharacrcrizcd
byrcIcrringro rhoscrcndcncicsrhararc mosrdisranrIromrhcidcnri-
hcd 'Vcsrcrn` rradirions andvaucs. 1hcsc scccrcd ccmcnrs arcrhcn
rakcnrobcmorc 'aurhcnric` ormorc 'gcnuincy indigcnous` rhanrhc
ccmcnrs rhar arc rcarivcy simiar ro vhar can bc Iound aso in
rhcVcsr.
!orcxampc,!ndianrcigiousircrarurcsuchasrhcBhagavad Gtta
orrhc1anrricrcxrs,vhicharcidcnrihcdas diIIcringIromsccuarvrir-
ingssccnas'Vcsrcrn`,cicirs muchgrcarcr inrcrcsrinrhcVcsrrhando
orhcr !ndian vriring, incuding !ndia`s ong hisrory oI hcrcrodoxy.
Sanskrir and !aihavc a argcr arhcisric and agnosric ircrarurc rhan
cxisrs in any orhcr cassica rradirion. 1hcrc is a simiar ncgccr oI
!ndian vriring on non-rcigious sub|ccrs, Irom marhcmarics, cpisrc-
moogyandnarurascicnccrocconomicsandinguisrics. 1hccxccp-
rion, ! supposc, is rhc Kmasutra, in vhich Vcsrcrn rcadcrs havc
managcd ro curivarc an inrcrcsr. j 1hrough scccrivc cmphascs rhar
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
poinrupdiIIcrcnccsvirhrhcVcsr,orhcrciviizarionscan,inrhisvay,
bcrcdchncdinaicnrcrms,vhichcan bc cxoricand charming, orcsc
bizarrcandrcrriIying, orsimpysrrangcandcngaging.Vhcnidcnriry
is rhus ' dcIincd by conrrasr` , divcrgcncc virh rhc Vcsr bccomcs
ccnrra.
1akc,Iorcxampc,rhccascoI'Asianvaucs`,oIrcnconrrasrcdvirh
'Vcsrcrnvaucs` . Sincc manydiIIcrcnrvauc sysrcms andmanydiIIcr-
cnr srycs oI rcasoning havc Iourishcd in Asia, ir is possibc ro
characrcrizc 'Asianvaucs` in many diIIcrcnr vays, cach virh pcnri-
Iu cirarions.yscccrivccirarionsoIConIucius, andbyscccrivcncg-
ccr oI many orhcr Asian aurhors, rhc vicv rhar Asian vaucs
cmphasizcdiscipincandordcr - rarhcrrhanibcrryandauronomy, as
inrhcVcsr - has bccngivcnapparcnrpausibiiry. 1hisconrrasr,as!
havc discusscd cscvhcrc, is hard ro susrain vhcn onc acruay
comparcsrhcrcspccrivcircrarurcs.
1hcrc is an inrcrcsring diaccric hcrc. y conccnrraring on rhc
aurhorirarian parrs oI Asia`s murirudc oI rradirions, many Vcsrcrn
vrircrshavcbccnabcroconsrrucrasccmingyncarpicrurcoIanAsian
conrrasrvirh'Vcsrcrnibcraism` .!nrcsponsc,rarhcrrhandispurcrhc
Vcsr`suniguc caimroibcravaucs,somcAsianshavcrcspondcdvirh
apridc indisrancc. 'Ycs,vcarcvcrydiIIcrcnr - anda good rhingrool `
1hc pracricc oI conIcrring idcnriry byconrrasr has rhus Hourishcd,
drivcnborhbyVcsrcrnarrcmprsrocsrabishirscxcusivcncssandaso
by rhcAsiancounrcr-arrcmpr ro csrabishirs ovnconrrary cxcusivc-
ncss. Shoving hov orhcr parrs oIrhc vord dincrIrom rhcVcsrcan
bcvcrycIIccrivcandcanshorcuparrihciadisrincrions.Vc maybccIr
vondcringvhyGauramauddha,or!aoziorAshoka - or Gandhi or
SunYar-scn - vas nor rcay anAsian.
Simiary,undcrrhisidcnrirybyconrrasr,rhcVcsrcrndcrracrorsoI
!samasvc asrhc ncvchampions oI!samichcriragc havcirrcro
say abour !sam`s rradirion oIrocrancc, vhich has bccn ar casr as
imporranrhisroricayasirsrccordoIinrocrancc.Vc arccIrvondcr-
ing vhar coud havc cd Naimonidcs, as hc Icd rhc pcrsccurion oI
|cvs in Spain in rhc rvcIrh ccnrury, ro scck shcrcr in Lmpcror
Saadin`sLgypr.AndvhydidNaimonidcs,inIacr,gcrsupporrasvc
as an honourcd posirion ar rhc courr oI rhc Nusim cmpcror vho
IoughrvaianryIor !sam inrhc Crusadcs !
286
THE REACH OF REAS ON
cspircrcccnrourbursrsoIinrocranccinAIrica,vccanrccarhar
in I 5 26, inancxchangc oIdiscourrcsics bcrvccnrhc kings oICongo
and!orruga,irvasrhcIormcrnorrhcarrcr, vhoargucdrharsavcry
vas inrocrabc. Kingzinga Nbcmbavrorc ro rhc !orrugucsc king
rharrhcsavcrradcmusrsrop,' bccauscirisourvirharinrhcscking-
domsoIKongorhcrcshoudnorbcanyrradcinsavcsnoranymarkcr
Ior savcs` .
lC
I coursc, ir is nor bcing caimcd hcrc rhar a rhc diIIcrcnr idcas
rccvanr ro rhc usc oI rcasoning Ior socia harmony and humaniry
havc Iourishcd cguay in a civiizarions oIrhc vord. 1harvoud
noronybcunrruc,irvoudasobcasrupidcaimoImcchanicauni-
Iormiry. ur oncc vcrccognizcrharmany idcas rhararcrakcnro bc
guinrcsscnriayVcsrcrnhavcasoHourishcdinorhcrciviizarions,vc
aso scc rhar rhcsc idcas arc nor as cururc-spccihc as is somcrimcs
caimcd. Vcnccd nor bcginvirh pcssimism, ar casr onrhis ground,
abourrhcprospccrsoIrcasoncdhumanisminrhcvord.
Tolerance and Reason
!r isvorrhrccaingrharinAkbar`spronounccmcnrs oIIourhundrcd
ycars agoonrhcnccdIorrcigiousncurrairyonrhcparroIrhc srarc,
vc can idcnriIy rhc Ioundarions oI a non-dcnominariona, sccuar
srarcvhichvas ycr ro bc bornin !ndia or Iorrharmarrcr anyvhcrc
csc. 1hus, Akbar`s rcasoncd concusions, codihcd during I 59I and
I 59 2, had univcrsaimpicarions. Luropc had | usrasmuchrcasonro
isrcnrorharmcssagc as!ndiahad.1hc!nguisirionvassriin Iorcc,
and | usr vhcn Akbar vas vriring on rcigious rocrancc in Agra in
I 592, Giordano runo vas arrcsrcd Ior hcrcsy, and urimarcy, in
I 6oo, burnrarrhcsrakcinrhc Campo dci!ioriinKomc.
!or!ndiainparricuar, rhcrradirionoIsccuarismcanbcrraccdro
rhc rrcnd oIrocranr and puraisr rhinking rhar had bcgun ro rakc
roorvcbcIorcAkbar,Iorcxampc,inrhcvriringsoIAmirKhusrau
in rhc Iourrccnrh ccnrury as vc as in rhc non-sccrariandcvoriona
pocrryoIKabir,anak,Chairanyaandorhcrs.urrharrradiriongor
irs Iirmcsr oIIicia backing Irom Lmpcror Akbar himscI. Ic aso
pracriscd as hc prcachcd - aboishingdiscriminaroryraxcs imposcd
f'
i i
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
caricronnon-Nusims,inviringmanyIinduinrcccruasandarrisrs
inro his courr incuding rhc grcarmusician 1anscnj , and cvcnrrusr-
inga Iindu gcncra, NanSingh, ro commandhis armcdIorccs.
!n somc vays, AkbarvasprcciscycodiIyingandconsoidaringrhc
nccd Ior rcigious ncurrairy oIrhc srarcrhar had bccn cnunciarcd, in
a gcncra Iorm, ncary rvo micnnia bcIorc him by rhc !ndian
cmpcrorAshoka,vhoscidcas!havcrcIcrrcdrocaricr.VhicAshoka
rucdaongrimcago,inrhccascoIAkbarrhcrcisaconrinuiryoIcga
schoarship and pubic mcmory inking his idcas and codihcarions
virhprcscnr-day!ndia.
!ndiansccuarism,vhichvassrrongychampioncdinrhcrvcnricrh
ccnrury by Gandhi, chru, 1agorc and orhcrs, is oIrcn rakcn ro bc
somcrhingoIarcHccrionoIVcsrcrnidcas dcspircrhcIacrrharrirain
is a somcvhar unikcychoicc as a spcarhcad oIsccuarismj . !n con-
rrasr, rhcrc arc good rcasons ro ink rhis aspccr oI modcrn !ndia,
incuding irs consriruriona sccuarism and | udiciay guaranrccd
muricururaism in conrrasrvirh, say, rhcprivicgcd srarus oI!sam
in rhc consrirurion oI rhc !samic Kcpubic oI !akisranj , ro caricr
!ndianvrirings andparricuaryrorhcidcas oIrhisNusimcmpcror
oIIourhundrcdycars ago.
!crhapsrhcmosrimporranr poinr rhar Akbar madc in his dcIcncc
oIarocranrmuricururaismconccrnsrhc roc oIrcasoning. Kcason
hadro bc suprcmc, sincccvcnindispuringrhcvaidiry oIrcasonvc
havcrogivcrcasons.ArrackcdbyrradirionaisrsvhoargucdinIavour
oIinsrincrivcIairhinrhc!samicrradirion,AkbarrodhisIricnd and
rrusrcdicurcnanrAbu!az a Iormidabc schoarin Sanskrirasvc
asArabicand!crsianj .
The pursuit of reason and rejection of traditionalism are so brilliantly patent
as to be above the need of argument. If traditionalism were proper, the
prophets would merely have followed their own elders (and not come with
new messages) .
z1
Convinccdrharhchadrorakcascriousinrcrcsrinrhcrcigionsand
cururcs oInon-Nusims in!ndia,AkbararrangcdIordiscussions ro
rakcpaccinvovingnoronymainsrrcamIinduandNusimphioso-
phcrs Shia andSunniasvcas Suhj , bur aso invoving Chrisrians,
|cvs,!arsccs,|ainsand,accordingroAbu!az,cvcnrhcIoovcrsoI
THE REACH OF REAS ON
Carvaka - onc oI rhc !ndian schoos oI arhcisric rhinking rhc roors
oIvhich can bcrraccd ro around rhc sixrhccnrury BCE. 22 !nsrcad oI
takinganaI-or-norhingvicvoIaIairh,Ashokaikcdrorcasonabour
parricuar componcnrs oI cach muriIaccrcd rcigion. !or cxampc,
arguingvirh|ains,AkbarvoudrcmainsccpricaoIrhcirriruas, and
ycrbccomcconvinccdbyrhcirargumcnrIorvcgcrarianismandcndup
dcporingrhccaring oIaHcsh.
A rhis causcd irrirarion among rhosc vho prcIcrrcd ro basc
rcigious bcicI on Iairh rarhcr rhan rcasoning. 1hcrc vcrc scvcra
rcvors againsrAkbar by orrhodoxNusims, on onc occasion| oincd
byhiscdcsrson,!rinccSaim,virhvhomhcarcrrcconcicd. urhc
sruckrovharhccacd'rhcparhoIrcason` ( rahi aql) , andinsisrcdon
rhcnccdIoropcndiaogucandIrcc choicc.Ar oncsragc,Akbarcvcn
rricd, norvcrysucccssIuy,roaunch a ncv rcigion, in-iahi God`s
rcigionj, combiningvhar hc rook ro bcrhc goodguairics oIdiIIcr-
cnr Iairhs. Vhcnhc dicdin t6o 5, rhc!samic rhcoogian Abdu Iaq
concudcd virh somc sarisIacrion rhar, dcspirc his ' innovarions` ,
AkbarhadrcmaincdagoodNusim.
"
1hisvasindccdso, burAkbar
voud havc aso addcd rhar his rcigious bcicIs camc Irom his ovn
rcasonandchoicc,norIrom'bindIairh`,orIrom 'rhcmarshyandoI
rradirion` .
Akbar`s idcas rcmain rccvanr - and nor | usrinrhc subconrincnr.
1hcy havc a bcaring on many currcnr dcbarcs in rhc Vcsr as vc.
1hcysuggcsrrhcnccdIorscrurinyoIrhcIcaroImuricururaismIor
cxampc, oI Iunringron`s argumcnr rhar 'muricururaism ar homc
rhrcarcnsrhc\nircdSarcs and rhcVcsr` j . Simiary, in dcaingvirh
conrrovcrsicsinunivcrsiricsinrhc\nircdSrarcs abourconhningcorc
rcadingsrorhc'grcarbooks`oIrhcVcsrcrnvord,Akbar`sincoIrca-
soningvoudsuggcsrrharrhccruciavcakncssoIrhisproposaisnor
so much rhar srudcnrs Irom orhcr backgrounds say, AIrican-
AmcricanorChincscjshoudnorhavcrorcadVcsrcrncassics,asrhar
conhning onc`s rcading ony ro rhc books oI onc civiizarion rcduccs
onc`sIrccdomrocarnabourand chooscidcasIromdiIIcrcnrcururcs
inrhcvord.24 Andrhccounrcr-dcmandrharrhcgrcarVcsrcrnbooks
bcbanishcdIromrhcrcadingisrIorsrudcnrsIromorhcrbackgrounds
voudasobcIaury,sinccrharroovoudrcduccrhcIrccdomrocarn,
rcason andchoosc.
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hcrc arc impicarions aso Ior rhc ' communirarian` posirion,
vhichargucsrharonc`sidcnriryisamarrcr oI'discovcry`,norchoicc.
AsNichacSandcprcscnrsrhisconccprionoIcommuniry oncoIscv-
cra arcrnarivc conccprions hc ourincsj . ' Communiry dcscribcs nor
| usrvhar rhcy have as Icov cirizcns bur aso vhar rhcy are, nor a
rcarionshiprhcychoosc asina vounrary associarionj buranarrach-
mcnrrhcydiscovcr, normcrcy anarrriburc bur aconsrirucnr oIrhcir
idcnriry. `'1hisvicv - rhara pcrson`s idcnriryis somcrhinghc or shc
dcrccrs rarhcr rhan dcrcrmincs - voud havc bccn rcsisrcd byAkbar
onrhcgroundrharvcdohavcachoiccabourourbcicIs,associarions
and arrirudcs, and musr rakc rcsponsibiiry Ior vhar vc acruay
choosc iIonyimpiciryj .
1hcnorionrharvc 'discovcr` ouridcnriryisnoronycpisrcmoog-
icayimiring vcccrrainycanrryrohnd ourvhar choiccs - possi-
by cxrcnsivc - vc acruay havcj , bur ir may aso havc disasrrous
impicarionsIorhovvc acrandbchavc vciusrrarcdby|onarhan
Govcr`s accounr oI rhc roc oI ungucsrioning oyary and bcicI in
prccipiraringarrociricsandhorrorsj . NanyoIussrihavcvividmcm-
orics oIvharhappcncdinrhc prc-parririon riors in!ndia| usrprcccd-
ingindcpcndcnccin r 94 7, vhcnrhcbroadyrocranrsubconrincnras
oI|anuaryrapidyandungucsrioningybccamcrhcrurhcssIindusor
rhchcrcc Nusims oI|unc. '1hccarnagcrharIoovcdhadmuchro
dovirhrhc acgcd 'discovcry`oIonc`s 'rruc`idcnriry, unhampcrcdby
rcasoncdhumaniry.
Akbar`s anayscs oI socia probcms iusrrarc rhc povcr oI opcn
rcasoning and choicc cvcn in a ccary prc-modcrn socicry. Shirin
Noosvi`s vondcrIuy inIormarivc book Episodes in the Life of
Akbar: Contemporary Records and Reminiscences givcs inrcrcsring
accounrs oI hov Akbar arrivcd ar socia dccisions - many oIrhcm
dchanroIrradirion - rhroughrhcuscoIrcasoning. '
Akbarvas, Ior cxampc, opposcdro chid marriagc, rhcn a guirc
convcnrionacusrom. Ic argucdrhar 'rhc ob| ccrrhar is inrcndcd` in
marriagc 'is srircmorc,andrhcrcisimmcdiarcpossibiiryoIin| ury` .
Icvcnr onrorcmarkrhar 'in a rcigionrhar Iorbids rhc rcmarriagc
oIrhcvidovIinduismj ,rhchardshipismuchgrcarcr` . npropcrry
division, hc norcd rhar 'in rhc Nusim rcigion, a smacr sharc oI
inhcrirancc is aovcd ro rhc daughrcr, rhough oving ro hcr
THE REACH OF REAS ON
vcakncss, shc dcscrvcs ro bc givcn a argcr sharc` . Vhcnhis sccond
son, Nurad, vho kncvrhar his Iarhcr vas opposcdro a rcigious
riruas, askcd him vhcrhcr rhcsc riruas shoud bc banncd, Akbar
immcdiarcyprorcsrcd, onrhc groundsrhar'prcvcnringrharinscnsi-
rivc simpcron, vho considcrs body cxcrcisc ro bc divinc vorship,
voud amounr ro prcvcnring him Iromrcmcmbcring God ar a| ` .
Addrcssing a gucsrion on rhc morivarion Ior doing a good dccd a
gucsrion rhar sri gcrs askcd oIrcn cnoughj , Akbar criricizcs 'rhc
!ndiansagcs`Iorrhcsuggcsrionrhar 'goodvorks`bcdoncroachicvc
a Iavourabc ourcomcaIrcrdcarh. '1omcirsccmsrharinrhcpursuir
oIvirruc,rhcidcaoIdcarhshoudnorbcrhoughroI, sorharvirhour
any hopc or Icar, onc shoud pracricc virruc simpy bccausc ir is
good. ` !n t 8: hc rcsovcdro rccasc ' a rhc !mpcria savcs` , sincc
'ir is bcyond rhc rcam oI | usricc and good conducr` ro bcncIir
Irom 'Iorcc` .
!ncidcnray,rhcIacrrharrcasonmaynorbcinIaibc,cspcciayin
rhcprcscnccoIunccrrainry,isvciusrrarcdbyAkbar`srcHccrionson
rhcncvyarrivcdpracriccoIsmokingrobacco. Iisdocror,IakimAi,
argucd againsr irs usc. ' !r is nor ncccssary Ior us ro Ioov rhc
Luropcans, andadopra cusrom,vhichis norsancrioncdbyour ovn
visc mcn,virhourcxpcrimcnror rria. ` Akbarignorcdrhis argumcnr
onrhc groundrhar 'vcmusrnorrc|ccr arhingrharhasbccnadoprcd
bypcopcoIrhcvord,mcrcybccauscvccannorhndirinourbooks,
or hovshavcprogrcss! ` Armcd virh rharargumcnr, Akbar rricd
smokingburhappiyIorhimhcrookaninsranrdisikcoIir,andncvcr
smokcd again. Icrc insrincr vorkcd bcrrcr rhan rcason in circum-
sranccs rarhcr diIIcrcnr Irom rhc casc oI ukharin dcscribcd by
Govcrj . urrcasonvorkcdoIrcncnough.
Millennia! Insights
1hcrc vas good scnsc in Akbar`s insisrcncc rhar a micnniaI occa-
sionisnoronyIorIunandIcsrivirics oIvhichrhcrcvcrcpcnryin
chi and Agra as rhc Iirsr Ii| ri micnnium vas compcrcd in
tpt-:j , burasoIorscriousrcIccriononrhc| oys andhorrorsand
chacngcs oI rhc vord in vhich vc ivc. Akbar`s cmphasis on
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rcason and scruriny scrvcs as a rcmindcr rhar 'curura boundarics`
arc nor as imiring as is somcrimcs acgcd as, Ior cxampc, in rhc
vicv, discusscd caricr, rhar 'j usricc` , 'righr` , 'rcason` , and ' ovc oI
humaniry` arc 'prcdominanry, pcrhaps cvcn unigucy, Vcsrcrn va-
ucs ` j . !ndccd,manyIcarurcsoIrhc LuropcanLnighrcnmcnrcan bc
inkcd virh gucsrions rhar vcrc raiscdcaricr- nor | usr in Luropc
burvidcyacrossrhcvord.
As rhc sccond Grcgorianmicnnium bcgan,!ndiavasvisircdby
an inrcccruarourisrin rhc Iorm oIAbcruni, an !ranianvho vas
borninCcnrraAsiain973 CE andvhovrorcinArabic.Asamarh-
cmarician, Abcruni`s primary inrcrcsr vas in !ndian marhcmarics
hc produccd, among orhcr vrirings, an improvcd Arabic rrans-
arion oI rahmagupra`s sixrh-ccnrury Sanskrir rrcarisc on asrron-
omy and marhcmarics - Iirsr rransarcd inro Arabic in rhc cighrh
ccnruryj . urhc aso srudicd!ndianvriringsonscicncc,phiosophy,
ircrarurc,inguisrics,rcigionandorhcrsub| ccrs,andvrorcahighy
inIormarivc book abour !ndia, cacd Tarikh al-hind '1hc Iisrory
oI!ndia` j . !n cxpaining vhyhcvrorc ir, Abcruni argucdrhar iris
vcryimporranrIorpcopcinonccounrryroknovhovorhcrscsc-
vhcrcivc, andhov andvharrhcyrhink.Lvibchaviour oIvhich
Abcruni had sccn pcnry in rhc barbariry oI his Iormcr parron,
SuranNahmud oIGhazni, vho had savagcyraidcd!ndia scvcra
rimcsj can arisc Irom a ack oI undcrsranding oI- and Iamiiariry
virh- orhcrpcopc.
In all manners and usages, [the Indians] differ from us to such a degree as to
frighten their children with us, with our dress, and our ways and customs,
and as to declare us to be devil's breed, and our doings as the very opposite
of all that is good and proper. By the bye, we must confess, in order to be j ust,
that a similar depreciation of foreigners not only prevails among us and [the
Indians], but is common to all nations towards each other.28
1har insighr Irom rhc bcginning oIrhc asr micnnium has rcmaincd
pcrrincnra rhousandycarsarcr.
!nrrying ro go bcyondvhar Adam Smirh cacdour 'hrsr pcrccp-
rions` , vcnccdrorransccndvharAkbarsavasrhc'marshyand` oI
ungucsrioncd rradirion and unrcIccrcd rcsponsc. Kcason has irs
THE REACH OF REAS ON
rcach - compromiscd ncirhcr by rhc imporrancc oI insrincrivc psy-
choogynorbyrhcprcscnccoIcururadivcrsiryinrhcvord. !rhas
ancspcciayimporranrrocropayinrhccurivarionoImoraimag-
inarion.VcnccdirinparricuarroIaccrhcbarsandrhcovsandrhc
insancmoon.
29
3
Secularism and Its Discontents :
Vhcn!ndiabccamcindcpcndcnrmorcrhanhaIaccnruryago,much
cmphasis vas paccd on irs sccuarism, and rhcrc vcrc Icv voiccs
disscnring Irom rhar prioriry. !n conrrasr, rhcrc arc nov pcrsisrcnr
pronounccmcnrsdccpycriricaoI!ndiansccuarism,andarrackshavc
comc Irom guirc diIIcrcnr guarrcrs. Nany oIrhc barbcd arracks on
sccuarismin!ndia havc comcIrom acrivisrs cngagcdinrhcIindurva
movcmcnr, incudingrhc |!, vhichhas bccn dcscribcd as 'rhcprin-
cipapoiricaparryrcprcsc

ringrhcidcoogyoIIindunarionaismin
rhc cccrora arcna` . t

Iovcvcr,inrcccrua sccpricismaboursccuarismisnorconhncdro
rhoscacrivcycngagcdinpoirics.!ndccd,cogucnrcxprcssionsoIrhis
sccpricismcan asobcIoundinrhc high rhcoryoI!ndian cururc and
socicry. ' Nany oI rh arracks arc guirc rcmovcd Irom rhc |! and
orhcroIIiciaorgans oIIindunarionaism. !n addrcssingrhcissucoI
!ndiansccuarism ir is imporranrro rakcnorcoIrhcrangcasvcas
rhcvigouroIrhcsccririgucs, and also rhcIacrrharrhcy comc Irom
varying guarrcrs and usc quirc disrincr argumcnrs. !Iroday ' sccuar-
*This is a slightly revised version of an essay published in Kaushik Basu and Sanjay
Subrahmanyam (eds. ) , Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India's Secular
Identity (Delhi: Penguin, 1996) . For helpful discussion I am grateful to Kaushik Basu,
Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, Akeel Bilgrami, Sugata Bose, Emma Rothschild and Sanjay
Subrahmanyam.
t Ashutosh Varshney, 'Contested Meanings: Indian National Unity, Hindu
Nationalism, and the Politics _of Anxiety', Daedalus, 122 ( 1993 ), p. 23 1 . See also his
later book, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2002) . The various components of the Hindutva movement
were described in Essay 2 a
'
bove.
294
)
SECULARISM AND ITS DIS C ONTENTS
ism, rhcidcoogicamainsrayoImuri-rcigious !ndia, ooks pac and
cxhausrcd` as Ashurosh Varshncy dcscribcs irj , rhc narurc oI rhar
prcdicamcnrvoud bcmisidcnrihcd- andsomcvharminimizcd- iIir
vcrcrobcsccn simpyinrcrms oIrhcpoirics oIIindusccrarianism.
Vhic rhc arracks on sccuarism havc oIrcn comc Irom cxacryrhar
guarrcr, rhcrc arc orhcr ccmcnrs as vc, and rhc sub| ccr cas Ior a
vidcr anaysis andrcsponsc.
cspircrhisbroadandIorccIuchacngc, sccuarisrinrcccruasin
!ndiarcndro bc somcvharrcucranrrodcbarcrhisrarhcrunarrracrivc
sub| ccr. Kciancc is paccd insrcad, usuay impiciry, on rhc vc-
csrabishcdandungucsrioningrradirionoIsccingsccuarismasagood
andsoidpoiricavirrucIorapuraisrdcmocracy. AsanunrcIormcd
sccuarisr myscI, ! undcrsrand, and ro somc cxrcnr sharc, rhis rcuc-
rancc, bur aso bcicvc rhar addrcssing rhcsc criricisms is imporranr.
1his is sonorony bccauscrhc condcmnarions havcimpicarionsIor
poirica andinrcccruaiIcinconrcmporary!ndia, buraso bccausc
irisuscIuIorsccuarisrs ro Iaccrhcsc issucs cxpiciry- ro scrurinizc
and rc-cxaminc habiruay acccprcd priorirics, and rhc rcasoning
bchind rhcm. 1hcrc is much nccd Ior scI-cxaminarion oI bcicIs -
novhcrc morc so rhan in pracricarcasonandpoiricaphiosophy.
Icnccrhis arrcmpr ar discussingsomc oI rhc criricagucsrions abour
sccuarismrharhavc bccnIorccIuyraiscd.
Incompleteness and the Need
for Supplementation
1hcnarurcoIsccuarism as a principc casIor somccarihcarion as
vcasscruriny. SomcoIrhcchoiccsconsidcrcdundcrrhchcadingoI
sccuarismic,!voudarguc,bcyondirsimmcdiarcscopc.Sccuarism
in rhc poirica - as opposcd ro ccccsiasrica - scnsc rcguircs rhc
scpararionoIrhcsrarcIromanyparricuarrcigiousordcr.1hiscanbc
inrcrprcrcd in ar casrrvo diIIcrcnr vays. 1hchrsrvicvargucs rhar
sccuarism dcmands rhar rhc srarc bccguidisranrIrom a rcigions -
*In this context, see also Charles Taylor et al., Multiculturalism and 'The Politics of
Recognition' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993 ) .
29
5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rcIusingrorakc sidcs andhavingancurraarrirudcrovards rhcm. 1hc
sccond- morc scvcrc - vicv insisrs rharrhc srarc musr nor havc any
rcarionaravirhanyrcigion.1hccguidisranccmusrrakcrhcIorm,
rhcn, oIbcing arogcrhcr rcmovcd Iromcach.
!nborhinrcrprcrarions,sccuarismgocsagainsrgivinganyrcigion
aprivicgcdposirioninrhcacriviricsoIrhcsrarc.!nrhcbroadcrinrcr-
prcrarion rhc hrsr vicvj , hovcvcr, rhcrc isno dcmandrhar rhc srarc
musr sray ccar oIany associarionvirh any rcigious marrcr vharso-
cvcr. Karhcr,vharisnccdcdisromakcsurcrhar,insoIarasrhcsrarc
hasrodcavirhdiIIcrcnr rcigions andmcmbcrsoIdiIIcrcnrrcigious
communirics, rhcrc musr bc a basic symmcrry oIrrcarmcnr. !n rhis
vicv,rhcrcvoud bcno vioarion oIsccuarism Ior a srarcroprorccr
cvcryonc`srighrrovorshipashcorshcchooscs,cvcnrhoughindoing
rhis rhc srarc hasrovorkvirh- andIoi- rcigious communirics. !n
rhc abscncc oIasymmcrric arrcnrion such as prorccringrhc righrs oI
vorship Ior onc rcigious communiry, bur nor orhcrsj,vorking hard
Ior rcigious Irccdom docs norbrcachrhcprincipcoIsccuarism.
1hc imporranr poinr ro norc hcrc is rhar rhc rcguircmcnr oIsym-
mcrricrrcarmcnr sri cavcs opcn rhc gucsrion as ro vhar Iorm rhar
symmcrry shoudrakc. 1o iusrrarc virh an cxampc, rhc srarc may
dccidcrharirmusrnoroIIcr hnancia or orhcr supporrro anyhospi-
ravirhanyrcigiousconnccrion.Arcrnarivcy,ircanprovidcsupporr
ro a hospiras, virhour in any vay discriminaring bcrvccn rhcir
rcspccrivc rcigious connccrions or ack oIrhcmj . Vhic rhc Iormcr
mayappcarro bc, supcrhciay, 'morcsccuar` asirccrrainyisinrhc
' associarivc` - rhc sccond - scnsc, sincc irshuns rcigiousconnccrions
arogcrhcrj , rhcarrcris asopoiricay guirc sccuarinrhc scnscrhar
rhcsrarc,inrhiscasc,supporrshospirasirrcspccrivcoIvhcrhcrornor
rhcrcarcanyrcigiousconnccrions andiIso, vharj, andrhroughrhis
ncutrairy, ir kccps rhcsrarc andrhcrcigions guircscpararc.
!r is rhc broadcr vicv rhar has bccn rhc dominanr approach ro
sccuarismin!ndia. urrhis,irmu6 rccognizcd, isanincompcrc
spccihcarion. SccuarismcxcudcssomcarcrnarivcsrhoscrharIavour
*The historical lineage of this interpretation of secularism and some of the impli
cations of this broader approach have been discussed in Essay I, section headed
'Understanding Secularism'.
SECULARISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS
somc rcigions ovcr orhcrsj , bur sri aovs scvcra disrincr oprions
rcarcd ro rhc unspccihcd disrancc arvhichrhc srarc shoud kccp a
rcigions,virhourdiscriminarion.1hcrcisrhusanccd,indcaingvirh
rcigions and rcigious communirics, ro rakc up gucsrions rhar ic
' bcyond` sccuarism. Vhic rhis cssay is conccrncd virh scrurinizing
arracks on sccuarism as a poirica rcguircmcnr, rhc organizariona
issucs rhar ic bcyond sccuarism musr aso bc characrcrizcd. ' !n
anaysing rhc roc oI sccuarism in !ndia, norc musr bc rakcn oI irs
inrrinsic 'incompcrcncss` , incuding rhc probcms rhar rhis incom-
pcrcncsscadsro,asvcasrhcopporruniricsir oIIcrs.
Critical Arguments
Sccpricismabour!ndiansccuarismrakcsmanydiIlcrcnrIorms.!sha
considcr in parricuar six disrincr incs oI argumcnr. 1his may bc
cnoughIoronccssay, bur!donorcaimrharaanri-sccuarisrarracks
arc covcrcd byrhc argumcnrsconsidcrcdhcrc.
( r ) The 'Non-existence' Critique
!crhaps rhc simpcsr vcrsion oI sccpricism abour !ndian sccuarism
comcsIromrhoscvhosccnorhingmuchrhcrc,arcasrnorhingoIrca
signihcancc.!orcxampc,Vcsrcrn| ournaisrsoIrcnrcgard!ndianscc-
uarism as csscnriaynon-cxisrcnr, andrhciranguagcrcnds ro con-
rrasr'Iindu!ndia` or 'mainyIindu!ndia` j virh'Nusim!akisran`
or'mainyNusim!akisran` j . Ccrrainy,!ndiansccuarismhasncvcr
bccn a gripping rhoughr in broad Vcsrcrn pcrccprions, and rcccnr
picrurcs oI poiricay miiranr Iindus dcmoishing an od mosguc
in Ayodhya havc nor hcpcd ro changc rhcsc pcrccprions. !ndian
prorcsrarions abour sccuarism arc oIrcn sccn in rhcVcsr as sancri-
monious nonscnsc- hard ro rakc scriousy in vcighry discourscs on
*Some of the arguments presented here draw on an earlier paper (my Nehru Lecture
at Trinity College, Cambridge, on 5 Feb. 1993 ) , published under the title 'Threats to
Indian Secularism', in the New York Review of Books, 8 Apr. I993 See also Akeel
Bilgrami, 'Two Concepts of Secularism', Yale Journal of Criticism, 7 ( 1994) .
297
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
inrcrnarionaaIIairs andinrhcmakingoIIorcignpoicy bypovcrIu
andrcsponsibcVcsrcrnsrarcsrhardominarcrhcvordoIconrcmpor-
aryinrcrnarionapoiricsj .
( 2) The 'Favouritism' Critique
A sccond inc oI arrack argucs rhar, in rhc guisc oI sccuarism, rhc
!ndianconsrirurionandpoirica andcgarradirionsrcayIavourrhc
minorirycommuniry oINusims, givingrhcma privicgcd srarus nor
cn| oycd by rhc ma| oriry communiry oI Iindus. 1his 'Iavourirism`
cririguc is popuar virh many oI rhc cadcrs and supporrcrs oI rhc
Iinduacrivisrparrics.1hcrhcroricoIrhisarrackcanvaryIromvanr-
ing ro 'rc|ccr

` sccuarism ro arguing againsr vhar is cacd 'pscudo-

sccuarism` 'IavouringrhcNusims` j .
( 3 ) The 'Prior Identity' Critique
A rhird inc oIcririguc is morc inrcccrua rhan rhc hrsr rvo. !r sccs
rhcidcnriryoIbcingaIindu,oraNusim, oraSikh, robcpoiricay
'prior` ro bcing an!ndian. 1hc !ndian idcnriry is 'buir up` Iromrhc
constitutive ccmcnrsoIscpararcidcnrirics.!noncvcrsion oIrhcidcn-
riry argumcnr, iris asscrrcdrhar, givcnrhcprcpondcrancc oIIindus
inrhc counrry, any !ndian narionaidcnriry cannor bur bc a Iuncrion
oI somc Iorm or orhcr oI a argcy Iindu idcnriry. Anorhcr vcrsion
voud go Iurrhcr and aim ar a homogcncous idcnriry as a ncccssary
basisoInarionhood inincvirhrhcpicrurcsgucanaogyrhar 'asaad
bov docsnorproducc cohcsion, amcringpordocs` j , andmovc on
Iromrharproposirionrorhccaimrharonyasharcdcururaourook,
vhichin!ndiacanonybc aargcyIinduvicv, canproduccsucha
cohcsion. Lvcn rhc uniry oI !ndia dcrivcs, ir is argucd, Irom rhc
'ccmcnringIorcc` oIIinduism.
( 4) The 'Muslim Sectarianism' Critique
!n anorhcr inc oIcririguc, rhc proposcd dominancc oIIindu idcn-
riry in '!ndianncss` docs nor rurn on rhc ogic oI numbcrs, bur is
'IorccdonrhcIindus` , irisargucd,byrhc'Iaiurc`oIrhcNusimsro
SECULARISM AND ITS DIS CONTENTS
scc rhcmscvcs as !ndians hrsr. 1his Iorm oIargumcnr dravs hcaviy
on vhar is sccn as rhc hisroricaIaiurc oINusim rucrs in !ndia ro
idcnriIyrhcmscvcsvirhorhcrsinrhccounrry, avayssccingNusims
asascpararcandprcIcrrcdgroup.!risaso caimcdrharNusimkings
sysrcmaricay dcsrroycd Iindu rcmpcs and rcigious sircs vhcncvcr
rhcyhadrhc chanccrodoso.
|innah`s 'rvo-narion`rhcory, IormuarcdbcIorcindcpcndcncc and
hisroricayimporranrinrhcparririonoI!ndiaj , issccnasaconrinua-
rionoIrhccvidcnrNusimrcIusaroidcnriIyvirhorhcr!ndians. !ris
argucdrhar,vhicrhcparririonoI!ndiahasprovidcda'homcand`Ior
rhc Nusims oIrhc subconrincnr, rhc Nusims cIr in !ndia arc unin-
rcgrarcdand arcbasicaynor'oya`ro !ndia. 1hc' cvidcnria` parroI
rhis inc oIcririgucisrhus supposcd ro incudc suspicions oINusim
disoyary in conrcmporary !ndia as vc as parricuar rcadings oI
!ndianhisrory.
( 5 ) The 'Anti-modernist' Critique
Conrcmporary inrcccrua rrcnds, primariy in rhc Vcsr bur aso
somcvhar dcrivarivcyj in !ndia, givcmuchroomIorassaiingvhar
is cacd 'modcrnism` . 1hc hIrh inc oIcririguc | oins Iorcc virh rhis
assaur byarracking sccuarism as a parr oIrhc IoyoI'modcrnism` .
Vhicposr-modcrnisrcriricisms oIsccuarismcanrakcmanydiIIcrcnr
Iorms, rhc morc cIIccrivc assaurs on 'sccuarism as modcrnism` in
!ndia, ar rhis rimc, combinc gcncra anri-modcrnism virh somc
spccihc ycarning Ior !ndia`s pasr vhcn rhings arc supposcd ro havc
bccn css probcmaric in rhis rcspccr parricuary in rcrms oI rhc
pcaccIu cocxisrcncc oIdiIIcrcnr rcigionsj . Lcmcnrs oIsuch undcr-
sranding rcnd ro Iorm inrcgra parrs oI rhc inrcccrua cririgucs oI
somcconrcmporarysociaanaysrs.
Ashis andy norcs rhar 'as !ndia gcrs modcrnizcd, rcigious vio-
cnccisincrcasing`,andhccxprcsscsadmirarionIor'rradirionavays
oIiIc vhichj havc, ovcrrhcccnrurics, dcvcopcdinrcrnaprincipcs
oIrocrancc` . 1hc dcnunciarion oI sccuarism rhar Ioovs Irom rhis
inc oI rcasoning is vc caprurcd in andy`s sharp concusion. '1o
acccpr rhc idcoogy oI sccuarism is ro acccpr rhc idcoogics oI
progrcss andmodcrniry as rhc ncv | usrihcarion oI dominarion, and
299
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhcuscoIviocnccroachicvcandsusrainidcoogicsasrhcncvopiarcs
oIrhcmasscs. `
( 6) The ' Cultural' Critique
1hcsixrhandasrcririguc!shaconsidcrrakcsrhcambiriousy'Ioun-
dariona` vicvrhar!ndiais,incsscncc, a 'Iinducounrry`,andrharas
arcsurirvoudbccururayguircvrongrorrcarIinduismassimpy
oncoIrhcvarious rcigionsoI!ndia. !risIinduism,inrhisvicv, rhar
makcs !ndia vhar iris, and ro rcguirc sccuarism, virh irs insisrcncc
onrrcaring diIIcrcnr rcigions symmcrricay, musrrurn an cpisrcmic
crrorinro apoirica bundcr.
1his inc oI criricism oIrcn dravs on anaogics virh Iormay
ChrisriansrarcssuchasrharoIrirain,vhcrcrhcparricuarhisroryoI
rhc counrry and rhc spccia roc oI irs ' ovn rcigion` arc 'Iuy
acknovcdgcd` . !orcxampc,rhcArchbishopoICanrcrburyconducrs
poirica ccrcmonics oI rhc srarc ar rhc highcsr cvc 'no nonscnsc
abour sccuarism rhcrc` j . Simiary, rirish avs oI basphcmy arc
spccihcayprorccrivc oIChrisrianiryandoIno orhcrrcigion | usras
in !akisran rhc domain oIbasphcmy avs pcnaizcs 'insurs` ony ro
!samj . !ndia,iriscompaincd,dcnicsirsindigcnouscururacommir-
mcnrinnorprovidinganyrhingikcasimiaryprivicgcdsrarusroirs
' ovn` rradirion, rovir,rhcprcdominanryIinduhcriragc.
! sha considcr rhcsc haI-dozcn cririgucs in rurn. As vas srarcd
bcIorc, orhcr grounds Ior rc| ccrion oI sccuarism havc aso bccn
oIIcrcd. SomcoIrhcsccririgucsinvovccaborarcconccpruacompo-
sirionsandcsrimabcinrricacyoIanguagc,andarcnorbrcarhrakingy
casyro pcncrrarc cvcnarmcdvirh a dicrionaryoIncoogisms onrhc
onc hand, and couragc on rhc orhcrj . ! sha conhnc myscI ony ro
rhcsc six incs oIcriricism oI sccuarism, virhour prcrcnding to bc
dcaingvirha rhc argumcnrs againsr sccuarism rharhavc acruay
bccnproposcd.
3 00
SECULARISM AND ITS DIS CONTENTS
On the 'Non-existence! Critique
!s rhc 'non-cxisrcncc` cririguc ro bc rakcn scriousy! Nany !ndian
inrcccruas rcnd ro vicv rhis kind oI opinion virh somc conrcmpr,
andarcrarhcrrcucranrro rcspond rovharrhcysccasrhc obduracy
or vorscj oIVcsrcrn obscrvcrs. 1his is somcrimcs combincdvirha
gcncrarhcoryrharirdocs norrcaymarrcrvhar'orhcrs`rhinkabour
!ndia armosr,rhisissomcrhingIor!ndiancmbassicsrovorryabourj .
1hissrudicdnon-rcsponsci snoronyinsuarignoringrhcimporrancc
oI inrcrnariona undcrsranding in rhc conrcmporary vordj, ir aso
ovcrooks hovcrucia oursidc pcrccprions havc hisroricay bccn ro
rhcidcnriryoI!ndiansrhcmscvcs. ` LvcnrhccomposircconccprionoI
IinduismasoncrcigionincudcsrhcimpacroIrhcoursidcrs`vicvoI
rhc cassihcarory uniry oI rhc rcigious bcicIs and pracriccs in rhc
counrry.
1hcrc is aso rhc rcccnr phcnomcnon oIrhc supporr providcd by
opucnrcxparriarcsIromrhcsubconrincnrrocommuniry-bascdpoir-
ica movcmcnrs - oI Sikhs, Nusims and Iindus - back ar 'homc` .
And bccausc oIrhc rccvancc oIvharrhcy rcadandrcacrro, vccan
scarccyrakcIorcignrcporringon!ndiaas'inconscgucnria` - cvcnIor
immcdiarcissucsoIinrcrnapoirics in!ndia.
1hc'non-cxisrcncc`cririgucccrrainyhasrobcaddrcsscdcvcniIrhc
morc inIormcdrcadcrvouddccidc rosvirchoIIvhicrharaddrcssing
rakcs paccj . !s!ndiarcay rhc Iindu counrcrparr oI!akisran! Vhcn
rirish!ndia vasparririoncd,!akisranchoscro bcan !samic rcpubic,
vhcrcas!ndia chosc a sccuarconsrirurion.| !s rhar disrincrion signih-
canr! !risrrucrhar,insrandardVcsrcrn| ournaism,irrcsignihcanccis
arrachcdrorhcconrrasr, andrhoscin!ndiavhovoudikcrhccounrry
roabandonirssccuarismoItcncircrhis'Iorccdpariry`inVcsrcrnvision
as prooI cnough rhar rhcrc is somcrhing rarhcr hopccss in !ndia`s
*I have touched on this question in my 'India and the West', New Republic, 7 June
I993 It is also discussed in Essay 7 above.
tThe emergence of Pakistan as a 'Muslim state' , under the leadership of
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, has a complex - and circumstantially quite contingent - his
tory, on which see particularly Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: ]innah, the Muslim
League and the Demand for Pakistan ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I98 5 ) .
301
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
arrcmpr ar sccuarismvhcnrhc ncvmasrcrs oIgobapoirics cannor
cvcnrcvharoncarrhis bcingarrcmprcdin!ndia.
Ycr rhc disrincrionbcrvccna sccuarrcpubicandarcigion-bascd
srarc is rcay rarhcr imporranr Iromrhc cga poinr oIvicv, andirs
poiricaimpicarionsarcasoguirccxrcnsivc.1hisappicsrodiIIcrcnr
cvcs oIsocia arrangcmcnrs, incudingrhc opcrarions oIrhc courrs,
a rhc vay up ro rhc hcadship oI rhc srarc. !or cxampc, unikc
!akisran, vhosc consrirurionrcguircs rharrhc hcad oIrhc srarc bc a
Nusim, !ndia imposcs no comparabcrcguircmcnr, andrhc counrry
has hadnon-Iindus incudingNusims andSikhsj as!rcsidcnrs and
as hodcrs oI orhcr promincnr and inHucnria oIIiccs in govcrnmcnr
andinrhc | udiciary incuding rhc Suprcmc Courrj .
Simiary,rorakcanorhcr cxampc,irisnorpossibc,bccauscoIrhc
sccuarisr consrirurion oI !ndia, ro havc asymmcrric avs oI bas-
phcmy, appicd ro onc rcigion ony, as ir is in !akisran. 1hcrc is a
diIIcrcncc bcrvccn rhc cga srarus rhar!akisrangivcs ro !sam as ir
musrinan '!samicrcpubic` j andrhcackoIacomparabc cgasrarus
oIIinduismin!ndia. orsurprisingy, rhc 'non-cxisrcncc` cririgucis
aircdmuchmorcIrcgucnryabroadrhanarhomc,andoIrcnrakcsrhc
Iorm oIanimpicirprcsumprion- coouringVcsrcrn anayscs oIrhc
subconrincnr- rarhcrrhanancxpicirasscrrion. 1harhardcncdbcicI
rurns on ovcrooking cxrcnsivc andimporranrIcarurcs oIrhc !ndian
consrirurion andpoiry.
1vo guaihcarions shoud, hovcvcr, bc inrroduccdhcrc. !irsr, rhc
'non-cxisrcncc` cririguc musr nor bc conIuscd virh rhc caim - nor
inIrcgucnry madc, oIrcn by sraunch sccuarisrs - rhar, dcspirc rhc
ccmcnrsoIcgasymmcrry,Iindussrihavcasubsranrivc advanragc
ovcrNusimsinmanysphcrcs.1hisvoudbc,rypicay, anargumcnr
Ior pracrising sccuarism 'morc Iuy` in !ndia, rarhcr rhan Ior dis-
carding rhc sccuarismrhar is arcady rhcrc. Sccond, rhc rc|ccrion oI
rhc 'non-cxisrcncc` cririguc docs nor idcnriIy rhc cxacr Iorm oI
sccuarismrharcxisrs in!ndia nor oIcoursc asscrranyrhing ikc rhc
'supcrioriry` oIrhar spccihc Iorm oIsccuarismj . !ndccd, asvas dis-
cusscdcaricr,rhcacccpranccoIsccuarismsricavcsmanygucsrions
*As this essay, originally written in I99 5, is republished in this volume a decade
later, it is perhaps worth noting that India has, at this time, a Muslim President, a Sikh
Prime Minister and a Christian head of the ruling party.
302
SECULARISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS
unansvcrcdabourrhcarrirudc oIrhcsrarcrodincrcnrrcigions.Lvcn
vhcnrhc basicnccd Iorsymmcrryinrhcpoiricaandcga rrcarmcnr
oIdiIIcrcnrrcigious communiricsis acccprcd, vc srihavcro dccidc
on rhc shapc rhar rhis symmcrry shoud rakc, and vhar rhc cxacr
domainandrcachoIrharsymmcrrymighrbc.
1o iusrrarc, symmcrryrcgarding basphcmyavscanbcachicvcd
virhdiIIcrcnr Iormuas- varyingIrom appyingirro arcigions, ro
appyingirro nonc. Vhicrhcarrcr oprionhrsin immcdiarcyvirha
sccuarisr virhdrava oI rhc srarc Irom rcigious aIIairs, rhc Iormcr
pursucssymmcrrybcrvccnrcigionsinavayrharIavoursnorcigion
in parricuar. |usr as a sccuar srarc canprorccrrhc ibcrry oI a ciri-
zcnsrovorshipasrhcypcasc ornorrovorshipj , irrcspccrivcoIrhcir
rcigious bcicIs andrhis coudnorbcsccn, asvas anayscdcaricr, as
avioarionoIsccuarismj , sccuarismcan,inprincipc,rakcrhcIorm
oI 'shicding` cvcryrcigious communiry againsr vharcvcr rhar com-
muniry scriousy dccms as basphcmy. ! am nor, oI coursc, rccom-
mcndingsuch'univcrsaanri-basphcmyavs` - indccd,!voudarguc
vcryhrmyagainsr anri-basphcmyavs in gcncra. urmy rc|ccrion
oI'univcrsaanri-basphcmyavs`isnorbascdonsccingrhcmasanri-
sccuar,buronorhcrgroundsrhargobcyondsccuarism.inparricuar,
rhc nccd ro prcvcnr rcigious inrocrancc and pcrsccurion, and rhc
pracrica unIcasibiiry oI making anri-basphcmy avs rcay ' univcr-
sa`, covcring a rcigions in !ndia incuding rhosc oI rhc various
rriba communirics rhar consrirurc an undcrprivicgcd minoriry in
!ndiaj . 1hc nccd ro choosc bcrvccn diIIcrcnr sccuarIormsrcmains,
burrhisisavcrydiIIcrcnrconrcnrionIromsayingrharrhcrcguircmcnr
oI!ndiansccuarismmakcsno diIIcrcncc- rhariris 'immarcria` .
On the 'Favouritism' Critique
1hc 'Iavourirism` cririgucrurnsoninrcrprcringandhighighringsomc
cgadiIIcrcnccs bcrvccn rhc various communirics. 1hcsc havc bccn
muchdiscusscdrcccnryinrhc acrivisrIindupoirica ircrarurc. 1hc
diIIcrcnccin 'pcrsonaavs` has bccnparricuaryinIocus.
!rispoinrcdour,Iorcxampc,rharvhicaIinducanbcprosccurcd
Iorpoygamy, aNusimmancanhavc up roIourvivcs, inincvirh
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
vhar is rakcnro bc rhc!samic cga posirion arhough, inpracricc,
rhis provision is cxrrcmcy rarcy invokcd by !ndian Nusimsj .
Arrcnrionis asodravnroorhcrdiIIcrcnccs,Iorcxampcbcrvccnrhc
provision Ior vivcs in rhc cvcnr oIa divorcc, vhcrc Nusimvomcn
inincvirhaccrrainrcadingoI!samicavjhavccssgcncrousguar-
anrccs rhan rhosc vhich orhcr !ndian vomcn havc - a sub| ccr rhar
camc ro somc promincncc in rhc conrcxr oI rhc Suprcmc Courr`s
| udgcmcnr on rhc Iamous ' Shah ano casc` invoving rhc righr oI
supporr oIa divorccdNusimvoman Iromhcrcsrrangcdandmorc
opucnr husbandj . 1hc cxisrcncc oI rhcsc diIIcrcnccs has bccn circd
again andagainbyIindupoiricaacrivisrsro caimrharIindus, as
rhcma| oriry communiry, arc discriminarcd againsr in !ndia, vhcrcas
Nusims arc aovcd ro havc rhcir ovn 'pcrsona avs` and 'spccia
privicgcs` .
1his incoI rcasoninghas manyprobcms. !irsr, iIrhcsccxampcs
indicarc any 'Iavourirism`, in giving spccia 'privicgcs`, in rhc rrcar-
mcnroIrhcdiIIcrcnrcommunirics,rhiscanhardybcaIavourirismIor
Nusims ingcncra. AnyunIairncss rhar is rhcrc is surcy onc againsr
Muslim women, rarhcrrhanagainsrHindu men. Anarrovy'mac`-
indccd, scxisr - poinr oIvicv is rarhcr conspicuous inrhc parricuar
IormrharrhispoiricacompainroIrcnrakcs.
Sccond,irisnorrhccascrharrhcpcrsonaavsoIrhcIindushavc
bccn somchov ovcrriddcn in posr-indcpcndcncc !ndia by somc uni-
Iorm civi codc. 1hc scpararc srarus oIIindu pcrsona avs has in
gcncra survivcd. 1hc issuc oIuniIorm civi codcs has ro bc disrin-
guishcd Irom rhc Iacr rhar rhc Iindu avs vcrc rcIormcd aIrcr in-
dcpcndcncc,parricuaryduringI 9 andI 9 6,virhirrcopposirion
indccd, rhcy rcsurcd Irom poirica movcmcnrs virhin rhc Iindu
communiricsj . 1hcpossibiiryoIpoygamyvascxpiciryrucdourby
rcIormoIrhcIinduavs.!rdidnorIoovIromsomc'uniIorm`civi
codcs bcing imposcd on rhc Iindus burnorrhc Nusims. or did ir
makc rhc Iindu pcrsona avs inopcrarivc - guirc rhc conrrary.
Scvcraorhcrprovisionsvcrc inrroduccdvirhinrhcIinduavsrhcm-
scvcs, burrhc domain oIIindu pcrsona avs conrinucs ro bc guirc
subsranria.
1hcmakcrsoIrhc!ndianconsriruriondidcxprcsssomcprcIcrcncc
Ior ' uniIormiry oIIundamcnra avs, civi and crimina`, vhich vas
SECULARI S M AND ITS DI S CONTENTS
sccn by r . K. Ambcdkar rhc cadcr oI rhc rcam rhar Iramcd
rhcconsrirurionoI!ndiajasimporranrIormainrainingrhcuniryoIrhc
counrry.!nrhccvcnr,hovcvcr, suchuniIormiryvasnorincorporarcd
in rhc consrirurion rhar cmcrgcd, and rhc prcIcrcncc Ior uniIormiry
vas onyincudcdasa 'irccrivc !rincipc oISrarc !oicy` - virhour
cnIorccabiiry. 1hc principc rhar vas adoprcd dcmandcd rhar 'rhc
Srarc sha cndcavour ro sccurc Ior rhc cirizcns a uniIorm civi codc
rhroughour rhc rcrrirory oI !ndia` . !ikc a rhc 'irccrivc !rincipcs`
cnunciarcd in rhc !ndian consrirurion, rhis vas sccn as 'Iundamcnra
inrhc govcrnancc oIrhccounrry`,andirvas spccihcdrhar'irsha bc
rhcduryoIrhcSrarcro appy`rhisprincipc,burarrhc samcrimcrhis
principc ikcrhc orhcr 'dirccrivc` oncsj 'shanor bc cnIorccabc by
anycourr` .5
!ris, oIcoursc,uprorhccourrsroscchovIarrogoinincvirhrhis
irccrivc!rincipc.!nrhcmuch-dcbarcdcascoIrhc' Shahanoj udgc-
mcnr`,invovingaNusimvoman`srighrro abcrrcrhnancia dcaar
rhc rimc oI divorcc, rhc !ndian Suprcmc Courr did indccd makc a
movc in rhc dirccrion oI uniIormiry. 1hc Courr aso rcvcacd somc
disappoinrmcnrarrhcgovcrnmcnr`sIaiurcromovcinrhcdirccrionoI
a uniIormcivicodc inincvirhrhc'consrirurionaidca` andnorcd
rharrhisconsrirurionaprovisionhad'rcmaincdadcadcrrcr` j . !nIacr,
as onc obscrvcr has norcd, 'rhc inrcnsiry oI Nusim rcacrion ro rhc
Suprcmc Courr`s j udgmcnr in rhar casc vas parry cxpaincd by rhc
incusion oIrhis urrcrancc and rhc suggcsrion rharvhar rhc govcrn-
mcnrhadIaicdrodo,rhcCourrirscImighrundcrrakc` . '1hc'Nusim
rcacrion` vas nor, hovcvcr, by any mcans uniIorm, and rhcrc vas
supporrasvcascriricismIorrhcSuprcmc Courr`sj udgcmcnr,Irom
diIIcrcnrsccrionsoIrharcommuniry.8 !rvasKajiv Gandhi`sCongrcss
govcrnmcnrrharurimarcy'cavcdin` , andmadcIrcshcgisarionrhar
Iurrhcr supporrcd rhc 'scpararisr` vicv, rarhcr rhan Iooving rhc
Suprcmc Courr`s pushinrhc dirccrionoImorcuniIormiry.
1hc gcncraissuc oI asymmcrric rrcarmcnr is indccd an imporranr
onc, andrhcrc voud, oIcoursc, bcnorhing non-sccuarin pursuing
rhcpossibiiryoImakingrhc provisions oIa scroIuniIormciviavs
appy cvcn-handcdy ro individuas oI all rhc communirics. n rhc
orhcr hand, asvas argucd caricrinrhis cssay, rhc principcs oIsccu-
arism vi aso pcrmir an arrangcmcnr byvhich scpararc pcrsona
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
avs conrinuc vc inro rhc Iururc so ong as rhc diIIcrcnr rcigious
communiricsarcrrcarcdvirhsymmcrryj . !narguingagainsrrhcarrcr
oprion, considcrarions oI | usricc may vc bc raiscd vhich dcmand
somcsymmcrrynor onyinrhcvayrhc diIIcrcnrrcigious communi-
rics arc rrcarcd, bur aso in rhc vay Iairncss is appicd across orhcr
cassihcarory disrincrions Iorcxampc, bcrvccnrhc diIIcrcnrcasscs,
bcrvccnvomcnandmcn,bcrvccnrhcpoorandrhcrich,bcrvccnrhc
'circ` andrhc 'subarcrns`,and soonj .
1hc choicc bcrvccn rhcsc rvo oprions - and inrcrmcdiarc oncs -
rcmains opcn, and ccrrainy cannor bc coscdin onc dirccrion or rhc
orhcr byrhc rcguircmcnrs oIsccuarism aonc.1onorc rhis is norro
conccdc rhc Iaiurc oIsccuarism, burisrarhcran acknovcdgcmcnr
oI irs circumscribcd domain, and rhc aIIirmarion oI rhc nccd ro go
bcyond sccuarism - virhorhcrprincipcsoIIairncssand| usricc - ro
idcnriIy spcciIic cga and socia Iorms. Vhic rhcrc is nor much
subsrancc inrhc chargc oI' Iavourirism` bcnchringNusims, andccr-
rainy no gcncra casc againsr sccuarism can bc consrrucrcd onrhar
incoIrcasoning,irisuscIuro inrcgrarcrhcdiscussiononsccuarism
virhrhcprincipcs- suchasrhoscoI| usricc- rharic bcyondir.
Vc havcro disringuish, inparricuar, bcrvccn ( r ) rhcnccdIorsym-
mcrry among diIIcrcnr rcigious communirics a sccuarisr considcra-
rionj, and ( zj rhc gucsrionoIvharIormrhar symmcrry shoudrakc, a
conccrnrharhasrobcconsoidarcdvirhorhcrprincipcsoI| usriccvhich
rakc us vc bcyond sccuarism inro, on rhc onc hand, rhc imporrancc
rharmaybcarrachcdrogroup auronomyoIrcigious communirics, and
on rhc orhcr, rhc incscapabc issuc oI cguiry Ior diIIcrcnr groups oI
!ndians, cassihcdinnon-rcigious carcgorics, suchascassandgcndcr.
On the 'Prior Identity' Critique
1hc gucsrion oI poirica and rcigious idcnrirics raiscs issucs oI a
rarhcr diIIcrcnr kind. 1hcrc can bc irrc doubrrhar many !ndians -
indccd, mosr!ndians - havc rcigious bcicIs oIonc kind or anorhcr,
and rcgardrhcsc bcicIs ro bc imporranr in rhcir pcrsona ivcs. 1hc
issuc rhar is raiscd by rhc caimcd prioriry oI rhis idcnriry in rhc
poirica conrcxr is nor rhc gcncra imporrancc oIrcigious bcicIs in
SECULARI SM AND I TS DI S CONTENTS
pcrsona or cvcn socia bchaviour, bur rhc spccihc rccvancc oIrhar
i

cnriry in poirica marrcrs virh and virhour rhc invovcmcnr oI

rhcsrarcj .
!ri s uscIuinrhisconrcxrrorccoccrrhcconrrasrbcrvccnrhcrci-
giosiryoIpoiricacadcrsinprc-indcpcndcncc!ndiaandrhcirrcspcc-
rivc bcicIs in a sccuar idcnriry. |innah, rhc grcar advocarc oI rhc
'rvo-narion`rhcoryandrhcIoundingIarhcroIrhc!samicKcpubicoI
!akisran, vas scarccy a dcvour Nusim, vhcrcas Nauana Abu
Kaam Azad, rhc !rcsidcnr oI rhc !ndian ariona Congrcss and a
ma| orcadcroIrhc!ndianunion,vas a dccpyrcigiousNusim.'
Simiary, Shyama !rasad Nukhopadhyay, rhc cadcr oI Iindu
Nahasabha, had vcry Icv Iindu pracriccs, comparcd virh, say,
Naharma Gandhi, vho vas borh acrivcy rcigious in pcrsona iIc
and in socia pracricc Ior cxampc, hc hcd rcguar praycr mccrings
vhichvcrcopcnrorhcpubicjandasosraunchysccuarisrinpoirics
insisring on symmcrric poirica rrcarmcnr oIdiIIcrcnr rcigions and
an cIIccrivc scpararion oI rhc srarc and rcigionsj . Vhcn Naharma
Gandhi vas murdcrcd by an cxrrcmisr Iindu poirician, rhc
murdcrcr`s compainr againsr him vas nor rhar hc did nor Ioov
IinduisminhispcrsonaiIcorinhissociaacrivirics,burrharhcvas,
acgcdy, vcry 'soIr` onrhc Nusims inpoirica marrcrs, and didnor
givc adcguarcprioriryroIinduinrcrcsrs.
1hc imporrancc oIrcigious idcnriry has ro bc scpararcd Iromirs
rccvanccinrhcpoiricaconrcxr.!risrhusoddrorcguircrhar!ndians
musr 'go rhrough` rhcir rcigious idcnriryhrsr, bcIorc asscrring rhcir
!ndianncss, and cvcn css pausibc ro insisr rhar rhc !ndian idcnriry
musr bc 'buir up` on rhc consrirurivc basis oI rhc diIIcrcnr rcigious
idcnrirics. 1har asscrrion oI prioriry comcs nor ony Irom rcigious
sccrarians parricuary, inrcccnrycars,rhcso-cacd'Iindunariona-
isrs` j , burasoIromrhoscvhohavcbccncspcciayvorricdabourrhc
usurping roc oI rhc srarc as opposcd ro communiryj , and abour
rhcviocnccscommirrcdbyrhcsrarc.
!n rhis conrcxr, rhc issuc oIa narionaidcnriryis oIrcnidcnrihcd,
miscadingy, ! bcicvc, virhrhc phiosophy oI a 'narion srarc`, rhus
giving an incscapaby 'srarisr` oricnrarion ro rhc vcry conccprion oI
anypoiricauniryacrossrcigiouscommuniricsandorhcrsocia divi-
sions.!risccrrainyrrucrharinrhccmcrgcnccorconsoidarionoIrhar
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
uniry, rhcnarionsrarc mayvclhavc animporranrinsrrumcnra rolc,
burrhcsrarcnccdnorbcccnrralrorhcconccpruaIoundarionoIrhis
uniry, nor providc irs consrrucrivc gcncsis. !r is, Ior cxampe, nor a
'carcgory misrakc` ro rhink oI rhc !ndian narion prior ro I 94 7 as
cncompassing rhc rcsidcnrs oI rhc so-calcd ' narivc srarcs` such
as 1ravancorcj , and aso oI rhc non-rirish colonia rcrrirorics
such as Goaj , cvcnrhoughrhcydidnor'bcongro`rhcsamcsrarcar
al. !r is a scrious misrakc rorhinkrharrhc idca oIa narionrcguircs
rhcpriorprcscnccoIanarionsrarc.
A sccond probcm conccrns rhc usc oIrhis rourc ro arrivc ar rhc
proposcd Iindu vicv oI!ndia. Lvcn iI rhc rcigious idcnrirics vcrc
somchov'prior`rorhcpoiricalidcnriryoIbcing an!ndian, onccoud
scarccly dcrivc rhc vicv oI a Iindu !ndia bascd on rhar argumcnr
aonc. 1hcnon-Iinducommunirics - Nusims inparricuar, buralso
Chrisrians, Sikhs,|ains,!arsccs and orhcrs - arc scarccy 'marginal`
cvcninnumcricalrcrmsinrhccounrry.
!ndia has vcl ovcr I40 million Nusims, nor many Icvcr rhan
!akisran, and rarhcr morc rhan angadcsh. 1o scc !ndia j usr as a
Iindu counrryisaIairybizarrcidcainrhcIaccoIrharIacr alonc, nor
romcnrionrhcinrcrminglingoIIindusandNusimsinrhcsociaand
curural iIc oI!ndia in ircrarurc, music, painring and so onj . Aso,
!ndian rcigious purairy cxrcnds Iar bcyond rhc Iindu-Nuslim
division. 1hcrcis a argc and promincnr Sikh popularion, and a sub-
sranrialnumbcroIChrisrians,vhoscscrrlcmcnrsgobackarcasrrorhc
IourrhccnruryCE. 1hcrchavc aso bccn|cvishscrrlcmcnrsin!ndiaIor
ncaryrvorhousandycars.!arsccssrarrcdmovingro!ndiarvclvchun-
drcd ycars ago, ro cscapc a css rolcranr !ran. 1orhis vc havc ro add
rhc millions oI|ains, and pracririoncrs oIuddhism, vhich had bccn
Ior a longpcriod rhc oniciarcligion oImanyoIrhc!ndiancmpcrors
including rhc grcar Ashoka in rhc rhirdccnruryBCE, vho had rucd
ovcrrhclargcsrcmpircinrhchisroryoIrhcsubconrincnrj .
!urrhcrmorc,argcasoisrhcnumbcroI!ndiansvhoarc arhcisror
agnosric as|avaharlalchruhimscIvasj , andrharrradirionin!ndia
gocs vc back ro rhc ancicnr rimcs ro Carvaka and rhc !okayara,
among orhcr arhcisric or agnosric schoolsj . ' 1hc cassiIicarory
''The importance of scepticism in Indian traditions was discussed in Essay I,
particularly i n the section headed 'Sceptics, Agnostics and Atheists' .
SECULARISM AND ITS DIS CONTENTS
convcnrions oI!ndiansociasrarisrics rcndro discsrabishrhcrccogni-
rionoIsuchhcrcrodoxbcicIs,sinccrhccarcgoricsuscdrcprcscnrvhar
in!ndia has comcrobc cacd 'communiry`, virhourrccording acrua
rcigious bcicIs Ior cxampc, an arhcisr born in a Iindu Iamiy is
cassihcdasIindu,rcHccringrhc so-cacd 'communirybackground` j .
1hosc vho Iramcdrhc !ndian consrirurion vanrcdr ogivc appro-
priarc rccognirion ro rhc cxrcnsivc rcigious puraism oI rhc !ndian
pcopc,anddidnorvanrrodcrivcrhcnorionoI!ndianncssIromany
spccihcrcigiousidcnriryinparricuar.AsrAmbcdkar,rhccadcroI
rhc!ndianConsrirucnrAsscmby, pur ir. 'iIrhcNusimsin!ndia arca
scpararc narion, rhcn, oI coursc, !ndia is nor a narion.`" Givcn rhc
hcrcrogcnciry oI!ndia and oI rhc !ndians, rhcrc is no rca poirica
arcrnarivcro cnsuring somc basic symmcrry and an cIIccrivc scpar-
arionoIrhcsrarcIromcachparricuarrcigion.
1hc programmc oIdcriving an!ndianidcnriryvia a Iinduidcnriry
rhuscncounrcrsprobcmsIromrvodiIIcrcnrdirccrions.!irsr, irsuIIcrs
Irom insuIIicicnr discriminarion bcrvccn t ) personal and social
rcigious invovcmcnr, and zj givingpolitical prioriry rorharinvovc-
mcnr againsr symmcrric rrcarmcnr oI diIIcrcnr rcigionsj . Sccond, ir
IaisrorccognizcrhcimpicarionsoI!ndia`simmcnscrcigiousdivcrsiry.
!n Iacr, rhc issuc oI rcigious purairy docs nor rcarc ony ro rhc
rcarionship bcrvccnIindus andIoovcrs oIorhcrIairhs or noncj .
!rasoconccrnsrhc divcrgcnccsvirhinIinduismirscI.1hc divisions
do, oI coursc, incudc rhosc bascd on casrc, and rhc narurc oI
conrcmporary !ndian poirics rcIccrs rhis ar diIIcrcnr cvcs virh
incscapabcIorcc.urrhcdivcrsiricsrharcharacrcrizcIinduismrcarc
nor | usr ro casrc. 1hcy aso cncompass divcrgcnr bcicIs, disrincr
cusromsanddiIIcrcnrschoosoIrcigiousrhoughr.
Lvcn rhc ancicnr cassiIicarion oI ' six sysrcms oI phiosophy` in
!ndiahad acknovcdgcd dccpy divcrsc bcicIs and rcasoning. Norc
rcccnry, in rhc Iourrccnrh ccnrury, vhcn rhc aurhorirarivc Iindu
schoar Nadhava
_
carya hcad oI rhc rcigious ordcr in
g
ringcri in
Nysorcj vrorc his Iamous Sanskrir rrcarisc Sarvadarsanasargraha
' CoccrionoIA!hiosophics` j , his discussions broughr oursharpy
rhccxrcnroIdivcrsiryoIdiIIcrcnrsysrcmsoIIindubcicI.
*This document was discussed in Essay I .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!n Iacr, sccing Iinduism as a unihcd rcigion is a compararivcy
rcccnr dcvcopmcnr. 1hcrcrm 'Iindu` vasrradirionay uscd mainy
asasignihcroIocarionandcounrry,rarhcrrhanoIanyhomogcncous
rcigiousbcicI.1hcvorddcrivcsIromrhcrivcr!ndusor'Sindhu`rhc
cradc oIrhc !ndusvacyciviizarionvhichIourishcdIrom around
3 000 BCE) and rhc namc oIrharrivcr is aso rhc sourcc oIrhc vord
'!ndia` irscI. 1hc !crsians and rhc Grccks sav !ndia as rhc and
aroundandbcyondrhc!ndus, andIindusvcrcrhcnarivcpcopcoI
rhar and. Nusims Irom !ndia vcrc ar onc sragc cacd 'Iindavi`
Nusims, in!crsian asvc as Arabic, and rhcrc arcpcnryoIrcIcr-
cnccs in cary rirish documcnrs ro 'Iindoo Nusims` and 'Iindoo
Chrisrians` , ro disringuish rhcm rcspccrivcy Irom Nusims and
ChrisriansIromoursidc!ndia.
A pcrvasivcpurairyoIrcigious bcicIs and rradirions characrcr-
izcs Iinduism as a rcigion. 1hc poinr can bc iusrrarcd virh rhc
arrirudcroKama,invhoscnamcsomuchoIrhccurrcnrIindupoir-
ica acrivism is bcing invokcd incuding dcmoishing rhc abri
mosguc in Ayodhya, caimcd ro bc 'rhc birrhpacc oI Kama` j . 1hc
idcnrihcarionoIKamavirhdiviniryiscommoninrhcnorrhandvcsr
oI!ndia, burcscvhcrc Ior cxampc, in mynarivccngaj , Kama is
argcyrhchcroickingoIrhccpicRmiyma, rarhcrrhanGodincar-
narc. 1hc Rmiyma irscI is, oI coursc, vidcy popuar, as an cpic,
cvcryvhcrc in !ndia, and has bccn so oursidc !ndia as vc - in
1haiand and !ndoncsia, Ior cxampc cvcnAyurrhaya, rhc hisrorica
capira oI1haiand, is a cognarc oIAyodhyaj . urrhcpovcr andin-
Iucncc oIrhc cpic Rmiyma - a vondcrIu ircrary achicvcmcnr-
has ro bc disringuishcdIromrhcparricuar issuc oIKama`s diviniry.
Asimiarobscrvarioncanbcmadcabourrhccaims roprc-cmincnr
diviniry oIrhc orhcrpurarivcy divinc characrcrs inoncparr oI!ndia
or anorhcr. !Ivc musr usc rhc anaogy oIrhc 'mcring por` and rhc
'saad bov` , ro vhich rcIcrcncc vas madc caricr, rhc Iindu rradi-
rionsdonorconsrirurcamcringporinanyscnscvharcvcr.1hisnccd
nor,oIcoursc, prcvcnrIindusIromivingrogcrhcringrcarharmony
andmuruarocrancc, burrhcsamcgocsIor acommuniryoIIindus,
Nusims,Chrisrians,Sikhs,|ains,uddhisrs,!arsccs,|cvsandpcopc
virhouranyrcigion.
3 10
SECULARISM AND ITS DIS CONTENTS
On the 'Muslim Sectarianism: Critique
! rurn nov ro rhc issuc oI rhc acgcd Nusim disoyary ro !ndia.
Spirircd anccdorcs abound onrhis sub| ccr, varying Irom rhc acgcd
Ircgucncy oI!ndian Nusims spyingIor !akisran, ro rhcirrcndcncy,
vc arcrod, ro chccrrhc!akisranicrickcrrcam in rcsrmarchcs. '
1hcrc is, in Iacr, no scrious cvidcncc Ior rhc hyporhcsis oI rhc
poiricadisoyaryoI!ndianNusims. AgrcarmanyNusimssraycd
onin posr-parririon!ndia insrcad oIgoing ro !akisranj as a dcib-
crarcdccisionrorcmainvhcrcrhcyIcrrhcybcongcd.!nrhc!ndian
armcd Iorccs, dipomaric scrviccs and adminisrrarion, Nusims`
rccord on oyary ro !ndia is no diIIcrcnr Irom rhar oIIindus and
orhcr !ndians. 1hcrc is no signiIicanr cmpirica cvidcncc ro sub-
sranriarc rhc cririguc, and rhc unIairncss oIrhis spccious inc oI
rcasoningis guirchardro bcar. '
Acgarions oI Nusim sccrarianism arc somcrimcs inkcd virh a
ccrrain rcading oI !ndian hisrory rhough 'rcading` may vc bc rhc
vrong vord ro usc hcrcj . Nusim kings vcrc, ir is caimcd, consis-
rcnry aicnarcd Irom rhcir Iindu sub| ccrs and rrcarcd rhcm bady.
Sincc!havcdiscusscdrhc biascdnarurcoIrhisacgarioncscvhcrcin
rhis book parricuary in Lssay 3 j, ! sha nor pursuc rhis spccihc
gucsrionagainhcrc. !vi,hovcvcr, commcnron apoinroImcrhod-
oogy,rarhcrrhanoIcmpiricahisrory.!nrhcconrcxroIdcIcndingrhc
imporrancc oIsccuarism inconrcmporary!ndia,irisnorinanyvay
csscnriaro makc anycaim vharsocvcr abourhovNusimcmpcrors
oIrhcpasrhadbchavcd - vhcrhcrrhcyvcrcsccrarianorassimiarivc,
opprcssivc or rocranr. 1hcrc is noinrrinsic rcason vhy a dcIcncc oI
!ndia`ssccuarismmusrrakcaposiriononvhar,say,rhcNoghasdid
The case of Kashmir is, of course, different in several respects, including its separ
ate history and the peculiar politics of its accession to India and its aftermath. The evi
dent disaffection of a substantial part of the Kashmiri Muslim population relates to
the very special political circumstances obtaining there and the treatment they have
received respectively from both India and Pakistan. The Kashmir issue certainly
demands political attention on its own (I am not taking up that thorny question here),
but the special circumstances infuencing the viewpoint of 4 million Kashmiri Muslims
can scarcely be used to question the strong record of national loyalty and solidarity of
more than I40 million Muslims in general in India.
3 1 1
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ordidnor do. 1hc 'guir` oINusim kings, iIany,nccdnorbc'rrans-
Icrrcd` rorhc tqo miionNusims vhoivc in!ndia roday. Aso, vc
canscarccyIorm a vicvoIrhcpoirica commirmcnrs oINusims in
conrcmporary !ndia, or oIrhcir poirica oyarics, by chccking vhar
Nusimkings mighr ormighrnor havc donc manyccnrurics ago.
On the Anti-modernist ' Critique
1urningnovrorhc 'anri-modcrnisr` cririgucoIsccuarism,isirrcay
rhc casc rhar ' as !ndia gcrs modcrnizcd, rcigious viocncc is incrcas-
ing` as Ashis andy saysj ! 1hcrc arc ccrrainy pcriods in hisrory in
vhichrhisis cxacryvharhashappcncd.!or cxampc, rhccommuna
riors immcdiarcy prcccding rhc parririon oI rirish !ndia in I pq7
amosrccrrainyrookmanymorc ivcs rhananyviocncc bcrvccnrhc
diIIcrcnrcommuniricscaricr oninrhcccnrury. urasrhccounrryhas
movcdonIromrhcrc prcsumabynordccrcasingin 'modcrniry` j , rhc
gcncracvcoIviocncchasIacnIromirspcakinrhctpqos - indccd,
rhcnumbcroIincidcnrshavcbccnguircrinyincomparisonvirhvhar
happcncdhaIaccnruryago.
Vc musrnor,hovcvcr,inrcrprcrAshisandy`ssrarcmcnrrooircr-
ay.1hcrhcsis prcscnrcd dcasvirha prcsumcd shiIrinrhc ongrun,
avayIrom a prc-modcrn siruarionin vhich 'rradirionavays oIiIc`
had, ' ovcr rhc ccnrurics, dcvcopcd inrcrna principcs oIrocrancc` .
1hcrci sundoubrcdysomcpausibiiryi nsuch a diagnosis - rhcrc is
somccvidcnccrharrhccvcoIcommunaviocnccdidindccdincrcasc
virh coonia ruc. nrhcorhcrhand,cvcninrhcprc-cooniapasroI
!ndia rhcrc vcrc pcriods in vhich viocncc, cspcciay by sccrarian
armcd Iorccs, had cscaarcd sharpy, andrhcn cbbcd. andy is righr
ro asscrr rhar, in gcncra, 'principcs oI rocrancc` havc rcndcd ro
dcvcop cvcnruay, as pcopc oI diIIcrcnr backgrounds havc scrrcd
dovnroivcncxrrocachorhcr.!risnor,!bcicvc,ccnrraIorandy`s
rhcsisrochcckvhcrhcrrhcrimcrrcndoIcommunaviocncchas bccn
consisrcnry upvards, nor parricuary inrcrcsring ro comparc rhc
numbcrs kicdin rcccnr ycarsvis-a-visrhoscin rhc pasr rhc massivc
incrcasc in rhc absourc sizc oI rhc popuarion voud bias rhosc
comparisonsanyvayj .1hcpoinrrarhcrisrhcrhcsisrharprincipcsoI
3 I2
SECULARISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS
rocrancc do dcvcop in muri-communiry socicrics, uncss rhcy arc
disruprcd by conrrary movcs, and andy sccs rhc dcvcopmcnr oI
'modcrnism` as| usrsuchamovc.
urvhar cxacry is 'modcrnism` rharcoudso disruprrhc proccss
oIrocrancc! 1hcconccproImodcrniryisnorancasyoncroidcnriIy,
cvcn rhough many posr-modcrnisrs sccm ro sharc rhc modcrnisrs`
comIorrabc bcicIin rhc casiy characrcrizcd narurc oI modcrnism.
Vc may vish ro rcsisr bcing scnr oII on an crrand ro hnd rhc 'rruc
mcaning oI modcrnism` , and prcIcr ro conccnrrarc insrcad on rhc
spccihc dcpicrion oI 'sccuarism as modcrnism` , vhich is ccnrra ro
andy`s rhcsis. 1hc poinr oIdcparrurc voud rhcn bc rhc argumcnr
IorccIuyprcscnrcdbyandy asvas guorcd caricrj . '1o acccprrhc
idcoogy oI sccuarism is ro acccpr rhc idcoogics oI progrcss and
modcrniry as rhc ncv | usriIicarion oI dominarion, and rhc usc oI
viocncc ro achicvc and susrainidcoogics as rhc ncv opiarcs oIrhc
masscs. ` 1hisisguirc anarricuarc - indccd, rcrriIying - vision, burir
voud sccm ro bc a rarhcr odd characrcrizarion oI sccuarism. 1hc
principc oI sccuarism, in rhc broadcr inrcrprcrarion cndorscd in
!ndia, dcmands as vas discusscd caricrj symmcrric rrcarmcnr oI
diIIcrcnr rcigious communirics in poirics and in rhc aIIairs oI rhc
srarc.!ris norobviousvhy suchsymmcrricrrcarmcnrmusr somchov
inducc incscapabc viocncc ro achicvc and susrain idcoogics as rhc
ncvopiarcsoIrhcmasscs.
! amavarc rharrhc narionsrarc is undcr grand arrackrhcsc days,
and!asoknovrharinrhisarrackirissccnas aconsranrpcrpcrraror
oIviocncc.And!amasorcadyroacccprrharrhcsrarcinrhcmodcrn
vord has bccn rcsponsibc Ior many viocnr rhings nor ncccssariy
morc rhan in rhc pasr, bur signihcanr ncvcrrhccssj . ! am aso avarc
rhar, ina much Iavourcdconrcmporaryrhcory, anarionsrarcrrics ro
'homogcnizcro hcgcmonizc` . urir sccms, ar bcsr, inrcnscy absrracr
rosccsuchviocnccoccurringvhcncvcrrhcsrarcsropsIavouringonc
rcigiouscommuniryovcranorhcr.
!r is rhus hard ro cscapc rhc suspicion rhar somcrhing has gonc
oddy vrong in rhc circd diagnosrics. or is ir obvious vhy sccuar
symmcrryshoudbcacharacrcrisriconyoI'modcrniry` . !ndccd,cvcn
ancicnr srarcs run by, say, an Ashoka or anAkbar vcnr a ong vay
rovards achicving | usr such a symmcrric rrcarmcnr, bur rhcrc is no
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
cvidcnccrharrhcschisroricaarrcmprs arsccuarsymmcrryincrcascd,
rarhcrrhancsscncd, communaviocncc.
!r is nor rcay hcpIu ro scc sccuarism and modcrnism in rhcsc
oddyIormuaicrcrms.!ndccd, 'rhcprincipcsoIrocrancc` , onvhich
andyrcics, arcnorrcay so rcmorcIromraking a symmcrric vicv
oIorhcrcommunirics,andiriscssrhanIairropoiricasccuarismro
bc dcpicrcd as ir is in rhcsc indicrmcnrs. 1hc dcvcopmcnr oIsccuar
arrirudcsandpoiricscansurcybc aparroIrharmcchanismoIrocr-
ancc,rarhcrrhanrunningagainsrir, uncssvc choosc ro dchncsccu-
arisminsomcspcciayoddvay.
Aso,rhc idca oI'modcrniry` is dccpy probcmaric ingcncra. Vas
AshokaorAkbarmorcorcss 'modcrn`rhanAurangzcb! !crhapsrhc
gucsrion bcing raiscd hcrc can bc iusrrarcd virh anorhcr hisrorica
cxampc,invovingdiIIcrcnccs bcrvccnconrcmporarics. Considcr rhc
conrrasrbcrvccnrhcsccrariandcsrrucrioncauscdby Suran Nahmud
oIGhazni in rhc ccvcnrhccnrury, and rhc rcacrions oIAbcruni, rhc
Arab-!ranian rravccr and disringuishcd Nusim marhcmaricianj ,
vho accompanicdNahmudro!ndia andIcrrcvorcdbyrhcviocncc
hcsav.'NahmudurrcryruincdrhcprospcriryoIrhccounrry,andpcr-
IormcdrhcrcvondcrIucxpoirs, byvhichIindusbccamcikcaroms
oIdusrscarrcrcd in a dirccrions. ` Icvcnr onrosuggcsr - pcrhaps
ovcrgcncraizing a irrc - rhar rhc Iindus, as a rcsur, 'chcrish, oI
coursc, rhc mosr invcrcrarc avcrsion rovards a Nusims` . 1har
'avcrsion`vas,happiy, norcnoughroprcvcnrAbcruniIromhavinga
argc numbcr oIIinduIricnds andcoaborarors,virhvhosc hcphc
masrcrcd Sanskrir and srudicd rhc conrcmporary !ndian rrcariscs on
marhcmarics, asrronomy, scuprurc,phiosophyandrcigion. '
Iovcvcr, Abcruni did nor srop rhcrc, burprocccdcdroprovidcan
anaysis oIvhy pcopc oI onc background rcnd ro bc suspicious oI
rhoscIromorhcrbackgrounds, andidcnrihcdrhcnccdIorabaanccd
undcrsranding oIrhcsc probcms as vas discusscd in Lssay t j j . a
' dcprcciarion oI Iorcigncrs nor ony prcvais among us and rhc
Iindus, bur is common ro a narions rovards cach orhcr` .I4 1hosc
*In fact, Alberuni's work and his translations of Indian mathematical and astro
nomical treatises had great influence in continuing the Arabic studies (well established
by the eighth century) of Indian science and mathematics, which reached Europe
through the Arabs.
SECULARISM AND ITS DISCONTENTS
vho ikc 'modcrnism` voud probaby prcIcr ro scc Abcruni as a
'modcrninrcccrua` oIsomc kind abcirIromrhc ccvcnrhccnruryj .
urvcnccdnorbringin modcrnism - cirhcri npraisc ori ndcnunci-
arion- ara,rorccognizcvisdomvhcnvccncounrcrir.
On the cultural' Critique
!rurnhnayrorhc 'curura`cririguc,androrhcsuggcsrionrhar!ndia
shoudrcay bc sccnas a 'Iinducounrry`, incururarcrms. 1his,ir
is argucd,miirarcsagainsrsccuarismin!ndia,sinccsccuarismdcnics
rharacgcdy basicrccognirion.
1hcrcarcrvogucsrionsrobcraiscdhcrc.!irsr,cvcniIirvcrcrighr
ro scc !ndian cururc as guinrcsscnriay Iindu cururc, ir voud bc
vcry oddro aicnarc, onrharground, rhc righrro cguapoirica and
cga rrcarmcnr oI minorirics incuding rhc poirica sranding and
righrs oIrhc 140 miion or morc !ndian Nusimsj . Vhy shoud rhc
curura dominanccoIoncrradirion,cvcniIir cxisrs, rcduccrhcpoir-
ica cnrircmcnrs and righrs oI rhosc Irom orhcr rradirions ! Vhar
shoudrcmovcrhcirrighrs ascguacirizcns !
1hc sccond probcm virh rhc rhcsis is rhar irs rcading oI !ndian
hisrory and cururc is cxrrcmcy shaov. 1hc curura inhcrirancc oI
conrcmporary !ndia combincs !samic inIucnccs virh Iindu and
orhcrrradirions, andrhcrcsurs oIrhcinrcracrionbcrvccnmcmbcrs
oIdiIIcrcnrrcigiouscommuniricscanbcsccnpcnriIuyinircrarurc,
music, painring, archirccrurc andmany orhcr hcds. 1hcpoinris nor
onyrharsomanyoIrhcma| orconrriburionsinrhcscvarioushcdsoI
!ndian cururc havc comc Irom !samic vrircrs, musicians, painrcrs
and so on, bur aso rharrhcirvorks arcrhoroughyinrcgrarcdvirh
rhoscoIorhcrs.
!ndccd,cvcnrhcnarurcoIIindurcigiousbcicIsandpracriccshas
bccn subsranriay inIucnccd by conracr virh !samic idcas and
vaucs. ' 1hcimpacroI!samicSuhrhoughrisrcadiyrccognizabcin
* On this, see Kshiti Mohan Sen, Hinduism (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, I96I,
2005) . He discusses the interrelations in greater detail in his Bengali book Bharate
Hindu Mushalmaner ]ukto Sadhana ( Calcutta: Visva-Bharati, I949; extended edn.,
I990) .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
parrs oIconrcmporaryIinduircrarurc. !urrhcrmorc,rcigiouspocrs
ikc Kabir or adu vcrc born Nusim bur rransccndcd sccriona
boundarics oncoIKabir`svcrscsdccarcs. 'KabirisrhcchidoIAah
and oI Kam. Ic is my Guru, Ic is my !ir`` j . 1hcy vcrc srrongy
aIIccrcd by Iindu dcvoriona pocrry and, in rurn, proIoundy inHu-
cnccd ir. 1hcrc is, in Iacr, no communa inc ro bc dravn rhrough
!ndian ircrarurc and arrs, scrring Iindus and Nusims on scpararc
sidcs.
Anorhcr scrious probcm virh rhc narrov rcading oI '!ndian
cururc as Iindu cururc` is rhc cnraicd ncgccr oI many maj or
achicvcmcnrsoI!ndianciviizarionrharhavcnorhingmuchrodovirh
rcigious rhinking ar a. 1hc Iocus on rhc disrincry Iindu rcigious
rradirioncIIccrivcycavcsouroIrhc accounringrarionaisrandnon-
rcigiouspursuirs in !ndia. 1his is a scriousncgccr,parricuaryIora
counrry invhich somc oIrhcdccisivc srcps in agcbra, gcomcrry and
asrronomy vcrc rakcn, vhcrc rhc dccima sysrcm cmcrgcd, vhcrc
cassica phiosophy dcar cxrcnsivcy virh cpisrcmoogy and ogic
aong virh sccuar crhics, vhcrc pcopc invcnrcd gamcs ikc chcss,
pionccrcd scx cducarion and iniriarcd sysrcmaric poirica cconomy
andIormainguisrics.
1o bcsurc,inhisIamousHistory of British India, pubishcdinr 8 r7,
|amcs Ni did caborarc jusr such a vicv oI!ndia, an !ndia rhar vas
inrcccruaybankruprburIuoIrcigious idcas norromcnrionNi`s
poinrcrrobarbarous socia cusromsj . |Ni`s 'hisrory`,vrirrcnvirhour
visiring!ndiaorcarningany!ndiananguagc,may,insomcvays,havc
scrvcdvcrhcpurposcoIrrainingyoungrirish oniccrsgcrringrcady
rocrossrhcscasandruc asubjccrnarion,burirvoudscarccysuIIicc
asa basisIorundcrsrandingrhc narurc oI!ndiancururc.
1hcrc arc good rcasons ro rcsisr rhc anri-sccuar cnriccmcnrs rhar
havcbccnsopcnriIuyoIIcrcdrcccnry. 1hcvinrcroIourdisconrcnr
mighr nor bc giving vay ar prcscnr ro a 'gorious summcr`, bur rhc
poirica abandonmcnr oI sccuarism voud makc !ndia Iar morc
vinrryrhanircurrcnryis.
'"This issue was discussed in a broader context in Essay 3 .
tOn the nature and infuence of James Mill's reading of Indian culture, see Essays 4
and 7
3
1 6
India through Its Calendars :
'1hccacndar` ,argucdNcghnadSaha,rhcdisringuishcdscicnrisrand
rhc cadcr oIcacndar rcIorm in!ndia, 'is an indispcnsabcrcguisirc
oImodcrnciviizcd iIc. ` Iccoudhavc gonc Iurrhcr rhanrhar. 1hc
nccd Ior a cacndar has bccn srrongy Icr - and vc undcrsrood -
vcbcIorcrhcmodcrnagc.1hccacndar,inoncIormoranorhcr,has
bccn an indispcnsabcrcguisirc oIciviizcdiIcIor a vcryong rimc
indccd. 1his cxpains vhy so many cacndars arc so vcry od, and
aso vhy mosr civiizarions, hisroricay, havc givcn birrh ro onc or
morc spccihc cacndars oI rhcir ovn. 1hc muripiciry oI cacndars
virhinacounrryandvirhinacururc broadydchncdjhasrcndcdro
rcarcrorhcdispararcprcoccuparionsoIdiIIcrcnrgroupsrharcocxisr
in a counrry.
Calendars as Clues to Society and Culture
1hc srudy oIcacndarsandrhcirhisrory,usagcandsociaassociarions
can providc a IruirIu undcrsranding oIimporranr aspccrs oIa coun-
rryandirscururcs. !orcxampc, sincccacndarsoIrcnhavcrcigious
rocs,rhcrcissomcrimcsaccarconnccrionbcrvccnrcgionarcigions
and domcsric cacndars. !ndccd, cvcn rhc goba cacndars oI rhc
vord arc oIrcn cassihcdas 'Chrisrian`, 'Nusim`, 'uddhisr` and so
on. 1hc connccrion bcrvccn cacndars and cururcs, hovcvcr, gocs
vcbcyondrhisccmcnraryinkagc.Sinccrhcconsrrucrion oIcacn-
dars rcguircsrhc usc oImarhcmarics asvcasasrronomy, andsincc
This essay was frst published in the Little Magazine, I (May 2ooo) .
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
rhcIuncrioninganduriizarionoIcacndarsinvovcs curura sophisri-
carionandurbaniry,rhchisroryoIcacndricaprogrcsscanrcusaor
abourrhc socicryinvhichrhcscdcvcopmcnrs occur.
!urrhcrmorc, givcnrhcIacrrharocarimcsvaryvirhrhccxacroca-
rionoIcachpaccvirhinacounrry,rhcuscoIasharcdrimcandacom-
mon cacndar rcguircs rhc Iixing oI a rcIcrcncc ocarion such as
GrccnvichIorrirainjandaprincipamcridianinrhccascoIrirain,
rhc onc rharruns rhrough Grccnvich, giving usrhc Grccnvich Ncan
1imc,GN1j . 1hcdcrcrminarionoIarcIcrcnccocarionandaprincipa
mcridianis aso,iIonyimpiciry,apoiricadccision,rcquiringaninrc-
grarcdvicv oIrhc counrry. Vhcn GN1 vas imposcd as rhc nariona
srandardin arc-nincrccnrh-ccnruryrirain rhccinchingsrarurc camc
in I 8 8o) , ir vas nor an unconrrovcrsia dccision. rhosc in opposirion
incudcd rhc Asrronomcr Koya, and aso scI-conhdcnr insrirurions
rhar vaucd rhcir indcpcndcncc and rhc 'accuracy` oIrhcir rcspccrivc
ocarimcs.1hcgrcarcock oIChrisr ChurchinxIordconrinucd,Ior
avhic,roshov,rhroughancxrrahand, borh GN1andirs ocarimc
- hvc minurcs bchind GN1 - and rhc cocgc rradirion aovcd rhc
bcicIrhar ' oncisnor arc rihvcminurcs pasr rhcappoinrcdrimc, rhar
is ri onc is arc by xIord mcan soar rimc as vc as Grccnvich`.
Vhcn, in I 8 84, ar rhc !nrcrnariona Ncridian ConIcrcncc in
Vashingron,C,rhcmcridianrhroughGrccnvichvasgivcnrhcsrarus
oI bcing 'rhc primc mcridian Ior a narions` by vhich GN1 aso
acguircdirsoIIiciainrcrnarionaposirionj,rirain`sdominanrsranding
invordaIIairsccrrainypaycdanimporranrpoiricaparr.
ccauscoIrhcscassociarions,rhcnarurc,IormandusagcoIcacndars
inaparricuarsocicrycanrcachusagrcardcaabourirspoirics,cururc
andrcigion asvcasirs scicncc andmarhcmarics. 1his appics cvcnro
asdivcrsc acounrryas !ndia, andirisinrhis scnscrharrhcrcvibcan
arrcmpr inrhiscssayrorryro undcrsrand!ndia rhroughirscacndars.
Millennia! Occasions and Akbar's Concerns
1hiscssayis bcingvrirrcnasrhcsccondmicnnium oIrhcGrcgorian
cacndar comcs ro an cnd. 1har momcnr oI passagc has bccn inrcr-
prcrcdinrvo disrincrvays.!n onc sysrcmoIcounring,rhc Grcgorian
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
sccondmicnnium vi cnd on 3 t cccmbcr zooo, burrhc girrcring
cccbrarions rhar havc arcady occurrcd on 3 t cccmbcr tppp indi-
carc rhar rhc orhcr vicv- according ro vhich vc arc arcady in rhc
rhirdmicnnium- hasirs dcvorcd supporrcrs, arcasr amongrhcIun-
ovingvordpopuarion.
LvcnrhoughrhcdivisionsoIrimcrharanyparricuarcacndargivcs
arc guirc arbirraryanddcpcndcnronpurcconvcnrion,ncvcrrhccss a
sociaydcviscdcccbrarorybrcak poinrinrimccanbcanappropriarc
occasion Ior rcHccrion on rhc narurc oIrhc vord in vhich vc ivc.
iIIcrcnrvays oIsccing!ndia - IrompurcyIinduism-ccnrrcdvicvs
ro inrcnscly sccuar inrcrprcrarions - arc compcring virh cach orhcr
Ior arrcnrion. 1hccacndarsrcarcrodisrincrrcigions andcusroms.
!risvorrhrccoccringinrhisconrcxrrharairrcovcrIourhundrcd
ycarsagovhcnrhchrsrmicnniuminrhcNusimIi|ricacndarvas
compcrcd rhcycar tooooIrhcIi|ricraranIromp crobcr t pt ro
z;Scprcmbcr t pzj , LmpcrorAkbarvas cngagcdin a simiar - bur
vcry much grandcr - cxcrcisc in rhc Nusim-dominarcd bur dccpy
muri-rcigious!ndia.Akbar`schampioningoIrcigiousrocranccis,oI
coursc, vcryvc knovn, and isrighrysccn asproviding onc oIrhc
ma| or buiding bocks oI!ndian sccuarism. ur in addirion, Akbar`s
acrions andpoicics asorcarcdcoscyro his cnguirics andinrcrprc-
rarionsoI!ndia, andinrharinvcsrigarion, rhc cacndrica sysrcmshad
animporranrpacc.
!ndccd, Akbar rricd ro undcrsrand rhc diIIcrcnr cacndars knovn
and uscd in !ndia, aong virh rrying ro srudy rhc diIIcrcnr rcigions
pracriscdinrhccounrry. Icvcnron,inrhcasrdccadcoIrhcmicn-
nium in Iacr, in ppzIi|ri, corrcsponding ro I 5 8q CE) , ro proposc a
synrhcric cacndar Iorrhc counrry as a vhoc, rhc '1arikh-iahi`, | usr
ashc asoproposcdanamagamarcdrcigion,rhc'in-iahi`,draving
on rhc diIIcrcnr rcigions rhar cxisrcd in !ndia. cirhcr oIrhcsc rvo
innovarions survivcd, bur rhc morivarions bchind rhc rvo movcs -
inrcrrcarcd as rhcy arc - havc rcccivcd arrcnrion ovcr rhc ccnrurics
andrcmainvcryrccvanrroday. 1hcprcscnrmicnniaIoccasionmay
vcbcanappropriarcmomcnrrorcrurnrosomcoIAkbar`sgucsrions
andconccrns, prcscnrcdarrhc cndoIa diIIcrcnrmilcnnium.
1orhis,!sharcrurnarrhccndoIrhccssay. urhrsr!musrcxam-
incrhcprincipacacndarsrharhavcgovcrncdrhcivcsoI!ndians,and
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Arjuna hits the target: Daswant
J
described by Abu! Fazl as the greatest Indian
painter in AkbarJs courtJ depicts in Moghul style and letters a scene from the
Mahabharata
3 20
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
rry ro usc rhar inIormarion Ior vharcvcr undcrsranding oI !ndia ir
oIIcrs. 1his pcrspccrivccanprovidccucsromany diIIcrcnraspccrs oI
rhcscicncc and socicryoI!ndia as vc as irs cururcs andpracriccs.
The Indian Calendars
!ndia providcs an asronishing varicry oI cacndrica sysrcms, virh
rcspccrivchisroricsrharsrrcrchovcrscvcrarhousandycars.1hcoIIi-
cia Cacndar KcIorm Commirrcc, appoinrcd in 19 5 2 shorry aIrcr
!ndian indcpcndcnccj , vhich vas chaircd byNcghnad Saha himscI,
idcnrihcdmorcrhanrhirryvc-dcvcopcdcacndars insysrcmaricusc
inrhccounrry.1hcscdisrincrcacndarsrcarcrorhcdivcrscburinrcr-
rcarcd hisrorics oI rhc communirics, ocairics, rradirions and
rcigionsrharhavccocxisrcdin!ndia. !Ioncvanrcd conhrmarion oI
rhcpcrvasivcpuraismoI!ndia,rhccacndarsoI!ndiavoudprovidc
hnccvidcnccinrhardirccrion.
1hc aurhorirarivc Whitakers Almanack rcduccs rhis ong isr ro
scvcn principa '!ndian cras` . !r aso givcs rhc rransarion oI rhc
Grcgorianycar 2000 inrorhcsc scccrcdma| orcacndars. Sincc, hov-
cvcr, rhc bcginning oIrhcycar indiIIcrcnrcacndars occurs ardiIIcr-
cnrrimcs andindiIIcrcnrscasons Ior cxampc,rhc
g
akacra, rhcmosr
vidcy uscd indigcnous cacndar in !ndia, bcgins in spring, in rhc
middc oIAprij , rhcsc rransarions havc ro bc sccn inrcrms oIsub-
sranriaovcraprarhcrrhanIucongrucncc.1hcGrcgorianycar2000
CLcorrcsponds, Whitakers Almanack rcporrs,rcspccrivcyvirh.
Year 6oo1 in the Kaliyuga calendar;
Year 2544 in the Buddha Nirvala calendar;
Year 20 5 7 in the Vikrar Sarvat calendar;
Year 1922 in the
S
aka calendar;
Year 1 921 ( shown in terms of five-year cycles) of the Vedalga Jyotisa
calendar;
Year 1407 in the Bengali San calendar; and
Year 1 176 in the Kollar calendar.
1o rhis isr, vc can oIcoursc add orhcr ma| or cacndars in cxrcnsivc
uscin!ndia, incudingrhcodNahavrairvapacacndarassociarcd
3 21
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
virh|ainism in usc Ior abourrhc samc cngrhoI rimc asrhc uddha
irvapa cacndarj , and arcr addirions, such as rhc !samic Ii|ri, rhc
!arscc cacndar and various vcrsions oIChrisrian darc sysrcms and
asorhc|udaiccacndar,inocauscinKcraasinccrhcarriva oI|cvs
in!ndia,shorryaIrcrrhcIa oI|crusacmj .
Ancient India and Its Calendars
!ris ccarIrom rhc rabcoI!ndiancacndarsin Whitaker's Almanack
rharrhcKaiyugacacndarisapparcnrymuchodcrrhan - andguirc
ouroIincvirh - rhcorhcrsurvivingodcacndars.!rasohasasomc-
vharspcciasrandingbccauscoIirsinkvirhrhcrcigiousaccounroI
rhc hisrory oI rhc vord, dcscribcd virh marhcmarica - iI mind-
bogging- prccision. !ris rhc asrandrhc shorrcsroIrhcIouryugas,
mcanr ro asr Ior 4 3 2, ooo ycars, and has bccn prcccdcd rcspccrivcy
byrhrccorhcryugas, vhichvcrc incngrh- goingbackvards- rvo,
rhrcc and Iour rimcs as ong as rhc Kaiyuga, making up a rora oI
4, 3 2o,ooo ycars arogcrhcr. j !r is, oI coursc, rruc rhar rhc Vikram
Samvar and rhc

aka cacndars arc aso somcrimcs cacd 'Iindu

cacndars`, andrhcyarc amosrinvariabyisrcdundcrrharhcading,
Ior cxampc in The Oxford Companion to the Year. ur rhcy arc
mainysccuarcacndricasysrcmsrharvcrcdcviscdanduscd - Iora
purposcs incuding, inter alia, rcigious oncs - by pcopc vho
happcncd ro bc Iindus. !n conrrasr, Kaiyuga is givcn an orrhodox
and primordia rcigious srarus. !urrhcrmorc, as rhc ancicnrncss oI
Iinduism is nor in doubr, and sincc ancicnr !ndia is oIrcn sccn as
primariyIindu!ndia,rhcrcmporascnioriryoIrhcKaiyugahasaso
acguircdapoiricasignihcanccoIirsovn,vhichhasabcaringinrhc
inrcrprcrarion oI!ndiaasa counrryandasaciviizarion.
!nrcrcsringycnough, accordingro Whitaker's Almanack Kaiyuga
roo, ikcrhc Grcgorian, is arrhccndoIamicnnium- irs sixrh.1his
' doubc micnnium` sccms ro oIlcr causc Ior somc | oiry such co-
incidcnccsdonoroccurrharoIrcnj , norromcnrionrhcopporruniryoI
incxpcnsivc chauvinismIor!ndians ro cccbrarcrhccompcrion oIa
sixrh micnnium arabourrhc samc rimc rhar rhc upsrarr Luropcans
cn| oyrhccndoIrhcirmodcsrsccondmicnnium.
3 22
INDIA THROUGH I TS CALENDARS
IovaurhcnricisrhisdaringoIKaiyugain Whitaker's Almanack?
1hcAlmanack is guircrighrro rcporrvharis ccary rhc oIIicia darc
oIrhcKaiyugacacndar.!ndccd,rhardaringisguircvidcyuscd,and
cvcnrhc Cacndar KcIorm Commirrcc rcporrcdrhc samc convcnrion
noring rhar ycar tpq CE vas ycar o in Kaiyuga, vhich docs
corrcspond cxacry ro zooo CE bcing 6oo1 Kaiyugaj . Iovcvcr, rhis
numbcring convcnrion raiscs rvo disrincr gucsrions, vhich dcscrvc
scruriny. !irsr, docs rhcoIIiciaKaiyugadarccorrcspondrorhc 'zcro
poinr` oIrhcanayricasysrcmoIrhcKaiyugacacndar! Sccond, docs
rhczcropoinroIrhcKaiyugacacndarrcHccrirsacruahisroricaagc!
! Icar! havc ro bc rhc ki-|oyvho brings a doubydrab mcssagc.
!irsr, rhc zcro poinr oI Kaiyuga is nor 6,ooi bur , tot ycars ago
corrcsponding ro j tot-j toz BCE) . Sccond, rhis zcro poinr , tot
ycars agoj i s mosrunikcy ro havc bccnrhc acrua darc oIorigin oI
rhiscacndar.
1hc hrsrpoinris nor in any kind oI dispurc, and rhc dcIcndcrs oI
rhc prc-cmincncc oIrhcKaiyuga cacndar rarcy dcnyrharrhc zcro
poinr is j tozBCE. 1hc zcro poinr can bc casiy vorkcd our Irom a
srarcmcnr oI
_
ryabha(a, rhc grcar !ndian marhcmarician and
asrronomcr born in rhc IiIrh ccnrury, vho had donc Ioundariona
vork in asrronomy andmarhcmarics,parricuaryrrigonomcrry, and
hadaso proposcdrhcdiurnamorionoIrhccarrh virhacorrcspon-
dingrhcoryoIgraviry- arcrcxpoundcdbyrahmaguprainrhcsixrh
ccnrury - ro cxpain vhy ob| ccrs arc nor rhrovn our as rhc carrh
rurnsj . Ic norcd rhar 3 , 6oo ycars oIrhc Kaiyuga cacndarvcrc| usr
compcrcd vhcn hc rurncd zj rhc ycar in vhich rhis prccocious
gcniusvrorchisdchnirivcmarhcmaricarrcariscj . 1harvasrhcycar
qztinrhc
g
akacacndar, vhich ovcrappcdvirhqpp CE. !romrhisir
canbcrcadiy vorkcd ourrhar zooo CE corrcspondsroycar totin
rhcKaiyugacacndar. 1hisraicsasovirhvharrhc!ndianCacndar
KcIorm Commirrcc acccprcd, onrhc basis oIarhc cvidcncc ir had.
1his robs us oI rhc opporruniry oI cccbraring a doubc micnnia
occasion- rhc Grcgorian sccond and rhc Kaiyuga sixrh- burir sri
cavcs rhc scnioriry oI rhc Kaiyuga ovcr rhc Grcgorian guirc unaI-
Iccrcd, sincc , totycars is guirc ong cnough ar casr Ior chauvinis-
ricpurposcsj .
!r is, hovcvcr, imporranr r orakc norc oI rhc oIrcn-ovcrookcd
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
disrincrionbcrvccnacacndar`shisroricaorigin,andirszcropoinras
a scaing dcvicc. 1o iusrrarc rhc disrincrion, ir may bc poinrcd our
rhar rhc zcro poinr in rhc Chrisrian cacndar vas, obviousy, hxcd
arcr, norvhcn|csus Chrisrvasborn.1hczcropoinroIrhcKaiyuga
cacndar is ccar cnough, bur in irscI ir docs nor rc us vhcn rhar
cacndrica sysrcm,incudingirs zcropoinr, vasadoprcd.
!r has bccncaimcdrharrhc origin or ycar zcroj inKaiyugavas
hxcd by acrua asrronomica obscrvarion in !ndia in 3 toz 8CL. 1his
has nor ony bccn srarcd by !ndian rradirionaisrs, ir aso rcccivcd
cndorscmcnr and supporr in rhc cighrccnrhccnruryIrom no css an
aurhoriry rhan rhc disringuishcd !rcnch asrronomcr |can-Syvain
aiy, vho compurcdrhc orbir IorIacy`s comcr. ur as rhc grcar
scicnrisr and marhcmarician !apacc shovcd, rhis hyporhcsis is nor
ikcyro bccorrccr. 1hcrc is a ccar discrcpancybcrvccnrhc acgcd
asrronomica obscrvarions as rcporrcd Ior rhc zcro ycarj and vhar
voudhavc bccnsccninrhcsky in 3 t oz8CL. !apacchadrhc bcnchr
oIconrcmporaryasrronomyrodorhiscacuarionguircprcciscy.1his
odcacndar, ancicnrasirundoubrcdyis, musrnorbcrakcn, !apacc
argucd, ascommcmoraringsomcacruaasrronomicaobscrvarion.
The Indian Tables indicate a much more refned astronomy, but everything
shows that it is not of an extremely remote antiquity . . . The Indian Tables
have two principal epochs, which go back, one to the year 3 102, the other to
the year 1491, before the Christian era . . . Notwithstanding all the arguments
brought forward with the interest he [Jean-Sylvain Bailly] so well knew how
to bestow on subj ects the most difficult, I am still of the opinion that this
period [from 3 102 BCE to 1491 BCE] was invented for the purpose of giving a
common origin to all the motions of the heavenly bodies in the zodiac.4
!crmcpauscairrchcrcronorcrvopoinrsoIsomcgcncrainrcrcsr.
!irsr, !apacc isdispuringhcrcrhcasrronomicacaims- oIrcnmadc-
asrovharvas acruay obscrvcdin 3 toz8CL, andrhccririguc isrhus
borh oIhisrory oIrhc Kaiyuga cacndarj and oI appicd asrronomy
rcgarding vhar vas obscrvcd and vhcnj . Sccond, !apacc docs nor
rrcarrhc daring oI 3 toz 8CLaspurcyarbirrary. Karhcr, hc givcs ir an
anayrica or marhcmarica srarus, as disrincr Irom irs asrronomica
sranding. ackvardcxrrapoarionmaybca badvayoIdoinghisrory,
burir is an cxcrciscoIsomcanayricainrcrcsroIirs ovn.
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
!ndccd, !aplacc can bc inrcrprcrcd as adding Iorcc ro rhc vicv,
vhichcanrcccivcsupporrIrom orhcr cvidcnccasvcl,rharirismarh-
cmarics rarhcr rhan obscrvariona scicncc ro vhich ancicnr !ndian
inrclccrualsvcrcincincdrogivcrhcir bcsrarrcnrion. !romrhc arirh-
mcric conundrums oIrhcAtharvaveda andrhcnumcrica Iascinarion
oIrhc cpicsrorhcgrammaricalrabcsoI!apiniandrhcnumbcringoI
scxua posirions by Varsayana, rhcrc is a rcmarkabc obscssion in
ancicnr !ndia virh cnumcrarion and cacularion. 1hc plcrhora oI
!ndian calcndars and rhc analyrica consrrucrion oI rhcir imagincd
hisroryhrvclinrorhisrcadingoI!ndianinrclccruarradirion.
KcrurningrorhcKaliyugacalcndar, iris alsopcrhaps oIsomcsig-
nihcanccrharrhcrcisnocorroborarionoIrhcuscoIrhcKaliyugaca-
cndarinrhcVcdas,vhicharcgcncralyrakcnrodarcIromrhcsccond
millcnnium8CL.1hcrcis, inIacr,plcnryoIcacndricaldiscussionsin
rhcVcdas,andaclcarcxposirionoIasysrcminvhichcachycarcon-
sisrs oIrvclvcmonrhs oIrhirry days,virha rhirrccnrh lcapj monrh
addcd cvcry hvc ycars. Vhilc rhc odcsr oIrhc Vcdas, rhc Rigveda,
ourlincs rhc maindivisions oIrhc solarycar inro monrhs andscasons
Iour scasons oInincry days cachj , rhc morc prccisc cacuarions,
including rhc ' cap` or inrcrcaaryj monrhs, can bc Iound in rhc
Atharvaveda. 5 urrhccxacraccounringsysrcmuscd inrhcKaiyuga
cacularions is norIound anyvhcrc in rhc Vcdas - ar lcasrnorinrhc
vcrsionsrharhavc comc dovnro us. !r appcars rharrhcrcisno ovcrr
orcvcncovcrrrcIcrcnccrorhcKaliyuga calcndar inrhcRmayaJa or
rhcMahabharata cirhcr.ConsidcrarionoIrhisandorhcrcvidcncccvcn
promprcd Ncghnad Saha and his colaborarors in rhc Cacndar
KcIorm Commirrccro suggcsrrharrhcKaliyugacalcndarmighrhavc
rakcn irs prcscnrIorm prcciscy ar rhc rimc oI
_
ryabha(a, in 499 CL.
!ndccd,rhcyspccularcdrharirs analyrica sysrcmis 'apurcasrronom-
ical hcrion crcarcd Ior Iaciliraring Iindu asrronomical calcularions
andvasdcsigncdrobccorrccronlyIor499 AD' .
1hismayormaynorbccxacrlyrighr,buriri sdiIIiculrr ocscapcrhc
concusionrharrhc Kaliyuga has nor bccn in uscmuchongcr - iIar
al ongcr - rhan orhcr old !ndian calcndars. 1hc Vikram Sai ]var
cacndar, vhichis guircvidcly uscd innorrh !ndia andin Gu|arar, is
rraccd ro rhcrcign oIKingVikramadirya, andhas a zcro poinr ar ;
8CL.urmanyoI rhcaccounrs oIrhcmagnihccnrVikramadiryaarcso
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
shroudcdinmysrcry,andrhcrcissoirrchrmcvidcnccoIirscaryusc,
rharirisdiIIicurrobcsurcoIrhccxacrhisroryoIrhc\ikramSaivar.
!n conrrasr, hovcvcr,vc do knovrharrhc
g
akacacndar, vhich has
azcropoinrnorncccssariyirshisroricaoriginjin78 CL,vasingood
uscby qpp CL.!ndccd,vcknovIrom
_
ryabha(a`s ovndaringoIrhc
KaiyugainrcrmsoIrhc
g
akacra qzt
g
akaycarjrhararcasrbyrhcn
rhc
g
akacraisvc knovn andin goodusc.Vhicrhcrcis vcryirrc
vrirrcn cvidcncc rhar survivcs on rhc usc oI rhc
g
aka cacndar or
indccdanyorhcrodcacndarj , irisvorrhnoringrharoncvc-knovn
rccord rhc adami inscriprionj daring Irom q6
g
aka cra or qj CL
docsconhrmrhcuscoIrhc
g
akacra norvcryongaIrcrrhc
_
ryabha(a
srarcmcnr, darcdarrhcqztsr
g
akaycar, orqpp CLj .
!ri shardrorcsisrrhcconcusionrhar,unikcvharappcarsIromrhc
rabc in Whitakers Almanack, rhc Kaiyuga is nor a onc Iorcrunncr
oIarhcorhcrcxranrcacndars.!nIacr,iriscvcnpossibcrharamong
rhc surviving cacndars roday, rhc uddha irvapa cacndar virh a
zcro poinr in qq 8CLj may acruay bc signihcanry odcr rhan rhc
Kaiyuga cacndar. And so, guirc possiby, is rhc Nahavra irvapa
cacndaroIrhc|ainsvirhazcropoinrin z 7 8CLj .Vhicrhchrsruscs
oIrhcsccacndarsarchardroidcnriIy,rhcrcissoidcvidcnccoIrhcusc
oI rhc uddhairvapa cacndar in Sri !anka Irom rhc hrsr ccnrury
8CL - caricr rhan any rhar poinr hrmy ro rhc usc oI rhc Kaiyuga
cacndar.
Sincc ! havc bccn guirc cririca oI rhc caims oI prioriry oI rhc
Kaiyuga cacndar as an od !ndian cacndar, ! shoudmakc a coupc
oIcarihcaroryobscrvarions,roprcvcnrmisundcrsrandings.!irsr,iris
normy purposc ro dcnyrhar rhc Kaiyuga cacndar may havc a vcry
od incagc. 1hcrc is much cvidcncc rhar ir dravs on odcr !ndian
cacndars, incuding rhosc discusscd in rhc \cdas. ur rhis ancicnr
!ndianinhcriranccissharcdaso byrhcuddhairv|acacndar and
rhc Nahavra irvapa cacndar. Vc havc ro rcmcmbcr rhar ancicnr
!ndiaisnor| usrIindu!ndia, andrhcrcisananccsrryrharissharcdby
scvcra diIIcrcnr rcigions rhar had rhcir origin or Hovcring in!ndia.
1hc oIrcn-rcpcarcd bcicI rhar !ndia vas a 'Iindu counrry` bcIorc
!sam arrivcd is, oIcoursc, a purc iusion, andrhc cacndrica srory
hrsvcinrovharvcknovIrom orhcrhcds oI!ndianhisrory.
Sccond, cvcn rhough rhc scnsua pcasurc oI cccbraring rhc
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
compcrionoIrhcsixrh!ndianmicnnium,comparcdvirhrhccnding
oI rhc sccond Grcgorian micnnium, may bc dcnicd ro rhc !ndian
chauvinisr, ir is ccar rhar by rhc rimc oIrhc origin oI Chrisrianiry,
rhcrcvcrcscvcracacndarscompcring Ior arrcnrionin rhc subconri-
ncnr.VhararcnovknovnasChrisriancacndarsdidnor,oIcoursc,
rakc rhar Iorm unri much arcr, bur cvcn rhc Koman cacndars on
vhichrhc Chrisrian cacndars incuding rhc Grcgorianj dravvcrc
goingrhroughIormarivcsragcsovcrrhchrsrmicnnium8CL,prcciscy
vhcn rhc inhcrirancc oI rhc od !ndian cacndars vas aso gcrring
sorrcd our. 1hcrc is indccd much givc and rakc bcrvccn rhc odcr
civiizarions ovcr rhis pcriod, and ir is diIIicur ro scpararc ourvhar
cmcrgcdrhrough an indigcnous proccss inrhcsubconrincnr - orany-
vhcrccsc - Iromvharvas carncd byonccururcIrom anorhcr.
1hcrc is cvidcncc rhar !ndians gor guirc a Icv oIrhcir idcas Irom
rhc Grccks rhcrc arc scvcra Iairycxpiciracknovcdgcmcnrs oIrhar
inrhc Siddhanrasj , as did rhc Komans, burrhcn rhc Grccks roo had
insisrcdrharrhcyhad rcccivcd a numbcr oIidcasIrom!ndianvorks.
As Scvcrus Scbokr, rhc Syrian bishop, said in 66z CL in a diIIcrcnr
counrry, in a diIIcrcnr conrcxrj . '1hcrc arc aso orhcrs vho knov
somcrhing. ` !IrhcKaiyugacacndar oscs irsprc-cmincnccin cririca
scruriny, rhc rcmprarion oI nariona chauvinism docs much vorsc
vhicIinduchauvinismdocsvorscsrij .
Variations and Solidarity
1hc immcnsc varicry oIsysrcmaric cacndars in!ndia brings our an
imporranraspccroIrhccounrry, inparricuarirscururaandrcgiona
variarion. Ycrrhis canscarccybcrhcvhoc srory, sincc, dcspircrhis
high variancc, rhcrc is a conccpr oI rhc counrry as a unir rhar has
survivcd rhrough hisrory. 1o bc surc, rhc prcscncc oIrhis conccpr is
cxacryvharis dcnicdinrhcoIrcn-rcpcarcd caimrhar!ndiavas no
morc rhan a argc rcrrirory oI sma ro mcdium Iragmcnrs, unircd
rogcrhcr, arcron,byrhcccmcnringpovcrsoIririshruc.
1hc rirish oIrcn scc rhcmscvcs as having 'aurhorcd` !ndia, and
rhis caim ro imaginarivc crcarion hrs vc inro Vinsron Churchi`s
bcicI circd caricrj rhar!ndia hadno grcarcruniryrhanrhc Lguaror
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
had. !r is, hovcvcr, oI somc signihcancc rhar cvcn rhosc vho scc no
prc-ririshuniryin!ndiahavcnogrcardiIIicuryingcncraizingabour
rhc guairy oI !ndians as a pcopc cvcn Churchi coud nor rcsisr
arricuaring his vicv rhar !ndians vcrc 'rhc bcasricsr pcopc in rhc
vord, ncxr ro rhc Gcrmans` j . Gcncraizarions abour !ndians havc
gonconIromrhcancicnrdaysoIAcxandcrrhcGrcarandApoonius
oI1yana an cary '!ndia cxpcrr` j rorhc 'mcdicva` days oIArab and
!ranianvisirors vhovrorc so much abourrhc andand rhcpcopcj ,
ro rhc cary modcrn days oI Icrdcr, Schcgc, Schcing and
Schopcnhaucr. !r is aso vorrh noring rhar an ambirious cmpcror -
vhcrhcrCandragupraNauryaorAshokaorAauddinorAkbar - has
rcndcdro assumcrharrhc cmpircvas norcompcrcunrirhcbuk oI
rhc counrry vas undcr his ruc. 0 bviousy, vc voud nor cxpccr ro
scc, hisroricay, a prc-cxisring '!ndiannarion`, in rhcmodcrn scnsc,
vairinganxiousyrocapinrobccominganarionsrarc,buriris diIIi-
curromissrhcsociaandcururainksandidcnriricsrharcoud scrvc
asrhc basis oIonc.
1o rhismuchdcbarcdissuc,vc canask,vhardocsrhccacndrica
pcrspccrivc bring! 1hcvaricryoIcacndars, dividcdnor onyby rci-
gious connccrions bur aso by rcgiona divcrsiry, sccms ro bc dccpy
hosricroanyvicvoI!ndianuniry. Iovcvcr, irmusr bcnorcdinrhis
conrcxrrharmanyoIrhcsccacndarshavcsrrongsimiarirics,inrcrms
oI monrhs, and aso rhc bcginning oI rhc ycar. !or cxampc, rhc
Kaiyuga, rhc Vikram Samvar, rhc

aka, rhc cngai San and scvcra

orhcr !ndian cacndars bcginvcry cosc ro cach orhcr inrhcmiddc oI
Apri.1hcrc is cvidcncc rharrhcir rcspccrivc bcginningsvcrcrypicay
hxcdarrhcsamcpoinr,rhcvcrnacguinox,Iromvhichrhcyhavcmovcd
ovcrrhc ongsrrcrchoIrimcinrhcasrrvomicnnia,duringvhichrhc
'corrccrion`IorrhcinrcgcrvaucoIrhccngrhoIrhcycarinrcrmsoIdays
has bccn sighryinadcguarc - againinmuchrhcsamcvay.
1hc Iacr rhar rhc inrcgcr vauc oI 3 65 days ro rhc ycar is ony
approximarc vas, oI coursc, knovn ro rhc !ndian marhcmaricians
vho consrrucrcd rhc cacndars. 1o compcnsarc Ior rhis, rhc pcriodic
ad| usrmcnrssrandardy uscdinmanyoIrhc!ndiancacndarsrakcrhc
Iorm oI adding a cap or inrcrcaary monrh cacd a mala masa) ro
bringpracricc in incvirhrhc dicrarcs oIcompurarion. urrhc adc-
guacy oI rhc corrccrion dcpcnds on gcrring rhc cngrh oI rhc ycar
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
cxacry righr, and rhis vas diIIicur ro do virh rhc insrrumcnrs and
undcrsranding ar rhc rimc rhc rcspccrivc cacndars vcrc iniriarcd or
rcIormcd. !ndccd, rhc sixrh-ccnrury marhcmarician Varahamihira
gavc j 6 . z 8; days as rhcrruc mcasurc oIrhc ycar, vhich, vhic
cosc cnough, vassri sighryvrong, sinccrhccngrhoIrhc sidcrca
ycaris j 6 . z 6j 6 days andrhcrropicaycaris j 6 . zqzzodays.1hc
crrorshavcmovcdrhcdiIIcrcnrnorrh-!ndiancacndarsavayIromrhc
inrcndcd Iixcd poinrs, such as rhc vcrna cguinox, bur rhcy havc
rcndcdromovcrogcrhcr,virhconsidcrabcsoidariryvirhcachorhcr.
1hcrcarc, oIcoursc,cxccprionsrorhisshovoIuniryinsighrcrror,
sincc rhcsourh-!ndiancacndars suchasrhcKoamj andrhcunar or
uni-soar cacndars such as rhc uddha irvapaj Ioov diIIcrcnr
rucs.!ndccd,irvoudbchardrocxpccradominanruniIormiryinrhc
cacndrica - or indccd curura - variarions virhin !ndia, and vhar
onc has ro ook Ior is rhc inrcrcsr rhar diIIcrcnr uscrs oI disrincr
cacndars havc rcndcd ro havc in rhcpracriccs oIcach orhcr. ! sha
argucarcrrharrhismuruainrcrcsrcxrcndsasororhccacndarsuscd
by!ndianNusimsaIrcr!samcamcro!ndia.
ncoIrhcrcsrs oIrhcprcscnccoIaunircdpcrspccrivcincacndri-
carcrms, arcadydiscusscd,isrhcidcnrihcarionoIaprincipamcrid-
ian and a rcIcrcncc ocarion ikc Grccnvich in rirainj . !r is
rcmarkabchovdurabchasbccnrhc posirion oIrhc ancicnrciry oI
\| | ayin novknovn as\| | ainj , rhc capira oIscvcra Iindu dynas-
rics oI!ndia and rhc homc oI many ircrary and curura acrivirics
rhroughrhchrsrmicnniumCLj , asrhcrcIcrcnccocarionIormanyoI
rhcmain!ndiancacndars.1hcVikramSaqvarcacndar virha zcro
poinrin ;8CLj apparcnryoriginarcdinrhis ancicnrcapiraciry. ur
ir is aso rhc ocariona basc oIrhc

aka sysrcm zcro poinrin ;8 CLj

anda grcar many orhcr!ndian cacndars.!ndccd, cvcnroday, \|| ain`s
ocarionisuscdrohxrhcanchorpoinroIrhc!ndiancock scrving,in
rhisrcspccr, asrhc!ndianGrccnvichj .1hc!ndianSrandard1imcrhar
govcrns ourivcs srircmainsa cosc approximarion oI\| | ayin rimc
- hvchours andrhirryminurcs ahcad oIGN1.
A conrcmporary visiror ro rhis vcry modcsr and sccpy rovn may
Iind ir inrcrcsring ro norc rhar ncary rvo micnnia ago rhc vc-
knovn asrronomica vork Paulisa Siddhanta, vhich prcccdcd rhc
dchnirivc
A
ryabhatiya, Iocuscd irs arrcnrion on ongirudcs ar rhrcc
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
paccsinrhcvord.\| | ain,cnarcsandAcxandria.\| | ainscrvcs asa
goodrcmindcr oIrhcrcarionbcrvccn cacndarandcururc.Vchavc
vondcrIu dcscriprions oI \|| ayin in !ndian ircrarurc, parricuary
Irom Kaidasa in rhc IiIrh ccnrury, pcrhaps rhc grcarcsr pocr and
dramarisr incassicaSanskrirircrarurc.
1hc ccgancc and bcaury oIKaidasa`s \| | ayin cvcn madc L. N.
!orsrcrrakcarriprhcrcinI9I4. !orsrcrvanrcdrorcconsrrucrinhis
mindvhar\| | ainookcdikcinrhcdaysrharKaidasahadsoovingy
dcscribcd. Ic rccoccrcd passagcs Irom Kaidasa, incudingrhc srir-
ring accounr oIcvcningsvhcn 'vomcn srca rorhcir ovcrs` rhrough
'darkncss rhar a nccdc mighr dividc` . ur hc coud notgcr rhc od
ruinsrhcrcrorcvcamuch,normanagcrogcrrhcocapcopcrorakc
rhcsighrcsrinrcrcsrinhishisroricaandircraryscarch.Ankcdccpin
rhc rivcr

ipra, soromanricay dcscribcd by Kaidasa, !orsrcr aban-

doncdhisscarch,andacccprcdrhcprcvaiingvisdom. ' 0 dbuidings
arc buidings, ruins arc ruins.` ! sha nor spccuarc vhcrhcrin rhar
abandonmcnr oI hisrorica cxacrncss, rhcrc is somcrhing oI a uniry
pcrhaps iusrrarcd cvcnbyrhc arcadydiscusscdIacrua unccrrainry
oI rhc Kaiyuga dcspirc irs marhcmarica cxacrncssj . ur ccrrainy
rhcrc is somcrhing vcry srriking abour rhc consrancy oI \| | ain`s
dominanccin!ndianrimc accounring,cvcnrhoughrhcIocus oIpoir-
ica povcr, and oI ircrary and cururaprc-cmincncc, shiIrcd Irom
\|| ainirscI,aongrimcago.
Interaction and Integration
ncoIrhcconrrasrsbcrvccnrhc diIIcrcnr!ndiancacndarsrcarcsro
rhcirrcspccrivcrcigiousassociarions.1hisvasamarrcroIparricuar
inrcrcsr ro rhar origina muricururaisrAkbar, as !havc arcady dis-
cusscd.Icvascspcciay conccrncdvirhrhcIacrrharasaNusimhc
vasruingovcracounrryoImanydiIIcrcnrIairhs.1o rharparricuar
conccrn,!shaprcscnryrcrurn, bur!voudikcrocariIyrhar, cvcn
bcIorc rhc arriva oI !sam in !ndia, !ndia vas a guinrcsscnriay
muricururaandmuri-rcigiouscounrry.!ndccd,ncaryarhcma| or
rcigions oI rhc vord Iinduism, Chrisrianiry, uddhism, |ainism,
|udaismj vcrc prcscnr in !ndia vc bcIorc rhc Nusim congucsrs
3 3 0
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
occurrcd. 1hc !ndian civiizarion had nor ony produccd uddhism
and|ainism andarcron,rhcSikhrcigionasvcj , bur!ndiahadrhc
bcnchr oI having |cvs much ongcr rhan Luropc, had bccn hosr ro
sizcabc Chrisrian communirics bcIorcrirain hadany,andprovidcd
a homcrorhc!arsccsrighrIromrhcrimcvhcnrcigiouspcrsccurion
bcganin!ran. !n Iacr,|cvsarrivcdshorryaIrcrrhcIaoI|crusacm,
ChrisriansappcarcdarcasrascaryasrhcIourrhccnrury, and!arsccs
srarrcdarrivingbyrhccighrh.1hcdiIIcrcnrcacndars associarcdvirh
rhcsc rcigions - uddhisr, |ain, |udaic, Chrisrian, !arscc - vcrc
arcadyHourishingin!ndia,aongvirhrhcIinducacndars,vhcnrhc
Nusim congucsr oIrhc norrhcdrorhc inHucncc oIrhc Ii|ricacn-
dar. !sam`s arrivaIurrhcr cnrichcd rhc rcigious - and cacndrica -
divcrsiry oI!ndia.
1hc pionccring muricururaism oIAkbar incudcd his raking an
inrcrcsr in rhc rcigion and cururc oI cach oI rhcsc groups. !n his
'IouscoIVorship` (Ibadat Khana) , rhcpcopcIromdivcrscrcigions
vho vcrc cncouragcd ro arrcndincudcd - as Abu!aznorcd - nor
ony rhc mainsrrcam Iindu and Nusim phiosophcrs oI diIIcrcnr
dcnominarionsj , bur aso Chrisrians, |cvs, !arsccs, |ains and cvcn
mcmbcrs oIrhcarhcisric Carvakaschoo.
Akbar`sarrcmprarinrroducinga combincdcacndarparaccdhis
inrcrcsr in Hoaring a combincd rcigion, rhc in-iahi. nrhc cacn-
drica Ironr, Akbar may havc bcgun by | usr raking norc oI various
cacndars Iindu, !arscc, |ain, Chrisrian and orhcrsj , bur hc pro-
cccdcdrhcnrorakcrhcradicasrcpoIrryingrodcviscancvsynrhcric
onc.!n992 Ii|ri t 8q CL, Grcgorianj , | usr shorr oIrhcIi|ri micn-
nium, hc promugarcd rhc brand ncv cacndar, viz. rhc 1arikh-iahi,
God`scacndar - nocss. 1hczcroycaroI1arikh-iahicorrcspondsro
t 6CL rhcycarinvhichAkbar asccndcd rorhcrhroncj , burrharis
norirsycar oIorigin, vhichvas t8q. !r vas dcviscd as a soar ca-
cndar ikcrhcIinduand!ranian/!arscccacndarsoIrhcrcgionj , bur
hadsomcIcarurcsoIrhcIi|riasvc,andaso borcrhcmarkoIapcr-
sonvhokncvrhc cacndrica divcrsiryrcprcscnrcdbyChrisrian,|ain
and orhcr cacndars in oca usc in Akbar`s !ndia. 1hc 1arikh-iahi
bccamc rhc oIIicia cacndar, and rhc dccrccs oI rhc ruing Nogha
cmpcror oI!ndia rhcfarmans) hcnccIorrhcarricdborhrhc synrhcric
1arikh andrhc Nusim Ii|ri darc, andoccasionayonyrhc1arikh.'
3 3 I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
Lvcn rhough 1arikh-iahi vas inrroduccd virh a grand vision, irs
acccprancc oursidcrhcNogha courrvasrarhcrimircd,andrhcsub-
conrincnrvcnronusingrhcIi|riasvcasrhcodcr!ndiancacndars.
Vhic Akbar`s consrrucrivc cacndar dicd nor ong aIrcr hc himscI
did, his various synrhcsizing cIIorrs cIr a asring mark on !ndian
hisrory. ur has rhc cacndrica cxprcssion, in parricuar, oIAkbar`s
synrhcsizingcommirmcnrbccnosrvirhourrracc!
or so. 1hcrc is a surviving cacndar, rhc cngai San, vhich vas
ccary inIucnccd by1arikh-iahi, andvhichsricarrics cvidcnccoI
rhc inrcgraringrcndcncyrhar is so pcnriIuyprcscnrin many orhcr
hcds oI!ndian cururc andrradirion such as music, painring, archi-
rccrurc, andsoonj . !risycar tqo;nov as !vrircin zooo CE) inrhc
cngai cacndar, rhc San. Vhar docs tqo;srandIor! Lncouragcd by
Akbar`s1arikh-iahi,rhccngaicacndarvasaso'ad|usrcd`asIaras
rhcnumbcringoIycargocsinrhcarcsixrccnrhccnrury.!nIacr,using
rhczcroycaroIrhc1arikh, 1 6CE corrcspondingroycarp6j inrhc
Ii|ri cacndarj , rhc cngai soar cacndar, vhich has a proccdurc oI
rcckoningrharisvcrysimiarrorhcsoar
g
aka sysrcm,vas'ad| usrcd`
ro rhc unar Ii| ri numbcr, bur nor ro rhc unar counring sysrcm.
1har is, rhc 'cock` oIrhis soar cacndar vas pur back, as ir vcrc,
Irom
g
aka tq;8 ro Ii| ri p6j in rhc ncvy dcviscd cngai San.
Iovcvcr, sinccrhccngaiSanikcrhc
g
akacrajrcmaincdsoar, rhc
Ii|ri has marchcd ahcad oIrhc San, bcing a unar cacndar virh a
mcan cngrh oI jq days, 8 hours and q8 minurcs pcr ycarj , and rhc
cngaiSan - | usrrurncd tqo; - has Iacn bchind Ii|ri asvc.
!ikcrhcaborrivc1arikh-iahi,rhcmorcsucccssIu cngaiSanroo
is rhc rcsur oI a daring inrcgrariona cIIorr, and irs originis ccary
rcarcd ro rhc synrhcric cxpcrimcnr oIrhc 1arikh-iahi and rhus, in-
dirccry,roAkbar`smuricururaphiosophyj .VhcnacngaiIindu
docs rcigious ccrcmonics according ro rhc oca cacndar, hc or shc
may nor bc guirc avarc rharrhc darcs rhar arc invokcd in rhc cacn-
drica accompanimcnr oIrhc Iindu pracriccs arc arruncd ro com-
mcmoraringNuhammad`s| ourncyIromNcccaroNcdina, abcirina
mixcdunar-soarrcprcscnrarion.
1hc rradirion oI muricururaism in !ndia is parricuary vorrh
rccoccringarrhismomcnrin!ndianhisrory,vhcn!ndia`ssccuarism
is bcing sporadicay chacngcd by ncv Iorccs oIinrocrancc and by
3 3 2
INDIA THROUGH ITS CALENDARS
poiricaycurivarcdIanaricismoIonckindoranorhcr.Vharisundcr
arrackisnoronysomc 'modcrn` norionoIsccuarismbornand brcd
in posr-Lnighrcnmcnr Luropc, or somc guinrcsscnriay 'Vcsrcrn`
idca broughr ro !ndia by rhc rirish, bur a ong rradirion oI accom-
modaring and inrcgraring diIIcrcnr cururcs vhich had Iound many
arricuarc cxprcssions in !ndia`s pasr - parry iusrrarcd by !ndia`s
cacndricahisroryasvc.
Caughrasvcarcin!ndiarodayinconIicringarrcmprsroinrcrprcr
!ndian civiizarion and socicry, rhc cacndrica pcrspccrivc oIIcrs, !
bcicvc, somc insighrs rhar arc rccvanr and IorccIu. 1hc cacndars
rcvca,inIacr, a grcardcamorcrhan| usrrhcmonrhs andrhcycars.
3 3 3
I 6
The Indian Identity:
Colonialism and Identity
! Icc grcary honourcd by rhc invirarion ro givc rhc orab 1ara
Ncmoria!ccrurcs. !apprcciarcrhis opporruniryIorscvcradiIIcrcnr
rcasons. !irsr and Iorcmosr, ir is vondcrIu ro havc rhc chancc ro
cccbrarc rhc mcmory oI orab or orab| ij 1ara, an oursranding
indusrria cadcr, arcmarkabcphianrhropisrandavisionaryhuman
bcing. A sccond rcason is rhar rhc narurc oI rhis cvcnr, and morc
spccihcayrhc hisrory oI rhc 1aras` achicvcmcnrs givcn rhcir dccp
invovcmcnr in !ndia`s Iururc, combincdvirh a vcry vidc inrcrcsr in
rhcvordarargcj , providcs an occasionrocxamincrhcrcarionship
bcrvccn !ndia and rhc vord. Coscly inkcd ro our rcading oI rhar
rcarionshipisrhcdiIIicursub| ccroIrhcnarurcoIrhc!ndianidcnriry,
cspcciaychacnginginarapidychangingvord.1harisgoingro bc
rhcmainIocusoImydiscussion.
Ny rhird rcason Iorvccoming rhis occasion is rarhcr pcrsona.
1hc dcvcopmcnr oIrhc 1ara indusrrics, parricuary iron and srcc
andcorronrcxric,is an inrcgraparroIrhchisroryoImodcrn!ndia,
andiris ahisroryrharhascnriccdandIascinarcdmcIorguircaong
rimcnov.| ncoIrhcinrcrcsringgucsrionsrharhadrobcaddrcsscd
This essay is based on my Dorab Tata Memorial Lectures given in India (the frst
one in Mumbai, the second in New Delhi) in February 20oi. I should acknowledge that
some of the material that formed part of these lectures has been used in the introduc
tory essays (Essays I-4) in this volume. Those discussions are omitted here, except what
has to be recapitulated for the coherence of the present essay, drawn on the two lectures.
tindeed, the history of the entrepreneurship of the Tatas was one of my principal
concerns in a paper I wrote more than forty years ago: 'The Commodity Pattern of
3 34
r
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
vasrhcviingncssandabiiryoI!ndiancnrrcprcncurs,mosrnoraby
rhc1aras,ro go inro hcds, suchas ironandsrcc andcorronrcxric,
rharrirish cnrcrprisc argcy shunncd. ! vanrcd ro undcrsrand bcr-
rcrrhcinHucnccoIvaucs andidcnriricsoncconomicbchaviour, ovcr
andabovcrhcgcncra discipincrharis providcd by cconomic Icasi-
biiryandcommcrciaprohrabiiry. !vasparricuarykccnroinvcsri-
garc rhc parr rhar a vision oIrhc counrry`s nccds and a spccihcay
!ndianidcnriryandaIIiiarionpaycdinhringindusrriaimaginarion
andinnovarivcacrion. nrhcorhcrhand,!vasasoinrcrcsrcdinrhc
cimarc oI socia anxicry in rirain abour cconomic changcs rhar
coud bcsccn asrhrcarcningcsrabishcd ririshinrcrcsrsin!ndia.
Asancconomisr!donor,!bcicvc,nccdrobcrodrharprohrsand
commcrciaviabiiry arc imporranr rhough ! havc bccnccrurcd on
rharsub| ccrIromrimcrorimcbyIricnds andvc-vishcrsvhohavc
vondcrcd vhcrhcr ! managc ro rakc suIIicicnr norc oI rhc hard
rcairics oI rhc vord) . ur virhin rhc imirs oI Icasibiiry and
rcasonabc rcrurns, rhcrc arcsubsranriachoiccs ro bcmadc,andin
rhcsc choiccs onc`s visions and idcnrirics coud marrcr. 1hcrc is an
inrcrcsringissuc as ro vhyririshinvcsrmcnr,vhichcamc so pcnri-
Iuyrorca, coIIcc, raivays, mining, mcrcanric csrabishmcnrs and
cvcnrorhcncvyborn| urcindusrry,vassohcsiranrinrhchcdsrhar
vcrc rhc piars oI rirish indusrria csrabishmcnr, ro vir, corron
rcxricandironandsrcc.1hcrcis,inparricuar, rhcdiIIicurgucsrion
abourrhcpossibcpcrccprionrharrhcschcdsvcrccompcririvcvirh
- andadvcrscrorhcinrcrcsrs oI - od-csrabishcdindusrricsinrirain
inNanchcsrcrandcscvhcrc) . 1hcrcisagooddcaoIcmpiricacvi-
dcnccrharsuchrhoughrs hadcrosscdrhcmindsoImanyrcsponsibc
pcopc in rirain, burvc srihavc ro askvhcrhcr suchpcrccprions
consrirurcd a signihcanr cconomic and socia phcnomcnon, and ro
vharcxrcnrrhcy aIIccrcdrhcparrcrn oIrirish invcsrmcnrin!ndia.
British Enterprise in Early Indian Industrialization 18 54-1914', in the Proceedings of
the Second International Conference of Economic History (Paris, 1965) . A shortened
version was published as 'The Pattern of British Enterprise in India 1 8 54-1914: A
Causal Analysis', in B. Singh and V. B. Singh (eds. ) , Social and Economic Change
(Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1967) . The shorter version was made somewhat more
intriguing through a small misprint - with the title of the paper making the heady
claim that I was presenting a 'casual' analysis.
3 3 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
1hc issuc is nor so much vhcrhcr rirish invcsrors, or Ior rhar
marrcr rirish govcrnors, mighr havc bccn dirccry svaycd by rhc
prorcsrs rhar camc Irom vcsrcd inrcrcsrs in rirain Ior cxampc, by
rhcsrrongmcmorandumrharrhcNanchcsrcr ChambcroICommcrcc
scnr ro rhc Sccrcrary oI Srarc Ior !ndia in t 8;t, dcmanding rariII
adj usrmcnrIor!ndiancorronrcxricj , orbyaarmisrrcporrsproduccd
byhcdsrudicsspcciaycommissioncdbycsrabishcdririshinrcrcsrs
Ior cxampc, byrhc rcporr, inrhc t 8;os, oI|ohnKobcrrson, ancx-
pcricnccdspinncr, onrhcgrovrhoI!ndiancorronrcxricandirsikcy
damaging impicarions Iorrhc ririshcconomyj .
Karhcr, rhc gucsrion is vhcrhcr a gcncra scnsc oI socia idcnriry
and priorirics, vhich arc knovn ro pay a considcrabc parr in
cconomic dccisions in gcncra, cxcrrcd signiIicanr inIucncc on rhc
parrcrnoIririshinvcsrmcnrin!ndia, borhrhroughpubicpoicyand
rhrough privarc choicc. Sir|ohn Srrachcy, rhc vc-admircd and cIIi-
cicnrLngishadminisrrarorvirh much cxpcricncc oIrhc Kaj , pur rhc
ccnrra poinrvcryccary,inhis udgcrspccchoIz8 Narch t 8 ;;.
I have not ceased to be an Englishman because I have passed the greater part
of my life in India, and have become a member of the Indian Government.
The interests of Manchester at which foolish people sneer, are the interests
not only of the great and intelligent population engaged directly in the trade
in cotton but of millions of Englishmen. r
Identity, Nationalism and Investment
!n conrrasrvirhpossibc rirish conccrns, rhc socia aspccrs oIrhcsc
invcsrmcnr opporrunirics ookcd cnricingy diIIcrcnr Irom rhc oppo-
sirccndoIrhcdividc.As|.K..1arapuririnhis!orcvordro!rank
Iarris`s biography oI|amscrji 1ara,noronydid|amscrji undcrsrand
'rhc Iu signihcancc oIrhc indusrria rcvourion in rhc Vcsr and irs
porcnriairicsIorhis ovncounrry` , bur aso ' drcamr oIanindusrria-
izcd and prospcrous !ndia`.
"
Vc can cvcn scc a progrcssivc hod oI
narionaisr rhinking in rhc scgucncc in vhich |amscrji`s hrsr corron
mis, cacd 'Lmprcss Nis` and csrabishcd in t8;; jusr as Quccn
VicroriavasprocaimcdrhcLmprcssoI!ndiaj , vcrcsoonIoovcdby
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
rhc ncv 'Svadcshi Nis` , csrabishcd in t 8 86. ' !ndccd, in rhc ycar
bcIorc, in t 8 8 , |amscr|i vas prcscnr ar rhc Iounding oIrhc !ndian
ariona Congrcss in ombay, a causc ro vhich hc gcncrousy con-
rriburcd. ` 1hc narionaisr connccrions vcrc prcscnr in diIIcrcnrvays
androvaryingcxrcnrsinrhcdiIIcrcnrcconomicdccisionsinvhichrhc
cary1aracnrcrpriscsvcrcinvovcd.1hcyvcrcpcrhapsmosrcoour-
Iuyvisibc,inananccdoraIorm,inhisdcrcrminarionro csrabish a
rop vord-cass horc in ombay. 1hcrc is, apparcnry, rrurh in rhc
srory rhar |amscr|i`s dccision ro csrabish, in tpoj , rhc ambiriousy
panncd 1a| maha Iorc rhc hrsr buiding in ombay ro bc ir by
cccrriciry and a pacc rhar voud soon arrracr cccbrirics, Irom
Somcrscr Naugham ro Grcgory !cckj , Ioovcd his bcing rod ar
!yrkc`s Apoo Iorc, ro vhich hc had rakcn a IorcignIricndIor a
mca,rharvhicrhcIricndvasvccomcinrhar 'IorLuropcansony` j
horc, hc - |amscr|i - vas nor. 1hc anccdorc adds coour ro our
undcrsranding oI|amscr|i`s scnsc oIidcnriry and priorirics, bur rhc
basic picrurcisccarcnoughIrommanyorhcrdccisionsasvc.
|amscr|i`s dcrcrminarion ro havc a Hourishing iron and srcc in-
dusrry in !ndia hrs ccary inro rhis parrcrn. 1hcrc had bccn caricr,
aborrivc arrcmprs, incuding onc by a rcmarkabc Lngishman cacd
|osiahNarshaIcarhinrhc t 8j os rhcchroniccoIhismisIorruncs
vas rccordcd by Charcs ickcns in Household Words in t8 j j . 5
Aso,a sma ironvorks vas csrabishcdinarakarin t8; , vhichin
t88p bccamc parr oI rhc ncvy Iormcd cnga !ron and Srcc
Company, andhada rarhcrrroubcdhisrory. urvccansccnogrcar
groundsvc oI inrcrcsr among rirish invcsrors ro go inro iron and
srcc in!ndia.|amscr|i`s arrcmprs in rhc t 8 8os ar argc-scac produc-
rion oI iron and srcc vcrc iniriay Irusrrarcd, parricuary by rhc
unviingncssoIrhcKa|rocoopcrarc, spccihcayinrhcarrangcmcnrs
Ior rransporr - a vira inIrasrrucrura rcguircmcnr Ior rhc proposcd
ironandsrccmi.
The literal meaning of the Sanskrit term svadeshi is 'of one's own country', so that
the name 'Svadeshi Mills' need not, in itself, convey anything more than these mills
being designated as 'domestic'. But the term had already become signifcantly assertive
in Indian nationalist politics. Indeed, the industrial entrepreneurship of the Tatas
would soon be championed as an object of considerable pride by the rapidly growing
'Svadeshi' movement, which would also urge Indians to buy 'svadeshi' goods.
3 3
7
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
y rhc rurn oI rhc ccnrury, hovcvcr, |amscrj i had rcccivcd rhc
supporroIrhcncvViccroyoI!ndia,!ord Curzon, andrhccoordina-
rion oI rhc rransporr arrangcmcnrs virh indusrria producrion vas
hcnccIorrhmuchcasicrroorganizc. CurzoncvcnoIIcrcdrohcpbuid
a q -mic rai connccrion Irom rhc idcnrihcd hi oIiron ro rhc pro-
poscdIacrory. 1hcpcrsonairyoICurzonvasundoubrcdyimporranr
in rhis shiIr in govcrnmcnra poicy, bur ir is aso vorrh noring rhar
!ndo-ririshrradcrcarionsvcrcundcrgoingvcrymajorchangcsinrhis
pcriod. !n parricuar, rirain vas bcing dispaccd Irom irs scmi-
monopoy posirion oI cxporring srcc ro !ndia and osing ground in
ironcxporrs asvc.!nrhcmiddcoIrhc t 8 8os,rhc\nircdKingdom
vas rhc dominanr sourcc oIsrcc imporrs inro !ndia suppying morc
rhanpo pcrccnroIrhcroraimporrsj , burbyrhcrimcCurzonarrivcd
in!ndiaint8pp, cgiumhad ovcrrakcnrirainasrhcargcsrcxporrcr
oIsrccro!ndia,and Gcrmanyroo had bccomcasignihcanrsourcc.
VharhadnorchangcdvasrhcdcrcrminarionoIrhc1arasrocsrab-
isha maj oriron andsrccindusrryin!ndia.1hcrcvcrcsribarricrs
oI burcaucracy and oIhnancing ro bc ovcrcomc, and vhcn|amscrji
dicdin tpoq, rhcprojccrvasycrromarcriaizc. y tpo6marrcrshad
progrcsscd cnough Ior orabji ro scck Iinancing Irom !ondon.
Iovcvcr, rhc !ondonmoncymarkcrvasuncnrhusiasric,anddcspirc
prorracrcd cIIorrs, norhingmuchcamcoIrhcm.
And rhcn, inrcrcsringy cnough, rhc ink virh !ndian idcnriryand
narionaism, vhichvasparroIrhc1aramorivarion,irscIcamcrorhc
rcscuc. Vhcn rhc prospccrus Ior rhc projccrcd iron and srcc vorks
vaspubishcdinAugusrtpo;, rhcappcarorhc'Svadcshi`movcmcnr
vasoudandccar. 1hc rcsponsc vas immcdiarc. Asa cosc obscrvcr
NrAxcSahinj arcr rcporrcd in a spccch givcninLngand.
From early morning till late at night, the Tata Offices in Bombay were
besieged by an eager crowd of native investors. Old and young, rich and poor,
men and women they came, offering their mites; and at the end of three
weeks, the entire capital required for construction requirements . . . was
secured, every penny contributed by some 8,ooo native Indians/
1hc consrrucrion oIrhc projccr bcgan in tpo8 and rhc much-prizcd
ourpursrarrcdroro ourIromcccmbcr tptt .
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
Nationalism and Global Connections
1his bricIhisroryisvorrhrccollccring,noronlyropayrriburcroonc
oIrhc lcadcrs oIrhc cvcnrs dcscribcd, bur also bccausc ir illusrrarcs
hov our scnsc oI idcnriry and social morivarion can indccd play a
maj orparrinrhcdcrcrminarionoIourbchaviour, includingcconomic
bchaviour. LvidcnccoIsuchconnccrionscmcrgcsIromdiIIcrcnrsidcs,
includingrhcvisionarydcrcrminarionoI|amscrj i,orabj iandorhcrs
ropursucanindusrrialIururcIor!ndia,rhc sponrancoussupporrpro-
vidcd by an inspircd !ndian public, rhc sclccrivc rcriccncc oIrirish
invcsrorsandrhcvaryingarrirudcsoIrirish!ndiangovcrnmcnr.1his
is norrhc occasion ro pursuc rhcsc connccrions Iurrhcr, bur rhcy arc
srrongly suggcsrivc oI a signiIicanr rolc oI idcnrirics and valucs in
cconomicbchaviour, vhichdcscrvcsgrcarcrarrcnrionrhanirrcndsro
rcccivcinmainsrrcamcconomicanalysis.8
1hcrc arc also gcncral issucs vhich arc raiscd by rhis hisrorical
cxpcricncc, and vhich havc signihcanr rclcvancc ro !ndia`s rclarion
virh rhc vorld. !r is, in parricular, imporranrro disringuish bcrvccn
rhc inclusionary rolc oIidcnriry andrhc cxclusionaryIorcc oIscpar-
arism.1ovanrrodosomcrhinginrhcinrcrcsrsoIacounrryisnorrhc
samc rhingasvanringrhccounrryrobc disranccdIromrhcrcsroIrhc
vorld, orro bcisolarcdIromir. 1hc scnsc oIidcnriry lcavcs rhcissuc
oI appropriarc acrions and policics cnrircly opcn ro scruriny and
choicc.1hisapplicsroscicnccandrcchnologyonrhconchandandro
cconomic, social andculruralrclarionsonrhcorhcr. !ndia`srclarions
virhrhcvorldmaydcmandsignihcanruscoIrhc!ndianidcnriry, bur
rhcy also callIorcriricalscrurinyoIspccihccndsandparricularvays
and mcans rhrough vhich rhosc rclarions may bc appropriarcly
advanccd. Sincc idcnrirypoliricsandcommunirarianrcasoningoIrcn
havcrhccIIccroInurruringandpromoringscpararism,rhcdisrincrion
is imporranrro scizc.
1hcindusrrialsroryvirhvhich! bcganalsoillusrrarcsrhisclcarly
cnough. cspirc rhc longhisroryoIrhc ironindusrry in !ndia Iovar
!rascr, rhchisrorian oIrharindusrry, dcscribcs rhc morc rhan 2,ooo
ycar-oldmassivc iron column, cnrirclyIrcc oIrusranddcrcriorarion,
siruarcd on rhc opcn ground oursidc rhc Kurub Ninar in clhi as
3 3
9
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
'a mysrcry grcarcr rhan rhc building oI rhc pyramids`' j , rhc 1aras
vouldhavcgornovhcrcinrhcirarrcmprro build amodcrnironand
srcclindusrryvirhourrhchclpoIIorcigncxpcrrisc.1hcynccdcdrcch-
nical knov-hov Irom abroad, vhich rhcyprocccdcdro obrain, vcll
illusrrarcdbyrhccriricalrolc oICharlcs !agc !crinandrhc cxpcrrisc
hc broughrIrom !irrsburgh. !n gcncral, rhcpursuiroIvharissomc-
rimcs callcd 'Vcsrcrn scicncc andrcchnology` vas ccnrral ro !ndia`s
indusrrial andcconomic dcvclopmcnr. 1hc prioriryrhc1aras gavcro
modcrn scicnrihc cducarion is also vcll illusrrarcd by rhcir commir-
mcnrrorhcircducarionalandrcscarch agcnda, suchasrhcpionccring
Ioundarion oI rhc !ndian !nsrirurc oI Scicncc, vhich camc inro
cxisrcnccin I 9 I I, andvhichinirsrurncncouragcdrhc dcvclopmcnr
oIanumbcroIorhcrscicnrihcinsrirurcsinrhccounrry.
similar poinr can bc madc abour rhc nccd ro rakc norc oI
possibly bcnchcialuscs oIinrcrdcpcndcncc inrhchcldoIrradc and
cxchangc. Considcrarions oIidcnrirymaysuggcsrrharnorc bcrakcn
in cconomic dccisions oI a counrry`s broad inrcrcsrs going bcyond
immcdiarc busincssprohrsj , burvc srillhavcroaskhovrhcscinrcr-
csrs vill bc bcsr scrvcd. !ndccd, rhcy may, oIrcn cnough, bc vcll
scrvcdbygrcarcrcconomiccngagcmcnrvirhrhcvorld,rarhcrrhan
byshunningglobalassociarion. 1hisis amarrcrIoracrualcconomic
asscssmcnr - nor ro bc dcrcrmincd rhroughrhc adoprion oI onc or
orhcr oIrhc simplc slogans cirhcr vorshipIul oImarkcrs or dismis-
sivcoIrhcirrolcjrharbcdcvilcriricalscrurinyoIsuchissucsasrradc
andglobalizarion.
1his dccisionmay call Ior somc clarihcarory rcmarks. 1hc dcvcl-
opmcnr oI ncv cnrcrpriscs rcnds ro involvc displacing cxisring
imporrs, sincc goods Ior domcsric consumprion obviously havc ro
comc Iromabroadvhcnrhcyarcnorycrproduccd ar homc. 1hcrcis
nomysrcryhcrc.sarcsulr,imporrsubsrirurionisrypicallyrhcinirial
Iorm oI indusrrial cxpansion in an cconomically inrcrconnccrcd
vorld, rhis is an imporranr bur rhoroughly unsurprising Iacr. ur ir
docs nor cnrail anyrhingvharsocvcr abour rhcrclarivc dcsirabiliry oI
imporrsubsrirurionorcxporrpromorion. 1hccconomiccascIoronc
or rhc orhcr has ro bc vorkcd our onrhc basis oIcconomic rcrurns
borh ro rhc cnrcrpriscs involvcd including irs cmployccs as vcll as
cmploycrs j and ro rhc public ar largc. 1hc cxpcricnccs oI many
3
40
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
counrrics inrhc vord, bcginningvirh|apanburarcr onaso orhcr
sizcabc cconomics, such as Sourh Korca and 1aivan, suggcsr rhar
rhcrc is rypicay a srrong casc Ior moving rapidy Irom rhc imporr
subsrirurion phasc ro onc oI acrivc cxporr promorion, and rhar rhis
srrarcgy oIdcvcopmcnr ispcrIccryconsisrcnrvirhrhcchampioning
and promorion oIa povcrIu nariona idcnriry. Vhcrhcr rhis voud
indccd bcrhcrighrpoicy in a parricuar casc is, oIcoursc, a marrcr
Ior cririca scruriny and cannor bcdcrcrmincd bysimpc Iormuas oI
onc kind or anorhcr rhar arc oIrcn championcd - cirhcr Iavouring
unrcsrraincdrradcingcncraorshunningirarogcrhcr.
Sharing of Global Opportunities
1his givcs mcrhc occasionro movcrorhcmorc gcncra gucsrion oI
rhc pros andcons oIgobaizarion. cbarcs onrhcmcrirsandpcna-
rics oIgobaizarion havc bccnvcryacrivc in rcccnrycars, nor ony
virhin cach narion nor casr in !ndiaj , bur aso in goba prorcsr
movcmcnrs, such as rhosc in Scarrc, !raguc or Vashingron, C,
vhich drcv prorcsrcrs Irom cvcry parr oIrhc vord. !nrhis scnsc,
prorcsrsabourgobaizarionrhcmscvcsconsrirurcagobaizcdphcn-
omcnon, and shoud bcsccnas such. Gobaizcdpoiricarcsisrancc
has rcndcd ro conIronr rhc csrabishcd parrcrn oI gobaizcd
cconomicrcarions.
! havcrricdro arguccscvhcrcrharrhcscprorcsrmovcmcnrs havc
oIrcn bccn, in many vays, guirc consrrucrivc, in IorccIuy draving
arrcnrion ro probcms oI incguairy in rhc vord. !ndccd, rhc rca
dcbarc on gobaizarion is, urimarcy, nor abour rhc cIIicicncy oI
markcrs, nor abour rhc imporrancc oI modcrn rcchnoogy. 1hc
dcbarc,rarhcr, isabourscvcrcasymmcrrics oIpovcr, Iorvhichrhcrc
is muchcss rocrancc novrhaninrhcvordrharcmcrgcdarrhccnd
oIrhc SccondVordVar. 1hcrcmayormaynorbcsignihcanrymorc
cconomic incguairy roday, as is somcrimcs srrongy asscrrcd and
cguaysraunchydcnicd rhccvidcncc onrhisis conHicring, dcpcnd-
*The main argument was presented in my Commencement Address ( ' Global
Doubts') at Harvard University in June 2ooo, and then more elaborately in 'How to
Judge Globalism', American Prospect, I3 (Jan. 2002) .
3
41
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ingonrhcindicarorsvcuscj , burvharisabsolurclyclcarisrharpco-
plcarcIarlcssvillingroacccprmassivcincgualiricsrhanrhcyvcrcin
tpqq vhcnrhcrcrronVoods agrccmcnrlcdrorhccsrablishmcnroI
rhc!N!,rhcVorldankandorhcrinsrirurionsandpavcdrhcvayIor
rhc prcscnr inrcrnarional archirccrurc oI hnancc and busincss. 1hc
globaldoubrsparrlyrcHccrrhisncvmood, andiris, roagrcar cxrcnr,
rhc global cguivalcnr oI rhc virhin-narion prorcsrs abour incgualiry
virhvhichvchavc bccnIamiliarIor guircsomcrimc.
!r is nor ar all hard ro prcscnr argumcnrs ro rcjccr many oI rhc
criricisms rhar havc rcndcd ro hgurc on rhc posrcrs and placards oI
rhc global prorcsr movcmcnrs. urrhcrc is a basicnccdro rccognizc
rhar,dcspircrhcbigconrriburionrhara globalcconomycanundoubr-
cdlymakcrorhcprospcriryoIrhcvorld,vcalsohavcroconIronrrhc
Iar-rcaching maniIcsrarions oIglobal incgualiry and injusricc. 1hcrc
is, in Iacr, no rcal conIicr bcrvccn bcing dcrcrmincd ro rcsisrglobal
incgualiry and inj usricc and ar rhc samc rimc undcrsranding and
Iaciliraring rhc posirivc conrriburions oIglobalizcd cconomic, social
andculruralrclarionsacrossrhcvorld.
!ndccd, rcsisrancc ro globaldispariricscallsIor borhglobaliniria-
rivcsandIornarionalandlocaloncs.Arrhcglobal lcvcl,rhcrcisnccd
Iora varicryoIpolicics. 1hcscissucsvcrcnorsccnclcarlycnoughar
rhcrimcoIrhcrcrronVoodsAgrccmcnrinrhctpqos - vhcnhalIrhc
vorld vas undcr colonial rulc, vhcn rhc claims oI dcmocracy and
human righrs vcrc nor ycr vidcly rccognizcd, vhcn rhc massivc
prospccrs oIglobalcconomicgrovrhvcrcnorIully undcrsrood and
vhcn rhc rolcrancc oIglobal disparirics and dividcs vas vcry much
grcarcr. Global iniriarivcs arc nccdcd Ior a morc rcsponsivc inrcrna-
rional archirccrurc includingrhcsrrcngrhcningoIrhchnancialviabil-
iryandcconomicpovcroIrhc\nircdarionsj , bcrrcrIormularionoI
parcnr lavs raking norc oI rhcir acrual cIIccrs on rhc usc oIrcch-
nology as vcll as virallyimporranrproducrs, including mcdicinc Ior
scvcrcailmcnrsj , morcprcssurconrhcrichcrcounrricsrorcduccrradc
rcsrricrions rarhcrrhandcmandingrhisonlyIromrhcpoorcrandlcss
vcll-placcd counrricsj , morc cIIccrivc insrirurional arrangcmcnrs Ior
dcIcnding human sccuriry and basic human righrs across rhc vorld
nor bcing conrcnr onlyvirh promoring inrcrnarional rradcj , and so
on. 1hcrcisnccdIor guirca global agcnda.
3
42
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
Domestic Policies for Global Strength
Iovcvcr, hcalrhyglobalcconomicrclarions alsocallIorappropriarc
domcsricpolicics.!orcxamplc,rhcIcasibiliry oIcIIccrivcglobalpar-
riciparionis closclylinkcdvirhrhcdcvclopmcnroIhumanrcsourccs
and capabilirics Ior cxamplc, rhrough cducarional cxpansionj and
rhc dcvclopmcnr oIinIrasrrucrurc.!nrcrcsringlycnough, rhc hisrory
oIrhc1arashassignihcanrlighrrorhrovonrhcimporrancc oIborh
rhcsc. !ndccd,|amscrji`s arrcmprro dcvclop largc-scalc ironandsrccl
producrion vas inirially hcld up, as ! mcnrioncd carlicr, prcciscly
bccausc oIrhc barricr oIundcrdcvclopcdrransporr Iacilirics, vhich
vas a crucial inIrasrrucruralhandicap. 1hcrcis a clcar analogyhcrc
virhrhcrcsrricrions imposcdrodaybyinIrasrrucruralundcrdcvclop-
mcnr in !ndia, Ior cxamplc in public communicarion and clccrric
povcr, vcll illusrrarcd by rhc dcbiliraring - andpcrhaps cvcn mad-
dcning - rolc oI povcr curs and non-vorking rclcphoncs. !nIra-
srrucrural problcms arc, in many Iiclds, srill as ccnrral ro rhc
conrcmporary !ndian cconomy as rhcy vcrc ro |amscrj i`s !ndia a
ccnrury ago.
1hcimporranccoIcducarionvas onc oIrhc Iacrors srrongly idcn-
rihcdby|amscrj i. 1hisvas,inIacr,hisrcasonIorsrarringrhc!nsrirurc
oIScicncc. Ic savrhc hcld oI indusrrial compcririon bcingmarchcd
byoncoIcducarionalcompcririon.!npraisingrhcscholarsassociarcd
virhrhc!nsrirurc,|amscrjicouldnorhclprcmarking,virhsomcpridc,
rhar !ndian srudcnrs ' can nor only hold rhcir ovn againsr rhc bcsr
rivals in Luropc on rhc larrcr`s ground, burcan bcarrhcmhollov` .
Il
1hisvasamarrcrnoronlyoInarionalpridc,buralsooI!ndia`sabiliry
ro inrcracr IruirIully and srrongly in rhc inrcrnarional arcna. 1hc
connccrionissrillvcryimporranr.
1hcccnrralrolcoIcducarionalsohighlighrsrhcIar-rcachingcIIccrs
oIrhc rcmarkablc conrrasr bcrvccn !ndia`s ncglccr oI school cduca-
rion and rhc massivccxpansionoIhighcrcducarion rhar has alrcady
occurrcdandconrinucsroday. 1hc1arasvcrcamongrhcpionccrsin
dcvcloping highcr and rcchnical cducarion in !ndia - a prioriry rhar
chru, roo, adoprcd, cspcciallyinrhcprogrammcoIcxpanding such
insrirurions as rhc !ndian !nsrirurcs oI 1cchnology, vhich vcrc
343
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
aunchcdarhis iniriarivc andvhichhavc bccn criricay imporranrIor
rhc rcccnr Hovcring oIinIormarion rcchnoogy and rcarcd dcvcop-
mcnrs in !ndia. 1his, aong virh rhc good vork oI !nsrirurcs oI
Nanagcmcnr, has broughr many dividcnds and has ccrrainy bccn
insrrumcnra in opcningup possibiirics in a povcrIu vayro many
vc-paccd !ndians. 1hcy havc donc rcmarkaby vc in !ndia and
many oIrhcm abroad asvc. Vhcn! vcnrrogivc somcccrurcs ar
SranIord \nivcrsiry in CaiIornia in |anuary zoot, ! vas askcd ro
addrcss agroupoIabour 8oo so-cacd'Siicon!ndians` inanimprcs-
sivc mccring arrangcd by1hc !ndus Lnrrcprcncurs. 1!Lj , and ir vas
guirccvidcnrrharoncparroIrhc!ndiancommuniryhasbccn abcro
scizc rhc opporrunirics oIIcrcd in a vcry diIIcrcnr cururc and socicry
Irom rhc onc in vhich rhcy vcrc rcarcd. Lvcn virhin !ndia, rhc sizc
and spccd oIcxpansion oIrcchnoogy producrs incuding compurcr
soIrvarcj havcbccnguirccxrraordinary.
Ycr rhc undcrdcvcopmcnr oI!ndian schoo sysrcms, cspcciay in
sociaybackvardrcgions oIrhccounrryand parricuaryamongdis-
advanragcd groups, has bccn cguay cxrraordinary. 1his is borh
dccpyincIIicicnr andamazingyunjusr. 1hc smarr boyorccvcrgir
vho is dcprivcd oIrhc opporruniry oI schooing, or vho gocs ro a
schoo virh disma Iaciirics nor ro mcnrion rhc high incidcncc oI
abscnrcc rcachcrsj , nor ony oscs rhc opporrunirics hc or shc coud
havc had, bur aso adds ro rhc massivc vasrc oI racnr rhar is a
characrcrisric oIrhc iIc oIour counrry. !Ivc havc nor ycr bccn abc
ro scizc rhc cconomic opporrunirics Ior rhc manuIacrurc oI simpc
producrs in a vay rhar has happcncd in |apan, Korca, China and
orhcrcounrricsincasrAsia,norromcnrionrhcVcsr,!ndia`srcmark-
abcncgccroIbasic cducarionhasa dccisivcrocinrhishandicap. '`
GobacconomicrcarionshavcmanydiIIcrcnraspccrsandcaIor
diIIcrcnr rypcs oI poicy iniriarivcs, bur many oI rhc probcms and
diIIicurics associarcdvirha morc compcririvc goba cconomyrurn,
roa subsranriacxrcnr,onrhcimirarionsoIourovndomcsricpubic
poicy, such as basic cducarion, hcarh carc, micro-crcdir, or inIra-
srrucrurapanning. !ndia`spacinginrhcvordis dcrcrmincd j usras
muchvirhin!ndia as abroad.
*Japan's demonstration, already apparent by the early twentieth century, that school
education can greatly contribute to economic development was largely ignored in India.
344
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
Global Relations and History
! vanr ro rurn nov ro somc Ioundariona issucs abour rhc roc oI
gobainrcrconnccrions andhumanprogrcss. Gobaizarionisa com-
pcx phcnomcnon. Somc oI rhc Icars cxprcsscd abour gobaizarion
makc ir soundikc an anima- anaogousrorhc big sharkinJaws *
rhargobbcsupunsuspccringinnoccnrs inadarkandmysrcriousvay.
Vcmusr havc a goodookarrhis acgcdbcasr,rarhcrrhanj usrcarn
ro shun ir.
Vhar cxacry is gobaizarion! A divcrsc baskcr oI goba inrcr-
acrions arcpurundcrrhis broadhcading,varyingIromrhccxpansion
oIcurura inIucnccs across bordcrs ro rhc cnargcmcnr oI cconomic
and busincss rcarions rhroughour rhc vord. I is oIrcn argucd rhar
gobaizarionisancvIoy.!srharapausibcdiagnosis!!voudarguc
rhargobaizarion,inirs basic Iorm, isncirhcrparricuaryncv,nor,in
gcncra,aIoy. !risrhroughgobamovcmcnrs oIidcas,pcopc,goods
andrcchnoogyrhardiIIcrcnrrcgionsoIrhcvordhavcrcndcd,ingcn-
cra, ro bcnchr Irom progrcss and dcvcopmcnr occurring in orhcr
rcgions. 1hc dirccrion oIinrcrrcgionamovcmcnrs oIidcas has varicd
ovcr hisrory, andrhcsc dirccrionavariarions arc imporranr ro rccog-
nizc, sincc rhc goba movcmcnr oI idcas is somcrimcs sccn j usr as
idcoogica impcriaism oI rhc Vcsr - as a onc-sidcd movcmcnr rhar
simpyrcIccrs anasymmcrryoIpovcrvhichnccdsrobcrcsisrcd.
!rmay,inIacr,bcinsrrucrivcroconrcmparcrhcnarurcoIrhcvord
norarrhccndoIrhcmicnniumrharvchavcj usrushcrcdour, burar
rhccndoIrhcprcviousmicnnium. Around rooo CE, gobaizarionoI
scicncc, rcchnoogy andmarhcmaricsvaschangingrhcnarurc oIrhc
od vord, cvcn rhough, as ir happcns, rhc principa currcnrs oI
disscminarionrhcnvcrcrypicayinrhcopposircdirccrionrovharvc
sccroday.
!or cxampc, rhc high rcchnoogy in rhc vord oI rooo incudcd
papcr and prinring, rhc crossbov and gunpovdcr, rhc vhccbarrov
andrhcroraryIan,rhccockandrhcironchainsuspcnsionbridgc,rhc
kircandrhcmagncriccompass.LvcryoncoIrhcsc'high-rcch`hcdsoI
knovcdgc in rhc vord a micnnium ago vas vc csrabishcd in
China, and ar rhc samc rimc vas pracricay unknovn cscvhcrc. !r
3
45
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
vas globalizarion rhar sprcad rhcm across rhc vorld, including
Luropc.
Vc can similarly considcr rhc impacr oI Lasrcrn inIlucncc on
Vcsrcrnmarhcmarics.1hcdccimal sysrcmcmcrgcd andbccamcvcll
dcvclopcd in !ndia bcrvccn rhc sccond and rhc sixrh ccnrurics, and
vas also uscd cxrcnsivcly soon rhcrca!rcr by Arab marhcmaricians.
1hcsc proccdurcs rcachcd Luropc mainly in rhc lasr guarrcr oI rhc
rcnrhccnrury, andrhcirmomcnrouscIIccrsvcrcIclrinrhccarlyycars
oIrhclasrmillcnnium. Globalizarioninmarhcmaricsasvcllasin sci-
cnccandcnginccringplaycdama| orparrinrhcrcvolurionoIrhoughr
andsocialorganizarionrharhclpcdrorransIormLuropcinroirsmod-
crn shapc. Luropcvould havc bccn much poorcr had ir rcsisrcd rhc
globalizarion oI marhcmarics, scicncc and rcchnology ar rhar rimc,
andro a grcarcxrcnrrhc samc - vorkinginrhc convcrsc dirccrion -
isrrucroday.1oidcnriIyrhcphcnomcnonoIrhcglobalsprcad oIidcas
virhan idcologicalimpcrialismvould bc a scrious crror, somcvhar
similarrorhcvayanyLuropcanrcsisranccroLasrcrninHucnccvould
havc bccnarrhc bcginningoIrhclasrmillcnnium.
!ndia has bccn, likc many orhcr counrrics, borh an cxporrcr and
imporrcr oI idcas in our vord oIconrinuing global inrcracrions. A
inadcguarc rccognirion oI rhis rvo-vay proccss somcrimcs lcads ro
rarhcr rcdundanr conrrovcrsics and conHicrs. Nuch, Ior cxampc, has
bccnvrirrcn rcccnrly abourvhcrcrhcconccproIzcro, vhich is guirc
ccnrral Iormarhcmarics,dcvclopcd.1hcclaim,oIrcnmadc carlicr,rhar
rhis vas an !ndian conrriburion ro rhc vorld has bccn srrongly chal-
lcngcd in a numbcr oIrcccnr publicarions, giving abylon prioriry. '
1hcrc is, in Iacr, considcrablc cvidcncc rhar rhc conccpr oI zcro, as an
idca, cmcrgcd in diIIcrcnr culrurcs vhich may or may nor havc bccn
linkcd. urrhcrcis cvidcncc alsoIorrhc bclicIrharrhcparricularsym-
bolIorzcrorharvasadoprcdacrossrhcvorld,includingin!ndia,vcry
likcly camc Irom abylon via rhc Grccks ro !ndia, cvcn rhough rhc
!ndian idca oIzcro in rhc Iorm oIsinya or cmprincssj prcdarcs rhar
arrival.!ris,hovcvcr,alsoclcarrharrhccombinarionoIzcrovirhadcc-
imalplacc sysrcmvas aparricularlyIruirIul consolidarion, and iris in
*See in particular Robert Kaplan, The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero
( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) , and Charles Seife, Zero: The Biography of
a Dangerous Idea (New York: Penguin Books, 2ooo) .
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
cxporing rhc narurc and impicarions oI rhis inrcgrarion - criricay
imporranrIorrhcuscoIadccimasysrcm- rhar!ndianmarhcmaricians
sccmcdrohavchadguircadccisivcrocinrhccaryandmiddcparrsoI
rhc hrsr micnnium. Vc can considcr many orhcr such cxampcs oI
combining givc and rakc, cnriching rhc proccss oI goba inrcccrua
inrcracrion. '`
Gobaizarionis ncirhcrncv, norin gcncraaIoy.1hroughpcrsis-
rcnrmovcmcnrsoIgoods,pcopc,rcchnigucsandidcas,irhasshapcd
rhchisroryoIrhcvord.!ndiahas bccn aninrcgraparroIrhcvord
inrhcmosrinrcracrivcscnsc.1hcIorccsoIidcoogicascpararismmay
bc srrongin!ndia arprcscnr, asrhcy arc cscvhcrc, burrhcymiirarc
norj usragainsrrhcgobahisroryoIrhcvord,burasoagainsr!ndia`s
ovnhcriragc.
1har acknovcdgcmcnr docs nor, oIcoursc,undcrminc rhc ovcr-
vhcmingnccdropayparricuararrcnrionrorhcprcdicamcnroIrhc
vuncrabc and rhc disadvanragcd, and rhis is indccd an imporranr
considcrarioninrhcdcrcrminarionoIgoodcconomicpoicicsIorrhc
conrcmporary vord. Goba cconomic inrcracrions bring gcncra
bcncIirs, bur rhcy can aso crcarc probcms Ior many, bccausc oI
inadcguacicsolgobaarrangcmcnrsasvcasimirarionsoIappro-
priarc domcsric poicics. !r is imporranr rhar rhcsc issucs rcccivc
arrcnrion.urarrhcsamcrimcvc havcrobccarcIurharvc donor
shur ourscvcs our oIrhc goba inrcracrions rhar havc cnrichcdrhc
vordovcr micnnia.
P lura/ism and Receptivity
1hcnarurc oI!ndianidcnriryraiscs issucs borhoIcxrcrna andinrcr-
narcarions.! havc so Iarconccnrrarcdonrhc nccd rorcsisrcxrcrna
*In the original lecture, I went on from here to discuss other examples of multi
directional migration of ideas, such as the impact of Indian Buddhism on the develop
ment of printing in China, Korea and Japan, and the eventual use of that achievement
in India itself. There was also a discussion of international interchange leading to inno
vations in mathematics and science between India and the Arabs and Europeans, on
the West, and China and east Asia, on the East. These cases have been discussed else
where, particularly in Essays I and 6-8, and are therefore omitted here.
347
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
isolarion. !r is, hovcvcr, rhc pull rovards inrcrnal scpararion oI
communiricsrharhasprcscnrcdrhcsrrongcsrchallcngcinrcccnrycars
ro rhc inrcgriry oIrhc !ndianidcnriry. !olirical dcvclopmcnrs in!ndia
ovcrrhclasrdccadc orrvo havc hadrhccIIccr oIIorccIullychallcng-
ing, inscvcral diIIcrcnrvays,rhc broad andabsorbingidcaoI!ndian
idcnriryrharcmcrgcdinrhc days oIrhc indcpcndcnccmovcmcnrand
rhar hclpcd ro dchnc rhc conccpr oIrhc !ndian narion. !I vc bclicvc
rharrhcrcissomcrhingoIvalucinrhisinhcrirancc,vcnccdro undcr-
srandprccisclyvhyirisvaluablc,andalsorocxaminchovrharrccog-
nirioncanbcadcguarclyarricularcd.
!rvould bc hard ro claim rharrhcrc is somc cxacr, homogcncous
conccpr oI !ndian idcnriry rhar cmcrgcd during rhc indcpcndcncc
movcmcnr as a kind oI narional conscnsus, or rhar rhcrc vcrc no
diIIcrcnccs bcrvccn rhc vay !ndianncss vas sccn by, say, Naharma
Gandhi or Kabindranarh1agorc ro considcrrvo lcading and somc-
vhar dissimilar voiccs rhar hclpcd ro rcach us vhar vc arcj . 1hc
gcncral idca oI a spacious and assimilarivc !ndian idcnriry, vhich
Gandhi and1agorc sharcd, vasinrcrprcrcdvirh somcvhardincrcnr
cmphascs byrhc rvo, andrhcrcvcrc orhcr diIIcrcnccs inrhc charac-
rcrizarionoI!ndianidcnrirybyorhcrrhcorisrsandinrcllccruallcadcrs
oIrhcindcpcndcnccmovcmcnr.
1hcsc disrincrions vcrc - and rcmain - imporranr in many
conrcxrs, Ior cxamplc in inrcrprcring rhc rcspccrivc rolcs oIscicncc,
crhics andanalyricalrcasoning in!ndia`spasr and in irs Iururc. ` ur
rhcsc varying inrcrprcrarions all sharc an inclusionary rcading oI
!ndianidcnriryrharrolcrarcs,prorccrs andindccdcclcbrarcsdivcrsiry
virhin a pluralisr !ndia. 1hcy also rcHccranundcrsranding oI!ndia`s
pasr as aj oinr consrrucrion invhichmcmbcrs oIdiIIcrcnr communi-
ricsvcrc involvcd.1agorc and GandhidiIIcrcdsubsranrially, borhin
rhcir rcspccrivc culrural prcdisposirions and in rhcir rcligious bclicIs
and pcrsonalpracricc. urininrcrprcring!ndia andrhc !ndian idcn-
riry, rhcy sharcd a gcncral rcIusal ro privilcgc any onc narrovly cir-
cumscribcdpcrspccrivc suchasancxclusivclyrcligiousapproach, or,
morcspccihcally, aIinduvicvj .
!ris rhccombinarion oIinrcrnalpluralism andcxrcrnalrcccpriviry
'Essay 5 goes into some of the differences between Gandhi and Tagore.
THE INDIAN IDENTI TY
rhar has bccn mosr challcngcd in rcccnr dccadcs by scpararisr
vicvpoinrs, varying Irom communirarian cxclusion and aggrcssivc
parochialism on rhc onc sidc ro culrural alicnarion and isolarionisr
narionalism on rhc orhcr. 1hcsc challcngcs and rhcirpracrical mani-
Icsrarions givc somc urgcncyro subj ccringrhcidca oI!ndianidcnriry
rocriricalscruriny and asscssmcnr.
Identities and Decisions
!risuscIulrorccollccrKabindranarh1agorc`srcmarkablcclaim,madc
ina lcrrcrro C. F Andrcvsin 1921, rharrhc 'idca oI!ndia` irsclImil-
irarcs 'againsr rhc inrcnsc consciousncss oIrhc scpararcncss oIonc`s
ovn pcoplc Irom orhcrs` a visionarysrarcmcnrrharvas also guorcd
carlicrin rhis collccrion oIcssaysj . orc rharrhcrc arcrvodisrincr
implicarionsoIrhisclaim.!irsr,inrcrnally, irargucsagainsranidcaoI
!ndia as amixrurc oIscpararcdand alicnarcdculrurcs andcommuni-
rics, sharply disringuishcd accordingro rcligion, or casrc, or class, or
gcndcr, orlanguagc,orlocarion.Sccond,cxrcrnallyrharis, inrclarion
rorhcvorldj , 1agorc`sclaimargucsagainsraninrcnscscnscoIrhcdis-
sociarionoI!ndiansIromorhcrpcoplc clscvhcrc.!ralsorcjccrs, asvc
knovIrom1agorc`s orhcrvrirings roo,rhc rcmprarionro scc !ndian
culrurc as Irail and Iragilc, somcrhing rhar vill brcak iIrouchcd by
orhcr culrurcs andvhichhas ro bc prorccrcd rhroughisolarionIrom
oursidcinHucnccs.
1agorc`s claiminvolvcs,rhcrcIorc,aninrcgrarivcmcssagc - inrcr-
nallyasvcllascxrcrnally - andirproposcsaninclusionaryIormIor
rhc idca oI !ndian idcnriry. !r is rhis inrcgrarivc norion rhar has
rcccnrly bccnchallcngcd, andborh irsinrcrnal andcxrcrnal claims
havc bccn chasriscd. Challcngcs havc comc, on rhc onc sidc, Irom
scpararism virhin !ndia parricularly virh rhc privilcging oI onc
communiryovcr orhcrs andonc culruralrradirionovcr orhcrsj , and
on rhc orhcr sidc, Irom scpararism vis-a-vis rhc vorld virh rhc
rcj ccrionoIourconsrrucrivc connccrionsvirh orhcrs onrhc globcj .
!n asscssingrhcsc arracks vc havc rolookcarcIullyarrhc norion oI
idcnriryingcncral.
!ndccd,irisvcryimporranrro bcclcarabourrhcdcmandsoIvhar
349
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
canbccacdrhcdiscipincoIidcnriry. ' !nparricuar,vchavcrorcsisr
rvo unIoundcd bur oIrcn impiciry invokcd assumprions. ( I ) rhc
prcsumprion rharvc musrhavc a singc - or arcasra principa and
dominanr - idcnriry, and zj rhc supposirion rhar vc ' discovcr` our
idcnriry,virhnoroomIoranychoicc.
1o rakc up rhc Iormcr gucsrion hrsr, cvcn rhough cxcusiviry oI
idcnrity is oIrcn prcsumcd rypicay impiciryj , rhis caim is in Iacr
prcposrcrous. Lach oI us invokcs idcnrirics oI various kinds in dis-
pararcconrcxrs.1hcsamcpcrsoncanbcoI!ndianorigin,a!arscc,a
!rcnch cirizcn, a \S rcsidcnr, a voman, a pocr, a vcgcrarian, an
anrhropoogisr, a univcrsiry proIcssor, a Chrisrian, a bird varchcr,
and an avid bcicvcr in cxrrarcrrcsrria iIc and oI rhc propcnsiry oI
aicn crcarurcs ro ridc around rhc cosmos in muricoourcd \!s.
LachoIrhcsccoccrivirics,roaoIvhichrhispcrsonbcongs,givcs
himorhcraparricuaridcnriry. 1hcycanahavcrccvancc,dcpcnd-
ing onrhc conrcxr.1hcrcis noconHicrhcrc, cvcnrhoughrhcpriori-
rics ovcr rhcsc idcnrirics musr bc rcarivc ro rhc issuc ar hand Ior
cxampc,rhcvcgcrarianidcnrirymaybcmorc imporranrvhcngoing
ro a dinncr rarhcr rhan ro a Consuarc, vhcrcas rhc !rcnch cirizcn-
ship may bc morc rcing vhcn going ro a Consuarc rarhcr rhan
arrcnding a dinncrj .
1hc sccond Iasc movc - or vhar ! caim is a Iasc movc - is ro
assumcrhar onc`s idcnriryis a marrcr oIdiscovcryrarhcrrhan choicc.
1hisis asscrrcdoIrcncnough,parricuaryincommunirarianphioso-
phy. As !roIcssor Nichac Sa

dc has cxpaincd rhis caim among

orhcr communirarian caimsj . ' communiry dcscribcs nor j usr vhar
rhcyhave asIcovcirizcns buraso vharrhcyare, norarcarionship
rhcy choosc as in a vounrary associarionj bur an arrachmcnrrhcy
discovcr, normcrcyanarrriburcburaconsrirucnroIrhciridcnriry. `
!nrhisvicv, idcnrirycomcsbefore rcasoningandchoicc.
urrharcaimisdiIIicurrosusrain,sinccvc dohavcrhcopporru-
niryro dcrcrmincrhcrcarivcvcighrsvc voud ikc ro arrach ro our
*The discussion that follows draws on the conceptual analyses presented in my
1998 Romanes Lecture at Oxford University, published as Reason before Identity
( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) , and the 2000 Annual Lecture of the British
Academy, 'Other People', published both by the British Academy and in a slightly
shortened form in New Republic, r 8 Dec. 2000.
3
50
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
diIIcrcnr idcnrirics. !orcxamplc, an Ausrralian cirizcn oI!ndian ori-
ginvouldhavcrodccidcvhcrhcrro roorIorAusrraliaorIor!ndiain
a rcsr march bcrvccn rhc rvo counrrics, hc cannor, in any obvious
scnsc, simply' discovcr`rhcrcsulroIhis ovn choicc.
!crhapsrhcconIusioninpromoringrhc'discovcry`vicvariscsIrom
rhcIacrrharrhcchoiccsvccanmakcarcconsrraincdbyIcasibiliry, and
somcrimcs rhc consrrainrs arc vcry cxacring. 1hc Icasibilirics vill
ccrrainly dcpcnd oncircumsranccs. !or cxamplc, rhc consrrainrsmay
bc parricularly srricr vhcn considcring rhc cxrcnr ro vhich vc can
pcrsuadcorhcrsrorakcusrobcdiIIcrcnrIromvharrhcyrakcusrobc.
ApcrsonoI|cvishorigininaziGcrmanymaynorhavcbccnablcro
alrcrrharidcnriryashcorshcvishcd.orcouldanAIrican-Amcrican
vhcn Iaccd virh a lynch mob, or a lov-casrc agriculrural labourcr
rhrcarcncd by a gunman hircd by uppcr-casrc acrivisrs in, say, orrh
ihar. urIrccdominchoosingouridcnriry, inrcrmsoIrhcvayorhcrs
scc us, cansomcrimcs bccxrraordinarilylimircd.
Lvcn in gcncral, vhcrhcr vc arc considcring our idcnrirics as vc
oursclvcs scc rhcm, or as orhcrs scc us, vc chooscvirhin parricular
consrrainrs.urrhisisnorasurprisingIacr - irisinIacrcnrirclyunrc-
markablc. Choiccs oI all kinds arc alvays madc virhin parricular
consrrainrs, and rhis is pcrhaps rhc mosr clcmcnrary aspccr oI any
choicc. !or cxamplc, as any srudcnr oI cvcn clcmcnrary cconomics
vouldknov,rhcrhcoryoIconsumcr`schoiccdocsnordcnyrhccxis-
rcncc oIa budgcr, vhich oIcoursc is a consrrainr. 1hc prcscncc oI
budgcrconsrrainr docsnorimplyrharrhcrcisnochoiccro bcmadc,
onlyrharrhcchoicchasrobcmadcvirhinrhcbudgcr.1hcpoinr ar
issucisnorvhcrhcranyidcnriryvharcvcrcanbcchoscnrharvould
bc an absurd claim) , bur vhcrhcr vc havc choiccs ovcr alrcrnarivc
idcnrirics or combinarions oI idcnrirics, and pcrhaps morc impor-
ranrly, vhcrhcrvc havc somc Irccdom in dcciding vharprioriryro
givc ro rhc various idcnrirics rhar vc may simulrancously havc.
!coplc`schoiccsmaybcconsrraincdbyrhcrccognirionrharrhcyarc,
say, |cvish or Nuslim, bur rhcrc is srill a dccision ro bc madc by
rhcmrcgardingvharimporranccrhcygivcrorharparricularidcnriry
ovcr orhcrs rhar rhcy may also havc rclarcd, Ior cxamplc, ro rhcir
polirical bclicIs, scnsc oInarionaliry, humanirarian commirmcnrs or
proIcssionalarrachmcnrs) .
3 5 I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
!dcnriry is rhus a guinrcsscnriay pura conccpr, virh varying
rccvancc oI diIIcrcnr idcnrirics in disrincr conrcxrs. And, mosr
imporranry, vc havc choicc ovcr vhar signihcancc ro arrach ro our
diIIcrcnr idcnrirics. 1hcrc is no cscapc Irom rcasoning j usr bccausc
rhc norion oIidcnriry has bccn invokcd. Choiccs ovcr idcnrirics do
invovc consrrainrs and connccrions, bur rhc choiccs rhar cxisr and
havc ro bc madc arc rca, nor iusory. !n parricuar, rhc choicc oI
priorirics bcrvccn diIIcrcnr idcnrirics, incuding vhar rcarivc
vcighrs ro arrach ro rhcir rcspccrivc dcmands, cannor bc ony a
marrcr oI discovcry. 1hcy arc incscapaby dccisiona, and dcmand
rcason- norj usrrccognirion.
Religions, Heterodoxy and Reason
1hc issucs oIpurairy and oIchoicc arc immcnscyrccvanr ro rhc
undcrsranding andanaysis oIrhc idca oI!ndian idcnriry. !n arguing
IoranincusionaryIormoIrhc!ndianidcnriry,1agorcandGandhidid
nor dcnyrhc prcscncc and conringcnrimporrancc oIorhcr idcnrirics.
Karhcr,inrcrmsoIpoiricacohcrcncc,sociaivingandcururainrcr-
acrions, borh cmphasizcd rhc Iacr rhar rhc !ndian idcnriry coud nor
Iavouranyparricuargroupovcrorhcrsvirhin!ndia.
1agorc vas diIIcrcnr Irom Gandhi in having a css convcnriona
vicvoIhis!induidcnriry,andindccdinThe Religion of Man poinrcd
rorhcIacrrharhisIamiyvas aproducroI'a conHucnccoIrhrcccu-
rurcs,!indu,Nohammcdanandrirish` . Gandhij i`s!induidcnriry
vas morc asscrrivc, andhchcdrcguar praycr mccrings, in aargcy
!indu Iorm cvcn rhough orhcr rcigions vcrc aso invokcd) . ur
Gandhi vas j usr as opposcd as 1agorc ro crring his !indu idcnriry
ovcrvhcmhisovcrarchingcommirmcnrroan!ndianidcnriryinpoir-
ica and sociamarrcrs. !ndccd, Gandhiji gavc hisiIcin rhccausc oI
sccuarismandIairncss,arrhchands oIsomconcvirh a simpcrvicv
oIrhc congrucncc oI!ndianand!induidcnrirics.
1hosc vho arguc rhar rhc !ndian idcnriry has ro bc in somc vay
dcrivcdIroma!induidcnrirypoinrournoronyrharrhc!induscon-
srirurc a argc maj oriry oIpcopc in !ndia, bur aso rhar, hisroricay,
!induism has bccn rhc mainsray oI rhc !ndian civiizarion. 1hcsc
3 5
2
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
dcscriprions can, ro a considcrabc cxrcnr, bc rakcn ro bc rruc. ur
rhcydonorinanyvayindicarcrharrhc!ndianidcnriryhasrobcbasi-
cay dcrivarivc Irom rhc Iinduidcnriry, or rharrhc !ndianidcnriry
musr privicgc rhcIinduidcnriry ovcrorhcrs.
!crhaps!shoudcommcnrbricHyonrhcroc oIrhrccdisrincrissucs
rhararcinvovcdinrhcapproach!amrryingrodcIcnd.!irsr,idcnriry
isnoramarrcroIdiscovcry- oIhisrory anymorcrhanoIrhcprcscnr
- andhas ro bc choscnvirh rcasoning. LvcniIirvcrc rhc casc as ir
ccrrainy is norj rhar !ndian hisrory vcrc argcy Iindu hisrory, vc
voudsri havcrodcrcrminchovapuraisrandmuri-rcigiouspop-
uarioncansharcan!ndianidcnriryvirhoursharingrhcsamcrcigion.
1his, oIcoursc, is rhc basis oIsccuarismin!ndia, andourrcasoning
abourprioriricsindcaingvirhcompcringconccprionsoI!ndianidcn-
rirynccdnorbcparasiriconhisrory. 1hcmakcrs oIrhc!ndianconsri-
rurion rccognizcd rhar Iuy, as did rhc !nircd Srarcs in adopring a
argcy sccuar consrirurion Ior a mosry Chrisrian popuarion. 1hc
nccd rorcasonandchoosccannor bcgivcnovcrrorhcmcrc obscrva-
rionoIhisrory, andrhispoinrrcarcsrorhcmorcgcncracaim,vhich
!havcdcIcndcdcscvhcrc,rharvhicvccannorivc without hisrory,
vcnccd nor ivc within ircirhcr.|
1hc sccond poinr is morc hisrorica. As vas discusscd in Lssays
I-4, !ndia has bccn a muri-rcigious counrry Ior a vcry ong rimc,
virh |cvs, Chrisrians, !arsccs and Nusim rradcrs arriving and
scrringin!ndiaovcrrhchrsrmicnnium. Sikhismvas bornin !ndia,
inrhcsamcvayrharuddhismand|ainismoriginarcdinrhccounrry.
Lvcn prc-Nusim !ndia vas nor, as is somcrimcs caimcd, mainy a
Iinducounrry, sinccuddhismvasrhcdominanrrcigionin!ndiaIor
many hundrcds oIycars and|ainism has had an cguay onghisrory
and in Iacr a argcconrinuingprcscnccroday. Sincc rhcrcis so much
poiricay gcncrarcd anragonism rhcsc days againsr Iindus convcrr-
ing ro any orhcr rcigion, ir is pcrhaps vorrh rcmcmbcring rhar
Ashoka arguaby rhc grcarcsr cmpcror oI !ndiaj did convcrr ro
*This issue was discussed in Essay 3 .
tSee my On Interpreting India's Past (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, I996) ; also
published in Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal (eds . ) , Nationalism, Democracy and
Development: Reappraising South Asian States and Politics in India (Delhi: Oxford
University Press, I999) .
3 5 3
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
uddhism Irom vhat voud havc bccn thc thcn Iorm oI Iinduism
andscntcmissaricspropagatinguddhismtomanyothcrcountrics. '
!ndccd, cvcn in tcrms oI Vcdic and !paniadic contributions,
uddhismand|ainismarcasmuchthcinhcritors oIthattraditionas
arcatcrIorms oIIinduism.1hconcunivcrsityIorvhich!ndiavas
outstandingy Iamous, namcyaanda, vhich attractcd schoars
IromChinaandcscvhcrc,andvhichcamctoancndaItcrmanyhun-
drcd ycars oIcxistcnccj ust around thc timcvhcnthc univcrsitics oI
xIord and Cambridgc vcrc bcing Ioundcd in thc thirtccnth ccn-
turyj , happcncd to bc auddhistunivcrsity.
!comc nov to thc third rcasonagainstmaking thc !ndianidcntity
dcpcndcnt on thc Iindu idcntity. Iindus arc dchncd in tvo guitc
distinctvays.Vhcnthc numbcr oIIindus iscountcd,anditiscstab-
ishcdthatthcvastmaj orityoI!ndiansarcinIactIindu,thisisnota
countingoIrcigiousbcicIs,butcsscntiayoIcthnicbackground.ut
vhcngcncraizationsarcmadcabout,say,thcdivinityoIKama,orthc
sacrcdstatus oIthc Ramayata, bcicIs arc invokcd. yusing thc tvo
approachcstogcthcr, anumcricapicturc isconstructcdinvhichitis
supposcd that a vast maj ority oI !ndians bcicvc in thc divinity of
Kama andthcsacrcdstatus oIthc Ramayata. !oraargcproportion
oI thc Iindus, hovcvcr, that attribution voud bc a mistakc, sincc
hundrcds oImiions oIpcopc vho arc dchncd asIinduin thc hrst
scnsc donot actuay sharcthc bcicIs vhich voud bcccntrato thc
sccondapproach.
!ndccd,bymakingthisattribution,thcchampionsoIIindupoitics
undcrmincthcrichtraditionoIhctcrodoxythathasbccnsoccntrato
thc history oI thc Iindu cuturc. As vas discusscd caricr, Sanskrit
incuding its variants, !ai and !rakritj has a argciitcraturc in thc
athcistic and agnostic tradition than cxists in any othcr cassica an-
guagc Grcck, Koman, IcbrcvorArabicj . !n thc Iourtccnthccntury,
Nadhava
_
carya`s rcmarkabc book cacd Sarvadarsanasargraha
'1hc Cocction oIA !hiosophics` j , vhichhas oncchaptcr cach on
*The spread of Buddhism from India to nearly half the world is one of the great
events of global history. For an excellent account of that remarkable process, see H.
Bechert and Richard Gombrich, The World of Buddhism (New York: Thames and
Hudson, r987) . See also Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism (London and New
York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, r98 8 ) .
3 54
THE INDIAN IDENTITY
rhc major schoos oIIindu bcicI, dcvorcd rhc cnrirc hrsrchaprcr ro
argumcnrsinIavouroIrhcarhcisricposirion.1hchisroryoIrharrradi-
riongocsbackarcasrrvomicnniaandahaI,rorhcsixrhccnruryBCE,
vhcnrhc!okayara and Carvaka schoos hadrhcirorigin,in a cimarc
oIhcrcrodoxyinvhichuddhismand|ainismvcrc aso born.'
Somcrhing simiarcan bc said abour acgcd curura arrirudcs oI
rhc Iindus. ! do nor doubrrhar somc Iindus do indccd Iind, as
rcporrcdrcccnryinrhcncvspapcrs,rharcvcnVacnrinc`saycards
arcoIIcnsivcas bcingacgcdyscxuaycxpicir- apoinrmadcvith
much Iorcc by somcpoiricay acrivisr Iindus. ur Iindus vary in
rhcir arrirudcroissucs oIrhiskind, asrhcscuprorsoIrhcrcmpcsin
Khajurahocoudrcadiycxpain.!rakcrhcibcrryoIspccuaringrhar
rhcgrcarcsr Sanskrirpocr,Kaidasa,virhhiscogucncconrhcbcaury
oI Icmac Iorms barhing in rhc rivcr

ipra in his narivc \j j ayinI,

voudhavcIoundVacnrinc`s aycardsrobcdccpydisappoinring.
1hc rcrm Iindu can bc scnsiby uscd in cirhcr oI rvo arcrnarivc
Iorms, rcIccring rcspccrivcy mcmbcrship oI a communiry, or rhc
hoding oIparricuar rcigious vicvs and curura arrirudcs, bur rhc
numcrica Iorcc oI rhc Iindus rhar is marshacd in Iavour oI ccn-
soria uscs is obraincd rhrough a conccprua conIounding oI rvo
disrincrnorions.
A Concluding Remark
!vanrromakc oncasr poinronadiIIcrcnrissucrcarcdrorhcroc oI
rcigionandcommuniryingcncra norIinduisminparricuar) asa
rourc ro rhc !ndian idcnriry. Shoud rhc !ndian idcnriry bc sccn as
somcrhing oIa 'Icdcra` conccprrhardravs onrhcdiIIcrcnrrcigious
communirics,pcrhapscvcnincudingnon-rcigious bcicIsvirhinrhc
isr oIrhc consrirucnrs oI a 'IcdcrarionoIcururcs` ! A gucsrion oI a
vcry simiar rypcvasraiscdinriraininanimporranr documcnrpro-
duccdbyrhcKunnymcdc1rusr,cacdrhcReport of the Commission
on the Future of Multi-ethnic Britain. 1hc rcporr givcs parria and
guaihcd backing ro a Icdcra vicv oI conrcmporary rirain, as ' a
*See the discussion i n Essay r of the presence of heterodox beliefs i n India through
out its history going back even to the Rigveda.
3 5 5
THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
ooscr Icdcrarion oI cururcs hcd rogcrhcr by common bonds oI
inrcrcsrandaIIccrionanda coccrivcscnscoIbcing`.
l6
1his is a vc-arricuarcd posirion, andrhc Commission providcs
pausibcargumcnrsIorirvirhourruingourorhcrinrcrprcrarionsj . !
voud,ncvcrrhccss,argucrhar such a 'Icdcra`vicvvoud bc agrcar
misrakcIorrirainasvcasIor!ndia.1hcissucrcarcsdirccryrorhc
purairy oI idcnrirics ! havc arcady discusscd, and ro rhc scopc Ior
choiccinrhc dcrcrminarionoIidcnriry. !copc`srcarionrorirain,or
ro !ndia, nccdnor bcmcdiarcdrhroughrhc 'cururc` oIrhc Iamiyin
vhichrhcymayhavcbccn born,norrhroughirsrcigion.!copcmay
choosc ro scck idcnriry virh morc rhan onc oI rhcsc prcdcIincd
cururcs,or,j usraspausiby,virhnonc.!copcarcasoIrccrodccidc
rharrhcircururaorrcigiousidcnriryiscssimporranrrorhcmrhan,
say, rhcir poirica convicrions, or rhcir ircrary pcrsuasions, or rhcir
proIcssionacommirmcnrs.!risa choicc Iorrhcmro makc, nomarrcr
hovrhcyarcpaccdinrhc 'Icdcrarion oIcururcs` .
1o concudc, rhc incusionary vicv oI!ndian idcnriry, vhich vc
havc inhcrircdandvhich!havcrricdro dcIcnd, isnoronynorpara-
siric on, or parria ro, a Iindu idcnriry, ir canhardy bc a Icdcrarion
oIrhcdiIIcrcnrrcigious communirics in !ndia. Iindu,Nusim, Sikh,
Chrisrian, |ain, !arscc and orhcrs. !ndianidcnrirynccdnor bc mcdi-
arcdrhrough orhcr group idcnrirics in a Icdcravay. !ndccd, !ndia is
nor, in rhis vicv, scnsiby sccn cvcn as a Icdcra combinarion oI
diIIcrcnrcommunirics.
! guorcd caricr a srarcmcnr oI|amscrji 1ara oI an aIIirmarivcy
narionaisr kind, vhcn - commcnring on rhc cxcccncc rhar young
!ndians canachicvcrhroughcducarion- hcsaidrhar!ndiansrudcnrs
'can nor ony hod rhcir ovn againsrrhc bcsr rivas in Luropc onrhc
arrcr`s ground,burcanbcarrhcmhoov` . 1harcxprcssionoIpridc-
cvcnpcrhapsoIarrogancc - isnorrhcpridcoIa!arsccvhohappcncd
robcan!ndian, buroIan!ndianvhohappcncdrobca!arscc. 1hcrc
is a disrincrion hcrc, and ir is, ! voud arguc, borh imporranr andin
nccdoIsomcundcrsrandingrighrnov.
Notes
ES S AY I . THE ARGUMENTATIVE INDIAN
I . Arjuna i s supposed to have ended with abject surrender: 'I stand frm with
my doubts dispelled. I shall act according to Thy word' ( Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadgita, New Delhi : HarperCollins, I99
3
,
p.
3
8 I ) .
2. I n collaboration with Swami Prabhavananda (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna
Math, I989) .
3 Jawaharlal Nehru, who quotes Humboldt, does however point out that
'every school of thought and philosophy . . . interprets [the Gita] in its own
way' ( The Discovery of India, Calcutta: The Signet Press, I946; repr. Delhi:
Oxford University Press, I98I, pp. Io8-9) .
4 T S. Eliot, 'The Dry Salvages' , i n Four Quartets (London: Faber & Faber,
I944) , pp. 29-
3
I .
5 . For a good discussion of some other interesting arguments i n the
Mahabhirata, see Bimal Matilal, Moral Dilemmas in the Mahabharata
( Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, and Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass,
I989 ). See also his collection of papers, edited by Jonardan Ganeri, The
Collected Essays of Bimal Krishna Matilal, vol. ii: Ethics and Epics (Delhi
and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) . Shashi Tharoor conveys well
the excitements offered by the stories and substories in the Mahabhirata, in
his adapted tale, The Great Indian Story (Harmondsworth: Penguin, I990) .
6. See Len Giovannitti and Fred Freed, The Decision to Drop the Bomb
(London: Methuen, I 9
57) .
7 See In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: USAEC Transcript of the
Hearing before Personnel Security Board (Washington, DC: Government
Publishing Office, I 9 54). See also the play, based on these hearings, by
Heinar Kipphardt, In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, trans. Ruth
Speirs (London: Methuen, I967) .
3 5 7
NOTES TO PAGES 7-1 4
8 . This extract and the others that follow, on the Garg'-Yajavakyadebate,
are taken from Brihadara1yaka Upaniad, sections
3
8. r to
3
8. 12. They
correspond to the English translations of this Upaniad published by Sri
Ramkrishna Math (Madras, 19
5
1 ) , pp. 242-5 3
, and by Advaita Ashrama
( Calcutta, 196
5 ) , pp. 5
1 2-29, but the English versions given here include my
slight emendations of these earlier translations, based on the original Sanskrit
text.
9 See Antonia Fraser, Boadicea's Chariot: The Warrior Queens (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988) . For other biographies of the Rani, who
widowed at an early age - rose to be a major leader in the growing resistance
to British rule and died valiantly on the battlefeld, see Joyce Lebra-Chapman,
The Rani of Jhansi: A Study of Female Heroism in India ( Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1 98 6) , and Mahasweta Devi, The Queen of
Jhansi, translated from Bengali by Mandira and Sagaree Sengupta ( Calcutta:
Seagull Books, 2ooo) .
IO. Brihaddr1yaka Upaniad, sections 2. 4 2 and 2. 4
3
; i n the Advaita
Ashrama translation, pp.
3 52-4.
I I . Draupad' was in fact married to all fve Pa.qava brothers, of whom
Yudhithira was the eldest: this is one of the rare cases of polyandry in the
epics.
I2. Trans. Indira Viswanathan Peterson, Design and Rhetoric in a Sanskrit
Court Epic (New York: State University of New York Press, 200
3
) , pp.
I9I-4.
I 3. On these references and the discussion that follows, see Kshiti Mohan
Sen, Hinduism (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961, 200
5 ) , pp. 27-
3
1.
I4. The proposal to dilute democracy came from no less a statesman than
Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India. The frmness with which one of
the poorest electorates in the world rejected the proposed move to authori
tarianism had a salutary effect in discouraging other temptations in that
direction. After being voted out of office, Indira Gandhi changed tack,
strongly reasserted her earlier commitment to democracy, and regained the
Prime Ministership in the general elections of 1980.
IS. For a discussion of this general connection as well as illustrations from
the histories of various parts of Asia and Africa, in addition to Europe, see
my 'Democracy and Its Global Roots', New Republic, Nov. 200
3
.
r6. See John Rawls, A Theory of Justice ( Cambridge, Mass . : Harvard
University Press, 1971) . Indeed, Rawls saw 'the exercise of public reason' as
the central feature of democracy: see his Justice as Fairness: A Restatement,
ed. Erin Kelly ( Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2oor ) , p.
50.
See also Juergen Habermas, Toward a Rational Society (Boston: Beacon
NOTES TO PAGES 1 4- 1 7
Press, 1 971 ) , and The Theory of Communicative Action ( Boston:
Beacon Press, 1987) .
I7. James M. Buchanan, ' Social Choice, Democracy, and Free Markets' ,
Journal of Political Economy, 62 ( 19 54) , p. 1 20.
r 8. See my 'Democracy and Its Global Roots' .
r9. As explained i n the Preface, I have taken the liberty of spelling Asoka as
Ashoka, since that name is more familiar to people outside India in that
spelling.
20. Robert's Rules of Order: Simplifed and Applied, Webster's New World
(New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1999 ) .
2I. See Irfan Habib ( ed. ) , Akbar and His India (Delhi and New York: Oxford
University Press, 1997) , for a set of fne essays investigating the beliefs and poli
cies of Akbar as well as the intellectual infuences that led him to his heterodox
position. Two of the essays in this volume ( 'Secularism and Its Discontents' and
'India through Its Calendars') include discussions of the intellectual signifcance
of the interreligious interchanges in Akbar's time. Shirin Moosvi's book
Episodes in the Life of Akbar: Contemporary Records and Reminiscences
(New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1994) , gives a vividly informative account
of how Akbar arrived at social decisions through the use of reasoning.
22. Akbar was, obviously, not obliged, as the emperor, to follow what
emerged in the discussions he arranged (they had only an advisory role) , and
he could have stopped the deliberations that occurred at his invitation when
ever he chose. Since the freedom to present their respective viewpoints that
the participants enjoyed in practice would have been conditional on Akbar's
acceptance, it would not count as 'genuine freedom' when assessed in the
'republican' perspective ( as advanced by Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A
Theory of Freedom and Government, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) , or in
terms of the 'neo-Roman' theory of freedom ( as developed by Quentin
Skinner, Liberty before Liberalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1998) .
23. On different concepts 0f secularism, see the collection of essays i n Rajeev
Bhargava (ed. ) , Secularism and Its Critics (Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1998) .
24. On the histories involved, see Shalva Weil (ed. ) , India's Jewish Heritage
(Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2002) , and the literature cited there.
25. There were also pre-Christian Greek settlements in north-west India from
the second century BCE. On the early relations between India, Greece and
Rome, see the lucidly illuminating essay by John Mitchener, 'India, Greece
and Rome: East-West Contacts in Classical Times' (mimeographed, 2003 ) ,
and also the large literature cited there.
3 59
NOTES TO PAGES 1 8 -2 3
26. These statements of Ashoka occur in Edict XII ( on 'toleration' ) at
Erragudi; I am using here the translation presented by Vincent A. Smith in
Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909) ,
pp. 1 70-71, except for some very minor emendations based on the original
Sanskrit text.
27. Translation in Vincent A. Smith, Akbar: The Great Mogul ( Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1917) , p. 257.
28. See Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'Akbar's Personality Traits and World Outlook:
A Critical Reappraisal', in Habib ( ed. ) , Akbar and His India, p. 78.
29. Akbar's principal adviser, Abul Fazl, was a great scholar i n Sanskrit as
well as Arabic and Persian. One of the g

nerals in Akbar's forces, Rahim ( or

Abdurrahim Khankhana) , himself a Muslim, wrote rather beautiful poems
that draw, inter alia, on Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy.
30. See Kshiti Mohan Sen, Medieval Mysticism of India, with a Foreword by
Rabindranath Tagore ( 1930) , and Hinduism ( 1961, 2005 ) .
3 L Edict XII, i n Smith, Asoka, p. 171; italics added.
32. A. C. Bouquet, Comparative Religion ( Harmondsworth: Penguin, 5th
edn. , 19
5
6} , p. 1 1 2. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the great commentator on
Indian philosophy, went even further, and argued that 'the chief mark of
Indian philosophy in general is its concentration upon the spiritual'
(S. Radhakrishnan and S. A. Moore, in the introduction to their collection, A
Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton: Princeton University Press,
19 5 7, p. xxiii) . That point of view is disputed, with textual evidence, by Bimal
Matilal (who was, as it happens, a successor of Radhakrishnan as Spalding
Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at Oxford} : Perception: An Essay on
Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986} .
33 See Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Lokayata: A Study of Ancient Indian
Materialism (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 19
5 9) , and Indian
Atheism ( Calcutta: Manisha, 1959) .
34 In a series of recent studies on ancient India in Bengali ( including one on
'doubt and atheism in the Vedic literature' , 2ooo) , Sukumari Bhattacharji has
substantially enriched our understanding of the nature and reach of this
heterodoxy. Even Yajiavalkya, who was referred to earlier as being identifed
by the woman interlocutor, Garg', as the best-informed scholar on God, gives
some evidence of entertaining serious doubts about the existence and role of
God. Among Sukumari Bhattacharji's earlier contributions, those in English
include: The Indian Theogony ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1970; London: Penguin, 2ooo) ; Literature in the Vedic Age, 2 vols. ( Calcutta:
K. P. Bagchi, 1984, 19 86} ; and Classical Sanskrit Literature ( Calcutta: Orient
Longman, 1990) .
NOTES TO PAGES 24-3 I
35 D. N. Jha, Ancient India (New Delhi: Manohar, I977, rev. edn. I998) ,
pp. 69-70.
36. The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha or Review of Different Systems of Hindu
Philosophy by Madhava Acharya, trans. E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough
(London: Tribner, I 8 82; repr. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, I976) .
37 Ibid. , p. 2.
38. Ibid. , pp. 2-3 .
39 Ibid. , p. IO.
40. Arthasistra can be literally translated as: 'the discipline of material pros
perity' . For an English translation, see R. P. Kangle, Kautilya's Arthasastra
(Bombay: University of Bombay, I970) . Kautilya's approach to politics as
well as economics is governed by an overarchingly consequential priority.
This is discussed, inter alia, in my Money and Value: On the Ethics and
Economics of Finance, The First Baffi Lecture (Rome: Bank of Italy, I99I ) ,
repr. in Economics and Philosophy, 9 ( I993 ) .
4r . On this, see my Inaugural Address to the Indian History Congress in
J anuary 200 I: 'History and the Enterprise of Knowledge', distributed by the
Congress; repr. in New Humanist, I I 6 (2 June 2ooi) .
42. On this, see particularly Matilal, Perception.
43 Trans. Makhanlal Sen, Ramayana: From the Original Valmiki ( Calcutta:
Rupa, I989) , pp. I74-5
44 Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha, trans. Cowell and Gough, p. 6.
45 Ibid.
46. Ibid. On the epistemological issues pursued here and in related texts, see
also Matilal, Perception.
47 See Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Lokayata, pp. 2-3; and Ramendranath
Ghosh, in his Bengali essay on 'Carvaka Materialism' in Dipak Bhattacharya,
Moinul Hassan and Kumkum Ray (eds. ) , India and Indology: Professor
Sukumari Bhattacharji Felicitation Volume (Kolkata [Calcutta] : National
Book Agency, 2004) , p. 242.
48. Repr. in B. H. G. Wormald, Francis Bacon: History, Politics and Science,
rs6r-r626 ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I993 ) , pp. 3 5 6-7.
49 Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, I97I) , p. I I I. Further discussion of this controversy can be found
in my essay 'History and the Enterprise of Knowledge' .
so. Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (Boston: Little, Brown & Co. ,
I994) , p. 2I.
5 I . In the presence of multiple and interdependent causation, which factor we
decide to emphasize must depend on what features are being highlighted
already. Facing a different act of balancing in the context of British history,
NOTES TO PAGES 3 I .3 6
Eric Hobsbawm discussed, half a century ago, why it was important for
Marxist historians (he was writing as one) to bring out the role of 'ideals,
passions and movements' (increasingly neglected by orthodox historians) ,
rather than concentrating mainly on material conditions - the traditional
focus of Marxist analysis: 'In the pre-Namier days Marxists regarded it as
one of their chief historical duties to draw attention to the material bases of
politics . . . . But since bourgeois historians have adopted what is a particular
form of vulgar materialism, Marxists have had to remind them that history is
the struggle of men for ideas, as well as a refection of their material environ
ment' ( 'Where Are British Historians Going?' , Marxist Quarterly, 2 Jan.
I 95 5 , p. 22) .
52. Rabindranath Tagore, The Religion of Man (London: Unwin, I93 I, 2nd
edn. , I96I) , p. I05.
53 From Gitanjali. See also Essay 5
ES S AY 2 . INEQUALITY, IN S TABILITY AND VOICE
I. See Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its
Implications ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I98o) . For critical
assessment of Dumont's reading of Indian stratifcation and related theses,
see Andre Beteille, The Idea of Natural Inequality and Other Essays (Delhi:
Oxford University Press, I98 3 ) ; Arjun Appadurai, 'Is Homo Hierarchicus ? ',
American Anthropologist, I 3 ( I 9 8 6) ; Dipankar Gupta ( ed. ) , Social
Stratification ( Delhi: Oxford University Press, I 99 I ) ; Nicholas Dirks,
' Castes of Mind' , Representations, 3 7 ( I992) , and Castes of Mind:
Colonialism and the Making of Modern India ( Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 200I ) .
2. See e. g. Charles Taylor, Philosophy and the Human Sciences: Philosophical
Papers ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I986) ; and Nancy Fraser
and Axel Honneth, Redistribution or Recognition? A Political-Philosophical
Exchange (London: Verso Books, 2003 ) . The underlying issues in the idea of
recognition are also discussed by Emma Rothschild, 'Dignity or Meanness' ,
Adam Smith Review, I ( 2004) .
3 Ambedkar himself played an important part i n the policy of affirma
tive actions in favour of disadvantaged social groups ( the ' scheduled
castes' and ' scheduled tribes' ) included in the constitution of the Indian
Republic. But his own sense of growing social pessimism led him, even
tually, to embrace the egalitarianism of Buddhism, in a powerfully evoca
tive public ceremony of religious conversion. See The Essential Writings
NOTES TO PAGES 3 6-4 1
of B. R. Ambedkar, ed. Valerian Rodrigues ( Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 2002) .
4 The connections are discussed i n Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, Hunger and
Public Action (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) , and India: Development and
Participation (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) . Activist
moyements for women's rights and equity, in different forms varying from self
help organizations to participation in public discussion through meetings and
publications (Manushi, ed. Madhu Kishwar, a pioneering feminist j ournal),
have had considerable success in changing the agenda of political and social
change in India. An engaging account of some of the developments can be
found in Radha Kumar's elegant book, The History of Doing: An Illustrated
Account of Movements for Women's Rights and Feminism in India (New
Delhi: Kali for Women, 2nd edn., 1997) . The variety of issues in which the
women's movement have to be engaged include the relatively neglected feld of
ownership in general and land ownership in particular, on which see the classic
study of Bina Agarwal, A Field of One's Own ( Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994) . The social correlates of the new departures of the
'invisible women' are beautifully described by Anees Jung, Beyond the
Courtyard: A Sequel of Unveiling India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2003) .
5. There are also important issues of governance, in particular what Mark
Tully and Gillian Wright call the 'peculiarly Indian form of bad governance'
(India in Slow Motion, London: Penguin Books, 2003, p. 7) . However, the
prospects of improving governance in India are linked, ultimately, with the
vigour of its democratic practice, as Tully and Wright themselves note. On
that connection, see also Dreze and Sen, India: Development and
Participation, ch. ro.
6. For references to these and related points of view, see Essay r, and also
Kshiti Mohan Sen, Hinduism ( r96r, 2005) .
7 Yi Jing, A Record of the Buddhist Religions as Practised in India and
Malay Archipelago, trans. J. Takakusu ( Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1 896) , p. 1 3 6.
8. Indeed, even the pre-imperial travellers from Britain also tended to see
India as a country. This clearly applies, for example, to that determined
English tourist, Ralph Fitch, who roamed around India in the sixteenth
century. See William Foster ( ed. ) , Early Travels in India (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1921) .
9 E. M. Forster, 'Nine Gems of Uj j ain' , i n A binger Harvest (Harmonds
worth: Penguin Books, 1 93 6, 1974) , pp. 3 24-7.
ro. Trans. from Barbara Stoler Miller, The Plays of Kalidasa (Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidass, 1999) , pp. s-6.
NOTES TO PAGES 4 2-5 I
I I . The history of the partition has been the subject of considerable critical
analysis. See particularly Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: ]innah, the
Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan ( Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, I 9 8 5 ) . See also Gyanendra Pandey's analysis of the
causation, intensity and lasting effects of the violence in the process of
partition, Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in
India ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 200I) .
12. The role of civil society for the development of a South Asian community
is illuminatingly discussed by Rehman Sobhan, Rediscovering a South Asian
Community: Civil Society in Search of Its Future ( Colombo: International
Centre for Ethnic Studies, I997) .
ES S AY 3 . INDIA: LAR GE AND S MALL
I . Kshiti Mohan Sen, Hinduism ( Harmondsworth: Penguin, I96I ) ,
pp.
3
9-
4
0.
2. The translation is
.
from Makhanlal Sen, Ramayana: From the Original
Valmiki ( Calcutta: Rupa, 1989) , p. I 74
, with minor emendations based on
the original Sanskrit text.
3 . On the nature and use of these claims, see Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India
(London: Penguin Books, extended edn. , 200
3
) , pp. I 50-5 2.
4 The contrast between that broad tradition and the narrowness of contem
porary political Hinduism is brought out in several of the essays in Tapan
Raychaudhuri's wide-ranging anthology of essays on colonial and post
colonial India, Perceptions, Emotions, Sensibilities: Essays on India's
Colonial and Post-Colonial Experiences (New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford
University Press, I999 ) .
5 . In addition to the consolidating role that Indian nationalism played during
the struggle for independence, it did also have other - including some less
agreeable - social features. See, among other contributions, Bipan Chandra,
Amales Tripathi and Barun De, Freedom Struggle (New Delhi: National
Book Trust, I972) ; Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: ]innah, the Muslim
League and the Demand for Pakistan ( Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, I9 8 5 ); and Barun De, Nationalism as a Binding Force: The Dialectics
of the Historical Course of Nationalism ( Calcutta: Centre for Studies in
Social Sciences, I987) .
6. The discussion here draws on an earlier essay, 'What I s the Indian
Nation? ' , Taj Magazine ( 2003 ) .
7 The book was originally published under the nom de plume ' A Maratha'
NOTES TO PAGES 5 I - 5 9
( Hindutva, Nagpur: V. V. Kelkar, 1923 ) . It was later republished under
Savarkar's own name in various editions, including Hindutva (Bombay: Veer
Savarkar Prakashan, 6th edn. , 1989) .
8. Indeed, Savarkar himself had gone on trial - and been released on some
what technical grounds - for alleged complicity in Gandhi's murder. This
history is discussed in some detail by A. G. Noorani, Savarkar and Hindutva
(Delhi: Leftward Books, 2002) . It is a sign of how the times have changed
that a portrait of Veer Savarkar was installed in 2004 in the central hall of the
Indian parliament, on the initiative of the coalition government ( led by the
BJP) then in office in New Delhi, even though many parliamentarians
boycotted the event.
9 On diferent aspects of sectarian conficts and challenges to secularism in
India, see Veena Das ( ed. ) , Mirrors of Violence (Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1990) , including, among other essays, Ashis Nandy, 'The Politics of
Secularism and the Recovery of Religious Tolerance'; K. M. Panikkar ( ed. ) ,
Communalism i n India: History Politics and Culture (New Delhi: Manohar,
I99 I ) ; Upendra Baxi and Bhikhu Parekh ( eds . ) , Crisis and Change in
Contemporary India (New Delhi: Sage, I99 5) ; Rafiq Zakaria, Widening
Divide: An Insight into Hindu-Muslim Relations (London: Viking, I995) ;
Kaushik Basu and Sanj ay Subrahmanyam (eds. ) , Unravelling the Nation:
Sectarian Confict and India's Secular Identity (Delhi: Penguin, I996) ; Sugata
Bose and Ayesha Jalal (eds. ) , Nationalism, Democracy and Development:
State and Politics in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I997) ; Achin
Vanaik, The Furies of Indian Communalism (London: Verso, I997) ; Rajeev
Bhargava, Secularism and Its Critics ( I99 8 ) ; Neera Chandoke, Beyond
Secularism: The Rights of Religious Minorities (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford
University Press, I999) ; A. G. Noorani, The RSS and the B]P ( Delhi:
Manohar Publishers, 200I ) ; Ashutosh Varshney, Ethnic Confict and Civic
Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2002) , among other contributions.
IO. The failure of the ruling Congress government to prevent, and even to
probe adequately, the riots following Indira Gandhi's assassination in I984,
in which a great many Sikhs lost their lives, has also seriously tarnished
Congress's political record.
I I . Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of
World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996) .
I2. Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, I97r) , p. 22.
I3. Rabindranath Tagore, 'The Message of Indian History', Visva-Bharati
Quarterly, 22 ( I902) , p. 105. Sunil Khilnani discusses the nature of this
NOTES TO PAGES 5 9-6 5
diagnosis in his insightful book The Idea of India (London: Penguin Books,
extended edn. 2003 ) , pp. 1 66-70.
14. Dinesh Chandra Sen, History of Bengali Language and Literature (Delhi:
Gian Publishing House, 1986) , pp. 10-12.
rs. The sense of astonishment and disapproval about BJP's use of its official
position to radically rewrite Indian history on its own lines, often in direct
confict with well-known features of India's past, also had a political impact
against the BJP, in alienating many Indian intellectuals, who were previously
sitting on the fence. There is a lesson here also for the other political parties
not to deploy temporal political strength in messing with the history that chil
dren have to read. See also Ramachandra Guha's argument that the left had
also earlier used their own official position to give a particular direction to
the study of Indian history ( 'The Absent Liberal: An Essay on Politics and
Intellectual Life' , Economic and Political Weekly, 1 5 Dec. 2001 ) . Even
though that diagnosis of events has been contested, Guha's demand for
efforts to pursue obj ectivity and to avoid partisan bias in producing text
books and other official accounts of history is surely important.
16. One of the frst acts of the reconstituted Indian Council of Historical
Research was to put into cold storage a history of India's struggle for inde
pendence (called 'Towards Freedom' ) that had been commissioned earlier on
- before its reorganization - by the ICHR itself. The decision was apparently
connected with the expectation - probably correct enough - that the authors
of the study, two distinguished historians (K. M. Panikkar and Sumit Sarkar) ,
were likely to go into the divisive role of Hindu political activists during
India's struggle for national independence.
17. Hindusthan Times, 5 Oct. 2002.
18. 'Inventing History', Hindu, 14 Oct. 2002.
19. Chitra Srinivas, a history teacher in a school in New Delhi, who was
asked to comment on the textbooks but whose advice (like those of many
other history teachers) was comprehensively neglected, commented later that
the aim of the textbooks seemed to be the generating of the feeling 'that our
freedom struggle was basically a religious struggle against Christian mission
aries and Muslim communalists' . Srinivas, who comes from a Hindu back
ground herself, lamented: 'The problem is I love India and admire its
multicultural society too much . . . . I am unable to accept distortions in the
writing of India's history that will go against the very spirit of her existence'
( 'Whither Teaching of History?' , in Safronised and Substandard, New Delhi:
SAHMAT, 2002, pp. 69-71 ) .
20. See Mortimer Wheeler, Indus Civilization ( Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 19 5 3 ) ; John Mitchener, Studies in the Indus Valley
NOTES TO PAGES 6 5 -7 6
Inscriptions (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978) ; B. B. Lal and S. P.
Gupta ( eds. ) , Frontiers of the Indus Civilization (New Delhi: Books & Books
and Indian Archaeological Society, 1984) ; Bridget and Raymond Allchin,
Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South
Asia (New Delhi: Viking, 1997) ; D. N. Jha, Ancient India: In Historical
Outline (New Delhi: Manohar, 1998 ) .
21. Aside from these specifc misattributions of scientifc history, there i s a
general methodological problem, which Meera Nanda has discussed in her
highly engaging book, Prophets Facing Backward: Postmodern Critiques and
Hindu Nationalism in India (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,
200
3
) . Nanda argues that at the heart of the Hindu tva ideology lies 'a post
modernist assumption: that each society has its own norms of reasonable
ness, logic, rules of-evidence, and conception of truth' . She presents a forceful
critique both of that assumption and of the use she argues the Hindutva
movement makes of that assumption.
22. For example, the Social Science textbook made by NCERT for Class VI
attributed
A
ryabhata's ffth-century clarifcations about the diurnal motion
of the earth - as opposed to the sun going round the earth - to the Vedic
period, thousands of years earlier. See the extract in Saffronised and
Substandard, p.
3
I.
23. Natwar Jha and N. S. Rajaram, The Deciphered Indus Script (New Delhi:
Aditya Prakashan, 2000) .
24. 'Horseplay i n Harappa', Frontline, 17 ( 1
3 Oct. 2ooo) .
25. See R. E. Latham ( ed. ) , The Travels of Marco Polo (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 195 8) , pp. 250-5 1 .
26. As Aijaz Ahmad has argued, commenting on the violence of the histori
cal process that led
_

o the partition of India, 'neither the high-caste Hindu nor

the genteel and propertied Muslim, neither the fatefully communal forms of
our modernity nor the exclusivist practices of our anti-colonial reform move
ments' were entirely free of cultivating the ' savageries of the politics of
identity' ( Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary
South Asia, London: Verso, 2ooo, pp. xi-xii) .
27. From a letter to C. F Andrews, dated 1
3
March 1 921 , published in
Letters to a Friend (London: Allen & Unwin, 1928) . See also Essay 5
ES S AY 4 THE DIAS P ORA AND THE WORLD
I. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of
World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996) , p. 71.
NOTES TO PAGES 7 6-7 8
2. Trans. Vincent A. Smith, Akbar: The Great Mogul (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1 91 7) , p. 257.
3 See M. Athar Ali, 'The Perception of India in Akbar and Abu'l Fazl', in
Irfan Habib ( ed. ) , Akbar and His India ( Delhi and New York: Oxford
University Press, 1997) , p. 220, and also my essay, 'The Reach of Reason:
East and West', New York Review of Books, 47 ( 20 July 2ooo), included in
this volume as Essay 1 3 .
4 Other features of the many-sided colonial impact on ideas and emotions in
India have been studied by a number of distinguished historians in India. See
e.g. Tapan Raychaudhuri, Perceptions Emotions Sensibilities: Essays on
India's Colonial and Post-Colonial Experiences (New Delhi and Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1999 ), and Sumit Sarkar, A Critique of Colonial
India ( Calcutta: Papyrus Publishing House, 2ooo) . The important subject of
the origins of nationality in the subcontinent during British rule is investi
gated in C. A. Bayly, Origins of Nationality in South Asia: Patriotism and
Ethical Government in the Making of Modern India (Delhi and Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1998) .
5. T. B. Macaulay, 'Indian Education: Minute of the 2nd February, r 8 3 5 ' ,
repr. in G. M. Young ( ed. ) , Macaulay: Prose and Poetry ( Cambridge, Mass. :
Harvard University Press, 1952) , p. 722.
6. The gripping story that William Dalrymple tells in his masterly novel
White Mughals (London: Flamingo, 2002) about love in eighteenth-century
India, when a third of the British in India were living with Indian women, is
a distinctly early empire phenomenon. As the Raj solidifed over the follow
ing century, with its theories of distance between the British and Indian
peoples (a line of thinking of which James Mill was a principal theorist) , the
mainstream of social relations radically changed, even though there were
many individual cases of close personal ties stretching over the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries.
7 Ranajit Guha, Dominance without Hegemony ( Cambridge, Mass. :
Harvard University Press, 1997) .
8. Max Muller, Sacred Books of the East, 50 vols. ( Oxford: Clarendon Press,
I 8 79-19 10) .
9 James Mill, The History of British India (London, r 8 r 7; repr. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1975) , pp. 223-4.
ro. Quoted ibid. , Introduction by John Clive, p. viii.
I I . As Romila Thapar has noted, James Mill's reading of India, which
gained ground rapidly and by the middle of the nineteenth century became
almost 'axiomatic' in England to 'the understanding of Indian society and
politics', 'suited the imperial requirements' rather well ( see her Interpret-
NOTES TO PAGES 7 8 - 8 4
ing Early India, Delhi: Oxford University Press, I 98 2, pp. s-6, 3 3-4) .
12. Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, 1971 ) , pp. 276-7.
IJ. Mill, The History of British India, pp. 225-6.
I4. Ibid. , p. 247
IS On the importance of 'third-person perspectives' i n the development of
'identities' in the presence of asymmetries of power, see Akeel Bilgrami,
'What Is a Muslim?' , in Anthony Appiah and Henry L. Louis Gates (eds. ) ,
Identities ( Chicago: Chicago University Press, 199 5 ) . See also Ayesha Jalal,
Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since
(8 5o (London: Routledge, 2000) .
I6. Partha Chatterj ee, The Nation and Its Fragments (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1993 ), p. 6.
I7. Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India ( Calcutta: Signet Press, I946;
centenary edn. , Delhi: Oxford University Press, I989} .
IS. See The Essential Writings of B. R. Ambedkar, ed. Valerian Rodrigues
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002) , particularly essay 3 2 ('Basic Features
of the Indian Constitution' ) .
I9. An interesting comparison can be made between the ideas of two of the
stalwarts of political thinking in ancient India, viz. Kautilya and Ashoka. The
continuing relevance of their respective viewpoints and the contrasts between
them have been engagingly examined by Bruce Rich, To Uphold the World:
The Message of Ashoka and Kautilya for the 2rst Century (forthcoming) .
20. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D. 697, trans.
W. G. Aston (Tokyo: Tuttle, I972) , pp. I 28-3 3
21 . Nakamura Hajime, 'Basic Features of the Legal, Political, and Economic
Thought of Japan', in Charles A. Moore ( ed. ) , The Japanese Mind: Essentials
of Japanese Philosophy and Culture (Tokyo: Tuttle, I973 ) , p. I44
22. In fact, the Diamond Sutra was translated into Chinese many times -
perhaps even a dozen times. But it is Kumaraj'va's translation of this Sanskrit
document in 402 CE that was printed in what became the frst dated printed
book in the world. On this, see Essay 8 below.
23 . The scroll was found in I907 by the archaeologist Sir Marc Auriel Stein
in one of the 'Caves of the Thousand Buddhas' in north-west China. The
given date of printing translates, in the Gregorian calendar, as I I May 868.
24. See Thomas McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative
Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies (New York: Allworth Press, 2002) ,
pp. 3 68-70. In general, McEvilley provides an admirably illuminating
account of Greek-Indian interactions in the ancient world.
25. Alberuni's India, p. 20. The Arabic word then used for Hindu or Indian
NOTES TO PAGES 8 4-9 9
was the same, and I have replaced Sachau's choice of the English word
'Hindu' in this passage by 'Indian' , since the reference is to the inhabitants of
the country.
ES SAY 5 TAGORE AND HIS INDIA
I. Rabindranath Tagore, The Religion of Man (London: Unwin, I93 I, 2nd
edn. , I96I) , p. I05 . The extensive interactions between Hindu and Muslim
parts of Indian culture (in religious beliefs, civic codes, painting, sculpture,
literature, music and astronomy) have been discussed by Kshiti Mohan Sen
in Bharate Hindu Mushalmaner Jukto Sadhana (in Bengali) ( Calcutta: Visva
Bharati, I 949 : extended edn. , I990) and Hinduism (Harmondsworth:
Penguin, I96I, 2005) .
2. Rabindranath's father Debendranath had i n fact j oined a reformist
religious group, the Brahmo Samaj , which rej ected many contemporary
Hindu practices as aberrations from the ancient Hindu texts.
3 . Selected Letters of Rabindranath Tagore, ed. Krishna Dutta and Andrew
Robinson ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I997) . This essay draws
on my Foreword to this collection. For important background material on
Rabindranath Tagore and his reception in the West, see also the editors'
Rabindranath Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man (New York: St Martin's Press,
I99 5 ), and Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology (New York: Picador, I997) .
4 See Romain Rolland and Gandhi Correspondence, with a Foreword by
Jawaharlal Nehru (New Delhi: Government of India, I976) , pp. I2-I3 .
5 On Dartington Hall, the school, and the Elmhirsts, see Michael Young,
The Elmhirsts of Dartington: The Creation of an Utopian Community
(London: Routledge, I982) .
6. Yasunari Kawabata, The Existence and Discovery of Beauty, trans.
v. H. Viglielmo (Tokyo: Mainichi Newspapers, I969) , pp. 5 6-7.
7 W. B. Yeats, Introduction, in Rabindranath Tagore, Gitanjali (London:
Macmillan, I 9 I 3 ) .
8. The importance of ambiguity and incomplete description i n Tagore's
poetry provides some insight into the striking thesis of William Radice ( one
of the maj or English translators of Tagore) that 'his blend of poetry and prose
is all the more truthful for being incomplete' (Introduction to his
Rabindranath Tagore: Selected Short Stories, Harmondsworth: Penguin,
I99I, p. 28) .
9 Reported i n Amita Sen, Anando Sharbokaje (in Bengali) ( Calcutta: Tagore
Research Institute, 2nd edn. , I996) , p. I 3 2.
370
NOTES TO PAGES I OO-I I 5
Io. B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I95 8;
paperback, I989) , p. I49
II. The economic issues are discussed i n my Choice of Techniques ( Oxford:
Blackwell, I96o) , appendix D.
I2. Mohandas Gandhi, quoted by Krishna Kripalani, Tagore: A Life (New
Delhi: Orient Longman, I96I, 2nd edn. , I97I) , pp. I?I-2.
I3. For fuller accounts of the events, see Dutta and Robinson, Rabindranath
Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man, ch. 25 , and Ketaki Kushari Dyson, In
Your Blossoming Flower-Garden: Rabindranath Tagore and Victoria
Ocampo (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, I988) .
I4. Published in English translation in Rabindranath Tagore: A Centenary
Volume, r 86r-r96r (New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi, I 96I ) , with an
Introduction by Jawaharlal Nehru.
IS. English trans. from Kripalani, Tagore: A Life, p. I 8 5 .
I6. 'Einstein and Tagore Plumb the Truth' , New York Times Magazine,
IO Aug. I93 0; repr. in Dutta and Robinson, Selected Letters ofRabindranath
Tagore.
I7. Hilary Putnam, The Many Faces of Realism (La Salle, Ill . : Open Court,
1987) . On related issues, see also Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere
(New York: Oxford University Press, 19 86) .
I 8 . Isaiah Berlin, ' Rabindranath Tagore and the Consciousness of
Nationality', in his The Sense of Reality: Studies in Ideas and Their History
(Boston: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997) , p. 26 5 .
I 9. E. P. Thompson, Introduction t o Tagore's Nationalism ( London,
Macmillan, 199 1 ) , p. 10.
20. For a lucid and informative analysis of the role of Subhas Chandra Bose
and his brother Sarat in Indian politics, see Leonard A. Gordon, Brothers
against the Raj: A Biography of Indian Nationalists Sarat and Subhas
Chandra Bose (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990) .
2r. Kawabata made considerable use of Tagore's ideas, and even built on
Tagore's thesis that it 'is easier for a stranger to know what it is in Uapan]
which is truly valuable for all mankind' ( The Existence and Discovery of
Beauty, pp. 5 5-8 ) .
22. Tagore, Letters from Russia, trans. from Bengali by Sasadhar Sinha
( Calcutta: Visva-Bharati, 1960) , p. 108.
23. See Satyajit Ray, Our Films Their Films ( Calcutta: Disha Book/Orient
Longman, 3 rd edn. , 1993 ) . I have tried to discuss these issues in my Satyajit
Ray Memorial Lecture, included in this book as Essay 6. See also Andrew
Robinson, Satyajit Ray: The Inner Eye (London: Andre Deutsch, 1989) .
37I
NOTES TO PAGES I I 5 -I 3 2
24. Guardian, I Aug. I99I .
25 . Shashi Tharoor, India: From Midnight to the Millennium (New York:
Arcade Publishing) , p. I .
26. On this and related issues, see Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India:
Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford
University Press, I996) , particularly ch. 6, and also Dreze and Sen ( eds. ) ,
Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives (Delhi and Oxford:
Oxford University Press, I996) .
27. Edward Thompson, Rabindranath Tagore: Poet and Dramatist (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1926) .
28. Quoted i n Tharoor, India, p. 9
E S S AY 6 . O UR C ULTURE, THEIR CULTURE
I . Satyaj it Ray, Our Films Their Films ( Calcutta: Disha Book/Orient
Longman, 3rd edn. , I993 ), p. I 54
2. An insightful analysis of the different processes involved in cultural inter
actions and their consequences can be found in Homi Bhabha, The Location
of Culture (London: Routledge, I994) .
3 See particularly Partha Chatterj ee, The Nation and Its Fragments
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993 ) .
4 See W. S. Wong, 'The Real World of Human Rights' , mimeographed,
Vienna, I993
5. Repr. in Our Films Their Films, pp. 42-3 .
6. Ibid. , p. I 2.
7 Ibid. , p. I 6o.
8. Ibid. , p. 5 .
9 Ray, My Years with Apu: A Memoir (New Delhi: Viking, I994) , p. 4
IO. In addition to Satyajit Ray's own autobiographical accounts in Our Films
Their Films and My Years with Apu, his involvement in ideas and arts from
many different places is discussed in some detail in Andrew Robinson's
Satyajit Ray: The Inner Eye (London: Andre Deutsch, 1989) .
II. Ray, Our Films Their Films, p. 9
I2. Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments, p. 5 .
13. The 'last summer' referred to here was the summer of 1996, preceding the
Ray Lecture given in December I996. In the original version of this Satyajit Ray
Lecture, I also discussed the transmigration of mathematical ideas and terms
from and to India, often going full circle. That discussion has been dropped in
this reprint, since similar points have been made in other essays in this volume
( see e;g. pp. 178-9) .
3 72
NOTES TO PAGES I 3 5 - I 4 6
I4. Isaiah Berlin, Four Essays on Liberty ( Oxford: Oxford University Press,
I969 ) , p. xl.
IS. Orlando Patterson, Freedom, vol. i: Freedom in the Making of Western
Culture (New York: Basic Books, I99I ) .
I6. I have discussed this issue in ' Is Coercion a Part of Asian Values ? ' ,
presented at a conference in Hakone, Japan, i n June I995 A later version of
this paper was given as a Morgenthau Memorial Lecture at the Carnegie
Council on Ethics and International Affairs, on I May I997, published by the
Council as a pamphlet, and also as an essay, 'Human Rights and Asian
Values', New Republic, I 4 and 2I July I997
ES S AY 7 INDIAN TRADITIONS AND THE
WES TERN IMAGINATION
I . Edward W Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, I978; Vintage
Books, I979 ), p. s; italics added.
2. Ibid. , p. 5 .
3 In the earlier article, 'India and the West', on which this essay draws, the
third category was called 'investigative' rather than 'curatorial'; the latter is
more specifc and I believe somewhat more appropriate.
4 See Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, I97I) .
5. See Wilhelm Halbfass, India and Europe: An Essay in Understanding
(New York: State University of New York Press, r98 8 ) , ch. 2.
6. Alberuni's India, p. 246. The same Arabic word was commonly used for
'Hindu' and 'Indian' in Alberuni's time. While the English translator had
chosen to use 'Hindus' here, I have replaced it with 'Indians' in view of the
context (to wit, Alberuni's observations on the inhabitants of India) . This is
an issue of some interest in the context of the main theme of this essay, since
the language used here in the English translation to refer to the inhabitants of
India implicitly imposes a circumscribed ascription.
7 Ibid. , p. 20.
8. William Jones, ' Obj ects of Enquiry During My Residence in Asia', in The
Collected Works of Sir William Jones, I
3
vols. (London: J. Stockdale, I 8o7;
repr. New York: New York University Press, I993
) .
9 I have discussed the 'positional' nature of objectivity, depending on the placing
of the observer and analyst vis-a-vis the objects being studied, in 'Positional
Objectivity', Philosophy and Public Affairs, 22 ( I993 ) , and 'On Interpreting
India's Past', in Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal (eds. ) , NationalismJ Democracy and
Development: State and Politics in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I997) .
3 73
NOTES TO PAGES 1 4 7- 1 5 0
10. Quoted in Eric Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India ( Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1959) , p. 250 .
. I I . James Mill, The History of British India (London, 1 8 17; repr. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1975 ) , pp. 225-6.
I2. Ibid. , p. 248.
I3. Ibid. , p. 247
I4. Alberuni's India, pp. 174-5 .
I S . For a modern account of the complex history of this mathematical
development, see Georges Ifrah, From One to Zero (New York: Viking,
1 98 5 } .
I 6. Mill, The History of British India, pp. 219-20.
I7. Mill found in Jones's beliefs about early Indian mathematics and astron
omy 'evidence of the fond credulity with which the state of society among the
Hindus was for a time regarded', and he felt particularly amused that Jones
had made these attributions 'with an air of belief' (Mill, The History of
British India, pp. 223-4) . On the substantive side, Mill amalgamates the
distinct claims regarding ( 1 ) the principle of attraction, ( 2) the daily rotation
of the earth, and ( 3 ) the movement of the earth around the sun.
A
ryabhata's
and Brahmagupta's concern was mainly with the frst two, on which specifc
assertions were made, unlike the third.
I8. Mill, The History of British India, pp. 223-4.
I9. Alberuni's India, pp. 276-7.
20. Ibid. , p. 277.
2I. See Harold Isaacs, Scratches on Our Minds ( Cambridge, Mass. : MIT
Press, 1 95 8) ; repr. as Images of Asia: American Views of India and China
(New York: Capricorn Books, 1 95 8) . See also the discussion of this issue in
the Introduction in Sulochana Glazer and Nathan Glazer (eds. ) , Conficting
Images: India and the United States ( Glen Dale, Md. : Riverdale, 1990) .
22. Lloyd I. Rudolph, 'Gandhi in the Mind of America', i n Glazer and Glazer
(eds. ) , Conficting Images, p. 166.
23. Ashis Nandy, Traditions, Tyranny, and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of
Awareness (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987) , p. 8.
24. On this, see Glazer and Glazer ( eds. ) , Conficting Images. The influence
of magisterial readings on American imaging of India has been somewhat
countered in recent years by the political interest in Gandhi's life and ideas, a
variety of sensitive writings on India ( from Erik Erikson to John Kenneth
Galbraith}, and the Western success of several Indian novelists in English.
Since the early 1990s, when this essay was written, the success of Indian sci
ence and technology, especially in informational felds, has added another
dimension to the re-evaluation of India in American discussions.
374
NOTES TO PAGES I 5 I - I 5 5
25. Quoted in John Drew, India and the Romantic Imagination (Delhi and
New York: Oxford University Press, I987) , p. 95
26. J. G. Herder, Auch eine Philosophie der Geschichte, in Samtliche Werke;
trans. Halbfass, India and Europe, p. 70.
27. Trans. Halbfass, India and Europe, pp. 74-5 . Halbfass provides an ex
tensive study of these European interpretations of Indian thought and the
reactions and counter-reactions to them.
28. A. Schopenhauer, Parerga und Paralipomena; trans. Halbfass, India and
Europe, p. I I 2.
29. See John H. Muirhead, Coleridge as a Philosopher (London: G. Allen &
Unwin, I93 o) , pp. 283-4, and Drew, India and the Romantic Imagination,
ch. 6.
30. The nature of exoticist reading has typically had a strongly 'Hindu'
character. This was, in some ways, present even in William Jones's curatorial
investigations (though he was himself a scholar in Arabic and Persian as
well) , but he was to some extent redressing the relative neglect of Sanskrit
classics in the previous periods (even though the version of the Upaniads that
Jones frst read was the Persian translation prepared by the Moghal prince
Dara Shikoh, Emperor Akbar's great-grandson) . The European Romantics,
on the other hand, tended to identify India with variants of Hindu religious
thought.
3 I. William Davis, The Rich (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, I982) , p. 99
32. On this issue, see Bimal Matilal, Perceptions: An Essay on Classical
Indian Theories of Knowledge ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, I986) . See also
Ronald Inden, Imagining India ( Oxford: Blackwell, 1990) .
33 On this issue i n general, and on the hold of ' a predominantly third-person
perspective' in self-perception, see Akeel Bilgrami, 'What Is a Muslim?
Fundamental Commitment and Cultural Identity', Critical Inquiry, I 8 ( 4)
( I992) .
34 Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India ( Calcutta: Signet Press, I946;
centenary edn. , Delhi: Oxford University Press, I989) , p. I 5 8 .
35. While the constitution of independent India has been self-consciously
secular, the tendency to see India as a land of the Hindus remains quite
strong. The confrontation between 'secularists' and 'communitarians' has
been an important feature of contemporary India, and the identifcation of
Indian culture in mainly Hindu terms plays a part in this. While it is certainly
possible to be both secular and communitarian ( as Raj eev Bhargava has
noted in ' Giving Secularism Its Due' , Economic and Political Weekly, 9 July
I994) , the contemporary divisions in India tend to make the religious and
communal identities largely work against India's secular commitments (as
375
NOTES TO PAGES 1 5 5 -1 6 1
Bhargava also notes) . I have tried to scrutinize these issues in my paper
' Secularism and Its Discontents', in Kaushik Basu and Sanjay Subrahmanyam
( eds. ) , Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Confict and India's Secular Identity
(Delhi: Penguin, 1996) ; Essay 1
4
in this volume. See also the other papers in
that collection, and the essays included in Bose and Jalal (eds. ) , Nationalism
Democracy and Development.
36. Partha Chatterj ee, The Nation and Its Fragments (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 199
3
) , p. 6.
37 The most effective move in that direction came under the leadership of
Ranajit Guha; see his introductory essay in Subaltern Studies I: Writings on
South Asian History and Society, ed. Ranajit Guha (Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1982) . See also the collection of 'subaltern' essays ed. Ranajit Guha
and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Selected Subaltern Studies (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988) .
38. Alberuni's India, p.
3
2.
39 I have tried to discuss this general issue i n 'Description as Choice', Oxford
Economic Papers,
3
2 ( 1 980) , repr. in Choice Welfare and Measurement
( Oxford: Blackwell; Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 1982; repr. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1997) , and in 'Positional Obj ectivity',
Philosophy and Public Affairs, 22 ( 1993
) .
40. This contrast i s discussed in my j oint paper with Martha Nussbaum,
'Internal Criticism and Indian Rationalist Traditions' , in Michael Krausz
( ed. ) , Relativism: Interpretation and Confrontation (Notre Dame, Ind. :
University of Notre Dame Press, 1989 ) .
4I. For example, the fourteenth-century book Sarvadar5anasatgraha
( ' Collection of All Philosophies' ) by Madhava
A
carya ( himself a good
Vaishnavite Hindu) devotes the frst chapter of the book to a serious presen
tation of the arguments of the atheistic schools.
42. Trans. H. P. Shastri, The Ramayana of Valmiki (London: Shanti Sadan,
1959) , p. 3 89.
43 Ifrah, From One to Zero, p. 434
44 Voltaire, Les Cuvres completes, vol. 1 24; translated by Halbfass, India
and Europe, p. 59
E S S AY 8 . CHINA AND INDIA
r. The exact question that Yi Jing asked was: 'Is there anyone, in the fve
parts of India, who does not admire China? ' See J. Takakusu's translation of
Yi Jing's book A Record of the Buddhist Religions as Practised in India and
Malay Archipelago ( Oxford, 1 89 6) , p. 1
3
6. Yi Jing's name ( as in Pinyin
NOTES TO PAGES 1 6 1 - 1 69
- now standard) is also spelt as 1-tsing and 1-Ching, among other earlier ren
derings.
2. Faxian's name has also been spelt in English as Fa-Hsien and Fa-hien, and
Xuanzang's name as Hiuan-tsang and Yuang Chwang ( among other vari
ants) . Many of the documents cited in this essay use these earlier spellings,
rather than the Pinyin versions used here.
3 . See Prabodh C. Bagchi, India and China: A Thousand Years of Cultural
Relations ( Calcutta: Saraswat Library, revised edn. , 1 98 1 ) , p. 7 Zhang Qian
is spelt as Chang Ch'ien in this and some other earlier works.
4 Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of
Sino-Indian Relations, 6oo-I4oo (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
2003 ) , p. 1 84.
5. I n his well-researched study Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade, Tansen Sen
shows that the size and continuity of Sino-Indian trade relations are often
underestimated. For example, in contrast with the common presumption that
the trade between the two countries died out in the second millennium, Sen
argues that Sino-Indian exchanges were very extensive between the eleventh
and the fourteenth centuries. Also, Sen provides evidence to conclude that
Buddhism, too, continued to fourish simultaneously in Song dynasty China
and in eastern India in the early part of the second millennium.
6. See Bagchi, India and China, especially pp. 197-8; Lokesh Chandra, 'India
and China: Beyond and the Within', ignca.nic. inks 41023 .htm.
7. The weakening of the hold of Buddhism in China is sometimes assigned to
the ninth century, under the persecution of Buddhists by the Tang emperor
Wuzong. These persecutions were important, but, as is argued by Tansen Sen
( in Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade) , Buddhism had plenty of life left in
China in the centuries to follow. However, by then the form of Buddhism in
China was turning more indigenous and less dependent on Indian Buddhism.
8. This book ( see n. I above) was followed by another monograph contain
ing detailed accounts of Yi Jing's refections, Records of the High Monks Who
Went Out to Seek for the Books of the Law in the Tang Time.
9 There is a translation by James Legge, The Travels of Fa-Hien or Record
of Buddhist Kingdoms (New York: Dover, 1965; Patna: Eastern Book House,
1993 ) . There is a useful extract from this book in Mark A. Kishlansky ( ed. ) ,
Sources of World History, vol . i (New York: HarperCollins, 1 99 5 ) ,
pp. 1 54-8.
ro. See Samuel Beal, Life of Hieun Tsang (London: Kegan Paul, 1 914) , and
Sally Hovey Wriggins, Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road
( Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1996) . There are also two perceptive recent
books that draw on Xuanzang's travels and their continuing significance
today: Richard Bernstein, Ultimate Journey: Retracing the Path of an Ancient
3 77
NOTES TO PAGES 1 69- 1 7 3
Buddhist Monk Who Crossed Asia in Search of Enlightenment (New York:
Knopf, 2001 ) , and Sun Shuyun, Ten Thousand Miles without a Cloud
(London: HarperCollins, 2003 ).
I I. Among other things, Xuanzang noted King Hara's strong praise of the
Chinese Tang ruler, Tang Taizong. In his book Buddhism, Diplomacy, and
Trade, Tansen Sen has questioned the authenticity of Xuanzang's report, on
the grounds, among others, that Hara's description of Taizong as a 'saintly
lord' seems clearly inaccurate (he had gained the throne by murdering his
brothers) ; Sen argues that Xuanzang, who knew and had the support of the
Tang ruler, may have deliberately doctored the account. We have to j udge, of
course, whether it is more plausible that the Chinese scholar Xuanzang, with
a great reputation for accuracy and authenticity, just heard wrong (rather
than fabricating a story), or that the Indian emperor was simply misinformed
about the Chinese monarch, at some considerable distance from him.
I2. See Bagchi, India and China, p. 250.
IJ. Through Arthur Waley's English translation of i t (Monkey, London:
Allen & Unwin, 1942) , the story achieved considerable popularity in Europe
and America as well. Waley's translation, however, is incomplete. A complete
translation can be found in Anthony Yu, The Journey to the West, 4 vols.
( Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977-8 3 ) .
I 4. Charles 0. Hucker, China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese
History and Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975) , p. 21 6.
IS. Leon Hurvitz and Tsai Heng-Ting, 'The Introduction of Buddhism', in
Wm. Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom (eds. ) , Sources of Chinese Tradition,
vol. i (New York: Columbia University Press, 2nd edn. , 1999) , pp. 425-6.
I6. Ibid. , p. 425 ; the translators could not identify which 'commentary' is
quoted here at the beginning of the passage.
I7. Chinese Buddhist scholars did, however, eventually succeed ( by about the
eighth century) in making China something of a second 'homeland' of
Buddhism, complete with stories of prior sightings of Buddha i n Chinese
territory as well as prominent displays of Buddhist relics brought from India.
On this see Tansen Sen, Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade.
I8. This striking feature was noted in The Descriptive Catalogue of the
Imperial Library ( 1 795 ) in the entry on Faxian's book, Record of Buddhist
Kingdoms. The commentator, well versed in the Chinese perspective, saw in
this nothing more

han an attempt to glorify Buddhism: 'In this book we fnd

India regarded as the Middle Kingdom, and China as a frontier country. This
is because the ecclesiastics wish to do honour to their religion and is braggart
fction which is not worth discussing. '
I9. Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, 1971) , p. 19.
NOTES TO PAGES 1 7 3 - 1 8 9
20. In Legge's translation ( r9 65 ) , p . 5 8 .
2I . Quoted i n Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China
( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I9 5 6) , vol. i, pp. 209-IO.
22. Jean-Claude Martzloff, A History of Chinese Mathematics, with a
Foreword by Jacques Gernet and Jean Dhrombres ( Berlin and London:
Springer, 1997), p. 90.
23 . Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. iii ( 1959) , pp. 146-8.
24. Martzloff, A History of Chinese Mathematics, p. 9 1.
25. John Kieschnick, The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003 ) , p. r 66.
26. Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. ii ( 19 5 6) , p. 427.
27. Needham also points to the possibility that some Chinese ideas that
appear to have been infuenced by Indian Buddhism might have been 'really
Taoist' (vol. iii, p.
427) .
28. See Bagchi, India and China, pp. 249-5 1 .
29. See Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (New
York: College Publishing House, 1990) , p. 23 7: and Martzloff, A History of
Chinese Mathematics, p. roo.
30. Kaiyvan Zhanjing, in Pinyin, is often referred to as Khai- Yuan Chan
Ching in earlier spelling.
3 I. See Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. iii ( 1959) , p. 202;
also pp. r2 and 37 Note that Needham's spelling of the Chinese version of
Gautama's name, 'Chhiitan', corresponds to 'Qutan' in Pinyin, and he was
referred to in that spelling earlier as 'Qutan Xida' . Yang Jingfeng is spelt as
Ching-Feng in Needham's description. A general account of Indian calen
drical systems is presented in my 'India through Its Calendars' , Little
Magazine, r ( 2ooo) ; Essay 1 5 below.
32. Kieschnick, The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture,
pp. I99-2I4.
33 Yi Jing, A Record of the Buddhist Religions as Practised in India and
Malay Archipelago, trans. Takakusu, p. r 69.
34 Kieschnick, The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture,
p. 164.
3 5 Wm. Theodore de Bary, 'Neo-Confucian Education' , in de Bary and
Bloom (eds. ) , Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. i, p. 8 20.
3 6. From the translation of Legge, The Travels of Fa-Hien or Record of
Buddhist Kingdoms ( 1993 ), p. 79
37 Trans. Bagchi, India and China, p. I34
3 79
NOTES TO PAGES 1 9 3 -2 04
ES S AY 9 TRYS T WITH DES TINY
I . I have discussed this issue in 'Democracy and Secularism in India' , in
Kaushik Basu, India's Emerging Economy: Problems and Prospects in the
I990s and Beyond ( Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 2004) , which contains a
number of fne essays providing helpful assessments from different perspec
tives.
2. A collection of wide-ranging investigations of continuing social inequali
ties in India and the policy issues they raise can be found in Ramachandra
Guha and Jonathan P. Parry ( eds. ) , Institutions and Inequalities: Essays in
Honour of Andre Beteille (New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
I999) .
3 On these and related assessments, see Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India:
Development and Participation (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2002) .
4 For the economic case for the reforms introduced by Manmohan Singh, see
the essays included in Isher Judge Ahluwalia and I. M. D. Little (eds. ), India's
Economic Reforms and Development: Essays for Manmohan Singh (New
Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, I998) .
5. A perceptive - and upbeat - diagnosis of India's achievements and
prospects in the global economic route can be found in Gurcharan Das's
forceful book, India Unbound (London: Viking/Penguin Books, 2ooo) . See
also his later study, The Elephant Paradigm: India Wrestles with Change
(London: Penguin Books, 2002) . A less buoyant assessment of the process of
economic reform in India, China and Russia can be found in Prem Shankar
Jha, The Perilous Road to the Market (London: Pluto Press, 2002) .
6. On this, see Dreze and Sen, India: Development and Participation. See also
Angus Deaton and Jean Dreze, 'Poverty and Inequality in India: A Re
examination' , Economic and Political Weekly, 7 Sept. 2002. See also the
large literature on Indian poverty that is cited in these writings.
ES S AY I O . C LAS S IN INDIA
I. In the Nehru Lecture on which this essay is based, I not only paid tribute
to Nehru as a maker of modern India, but also celebrated the intellectual
contributions of a visionary thinker. For example, Nehru's attempts at radi
cally re-examining the history of India and of the world in his two remark
able collections ( The Discovery of India and Glimpses of World History)
were innovative as well as inspirational, and the underlying visions deserve
more systematic attention than they have tended to get.
NOTES TO PAGES 20 7-2 2 6
2 . On the interdependences between different sources of adversity, see also
Stuart Corbridge and John Harriss, Reinventing India ( Cambridge: Polity
Press, 2ooo) , and Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: Development and
Participation (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) .
3 See my Inequality Reexamined ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, and
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, I992) ; and j ointly with Jean
Dreze, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Delhi and
Oxford: Oxford University Press, I996) , and India: Development and
Participation.
4 Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, Hunger and Public Action ( Oxford:
Clarendon Press, I 9 8 9) .
5. See Peter Svedberg, Poverty and Undernutrition: Theory, Measurement
and Policy ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2ooo; Delhi: Oxford University Press,
2002) . See also S. R. Osmani, 'Hunger in South Asia: A Study in
Contradiction', and Peter Svedberg, 'Hunger in India: Facts and Challenges',
Little Magazine, Dec. 2oor.
6. See Nevin Scrimshaw, 'The Lasting Damage of Early Malnutrition', World
Food Programme, mimeographed, 3 I May I997
7. See Siddiq Osmani and Amartya Sen, 'The Hidden Penalties of Gender
Inequality: Fetal Origins of Ill-Health', Economics and Human Biology, I
( 2003 ) .
8. I have discussed this issue, j ointly with Jean Dreze, in India: Economic
Development and Social Opportunity, and also in its follow-up study, India:
Development and Participation.
9 See particularly the PROBE report: Public Report on Basic Education in
India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, I999 ) .
E S S AY I I . WO MEN AND MEN
I. I have addressed this issue in 'Many Faces of Gender Inequality', New
Republic, I7 Sept. 2ooi, and Frontline, Nov. 2oor .
2. The nature and signifcance of this distinction have been discussed in my
'Well-being, Agency and Freedom: The Dewey Lecture I984' , Journal of
Philosophy, 8 3 (Apr. I 98 5 ) , and Inequality Reexamined (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, and Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, I992) . Related
empirical issues are discussed in my Development as Freedom (New York:
Knopf, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, I999 ) .
3 . The discussion that follows draws on my earlier essay, 'Many Faces of
Gender Inequality' .
4 'India and Africa: What Do We Have to Learn from Each Other?' , in
NOTES TO PAGES 2 2 6-2
3 0
Kenneth Arrow ( ed. ) , The Balance between Industry and Agriculture in
Economic Development (London: Macmillan, 1988) .
5. The numbers as well as the causal infuences that tend to produce 'missing
women' were presented in my 'More Than a Hundred Million Women Are
Missing' , New York Review of Books, Christmas Number 1990, and in
'Missing Women', British Medical Journal,
3
0
4
(Mar. 1992) . In the debate that
followed, some commentators missed the fact that I had used the sub-Saharan
African ratio as the standard, rather than the much higher European or North
American ratio (which would have given far larger estimates of 'missing
women' ) . The misunderstanding led to the mistaken argument that I was com
paring developing countries like China and India with advanced Western ones
(in Europe and North America) , which have high longevity and a diferent
demographic history; see e.g. Ansley Coale, 'Excess Female Mortality and the
Balances of the Sexes in the Population: An Estimate of the Number of
"Missing Females" ' . Population and Development Review, 17 ( 1991) . In fact,
however, my estimates of 'missing women' were based on contrasts within the
so-called Third World, in particular using the sub-Saharan African ratio as the
basis for estimating the numbers missing in Asia and North Africa.
6. See Stephan Klasen, "'Missing Women" Reconsidered', World Develop
ment, 22 ( 199
4) , and his j oint paper with Claudia Wink, 'Missing Women:
Revisiting the Debate' , Journal of Feminist Economics, 9 (July/Nov. 200
3
) .
7 Note, however, that the Chinese and Korean figures cover children
between o and 4, whereas the Indian fgures relate to children between o and
6. However, even after adjustment for age coverage, the relative positions
remain much the same.
8. A tiny exception, within the north and west of India, is the small territory
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with less than a quarter of a million people
altogether.
9 On this see Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: Development and
Participation (Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) , ch. 7, esp.
pp. 23
2-5 and 257-66.
10. There is, as identifed in n. 8, the tiny exception of the minute territory of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli.
I I . There is also a possible political connection, in that the incidence of sex
specifc abortion is, in general, signifcantly higher in those regions of the
country in which religion-based politics has a strong hold (for example,
Rajasthan, Gujarat or Jammu and Kashmir, in contrast with, say, Assam or
West Bengal or Kerala) . On the numerical association, see Dreze and Sen,
India: Development and Participation, sect. 7. 5, pp. 257-62, and my essay
"'Missing Women" Revisited', British Medical Journal,
3
27 ( 6 Dec. 2003 ) .
NOTES TO PAGES 2
3
0-24 2
This association requires much further scrutiny before it can be concluded
that the two phenomena are indeed causally linked directly, or perhaps indi
rectly through the influence of some third variable.
12. See e.g. Irawati Karve, Kinship Organization in India (Bombay: Asia
Publishing House, 196 5 ); Pranab Bardhan, 'On Life and Death Questions' ,
Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number, 9 ( 1974) ; David Sopher
( ed. ) , An Exploration of India: Geographical Perspectives on Society and
Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 198o) ; Barbara Miller, The
Endangered Sex (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1 98 1 ) ; Tim Dyson
and Mick Moore, ' On Kinship Structure, Female Autonomy, and
Demographic Behaviour in India', Population and Development Review, 9
( 19 8 3
) ; Monica Das Gupta, 'Selective Discrimination against Female
Children in Rural Punj ab', Population and Development Review, 1 3 ( r987) ;
Alaka M. Basu, Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic Behaviour
( Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992) ; and Satish Balram Agnihotri, Sex Ratio
Patterns in the Indian Population (New Delhi: Sage, 2ooo) .
13. See William St Clair, The Godwins and the Shelleys (New York: Norton,
1989) , pp. 504-8 .
1 4. See Bina Agarwal, A Field of One's Own ( Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994) .
r s . World Health Organization, Handbook of Human Nutrition
Requirement ( Geneva: WHO, 1974) .
r6. See the empirical literature cited in my Development as Freedom. Among
later contributions, see particularly Gita Sen, Asha George and Pireska bstlin
( eds . ) , Engendering International Health: The Challenge of Equity
( Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press, 2002) .
17. I have tried to discuss the importance of freedom of thought for rational
ity as well as freedom in general in the Introduction to my Rationality and
Freedom ( Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2002) .
r8. Gender divisions within the family are sometimes studied formally as
'bargaining problems', taking off from Nash's classic framework, but intro
ducing critically important variations in its exact formulation. The literature
includes, among other contributions, Marilyn Manser and Murray Brown,
'Marriage and Household Decision Making: A Bargaining Analysis' ,
International Economic Review, 21 ( r9 8o) ; M. B. McElroy and M. J.
Horney, 'Nash Bargained Household Decisions: Toward a Generalization of
Theory of Demand' , International Economic Review, 22 ( r9 8 r ) ; Shelly
Lundberg and Robert Pollak, 'Noncooperative Bargaining Models of
Marriage', American Economic Review, 84 ( 1994) .
19. Attempts to discuss the causal infuences and the implicit ethics underlying
NOTES TO PAGES 2
4 2-24 8
the treatment of cooperative conflicts within the family can be found in my
ResourcesJ Values and Development ( Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University
Press, I984) , chs. 5 and I6, and 'Gender and Cooperative Conflict', in Irene
Tinker (ed. ) , Persistent Inequalities (New York: Oxford University Press,
I990) . See also Nancy Folbre, 'Hearts and Spades: Paradigms of Household
Economics' , World Development, I4 ( I986) ; J. Brannen and G. Wilson ( eds. ) ,
Give and Take in Families (London: Allen & Unwin, I987) ; and Marianne A.
Ferber and Julie A. Nelson ( eds. ) , Beyond Economic Man (Chicago: Chicago
University Press, I993 ), among other contributions.
20. See the discussion and the large literature cited in my j oint books with
Jean Dreze, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Delhi
and Oxford: Oxford University Press, I996) , and India: Development and
Participation.
2I . Mamta Murthi, Anne-Catherine Guio and Jean Dreze, 'Mortality,
Fertility and Gender Bias in India: A District Level Analysis' , Population and
Development Review, 2I ( I995) , and also in Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen,
Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives (Delhi and Oxford:
Oxford University Press, I996) . See also Jean Dreze and Mamta Murthi,
'Fertility, Education and Development: Evidence from India', Population and
Development Review, 27 ( 2ooi) .
22. See, among other important contributions, J . C. Caldwell, 'Routes to
Low Mortality in Poor Countries' , Population and Development Review, I 2
( I 986) ; and J . R. Behrman and B. L. Wolfe, 'How Does Mother's Schooling
Affect Family Health, Nutrition, Medical Care Usage, and Household
Sanitation?' , Journal of Econometrics, 3 6 ( I987) .
23. See the papers of Mamta Murthi and Jean Dreze cited earlier, and also
Dreze and Sen, India: Development and Participation.
24. On this see Dreze and Sen, India: Economic Development and Social
Opportunity, and India: Development and Participation.
25. This pioneering research has been led by Professor David Barker of
Southampton University. See D. J. P. Barker, 'Intrauterine Growth
Retardation and Adult Disease, ' Current Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 3
( I993 ) ; 'Fetal Origins of Coronary Heart Disease' , British Medical Journal,
3 I I ( I 99 5 ); MothersJ Babies and Diseases in Later Life (London: Churchill
Livingstone, I998 ) . See also P. D. Gluckman, K. M. Godfrey, J. E. Harding,
J. A. Owens, andJ. S. Robinson, 'Fetal Nutrition and Cardiovascular Disease
in Adult Life', Lancet, 34I ( I995 ) .
26. On this, see Siddiq Osmani and Amartya Sen, 'The Hidden Penalties of
Gender Inequality: Fetal Origins of Ill-Health' , Economics and Human
Biology, I ( 2003 ) .
NOTES TO PAGES 2 5 3 - 2 6 6
E S S AY I 2. I NDI A AND THE B O MB
I . Times of India, 28 June 1998.
2. On this, see George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on
Global Proliferation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999) . See also
T. Jayaraman, 'Science, Politics and the Indian Bomb: Some Preliminary
Considerations' , mimeographed, Institute of Mathematical Sciences, CIT
Campus, Chennai, 2000.
3 Praful Bidwai and Achin Vanaik, New Nukes: India, Pakistan and Global
Nuclear Disarmament ( Oxford: Signal Books, 2ooo) , p. r .
4 For a graphic account of this episode and the chain of events related to it,
see Robert Jungk, Brighter Than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of
Atomic Scientists (New York: Penguin Books, 1960) .
5. Kenzaburo Oe, Hiroshima Notes, trans. David L. Swain and Toshi
Yonezawa (New York: Grove Press, 1996) , p. 1 82.
6. Pankaj Mishra, ' A New, Nuclear India?' i n Robert B. Silvers and Barbara
Epstein (eds. ) , India: A Mosaic (New York: New York Review of Books,
2ooo) , p. 230. The essay is dated 28 May 1998.
7 Amitav Ghosh, ' Countdown: Why Can't Every Country Have the Bomb?' ,
New Yorker, 26 Oct. and 2 Nov. 1998. See also his later book, Countdown
(Delhi: Ravi Dayal, 1999 ), which further develops some of his arguments.
8. N. Ram, Riding the Nuclear Tiger (New Delhi: LeftWord Books, 1999) ,
p. 106. See also his Preface to Silvers and Epstein ( eds. ) , India: A Mosaic.
9 See Ghosh, Countdown.
ro. Arundhati Roy, 'The End of Imagination' , Frontline, 27 July 1998; repr.
in The Cost of Living (New York: Modern Library, 1999) . See also her
Introduction to Silvers and Epstein ( eds. ) , India: A Mosaic.
II. Arundhati Roy, 'Introduction: The End of Imagination', in Bidwai and
Vanaik, New Nukes, p. xx.
12. Ghosh, ' Countdown', pp. 190 and 197.
13. C. Rammanohar Reddy, 'Estimating the Cost of Nuclear Weaponization
in India', mimeographed, Hindu, Chennai, 1999.
14. Bidwai and Vanaik, New Nukes, pp. xiii, xv.
rs. Eric Arnett, 'Nuclear Tests by India and Pakistan', in SIPRI Yearbook
1999 ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) , p. 3 77
r6. Even though it is not clear whether Fernandes knew about the dates of
the impending tests, he would certainly have seen - and in part been in charge
of - the connection between Indian defence postures and its international
pronouncements.
17. 'Nuclear Anxiety: India's Letter to Clinton on the Nuclear Testing', New
York Times, 1 3 May 1998, p. 4
NOTES TO PAGES 2 6 6-2 7 8
r8. Mark W. Frazier, ' China-India Relations since Pokhran II: Assessing
Sources of Conflict and Cooperation', Access Asia Review, National Bureau
of Asian Research, 3 (July 2ooo) , p. ro.
19. UNDP, Human Development Report I994 (New York: United Nations,
1994) , pp.
54
-
5, and table 3 . 6.
E S S AY I 3 . THE REACH OF REAS ON
I . Jonathan Glover, Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century
(London: Jonathan Cape, 1999; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2ooo) ,
p. 7. Glover, a leading light i n Oxford philosophy for many decades, i s also
the author of Responsibility ( London: Routledge, and New York:
Humanities Press, 1970) and Causing Death and Saving Lives (Harmonds
worth: Penguin, 1977) , among other works of note. He is now the Director
of Medical Law and Ethics at King's College, London.
2. Trans. Vincent A. Smith, Akbar: The Great Mogul ( Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1917) , p. 257.
3 See Irfan Habib (ed. ) , Akbar and His India (Delhi and New York: Oxford
University Press, 1997) , for a set of fne essays investigating the beliefs and
policies of Akbar as well as the intellectual influences that led him to his
heterodox position.
4 The last century, however, was subjected to a searching scrutiny by Eric
Hobsbawm, a few years before the century and the millennium came to an
end, in The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, I9I6-I99I (London:
M. Joseph, and New York: Vintage, 1994) . See also Garry Wills, 'A Reader's
Guide to the Century', New York Review of Books, 1 5 July I999
5 An eminent example can be found in John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake:
Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age (London: Routledge,
199 5 ) . See also the perceptive review of this work by Charles Griswold,
Political Theory, 27 ( 1999) , pp. 274-8 I .
6. Kenzaburo Oe, ]apan, the Ambiguous, and Myself (Tokyo and New York:
Kodansha, 1995) , pp. r r 8-r9.
7 An important collection of perspectives on this is presented in Rajaram
Krishnan, Jonathan M. Harris and Neva R. Goodwin ( eds. ) , A Survey of
Ecological Economics (Washington, DC: Island Press, 199 5 ) . A far-reaching
critique of the relationship between institutions and reasoned behaviour can
be found in Andreas Papandreou, Externality and Institutions ( Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1994) .
8. I have discussed this question i n my On Ethics and Economics ( Oxford:
Blackwell, 1987) , ch. I .
NOTES TO PAGES 2 79-2 8 9
9 On this, see Emma Rothschild, Economic Sentiments ( Cambridge, Mass. :
Harvard University Press, 2oor) .
ro. David Hume, Enquiries concerning Human Understanding and
concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. L. E. Selby-Bigge ( Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1962) , p. 172.
II. Thomas Nagel, The Last Word ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) ,
p. !02.
12. On the role of reasoning in the development of attitudes and feelings, see
particularly T. M. Scanlon, What We Owe to Each Other ( Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1999 ) .
13. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (London: T. Cadell, 1790;
repr. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976) , pp. 3 19-20.
14. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of
World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996) , p. 3 r8.
rs. Clifford Geertz, ' Culture War' , New York Review of Books, 3 0 Nov.
199 5 . This is a review of Marshall Sahlins, How 'Natives' Think About
Captain Cook, for Example ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I99 5 ) ,
and Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European
Mythmaking in the Pacifc (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992) .
r6. Gertrude Himmelfarb, 'The Illusions of Cosmopolitanism', in Martha
Nussbaum with Respondents, For Love of Country (Boston: Beacon Press,
1996) , pp. 74-5
17. See Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, p. 69.
r8. On this and related issues, see my Development as Freedom (New York:
Knopf, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) , ch. ro, and the refer
ences cited there.
19. See my Human Rights and Asian Values (New York: Carnegie Council on
Ethics and International Affairs, 1997) ; a shortened version came out in New
Republic, 14 and 21 July I997
20. See Basil Davidson, F K. Buah and J. F Ade Ajayi, A History of West
Africa rooo-r8oo (Harlow: Longman, new rev. edn., 1977), pp. 286-7.
2I. See M. Athar Ali, 'The Perception of India in Akbar and Abu'l Fazl' , in
Habib, Akbar and His India, p. 220.
22. See Pushpa Prasad, 'Akbar and the Jains', in Habib, Akbar and His India,
pp. 97-8. The one missing group seems to be the Buddhists (though one of
the early translations included them in the account by misrendering the name
of a Jain sect as that of Buddhist monks) . Perhaps by then Buddhists were
hard to fnd around Delhi or Agra.
23. See Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'Akbar's Personality Traits and World Outlook:
A Critical Reappraisal', in Habib, Akbar and His India, p. 96.
24. See also Martha Nussbaum, Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense
NOTES TO PAGES 2 8 9-3 0 5
of Reform in Liberal Education ( Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University
Press, 1997) .
25 . Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice ( Cambridge
University Press, 2nd edn. , 1998) , p. 1 50.
26. I discuss this issue i n Reason before Identity: The Romanes Lecture for
1998 ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) .
27. New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1994.
28. Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, 1971) , p. 20. See also Essay 7
E S S AY 1 4 . S E C ULARI S M AND I TS D I S C ONTENT S
I . See e. g. T. N. Madan, ' Coping with Ethnic Diversity: A South Asian
Perspective' , in Stuart Plattner ( ed. ) , Prospects for Plural Societies
(Washington, DC: American Ethnological Society, 1984) , and 'Secularism in
Its Place' , Journal of Asian Studies, 46 ( 1987) ; and Ashis Nandy, 'An Anti
Secular Manifesto' , Seminar, 3 I4 ( ! 98
s
) , and 'The Politics of Secularism and
the Recovery of Religious Tolerance', Alternatives, 1 3 ( 1988) .
2. See Ashutosh Varshney's helpful characterizations of different claims
associated with 'Hindu nationalism' , in his 'Contested Meanings: Indian
National Unity, Hindu Nationalism, and the Politics of Anxiety', Daedalus,
1 22 ( 1993 ), pp. 23 0-3 r ; see also Ashis Nandy, 'The Ramj anmabhumi
Movement and the Fear of Self' , mimeographed paper, presented at the
Harvard Center for International Affairs, April 1992.
3 Nandy, 'The Politics of Secularism and the Recovery of Religious
Tolerance' , pp. r 8 8, 192. See also Madan, ' Secularism in Its Place' .
4 On the history of this aspect of Indian laws, see John H. Mansfeld, 'The
Personal Laws or a Uniform Civil Code? ' , in Robert Baird ( ed. ) , Religion and
Law in Independent India (Delhi: Manohar, 1993 ) , which also provides a
balanced review of the pros and cons of the case for submerging different
personal laws in India in a 'uniform civil code' . See also Tahir Mahmood,
Muslim Personal Law, Role of the State in the Indian Subcontinent (New
Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1977; 2nd edn. , Nagpur, 1983 ) .
5. Constitution of India, Article 3 7.
6. This was done by the Supreme Court by giving priority - over the provi
sions of Islamic law for divorce settlements - to 'section r 2 5 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure' , which requires a person of adequate means to protect
from destitution and vagrancy their relations (including spouse, minor
children, handicapped adult children and aged parents) . For critical analyses
of the rather complex considerations involved in the Shah Bano case, see
NOTES TO PAGES 3 0 5 -3 I 6
Asghar Ali Engineer, The Shah Bano Controversy (Delhi: Ajanta Publishers,
1 98 7) , and Veena Das, Critical Events ( Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1992) , ch. IV. Also see Mansfield in Baird ( ed. ) , Religion and Law in
Independent India.
7 Mansfeld in Baird ( ed. ) , p. 140.
8. The Supreme Court had also taken this opportunity of commenting on the
disadvantaged position of women in India (not j ust among the Muslims, but
also among the Hindus) , and had called for more j ustice in this feld. The
Shah Bano case did, in fact, get much attention from women's political
groups as well.
9 In fact, Azad was among the 'traditionalist' Muslims, as opposed to the
'reformers' ( for example from the Aligarh school ) . On the intricacies of
Azad's religious and political attitudes, see Ayesha J alai, 'Exploding
Communalism: The Politics of Muslim Identity in South Asia' , in Sugata Bose
and Ayesha Jalal ( eds . ) , Nationalism, Democracy and Development:
Reappraising South Asian States and Politics in India ( Delhi : Oxford
University Press, 1997) . Jalal also discusses the much broader question of a
general misfit between ( 1 ) the reformism-traditionalism division among
Muslims in pre-partition India, and ( 2) the division between Muslims who
favoured an undivided India and those who wanted a separate Pakistan. In
particular, quite often the Muslim traditionalists opted for staying on in India
( as Azad himself did) , especially after the Khilafat movement.
IO. In his perceptive paper, 'Hindu/MuslimIndian' (Public Culture, 5 ( I ) ,
Fall I992) , Faisal Devj i begins with this ( and another) quotation from
Ambedkar, and goes on to scrutinize critically the relation between different
identities (raising issues that are much broader than those addressed in this
essay) .
II. See also Nur Yalman, ' On Secularism and Its Critics: Notes on Turkey,
India and Iran', Contributions to Indian Sociology, 25 ( I99I ) . See also Gary
Jeffrey Jacobsohn, 'Three Models of the Secular Constitution' , mimeo
graphed, Williams College, I99 5, and the literature cited there.
I2. Whether or not Indian Muslims do this in any signifcant numbers, I ought
to confess that this non-Muslim author has often done j ust that, either when
the Pakistani team plays as well as it frequently does, or when a Pakistani win
would make the test series ( or the one-day series) more interesting.
I 3 . Alberuni's India, trans. E. C. Sachau, ed. A. T. Embree (New York:
Norton, I97I ) , p. 22.
I4. Ibid. , p. 20.
IS. See One Hundred Poems of Kabir, trans. Rabindranath Tagore (London:
Macmillan, I 9I 5 ) , verse LXIX. See also Kshiti Mohan Sen, Hinduism
NOTES TO PAGES 3 I 6-3 3 9
(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, r96r, 2005) , chs. r 8 and I9, and his
collection of Kabir's poems and his Bengali commentary in Kabir ( Calcutta:
Visva-Bharati, I9IO, I9I I ) , reissued with an Introduction by Sabyasachi
Bhattacharya ( Calcutta: Ananda Publishers, r995 ) .
E S S AY I 5 . I NDI A THROUG H I TS CALENDARS
r . See The Oxford Companion to the Year, ed. Bonnie Blackburn and
Leofranc Holford-Strevens ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, I999 ) , p. 664.
2. See M. N. Saha and N. C. Lahiri, History of the Calendar (New Delhi:
Council of Scientifc and Industrial Research, I992) .
3 Ibid. , pp. 25 2-3; also S. N. Sen and K. S. Shukla, History of Astronomy in
India (New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy, r98 5 ) , p. 298 .
4 Marquis Pierre-Simon de Laplace, as quoted in W Brennand, Hindu
Astronomy (London, r896) , p. 3 I .
5 On this, see 0. P. Jaggi, Indian Astronomy and Mathematics (Delhi: Atma
Ram, r 986) , ch. r .
6. E. M. Forster, 'Nine Gems of Ujjain', in Abinger Harvest (Harmonds
worth: Penguin Books, r 93 6, r974) , pp. 3 24-7.
7 See Irfan Habib (ed. ) , Akbar and His India (Delhi and New York: Oxford
University Press, I997) .
E S S AY I 6 . THE I ND I AN I DENTI TY
r . Quoted in Lady Betty Balfour, The History of Lord Lytton's Indian
Administration r876 to r 88o (London, r 899) , p. 477
2. F R. Harris, ]amsetji Nusserwanji Tata: A Chronicle of His Life (London:
Blackie, 2nd edn. , I95 8) , p. vii.
3 R. M. Lala, The Creation of Wealth (Bombay: IBH, r98 r ) , p. 6.
4 Ibid. , p. 47
5. Lovat Fraser, Iron and Steel in India: A Chapter from the Life of ]amsetji
N. Tata (Bombay: The Times Press, r9r9) , p. 3
6. See S . B . Saul, Studies in British Overseas Trade r87o-r9I4 (Liverpool:
Liverpool University Press, r96o) , p. I99 The shifting trade pattern and its
implications were investigated by the so-called Chamberlain Inquiry of I 8 9 5,
Trade of the British Empire and Foreign Competition, C. 8449 of r 897.
7 Fraser, Iron and Steel in India, pp. 5 2-3 .
8 . Comparisons with alternative causal explanations are discussed in my
paper, 'The Commodity Pattern of British Enterprise in Early Indian
390
NOTES TO PAGES 3 3 9-3 5 6
Industrialization r 8 54-1914', in the Proceedings of the Second International
Conference of Economic History (Paris, 196 5 ). I have examined the general
relevance of values and commitments in behavioural choices in On Ethics
and Economics ( Oxford: Blackwell, 1 98 7) , and, more technically, in
'Maximization and the Act of Choice' , Econometrica, 65 ( 1997) , included in
my Rationality and Freedom ( Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press,
2002) .
9 Fraser, Iron and Steel i n India, p. r.
ro. Perin wrote that when Jamsetji came to interview him, this 'stranger i n a
strange garb' asked: 'Will you come to India with me? ' "'Well, " I said, "yes,
I'd go. " And I did' ( quoted in Lala, The Creation of Wealth, p. 20) .
I r. There is, furthermore, a signifcant distinction between import substitu
tion and endogenous domestic expansion. In a j oint paper with K. N. Raj ,
'Alternative Patterns of Growth under Conditions of Stagnant Export
Earnings' ( Oxford Economic Papers, I 3 , I96I) , I was concerned with the
latter, whereas it has sometimes been interpreted, quite mistakenly, as a
defence of import substitution against export promotion - an issue that was
not even addressed in the paper. The so-called Raj-Sen model considered
neither import substitution nor export promotion, and concentrated instead
on alternative patterns of endogenous development, focusing in particular on
issues of growth theory and the implications of stock-fow relationships.
r2. Harris, ]amsetji Nusserwanji Tata, p. I I 8 .
I 3 . From a letter to C. F Andrews, dated I3 March I92I, published in
Rabindranath Tagore, Letters to a Friend, with essays by C. F Andrews
(London: Allen & Unwin, I928) .
I4. See Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of justice ( Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2nd edn. , I998) , pp. I 5 0-52.
rs. Rabindranath Tagore, The Religion of Man (London: Unwin, I93 I ; 2nd
edn. , I96I) , p. I 05 .
r6. This i s how the issue was presented by its distinguished chairman, Lord
Parekh, in 'A Britain We All Belong To' , Guardian, I I Oct. 2000. See, how
ever, the much richer analysis of social identity presented by Bhikhu Parekh
himself in Re-thinking Multi-culturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political
Theory (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2ooo) .
39I
Index of Names
Abul Fazl 25, 75, 288-9, 373n, 3 74n, 376n, 3 o8, 3 I 3-I4, 3 28,
3 20, 3 3 I, 3 6on, 3 68n, 378n, 3 8 8n, 3 89n 3 59n, 3 6on, 3 69n
3 87n Alexander the Great I4, Aston, W. G. 3 69n
Ade Aj aayyi, J. F 3 87n I 5 , I 5f, 39 Attenborough, Richard
Agarwal, Bina 22of, 23 5 , Ali, Hakim 29 I 92
3 63n, 3 83 n Ali, M. Athar 3 68n, 3 87n Augustine, St 3 6, 284-5
Agnihotri, Satish Balram Allchin, Bridget 3 67n Aurangzeb, Emperor
22of, 3 83 n Allchin, Raymond 3 67n 6o-6I, 6If, I34, 3 14
Ahluwalia, Isher Judge al-Sabhadi I 6o Austin, Granville I 94
3 8on Ambedkar B. R. 3 6, Azad, Maulana Abdul
Ahluwalia, Montek Singh 8o-8I, 305, 309, Kalam 307, 3 89n
xvi 3 62-3n
Ahmad, Aijaz 3 67n Anand, Sudhir xvi Bacon, Francis 27-8,
Ahmed, Qazi Hussain Anderson, Benedict I 3 I 3 6In
25 8 Andrews, C. F 8 6, 92, Bagchi, Prabodh C. 3 77n,
Akbar, Emperor xiii, I 6, Io6, 349, 3 67n, 39In 3 78n, 379n
I 7-I9, 25, 3 2, 39-42, Apollonius of Tyana 39, Bailly, Jean-Sylvain 3 24
47, 59-60, 75-6, 8 I , r s r ,
1 54-5, 3 28 Baird, Robert 3 8 8n, 3 89n
90, I 3 4, 1 3 6, 287-93, Appadurai, Arjun 3 62n Balfour, Lady Betty 390n
3 I 3 , 3 14, 3 r 8-I9, Appiah, Anthony 3 69n Ban r 67
3 20 picture, 3 28, Aristotle r 3 6, 284-5 Bardhan, Pranab xvi,
3 3 0-3 2, 3 59n, 3 6on, Arnett, Eric 26 5, 3 8 5n 3 83n
3 68n, 3 75n, 3 86n, Arrian I 5, I 5f, I 5 l Barker, D. J. P. 247-8,
3 87n, 390n Arrow, Kenneth 3 8 2n 3 84n
Akbar, Prince,
A
ryabhata 28-3 0, 78-9, Bary, Wm. Theodore de
Aurangzeb's rebellious 148-9, I 5 8, I78, 179, I 83-4, 378n, 3 79n
son 6I 3 23 , 3 74n Basu, Alaka M. 3 8 3n
Alberuni 29-3 0, 39, 5 8, Ashoka, Emperor xii-xiii, Basu, Kaushik xvi, 294,
78-9, 84, I44-5, xix, I 5-I6, I7-I 8, 3 65n, 376n, 3 8on
I48-9, I 5 7, 1 72-3 , 2I, 40, 46-
7, 75, 8r, Baxi, Upendra 3 65n
292, 3 I4, 3 14, 3 1 5, 82-3 , 1 3 6, I 8 2-3 , Bayly, C. A. 3 2, 3 68n
3 6In, 3 65n, 3 69n, 284-5, 28 288, 289, Beal, Samuel 3 77n
3
9
3
INDEX OF NAMES
Bechert, H. 3 54 Brecht, Bertolt I09 Corbridge, Stuart 3 8 In
Behrman, J. R. 3 84n Brennand, W 390n Cornford, Frances 94
Berlin, Irving I 3 o Brown, Judith M. I94f Cowell, E. B. 3 6In
Berlin, Isaiah I o 5, I 3 5, Brown, Murray 3 8 3 n Croce, Benedetto r I -2
3 7In, 3 73n Bruno, Giordano 76, 287 Curzon, Lord 3 3 8
Bernstein, Richard 3 77n Buah, F K. 3 87n
Beteille, Andre 3 62n, Buchanan, James M. I4, Dadu I I, I9, 45, I 3 6, 3 I 6
3 8on 3 59n Dalrymple, William 3 68n
Bhabha, Homi xvi, 3 72n Buddha, Gautama I 5, 23, Dara Shikoh xi, 6I, 6If,
Bhandare, Sunanda 22of 23f, 27, 75, I 67, 375n
Bharavi 9 I70-74, I 8o, 286, Das, Gurcharan 3 8on
Bhargava, Rajeev 3 59n, 3 78n Das, Veena 3 65n, 3 89n
3 65n, 375n, 376n Bukharin, Nikolai 2 7 5-6, Das Gupta, Monica 3 83n
Bhaskar 28 29I Datta, Deependranath xvi
Bhattacharji, Sukumari Bunin, Ivan I I 2 Datta, Supurna v, xvi
xvi, 23f, 3 6on, 3 6In Davidson, Basil 3 87n
Bhattacharya, Dipak 23, Caldwell, J. C. 3 84n Davis, William 3 75n
3 6In Carvaka 23, 24, 24, 25, De, Barun I 39f, 3 64
Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi 26, 75, I 59, 28 8-9, Deaton, Angus 3 8on
294, 390n 308, 3 3 I, 3 5 5, 3 6In Desai, Meghnad xvi
Bidwai, Praful 255, 3 8 5n Chaitanya 287 Devi, Mahasweta 3 5 8n
Bilgrami, Akeel xvi, 89, Chandoke, Neera 3 65n Devji, Faisal 3 89n
I 39f, 294, 297f, Chandra, Bipan 3 64n Dev Sen, Antara xvi
3 69n, 375n Chandra, Lokesh 3 77n Dev Sen, Nabaneeta xvi,
Blackburn, Bonnie 3 9on Chatterj ee, Partha 8o, 95
Bloom, Irene 3 78n, 379n I23, I 3 I , I 5 6, 3 69n, Dhrombres, Jean 379n
Bok, Sissela 89, 273 3 72n, 3 76n Diodorus I 5 I
Bose, Abala Io8 Chatterji, Nimai xvi Dirks, Nicholas 3 62n
Bose, J agadish Chandra Chattopadhyaya, Drew, John 3 75n
Io8 Debiprasad 3 6on, Dreze, Jean xvi, 3 5, 3 7,
Bose, Nandalal I 3 0 3 6In 3 8, 42f, 83, I 39f,
Bose, Rashbehari r ro Chengzu, the Yongluo I 88f, I98f, 20if, 2I2,
Bose, Subhas Chandra 7f, Emperor I 8o 2I3, 2I3f, 2I4, 220f,
I Io, I I I, 37I, 3 78 Chirol, Sir Valentine 96 225f, 243-4, 245,
Bose, Sugata xvi, 89, Churchill, Winston S. 39, 25 1, 277, 3 63n,
I 3 9f, I 6If, 294, 26I, 26If, 3 27, 3 28 372n, 3 75n, 3 86n,
3 5 3, 3 65n, 3 73n, Clinton, President Bill 3 8 In, 3 82n, 3 84n
3 76n, 3 89n 265 , 267 Dugger, Celia 2 3 9 f
Bose, Supratik 89 Clive, John 3 68n Dumont, Louis 34, 3 62n
Bouquet, A. C. 22, 3 6on Clive, Lord 4 2 Dutta, Krishna xvi, 89,
Brahmagupta 26, 28-30, Coale, Ansley 226, 3 82n I I 3f, 3 70n, 37In
67, 79, I44, I48-9, Cohen, Joshua Io8f Dyson, Ketaki Kushari
I78, I 79, 292, 3 23 , Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 37In
3 74n I 52 Dyson, Tim 3 83n
Brannen, }. 3 84n Confucius I 3 6, 286
3 94
INDEX OF NAMES
Einstein, Albert I04, I I ?, I S O, 252, 286, Guha, Ranajit 77, 3 68n,
3 7In 288, 3 5 2n, 3 65n, 3 76n
Eliot, T. S. 4, 3 57n 3 70n, 37In, 374n Guio, Anne Catherine
Elmhirt, Leonard 9 3 , Gandhi, Rajiv 3 05 244, 245, 3 84n
I02-3 Gandhi, Sonia 7f Gujral, I. K. 4 3
Embree, A. T. 3 6 In, Ganeri, J onardan 3 5 7n Gupta, Dipankar 3 62n
3 65n, 3 69n, 3 73n, Gates, Henry Louis L. Gupta, S. P. 3 67n
3 78n, 3 8 8n, 3 89n 3 69n
Engineer, Asghar Ali Gautama ( Qutan Xida in Habermas, Juergen I82,
3 8 8-9n Chinese) , Indian 3 5 8-9n
Epstein, Barbara 89, astronomer I 6 I, Habib, Irfan 3 59n, 3 6on,
3 8 sn I 79-80, 3 79n 3 68n, 3 86n, 3 87n,
Eves, Howard 3 79n Geertz, Clifford 28 I-2, 390n
3 87n Hajime, Nakamura
Farmer, Steve 68 George, Asha 3 83n 3 69n
Faxian (Fa-Hsien) 82, Gernet, Jacques 3 79n Halbfass, Wilhelm 373n,
I45, I 64, I 68-9, I72, Ghosh, Amitav 256, 258, 3 75n, 3 76n
I73, I 84, 3 77n, 3 78n 3 8 sn Han, Yu I?O
Ferber, Marianne A. 23 6, Ghosh, Manmohan nf, Haq, Abdul I 8, 289
3 84n 45 Haq, Mahbub ul 268
Fernandes, George 258, Ghosh, Ramendranath Harasym, Sarah 8 6f
265, 3 8 5n 3 6In Harding, J. E. 3 84n
Fitch, Ralph 3 63n Ghosh, Sankha I02 Harris, F R. 3 3 6, 3 9on,
Folbre, Nancy 23 6, 3 84n Giovannitti, Len 3 5 7n 3 9In
Fordyce, James 23 3 Glazer, Nathan xvi, 3 74n Harris, Jonathan M.
Formichi, Carlo I I I Glazer, Sulochana xvi, 3 86n
Forster, E. M. 4I, 95 , 96, 3 74n Harriss, John 3 8 In
I 54, 3 30, 33n, 390n Glover, Jonathan 273-6, Hassan, Moinul 2 3 f,
Foster, William 3 63n 277, 278-8o, 282, 3 6In
Fraser, Antonia 8, 3 5 8n 290, 29I, 3 8 6n Hastings, Warren 77
Fraser, Lovat 3 39-40, Gluckman, P. D. 3 84n Hegel, George 3 5, 94,
390n, 4I In Godfrey, K. M. 3 84n I4I, I 5 2
Fraser, Nancy 3 62n Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Herder, J. G. 40, 94,
Frazier, Mark W. 266, von I 5 5 I p-2, I 5 5, 328,
3 8 6n Gombrich, Richard 3 54 3 75n
Freed, Fred 3 57n Goodwin, Neva R. 3 8 6n Himmelfarb, Gertrude
Freeman, Samuel 28of Gopal, Sarvepalli 204 283, 3 87n
Fu-yi I 89 Gordon, Leonard A. 3 7In Hiuan-tsang, CC
Gough, A. E. 3 6In Xuanzang
Gandhi, Indira I I?, I94f, Gray, John 3 8 6n Hobsbawm, Eric 3 6I-2n,
209, 253-4, 3 5 8n, Green, Peter I 5 f 3 86n
3 6sn Greene, Graham 89, 90 Holford -Strevens,
Gandhi, Mohandas 7f, Griswold, Charles 3 8 6n Leo franc 3 90n
3 2, S I, 64, 9 I-3 , Guha, Ramachandra Honneth, Axel 3 62n
99
-
I07, I09, I I4, 3 66n, 3 8on Hoodbhoy, Pervez 42
395
INDEX OF NAMES
Horney, M. J. 3 83 n Joffe, Roland I28 Kripalani, Krishna 3 7In
Hucker, Charles 0. I?I, Jones, William 6If, Krishnan, Rajaram 3 8 6n
3 78n I45-6, I47, I48, I 54, Kumara (Cumolo in
Hui Li I73-4 3 73n, 374n, 3 75n Chinese) , Indian
Humboldt, Wilhelm von Jung, Anees 3 63n astronomer I 79-8o
4, 3 57n Jungk, Robert 3 8 5n Kumar, Dharma I 39f
Hume, David 279, 3 87n Kumar, Radha 3 6 3 n
Huntington, Samuel 54, Kabir I I, I9, 45, 45, 75, Kumarajiva 82, I 83,
62, 76, I 64-5, I 65n, I I9, I34, 287, 3 I 6, I83f, 3 69n
28I , 284, 289, 3 65n, 3 89-90n
3 67n, 3 87n Kalam, Abdul 253 , 253, Lahiri, N. C. 39on
Hurvitz, Leon I?I, 3 78n 25 5 Lal, B. B. 3 67n
Kalidasa I9, 4I, I 67, Lala, R. M. 390n, 39In
I -Hsing, CC Yi Xing 3 30, 3 5 5, 3 63n Laplace, Pierre-Simon
I-tsing, CC Yi Jing Kangle, R. P. 3 6In 3 24-5, 390n
Ifrah, Georges I 6o, 3 7 4n, Kant, Imman

el 28o Latham, R. E. 3 67n

376n Kaplan, Robert 346 Lawrence, D. H. I07
Inden, Ronald 3 75n Karve, Irawati 230, 3 83 n Lebra-Chapman, Joyce
Isaacs, Harold I 5 0, 3 74n Kasyapa (Chiayeb in 3 5 8n
Isherwood, Christopher 4 Chinese), Indian Legge, James 3 77n, 3 79n
astronomer I79-8o Lennon, John I 5 2
Jacobsohn, Gary Jeffery Kasyapa Matanga I 67 Little, I. M. D. 3 8on
3 89n Kautilya xiv, 25, I 5 8, I 66, Lloyd, Geoffrey I 6If
Jaggi, 0. P. 390n 284-5, 36In, 3 69n Lukacs, Georg I09
Jahan, Rounaq 89f Kawabata, Yasunari 94, Lundberg, Shelly 3 83n
Jahan, Salim 89f I I I, 3 70n, 37In
J ahangir, Asma 4 3 Kelly, Erin 3 5 8n Mabbett, Ian 23f
Jain, Devaki 22of Khan, Ali Akbar 57, 75 Macaulay, T. B. 77, 78,
J alai, Ayesha xvi, 7of, Khan, Iqtidar Alam 3 6on, 79, I49, I 54, 3 68n
I 3 9f, 2pf, 3 0If, 3 87n McElroy, M. B. 3 83n
3 5 3 , 3 64n, 3 65n, Khan, Maruf 89f McEvilley, Thomas 82-3 ,
3 69n, 3 73n, 3 76n, Khilnani, Sunil 3 64n, 3 69n
3 89n 3 65-6n McMullen, David I6If
James, Robert Rhodes Khusrau, Amir I9, 287 Madan, T. N. 3 8 8n
26If Kieschnick, John I 76, Madhavacarya 24, 309,
Jamieson, Craig xvi I 8o, I 8 3 , 3 79n 3 76n
Jayaraman, T. 3 8 5n Kipphardt, Heiner 3 57n Mahmood, Tahir 3 8 8n
Jayarishi 24 Kishlansky, Mark A. Man Singh, Raja I9, 288
Jha, D. N. 23-4, 3 6In, 3 77n Mandela, Nelson 30-3 I,
3 67n Kishwar, Madhu 3 63n 3 6In
Jha, Natwar 67, 3 67n Klasen, Stephan 226, Manser, Merilyn 3 83n
Jha, Prem Shankar 3 8on 3 8 2n Mansfeld, John H. 3 8 8n,
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali Kohli, Atul I 94 3 89n
sr, 299, 30If, 3 07, Krausz, Michael 25f, Martzlof, Jean-Claude
3 64n 3 76n I 75-6, 3 79n
INDEX OF NAMES
Marx, Karl I S7-8f, 23 s Naidu, Sarojini 5-6 Osmani, Siddiq xvi,
Massarenti, Armando xvi Nair, Meera I 27, I 27f 3 8 In, 3 84n
Matilal, Bimal xvi, 2sf, Nanak, Guru 7S, 287 Ostlin, Pireska 3 8 3 n
3 s7n, 3 6on, 3 6In, Nanda, B. R. Ioo-Ioi, Owen, Susan 96
3 7sn 3 7In Owen, Wilfred 9 6
Mayo, Katherine I SO, Nanda, Meera 3 67n Owens, J. A. 3 84n
I S4 N andy, Ash is I s o,
Megasthenes 39, I 5 I 299-3 00, 3 I2-I4, Pal, Radhabinod I Io
Mehta, Gita I 6of 3 6sn, 3 74n, 3 8 8n Pande Gyanendra
Menon, Krishna 3 Nash, John 24I, 24If, 3 64n
Mill, James 78-9, I4o, 3 83n Panikkar, K. M. 3 6 sn,
I42, I46-9, I4 7f, Needham, Joseph 82f, 3 66n
I S4, 3 I 6, 3 I 6f, 3 68n, I7s-6, I77, I78, Pfuini 84, I8I, 32S
3 69n, 3 74n I 83f, 3 79n Papandreou, Andreas
Mill, John Stuart I s o, Nehru, Jawaharlal 8o, 3 86n
I 8 2 9I , 93, I06, I I 6, I S S, Parekh, Bhikhu 3 6 sn,
Miller, Barbara 3 8 3n I93, I9 S, 202, 204, 3 9In
Miller, Barbara Stoler 204f, 2I8, 288, 3 08, Parry, Jonathan P. 3 8on
3 63n 343, 3 s7n, 3 69n, Patterson, Orlando I 3 s,
Mira Bai II, I9 3 70n, 37In, 37Sn, 3 73n
Mirrlees, Patricia xvi, 3 8on Patwardhan, Anand 42f
I 6I f Nelson, Julie A. 23 6f, Paz, Octavia 44, 44f
Mishra, Pankaj 2 s 6, 3 8 sn 3 84n Perin, Charles Page 340,
Mitchener, John 3 s9n, Newton, Isaac 26, I6S 3 9In
3 66-7n Nietzsche, Friedrich Perkovich, George 3 8 s n
Moore, Charles A. 3 69n Wilhelm 273, 274 Peterson, Indira
Moore, Mick 3 8 3 n Nobili, Roberto I4S Viswanathan 3 s 8n
Moore, S. A. 3 6on Noguchi, Yone I I I Pettit, Philip 3 s9n
Moosvi, Shirin 290, 3 s 9n Noorani, A. G. 3 6sn Philostratus, Flavius I 5
Mouzi I7I Nussbaum, Martha xvi, Plato I 3 6, 284-s
Muirhead, John I I , 37sn 2sf, Io8f, 248f, 376n, Plattner, Stuart 3 8 8n
Mukhopadhyay, Pranati 3 87-8n Pol Pot 27s, 278
JV Nzinga Mbemba, King Pollak, Robert 3 8 3n
Mukhopadhyay, Shyama 287 Pollock, Sheldon 8 sf
Prasad 3 07 Polo, Marco 68, 3 67n
Muller, Max 77, I s 2, Obeyesekere, Gananath Pons, Father I4S
3 68n 282, 3 87n Pound, Ezra 90, 94-s,
Mumtaz Mahal xi Ocampo, Victoria I02-3 , I I I, I S 3
Murthi, Mamta 244, 24s, 3 7In Prabhavananda, Swami
3 84n Oe, Kenzaburo 2 S 3 , 2 S 3 f, 3 S7n
Mussolini, Benito I I I-I2 2ss, 276, 3 8 sn, 3 86n Prajiadeva I 74-S
O'Flaherty, Wendy Prasad, Pushpa 3 87n
Nagarj una I s 8 Doniger 22f Proffitt, Stuart xvi
Nagel, Thomas 279, Oppenheimer, J. Robert Putnam, Hilary I 04,
37In, 3 87n s, 2Ss-6, 3 S7n 3 7In
397
INDEX OF NAMES
Qizilbash, Mozaffar xvi, 26o, 3 8 5n 3 64n, 37on, 3 89n
273 Roy, Ram Mohun 3 2, Sen, Makhanlal 3 6 rn,
3 2, 3 3 3 64n
Radhakrishnan, Rudolph, Lloyd I. 139, Sen, Mrinal 1 26
Sarvepalli 3 57n, 3 6on 1 50, 3 74n Sen, Nandana 89
Radice, William 3 70n Rudolph, Suzanne 1 39 Sen, S. N. 390n
Rafque, Abdur 216 Sen, Tansen 377n, 378n
Rahman, Anisur xvi Sachau, E. C. 3 6rn, Sena 19
Raj , K. N. 391n 3 65n, 3 69-7on, 3 73n, Sengupta, Arjun xvi
Rajaram, N. S. 67, 3 67n, 3 78n, 3 8 8n, 3 89n Sengupta, Amrita 2r 6f
3 8 6n Saha, Meghnad 3 1 7, 3 21, Sengupta, Mandira 3 5 8n
Ram, N. 25 6-7, 3 8 5n 3 25, 390n Sengupta, Nellie 7
Ramachandran, V. K. Sahlin, Axel 3 3 8 Sengupta, Sagaree 3 5 8n
xvi, 3 8, r 3 9, 22of, Sahlins, Marshall 282, Shah J ahan, Emperor xi,
2pf 3 87n 75
Ramanujan, Srinivasa 7 5 Said, Edward 141, 3 73n Shanka Ravi 57, 75
Rana, Kumar xvi, 21 6 St Clair, William 3 8 3 n Sharma, J agdish xvi
Ravi-das I I , 19 Sandel, Michael 290, Shastri, H. P. 376n
Rawls, John 14, r 82, 3 50, 3 8 8n, 3 91n Shaw, George Bernard
280, 28of, 3 5 8n Sarkar, Sumit 3 66n, 1 5 3
Ray, Kumkum 23, 3 6rn 3 68n Shotoku, Prince 8r-2
Ray, Satyajit xv, 9 8, 109, Sarkar, Tanika 3 8 Shukla, K. S. 390n
1 1 5, I2I, I2If, 1 22, Saul, S. B. 39on Shuyun, Sun I 6 rf,
1 24-3 1, 1 3 8, 371n, Savarkar, Vinayak 377-8n
3 72n Damodar ('Veer') 5 1, Silvers, Robert B. xvi,
Raychaudhuri, Tapan 3 64-5n 89, 3 8 sn
1 39, 3 64n, 3 68n Scanlon, Thomas 273, Singh, B. 3 3 sf
Reddy, C. Rammanohar 3 87n Singh, Manmohan 8 3 ,
259, 3 8 5n Schlegel, Friedrich 40, 94, 196, 3 8on
Rich, Bruce 3 69n r s r, 1 5 2, 1 5 5, 3 28 Singh, V. B. 3 3 5
Robertson, John 3 3 6 Schopenhauer, Arthur 40, Sinha, Sasadhar 3 7 r n
Robinson, Andrew xvi, 94, 1 5 2, 3 28, 3 75n Skinner, Quentin 3 5 9n
89, 98, I I3 f, 3 70n, Scrimshaw, Nevin 3 8 rn Smith, Adam 278, 279,
3 71n, 3 72n Sebokt, Severus 3 2 7 280, 292, 3 87n
Robinson, J. S. 3 84n Seife, Charles 346 Smith, Vincent A. 3 6on,
Robinson, Joan 137 Selby-Bigge, L. E. 3 87n 3 68n, 3 86n
Rodrigues, Valerian Sen, Amita 3 70n Sobhan, Rehman xvi,
3 63n, 3 69n Sen, Aparna 125, 126 3 64n
Rolland, Romain 9 2, Sen, Dinesh Chandra 6o, Sopher, David 3 83n
roo, I I I , 3 70n 3 66n Sorenson, Theodore C.
Rothschild, Emma xvi, Sen, Gita 3 83n 262, 262
1 39, r 6rf, 25 1, Sen, Indrani xvi Speirs, Ruth 3 5 7n
273, 294, 3 62n, Sen, Kshiti Mohan r rf, Spivak, Gayatri
3 87n 45, 45, 46, 46, 3 1 5, Chakravarti xvi,
Roy, Arundhati 42, 257, 3 5 8n, 3 6on, 3 63n, 8s-6, 89, 3 76n
INDEX OF NAMES
Srinivas, Chitra 3 66n 34 3, 35 6, 390ll, 39Il Weiner, Myron I 39f
Stalin, Joseph 2 7 5 Taylor, Charles 295 , 362n Wheeler, Mortimer 3 6 6n
Sterckx, Roel I6If Tebbit, Norman 3 5 Wieseltier, Leon xvi, I 39
Stokes, Eric 3 7 4n Tennyson, Alfred 204 Wi lls, Garry 3 8 6n
Strabo I5 I Thapar, Romila 3 6, Wilson, G. 384n
Strachey, Sir John 3 36 368-9n Wi nk, Claudia 38 2n
Stratford, Elizabeth xvi Tharoor, Shashi 57, 8 9, Witzel, Michael 68
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay r r 6, 357n, 372n Wolfe, B. L. 3 84n
294, 36s n, 376n Thompson, E. P. 9 8, Wollstonecraft, Mary 2 3 3
Sudraka r 9, 75 , I 36 I09-IO, II6-I7, Wong, W. S. 372n
Sun Shuyun I6I, 378 n 25 2, 37Il Wormald, B. H. G. 36In
Sun Yat-sen 286 Thompson, Edward 3 72n Wriggins, Sally Hovey
Svedberg, Peter 3 8 In Tinker, Irene 2 36, 24If, 377ll
Swain, David L. 38 5 n 384n Wri ght, Gillian 3 6 3 n
Sykes, Marjorie r r 9 Togadia, Praveen 78 Wu Cheng'en I69
Tripathi, Amales 3 64n
Tagore, Debendranath Tsai Heng-Ting I7I, Xuanzang (Hiuan-tsang)
370ll 378 n 1 45 , I69, I72, I72f,
Tagore, Dwarkanath 90 Tully, Mark 36 3n I7 3, I74-5 , I8 3,
Tagore, Mrinalini I02 I8 9-90, 377ll, 378 n
Tagore, Rab

ndranath Vajpayee, Atal Bihari 7I,

xii, xv, II, 32, 45 , 7If, 265-6 Yalman, Nur xvi, I 39f,
45, 48, 48, 49, 5 9, Vanai k, Achin 25 5 , 365 n, 38 9n
7 2, 8 6, 8 9-95 , 95, 38 s n Yang Jingfeng I79, 379n
96, 97, 98 , 98, Varahamihira 26, 28 , 67, Yeats, W. B. 8 9, 90, 94-5 ,
99-r r 3, II 3f, I48 , I78, I79, 329 96, 97, III, I5 3, 27 3,
II4-20, I24, I 30, Varshney, Ashutosh I 3 9, 370ll
I5 3, I54, 25 2, 25 2t 294, 295 , 365n, 38 8 n Yi Jing (I-tsing, ! -Ching)
268 , 28 8 , 348 , 348t Vatsayana 325 2, 40, 8 2, 8 5 , I6I,
349, 35 2, 36on, 362n, Vaughan, Rosie xvi, I6If I64, I68, I69, I77,
365 n, 37on, 37In, Victoria, Queen 249-50, I8 I, r 8 3f, I84, 36 3n,
38 9n, 39Ill 3 36 376n, 377n, 379ll
Takakusu, J. 36 3n, 376n, Viglielmo, V. H. 3 70n Yi Xing (I-Hsing) I78-9
379ll Vivekananda, Swami 49 Yonezawa, Toshi 38 5n
Tan Yun-Shan I6If Voltaire I6o, 376n Young, G. N. 3 68n
Tata, Dorabji xvi, 3 34, Young, Michael 370n
3 34, 3 37, 3 38 , 3 39 Waley, Arthur 378n Yu, Anthony 378 n
Tata, J. R. D. 3 36 Wang Fu I70-7I
Tata, Jamsetji Webb, Beatrice 94 Zakaria, Rafq 54, 3 6 s n
Nusserwanji 3 3 6-9, Wei l, Shalva 3 5 9n Zhang Qian I66
399
General Index
Afghanistan I 5, 5 8, 84, discussions, import- brutality of Sultan
8 5, I 66, I72 ance Qf I6, I 8, 39, Mahmud's invasions
Africa, tradition of 46-7, 75-6, 3 59n; of India 3 , 5 8, 3 14;
public reasoning 3 I, release of imperial on Indian mistrust
3 6I-2n slaves 29I; religious of foreigners I 72-3 ;
agnosticism as an old neutrality of the state on Indian society and
established tradition I 8, 76, 287; religious culture I44-5; on
xi-xii, 20, 2I-5, 26-7, tolerance I 8, 25, 46, neglect of education
5 3 , 5 7, I 59, I 82, 285, 59-60, 76, 273-4, of low-caste people
288, 308-9, 3 54 289; remained a I 57; on parochial
Akbar, ideas and contri- Muslim despite lapses tendencies in each
butions: conversations from orthodoxy I 8, culture 84, I45, 3 I4;
between different 289; sceptical accept- Ta'rikh al-hind 78-9,
religious groups I 6, ance of rituals 29I; I44-5, I72-3, 292,
I 8-I9, 25, 39, 76, 8 I, secularism I 8-9, 3 7 3 n; understanding
28 8-9; court, religious 273-4, 287-8; on of India, importance
diversity in I 8-I9, 59, smoking 29 I; Tarikh- of I44-5, I48-9
287-8; criticism of a ilahi and calendar Ambedkar, leadership in
lesser share of prop- reform 4I, 3 I9, the making of the
erty for women 3 3 1-2; on widow Indian Constitution
290-9I; Din-ilahi and remarriage 290 3 6, 8o-8 I, 304-5,
attempted integration Alberuni ( b. 973 CE), 3 62-3n
of religions I 8, 4 I -2, account of India: Amritsar massacre ( I9I9)
59, 90, 288
-
9, 3 I9, astronomy and mathe- Io6-7
3 3 I; diversities within matics in India 29-3 o, ancient Greece, ties with
a unitary view of India 78-9, I48-9, I 57, India I 5, 28, I 5o-p,
39, 40, 4I, 59-60, 29 2, 3 I4f; defence of . I 78, 3 IO, 3 27, 346-7,
273-4; opposition to
A
ryabhata's scientifc 3 59n, 3 69n
child marriage 290; commitment against ancient India ix-xi, xii, 7,
'path of reason' (rahi Brahmagupta's I O, 40-4I, 66, I76,
aql) I 6, 3 2, I 34, 274, traditionalist criticism 3 22-7, 3 6on, 3 6In,
288, 290-9I; public 29-3 0; on the 3 67n, 3 69n
401
GENERAL INDEX
Arabic translations of contribution in prediction 29-30, I79
Indian scientifc and spreading Buddhism atheism as an old estab-
mathematical texts 8 I, 8 If, 82; contribu- lished tradition xi-xii,
?8-9, 78f, I44, tion to Indian secular- I 8 , 2I-5, 26-7, I 59,
I 78-9, 3 I4f ism I 8-2I, 284, 288; 308-9
Arabs and Indians I ?, 28, conversion to
29, 39-40, 5 6, 5 8, 77, Buddhism 3 5 3-4; on Babri mosque, destruc-
?8-9, 78f, 90, I 3 2-3 , public discussion and tion x, 48, 209, 3 IO
13 5, I44-5, I4?-8, behaviour I6-2I, Baha'ism I 6, I 7
I 6o, I 65f, I78-9, I 8-2I, 284; religious ballistic missiles, see
292, 3 Io, 3 I4, 3 28, tolerance I8, 2I, nuclear weapons
346, 347f, 3 6on, 284-5 , 288; state's Bangladesh: see also
3 69-?0, 3 73n, 3 75n neutrality between Bengali literature;
argumentative tradition: religions 28 BRAC; Grameen Bank;
relevance for democ- 'Asian values' I23, cultural identities 4I,
racy I 2-I 6, 3 7; resist- I 34-6, I 3 6-?, 280, s s-6, 3 2I, 3 28, 3 3 2;
ance to inequality 28I, 286 fertility rates 249;
34-72; secularism and astronomy: ancient Indian India's relations with
acceptance of hetero- 28, 29-30, 75, ?8-9, 43 , 258; language and
doxy 6, I 7-2I, 144-5, I48-9, I 6I , literature 43 , s s-6,
294-3 I 6; use across I 64, I69, I72, 89-90, I 53i national
barriers of class and I78-8o, 3 I4f, 3 23-5, anthem 90, Io6; per-
caste IO-I2, 3 8-9; use 3 29;
A
ryabhata's rejec- sonal connections xvii,
by women interlocu- tion (499 CE) of reli- 2I; Tagore's role in
tors 7-Io gious orthodoxy 89-90, I 5 3 i women in
Arjuna's arguments 28-3 0; Brahma- 207, 228, 23 2, 234
against war xvii, xix, gupta's criticism of 249
3-6, 9-Io, 24f, 47
A
ryabhata's, and Belgium 3 3 8
Arjuna-Krishna debate Alberuni's defence Bengal famine ( I943 )
3-I0, 47 29-30; China, Indian I I7, I 28, I 8 8f
Arthasastra ( 'Economics') astronomers i I77-8o; Bengali literature x-xi,
by Kautilya (4th c. earth's diurnal rotation 3 2-3 , 43, 45f, s 6, 6o,
BCE) 25, I 66-7, 284, contrasted wit sun's 89-90, 96, 9 5-7, Io2,
3 6In orbiting 28-9, q8-9, I I 2-I 3, I 24-5, I 29,
A
ryabhata's mathemati- 3 7 4n; Greek, Babylon- I 5 3 , 3 I 5n, 3 66n
cal and scientif
c
con- ian and Roman con- Bengali San calendar 3 2I,
tributions 28-3 0, nections 28; hypothesis 3 28, 3 3 2
?8-9, I 5 8, I?8-9
.
, of gravity linked with Bhagavad Gftc 3-5, 25 5,
3 23 , 3 74n earth's movement 29, 285, 3 57
Ashoka's ideas and con- I48, 3 23; relativity of Bharatiya Janata Party
tributions ( 3rd c. 'up' and 'down' on a (BJP) 49-50, 50-5 3 ,
BeE) : and Buddhist spherical earth 29; 57, 62, 63-9, 70-7I,
councils I 5-I 6, 75, solar and lunar 72, 83-4, 254-5, 256,
8 I_, I 8 2; building of eclipses: explanation 258, 263, 3 I4, 3 65n,
public hospitals 8 2-3 ; and algorithmic 3 66n
402
GENERAL INDEX
Bihar earthquake ( I934), I 8o-8 I, I 8 2-4, 40-4I, 3 29-30;
Gandhi-Tagore debate I 84-6, I 88-9o, 347, Vikram Sallvat calen-
I03-4, I I4 377-9n; higher educa- dar 3 2I, 325-6, 3 29
blasphemy laws 3 00, tion and Nalanda calendar and different
3 02-3 I73-5, 3 53n; influ- systems of year-length
Bose, Subhas Chandra, ence in Korea, Indo- correction 3 25, 3 28-9
political influence 7f, China, Indonesia, calendars as reflections of
I IO, I I I, 3 7I, 378 Japan and Thailand culture 3 17-I 8,
BRAC i n Bangladesh 249 5 6, 8 If, 8I-2, 8 5 , 3 3 0-3 1
Brahmagupta, mathemat- I 8 2-3; opposition calendars and their zero
ical and scientifc con- from Daoists and points 3 23-4, 3 25-6
tributions 26-8, Confucians in China cardio-vascular diseases
29-3 0, I44, I48-9, I 68, I 70-7I, I 89; and maternal and
I78-9, 292, 3 23 , printing, infuence in child undernourish-
3 74n the development of ment 247-8
Bretton Woods 82, 82f, I82-4, 3 47f, Carvaka atheistic school
Agreement 3 4I 3 69n; public reason- 23-4, 25-?, 28 8-9,
Britain and India 6-7, 7f, ing, emphasis on 308
8, I 2-3 , 3 2, 3 7, 39, I 5-I 6, 75, 8 I-2, caste system and resist-
40, 78-80, 90, 9I, I 82-4; role i n linking ance to it xiv, 7 6,
I05-6, Io6-7, Io8-9, India and China IO-I2, 34-9, 8o, I I 6,
I IO, I I 2-I3, I I 3-I4, I6I-90 I 50, I 57, 200, 205,
I I 6-I 8, I 3 2, I42, Buddhist councils and 207-9, 2I6
I45-6, I46-5o, public discussions charka (spinning wheel) ,
I 5 3-5, I 5 5-?, I 88f, I 5-I6, I82 Gandhi-Tagore
200, 204, 234f, 284, debates IOO-IOI, I I4
288, 3 00, 3 IO, 3 I 2, Calendar Reform China: Chinese students
3 16, 3 1 8, 3 2?-8, 3 29, Committee 3 2I, 3 23 at Nalanda I6I, I68,
3 3 1, 3 3 3, 3 3 5-6, calendars: Buddha I 69, I73-5, I 89-90;
3 3 6-8, 3 39, 3 5 5, 3 5 6, Nirvaqa calendar 32I, Chinese visitors in
3 6I-2n 3 26; Christian cal en- India 2, 40, 82, 82f,
Buddha and Buddhism dars 283, 3 1 8-I9, 8 5, I45, I 6I, I 6If,
I 5, 23, 23f, 27, 75, 3 27; Hijri calendar I 64, I 67, I 68-9, I72,
I 67, I 70-74, I 8o, 29I , 3 I9, 3 3 I; I72f, I 73, I74-5,
286, 3 78n Kaliyuga calendar I 8 I, I 83f, I 84,
Buddha Nirvaqa calendar 3 2I-5; Kallam calen- I 89-90, 3 63n, 3 76n,
3 2I, 3 26 dar 3 2I , 3 29; 3 77n, 3 78n, 3 79n;
Buddhism: central role in Mahavira Nirvala Chinese translation of
India xii, Io, I?, 23, calendar 3 26; Parsee Sanskrit texts 8 2,
23f, 5 6-7, 8I, I 72, calendar 3 22; Saka I 6I-2, I 67-8, I 77-8,
3 78-9n, I 59, 3 5 3-5, calendar 3 2I, 3 26; I 8 3 , I 83f, 3 69n; com-
3 62n; contributions in Tarikh-ilahi calendar parison between
China I 6I, I 64-6, 4I, 3 30, 3 3 1-2; Ujjain Chinese and Indian
I 67-8, I 69, I?O-?I, and the principal economic and social
I72-3 , I 77-80, meridian of India xv achievements I 8 5-9,
403
China - cant' d
I99-2oo; famine in
China ( I958-6I ) I 8 8,
I 8 8f; Indian
astronomers and
mathematicians in
China I 6I-4, I 77-8o;
innovations in 82,
I 66-7, I 82-4, 345-6,
3 69n; intellectual and
cultural interactions
with India xv, I6I-9o;
lessons for India I 3 o,
I 89, I95, I99-200,
239, 344; nuclear
weapons 253, 265-6;
printing and the influ-
ence of Buddhism 82,
82f, I 8 2-4, 347f,
3 69n; Sanskrit trans-
lators in China 82,
r6r-2, 167-8, r 83 ,
r 83f, 3 69n; trade
between ancient China
and India r 6 6-7,
3 77n, 3 79n;
Vajracchedikaprajii-
piramiti (' Diamond
Sutra' ) , frst printed
book (Chinese trans-
lation of Sanskrit text)
82, I 8 3, 1 83 f, 3 69n
Christianity in India x,
I 6-I 8, 48-9, 57, 59,
ro8, 288-9, 3 08, 3 3 0,
3 3 1, 3 5 3 , 3 66n
civil rights r r7, I 34-5,
I94, 194f, 202-3 ,
249-50, 3 63n
class divisions, 204-6,
207-10, 210-I I,
2I2-I5, 2I 6-r 8,
2I8-I9
cold war, fragility of
peace with nuclear
GENERAL INDEX
deterrence 26I-2, 265 I94-5 , 3 63n; protec-
colonialism, influence of tive role of I 8 5,
77-80, I05, I I9, I 39, I98-2oo; as public
I4I-2, I46-50, I 5 3-4, reasoning xiii, xiv,
I 5 s-6o, 3 3 4-6, 3 62n I 2-I6, 30-39, 80-8 3 ,
communitarian I I ?, II7f, I 82-3 ,
approaches 85 , I 22, I 8 6-8
289-90, 3 3 9, 348-9, diaspora xiv, 62-3 , 73-7,
3 50, 375n 8 5-6
Constitution of India Din-ilahi I 8, 4I-2, 59,
I 2-I 3, 3 6-7, 8o-8I, 289, 3 3 I
304-5, 3 09, 3 5 3 , domestic violence against
3 62-3n, 3 69n, 3 75n, women 224, 2 3 6-7
3 8 8, 3 89
Cook, Captain, interpre- East and West, thesis of
tation of his killing 'fundamental' contrast
28 I-2, 3 87n xiii-xiv, I 64-5, 2oo;
cooperative conflicts and see also 'Asian values'
the family 23 6, education: basic import-
240-42, 3 8 3n ance of 37, I05,
cotton industry, early I I 2-I 3 , I I 3-1 5, 198,
development 3 3 s-6 243-7, 342-4; influ-
Cuban Missile Crisis 262 ence on fertility and
cultural separatism 9 3, mortality rates 23 8,
1 1 5, 1 1 8-19, 28I-2, 243-4, 244-?;
3 3 9, 347, 349 Nalanda and early
curatorial approaches to higher studies in India
Indian cultures I42-5, 1 73-5, 3 5 3 ; primary
145-6, 373-4n 3 7, 3 8f, I I 0-1 5,
2r6-r 8, 2r 8-r9;
Dalits and other socially Tagore's ideas on
disadvantaged groups 90-9I, I I4, I I 5-I 6;
xiii, 6, Io, 3 7, 8o, women's I97, 201-2,
207-8, 2r6-r 8, 344, 232, 233, 23 8, 244, 255
347, 3 62n elections, general 49, 50,
Dara Shikoh, Moghal 70-71
prince, as translator of Enlightenment, European
the Upaniads xi, 6r, 274-5, 279-80
6rf, 375 exoticist interpretations
decimal system 47-8, 346 of India r4r, rso-s r,
democracy: as a global I 5 I-2, 1 5 5, 373n,
tradition r3-r6, 3 75n, 376n
8o-8 3, 30-3 1, 3 59,
3 6 I -2n; practice, need families: cooperative con-
for improvement 3 6, ficts 2 3 6, 240-2,
404
GENERAL INDEX
3 8 3 n; inequalities Grameen Bank 249 identity: see also Indian
within 22o-2I, 23 2-3, Greenwich Mean Time identity; external and
240-42, 3 8 3-4n xv-xvi, 3 I 8, 3 29 internal identity 26-7,
famines I I?-I8, I 28, Gregorian calendar: arbi- I 39-40, I 5 5-8, 349;
I 8 8f, I99, I99f, 2I 2, trariness of its domi- Gandhi and Tagore on
2?6-7 nance 283; end of the 72, 86, IOO-IOI, 347,
food and hunger: see also second millennium 348; national identity
famines; undernour- 3 I 8-I9, 3 2I, 3 27 and other commit-
ishment; minimum Gujarat riots ( 2002) 5 2, ments 99-IOI,
support prices 54, 70, ?I, I 88f, I94f 3 29-48; plural affilia-
2I 3-I4, 2I 5, 2I 8; tions and choice of
reserve stocks 2 I 3 , Hijri calendar 29I, 3 I9, emphasis 3 5 2, 3 5 5-6;
2I4, 2I9 3 3 I religious identity 307-8,
France I9-20, 46, 54, Hinduism: broad and 309, 3 I 6, 3 27, 3 52-3
145, 3 24-5, 344, narrow understanding Indian civil codes 2of,
3 50 of 45-9, 50-s r, 72; 304-6, 3 88n
and calendars 3 20, Indian identity xiv, xvi,
Gandhi, assassination of 3 2I-2, 3 24, 3 25; 5o-sr, 63, 73, 77, I39,
sr, 64, 3 65n Islamic influences on 298, 307, 309, 3 34-6,
Gandhi and Tagore 9 I-2, II, I9, 3 I 5-I6 3 3 6-8, 339-5 6
IOO-I05, I I4 Hindutva movement Indian Institutes of
Germany I I O-I I, ix-x, xii, 28, 3 5, Management 3 44
I 5 2-3 , 228-9, 3 28, 49-5 3, 5 3-6, 62-9, Indian Institutes of
3 3 8 69-72, 74, 78, 8 I , Science 340
globalization: asymmet- 83-4, 294, 3 64-5n, Indian Institutes of
ries of power 24 I, 3 67 Technology 34 3-4
340-4I; cultural History of British India Indian National Congress
dimension 8 I, 8 5-6, of James Mill and its

7, 50, 7I, 83 , 234
344-6; division of infuence 78, 79, I4o, 305, 3 07, 3 65
benefts 340-4I, I42, I46-9, I 5 3-4, Indian Standard Time,
34I-2; domestic poli- 3 I6 historical roots,
cies for making use of HIV/AIDS I95f, I98f, xiv-xvi, 3 I 8, 3 29
globalization 343-4; 202f Indo-China 8 5
economic contribu- hospitals, early public Indonesia 48, 54, 8 5,
tions 83-4, I9 5-6, 82-3 I I 8, 3 I0
3 39-43, 343-4; global households, division of Indus valley civilization
interdependence benefts and chores ( 5th to 3rd millennium
3 39-44, 345-7, 349; 23 6, 243-4, 3 83n BCE): achievements as
history and glo baliza- human rights 42-3, 54, a pre-Vedic civilization
tion 344, 345-6; I23, I 3 4-5, 202-3 , 65-6, 3 Io, 3 66-7n;
mathematics and 342 attempts by Hindutva
science 345-6; migra- theorists to claim its
tion of ideas 344-6, 'idea of India', Tagore's Vedic origin 66-9;
346, 346-7; protest understanding of 72, urban civilization and
movements 34I, 342 86, 347, 348, 349 town planning 6 5
405
industrialization: ancient
industrial history 3 3 5,
3 3 9-4o; cotton textile
3 3 4-6, 3 3 6-7; domes-
tic policies, import-
ance of I97-8, 343-4;
education, importance
in industrialization
I I 3-I4, I97-8,
343-4; globalization
and the role of indus-
tries 3 39-40, 34I-5,
3 9In; iron and steel
industry 3 3 7-8,
3 39-40, 3 63-4, 390n,
3 9 In; modern indus-
trialization I I 7-I 8,
I 8 2, 3 3 I
-
5, 3 3 6-40;
political nationalism
and industrial devel-
opment 3 3 6-8,
3 3 9-4 I; selective
reluctance of British
investment 3 3 5-6,
3 3 9; Tatas and the
development of mod-
ern industries 3 3 3-6,
3 3 6-7, 3 3 8-40; Tatas
and Indian national-
ism 3 3 6-8, 343, 3 5 6
information technology
84, I 8 2, I96-7, 267,
343-4
Iran and Persia I I , I7, 6I,
78, 84, 90, I07, I44,
I47, I 72, 288, 292,
3 08, 3 14, 3 28, 3 3 I
Islam, infuences on
Hinduism I I , I9,
3 I 5-I 6
Islamic fundamentalism
74, I 65, I 65f
isolationism, external and
internal 6 5-6, 84,
8 5-6, 347-9
GENERAL INDEX
Italy xix, I ro, I I I-I 2,
I3 I , I45, 207
Jainism x, xii, IO, I 5 ,
I6-I7, I 8, 5 7, 76,
254, 274, 288, 289,
308, 3 I0, 3 2I-2, 3 26,
330-3 I, 3 5 3 , 3 54-
5,
3 5 6, 3 87n
Japan: Buddhism in 5 6,
8I, 8 6, r 69, r 8 2-3 ;
education, the role of
8 If, 344; gender rela-
tions 220, 23 4; Indian
j udge's dissent on war
trial IIo; influence on
India Io9, I 30, 1 3 8,
340-4I, 344; nation-
alism and militarism
in I 09-I I, 252-3 ;
Oe, Kenzaburo's view
of contemporary
Japan 25 3 , 276, 3 86n;
painting and drama
I3o, I 3 8; printing,
development of
I 8 2-3, 347; public
reasoning, early his-
tory 8I-2, I 82, 3 69n;
Subhas Chandra Bose
and the Indian
National Army
I IO-I I ; Tagore's rela-
tion with 94, I09-rr,
II5, 37In;
Javali, atheist sceptic,
lectures Rama in the
RamaymJa xi-xii, 26,
29, 47, 1 59, 3 IO
Jewish communities from
ancient times I6, I?,
I8, 3 5, 49, 5 7, 76-7,
Io8, 274, 288, 3 22,
3 3 I , 3 59n
406
Kaliyuga calendar and its
zero point 3 20,
3 2I-3 , 3 24, 325
Kargil conflict 26o-6I,
264
Kashmir I 5, 42, 26o,
264, 3 I If
Kerala I7, 3 8f, I I 6, I 57,
I 8 6-7, I 8 8, I95f,
200-20I, 228-9, 23 I ,
23 5, 245-7, 3 22
Korea, 56-7, 8 If, 82, 85 ,
I 8 2-3 , I95, I96-7,
I99f, 226, 227, 228,
239, 34I, 347, 3 82n
Krishna xvii, xix, 3-6,
9-IO, 24f, 47, I 3 8,
I 5 4-5
Kumarajiva, Chinese
translations of
Sanskrit texts 82, I 8 3 ,
I 83f, 3 69n
literacy 8 I, I I 2-I3 ,
I I 6-I7, I 5 7, I 8 3-4,
I97, 200-20I,
2IO-I I, 23 8, 239,
243-5, 246-7, 260
Lokayata philosophy and
the sceptical tradition
23-4, 26, 27, 46, I 59,
308-9, 3 5 5 , 3 6on,
3 6In
magisterial interpretation
and colonial dom-
inance 78, I4I-2,
I43, I44, I46-5o,
I 5 3-4, I 5 5-60
Mahabharata x, 3, 4-6,
9, Io, 24n, 47, 6o,
I 66, 3 20, 3 25, 3 57n
Malaysia and old Malaya
8 5, I23, I34, I47, I 8 I
mathematics: decimal
GENERAL INDEX
system 47-8, I47-8, J I2-I 5 253, 256-8, 265-6;
345-6; early develop- music I9, 57, 59, 75, 90, costs of nuclearization
ments in India xiv, xv, I07, I I 5, I 30, I 34, 2 5 9-6o; Cuban mis-
25, 26, 28-3o, 4I, 5 8, I 3 6, I75, I 80, 288, sile crisis 262; deter-
66-7, 69, 75, 78-8o, 308, 3 I 5, 3 3 2, 3 7on renee, fragility of
I 3 2-3 , I44, I47-9, Muslims: arrival of early 26o-6I; ethical issues
I S?-8, I6I-4, I69, traders I7, s 6; Babri 2p-2, 25 6-7; global
I77-80, 292, 3 I4, mosque demolition x, issues on nuclear
3 I7-I 8, 3 23, 3 24-5, 48, 209, 3 Io; con- weapons 25 8, 262,
3 28-9, 345
-
7, 374n, quest and integration 267-8; Indian tests,
39on; interaction with 5 8-9; contributions to I974 and I998:
Arab and Iranian Indian culture x-xi, Pokhran I ( I974)
mathematicians 3 8-9, 5 7, s 8-6I, 6If, 25 3-4, 264; Pokhran
29-3 0, 78-9, I44, 75, 28?-8, 3 08-9, II ( I998) 253, 254,
I47-8, I78-9, 292, 3 I 5 , 3 3 2-3 , 375; 264; initial develop-
3 I4; interactions with Gujarat riots ( 2002) ment, enthusiasm and
Babylonian, Greek 52, 54, 70, 7I, I 8 8; doubts 5, 25 5-6, 3 5 7;
and Roman mathe- Hindus and Muslims Pakistan's nuclear
maticians 28, I78, i n history x-xi, xi f, development 254-5,
346; interactions with II, I9, 5 8-6I, 3 08, 256, 263-5, 268-9;
Chinese mathemati- 3 I 5-I6, 3 3 2; possibility of acciden-
cians I 6I-4, I 72, Hindutva thesis of tal war 26I; public
I75, I77-8o; sine, 'favouritism' towards discussion and protest
from
A
ryabhata's 'jya' 298, 303-4; size and 42, 42, 25 6-7, 267-9
to the Latin 'sinus' importance 54, I I9,
I78-9 308, 309, 3 I 5; 'two Ocampo's personal rela-
medicine and medical nation' theory 5 I , 62, tions with Tagore Io2-3
practice I44, I 6I, 299, 307 Orientalism I4I, 3 73n
I 64, I 68, I69, I 84-5,
I 8 5-9, 342 Nalanda, ancient centre Pakistan: confict with
Mill, History of India: of higher education India 42-4, 260-64;
inaccuracies and I73-5, 3 53 its economic pros-
biases in 79, I40, national anthems of perity and political
I47-9, 3 68, 3 74n; Bangladesh and India stability, importance
influence of 78, 79, 90, I07 for India 268-9;
I42, I46-7, I49, 3 I 6, Netherlands 46 Kargil confict
3 68-9n newspapers and the 26o-6I , 264; Kashmir
'missing women' 3 5, 3 5, media 43, 43, 5 3 , 64, issue 42, 26o, 264;
225-6, 3 8 2n II?, I SO, I 8 8, I94 laws on blasphemy
modernity and anti- 202-3 , 209, 3 5 5 3 00, 3 02; media's role
modernism 3 2f, 7 s-6, nuclear weapons: BJP's 4 3 f; need for cross-
8I , 98, 98, I04, policy and other fac- border dialogue 42-4;
I I 7-I 8, I23, I 29-3 0, tors 254-5, 256, 263 ; nuclear tests 254-5,
I 3 I-2, I 3 2-4, I 3 8, Chinese nuclear 25 6, 258, 263-5,
237, 244, 299-300, power, relevance of 268-9
407
GENERAL INDEX
parochialism, critique of 142-3 , 282, 28 8-9 Tagore, Rabindranath,
6s-6, 84, 8s-6, science and the role of views: see also Tagore
289-90, 3 47-9 scepticism 23-4, in the Index of
Parsees x, r 6-r7, r 8, 3 5, 26-3 0, 46, I 59, Names; arguments
49, 57, 76, ro8, 254, 308-9, 3 5 5, 3 6on, with Einstein 104,
274, 28 8-9, 3 08, 3 I O, 3 6rn 3 71n; arguments with
3 22, 3 3 1, 3 50, 3 5 3 , science and society, Gandhi 72, 8 6, 9 1-2,
3 5 6, 3 76 Gandhi-Tagore 98-9, I00-105, 1 14,
Philippines, the 8 5 debates 104-5 347, 348; criticism of
Portugal 59, 1 3 2, 287 scientifc work and early British administration
Pratichi Trust 216-19 accomplishments 26, ros-8, n2-r4; cri-
printing, development of 28-3 0, 75, 78-9, tique of nationalism
82, 82f, ! 8 2-4, 345 1 3 2-3, 144-5, 148-9, and parochialism
public health care, 161-4, 172, 1 77-80, 91-2, 97, 98-9, roo,
China-India compari- 3 14f, 3 1 6, 3 23-5, 105-9, !09-I Ij On
son 1 8 5-9, 199-200 3 29, 344-6, 347, epistemology and
374n observation 104; focus
Ramaya1a x, xi, 3 , 26, secularism: contrast on education 93,
47-8, 6o, 1 59, 3 10, between different n2-3, n3-5; 'idea of
3 54 interpretations I 6-21; India' 72, 8 6, 347,
recognition or acceptance emergence of secular- 348, 349; relation
(swtkriti) by others ism in India I 6, with Japan 94,
34-6 I 8-r9, 2I, 54-5, 109-I I , 1 1 5, 252,
Rigveda xi, 22, 22f, 67, 287-9, 3 5 2-4; import- 371n; and
3 25, 3 5 5 ance of x, xiii, I 2, Santiniketan
-
4 5,
Rome 14, 28, 76, 1 6-19, 20, 294-3 1 6 90-91, roo, I I4-I7,
I I I-I 2, 3 59n sex-selective abortions 1 19, 130; universalism
Royal Asiatic Society of 226-8, 229-3 2, 89-90, 94-5, ro6,
Bengal 6rf, 145 239-40, 239f, 250, 107-8, I I 8-I9
3 82n Taiwan 195, 226, 227,
S
aka calendar 3 21 , 3 26 Shah Bano j udgment 341
Sangh Parivar 5 2, 62, 63 , 304-5, 3 88-9n Ta'rikh al-hind of
74 Sikhs x, r 6, 57, 70, 74, Alberuni 78-9, 144-5,
Sanskrit's role as a global 76, 57, 70, 74, 76, !72-3, 292, 3 73n
medium 84-s, 8 sf, 2o9, 254-5, 298, 301, Tarikh-ilahi calendar of
r 68 302, 3 08, 3 5 1, 3 65n Akbar 41, 3 19, 3 30,
Santiniketan, Tagore's Singapore 1 23, 1 34, 226, 341
school and educa- 227 Tatas and Indian identity
tional centre 4 5, South Asians for Human 3 3 6-8, 343, 3 5 6
90-91 , IOO, I I4-I7, Rights 43 Tatas and Indian modern
1 19, 1 3 0 Soviet Union and Tagore industries 3 3 3-6,
scepticism, tradition of I I 2-I4 3 3 6-7, 3 3 8-40
xii, IO, I I, 2I, 22, Spain 1 1 2, 286 Thailand 48f, 5 6, 8 rf, 8 5,
23-5, 26-3o, 3 r, 3 7, Sri Lanka 43, 8rf, 85 f, I97, 3 IO
46, 47, 69, 7!-2, 75, r 68-9, 207, 234, 3 26
408
GENERAL INDEX
Ujjain (Ujj ayini ) : as an 325, 3 26 tality and fertility
ancient urban centre Vikram Sarvat calendar rates 23 8, 243-4,
xv-xvi, 40-4I, 3 29, 3 20, 3 24-5 244-7; gender
3 3 0, 3 5 5, 3 63n; and well-frog inequality, different
identifcation of (kipamaJdika) , aspects 220-50;
India's principal lessons from 8 5-6 housework and
meridian xv, 40-4I , women: active participa- inequality 23 5-6,
3 29-3 o; and Kalidasa tion and leadership in 243-4; literacy and
4I, 3 30, 3 5 5 arguments 7-Io; education, import-
undernourishment, causes agency and well-being ance I I 6-I?, I95,
and consequences 9 3, 22o-2I, 22I-2; child 23 8-9, 243-5, 246-?;
I99, I99f, 202, mortality rates and political leadership
2I 2-I 5, 2I 8, 2I9f, women's agency 6-7, 3 7, 20I, 234,
247, 248-9, 3 8 In 243-4; co-operative 2 3 4f; property owner-
Upaniads xi, 7, 23, conflicts within the ship, importance of
5 6-7, 6I, 68, 3 54 family 23 6, 240-42, sharing 234-5,
3 8 3n; emancipation 290-9I; sex-selective
Vedas x, xi, I?, 22, 22f, and critical agency abortions 226-3 2,
47, 5 3 , 66, 6?-8, 84, 23 7-40, 244-7; mor- 239f, 250