Early Childhood Educ J (2009) 36:327332 DOI 10.

1007/s10643-008-0274-z

Strengthening Homeless Parents with Young Children Through Meaningful Parent Education and Support
Kevin J. Swick

Published online: 6 August 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract Homeless parents of young children confront several barriers to developing effective parenting skills and dispositions. Perhaps the major barrier is that of the negative stereotype that many people use to label them. They also often have not had positive parent role models and in many cases have had to deal with the issues of violence. Parent education and support strategies can play a key role in helping homeless parents develop positive and nurturing parenting skills. Keywords Homeless parents Empower homeless parents Parent education

A common experience for many homeless parents involves their loss of self esteem, and their loss of condence in their parenting status (Lindsey 1998). Homeless parents of young children nd themselves facing many stressors that negatively impede their functioning in personal and parental roles (Swick 2005). The intent of this article is to explore parenting within the context of being homeless and to propose meaningful parent education and support ideas as one means of empowering them to have caring and effective relations with their children. Factors Impacting the Parenting Status of Homeless Parents of Young Children One of the major factors that impacts parental functioning is the perceptions that others have of them as persons and
K. J. Swick (&) College of Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA e-mail: kswick@gwm.sc.edu

as parents (Rosier 2000; Smith 2006). Parents who are homeless report that they are often perceived to be ineffective in their parenting (Gorzka 1999a. Homeless mothers also report lower levels of social support among family and friends as a result of being homeless (Kohler et al. 2004). This is an issue that seems to impact parents from all cultures (Bronfenbrenner 2005). Smith (2006) notes one example where mothers who were homeless and addicted to drugsand in recoverysaid the hardest thing to deal with was the perceptions some helping professionals had of them. They noted that often they were made out to be the absolutely worst mothers ever. In effect, the way they were treated became a negative educational force in their lives (Torquati 2002). The very nature of being homeless draws negative value judgments from others. We know that people who are homeless are viewed as less capable and more problematic in their behavior (Styron et al. 2000). In particular, homeless parents of young children are especially vulnerable to harsh assessments. Typical questions that people raise are: Why are they homeless? Are they lazy? Are they shiftless? These and other stereotypes often are a part of the judgments they receive in their interactions with others (Skowron 2005). As Lindsey (2000) notes, many homeless parents explain that when they have a caring and nurturing helper, they are more able to handle needed changes for moving toward independent living. Seeing the positive attributes in mothers who are homeless can be a life enhancing force in their lives. In addition, the nature of the system they enter due to their homelessness invites criticisms of their parenting (Lindsey 1998). Whether the family is living in a relatives basement or in a shelter system, loss of control is a key issue (Torquati 2002). In many cases decisions related to

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meal time or even bed time are made by the rules of the system or the people who have allowed the homeless parent to reside with them. Homeless parents of young children note that such restrictive environments negatively impact their parenting (Raikes and Thompson 2005). They often feel that they have little power to be in control of their parenting. The loss of space where parents and children previously shared daily rituals is another factor in their lives (Lindsey 1998). It is important to note that in shelters and related situations that are nurturing and provide more exibility, homeless parents and children feel supported and are more positive in their relationships (Krumer-Nevo 1998). Parenting programs that provide opportunities for parents and children to have meaningful rituals enhance the status of homeless families. A related issue is the public nature of parenting in any ecology where privacy is lacking. For example, homeless parents of young children note that they often feel like victims of too much exposure in the shelter context (Lindsey 1998). Even when living in with a relative one mother noted that she really could not parent her child in any condent manner. There is also the reality that shelters thrive on order and institutional structure and where quiet and peaceful rituals are the desired norm. Yet raising young children is typically lled with constant change, noise, activity, and meaningful chaos. For many parents who are homeless their lack of understanding child development confounds this situation. They may over-react to the childs activeness because of shelter staff responses and thus exacerbate poor and negative parenting behaviors (Lindsey 1998). Shelter staff likely need more training in child and family development (Lindsey 2000). Parents lack of parenting skills is another factor (Bernstein et al. 1991). Many homeless parents have had little involvement with positive parental role models. In fact many mothers who are homeless have been victims of violence as children and as adults (Anooshian 2005). Their sense of inadequacy in the parenting roles is only intensied by the experience of being homeless (Lindsey 1998). Many homeless parents of young children report that parent education sessions are helpful to them in enhancing their parenting (Smith 2006). Closely linked is the personal competence status of homeless parents (Gorzka 1999b). Lack of education, life skills, and related problem solving attributes often limit parents who are homeless in gaining needed support and resources (Raikes and Thompson 2005). When parents can attain skills such as completing their GED or related job skills they see the power of their newly acquired status. One mother said to the author that her children noticed the change (as she completed her education) and were proud of

her new accomplishments. It is important to recognize homeless parents are more likely to engage in education and job training activities when they have enabling supports like child care and transportation (Aviles and Helfrich 2004). Violence and abuse are also factors that impede parental functioning. Homeless parents of young children experience high levels of violence (Anooshian 2005). Parents report that dealing with the stressors that emanate from chronic abuse short-circuits their relationships with their children (Swick 2004). Three elements of the cycle of violence in families that are especially noted by homeless parents who have chronic issues with abuse and violence are (Anooshian 2005): (1) the psychological trauma that is always shadowing family interactions; (2) the hypersensitive status of children and parents in anticipating more violence or problems even after the immediate episodes of abuse are over; and (3) the dysfunction that violence inuences in how family members perceive each other. We need to be alert to these stressors as they play out in the lives of parents (Astbury et al. 2000). Another factor is isolation from meaningful social contacts (Raikes and Thompson 2005). Parents who lack meaningful social networks have more difculty in gaining help and resources for supporting their children. They express frustration at being isolated from the social rituals that might help them be more effective parents (Torquati and Gamble 2001). Parents also note that being homeless invites more criticism of them as parents and as persons, and that the stigma of being homeless further erodes their social support (Krumer-Nevo 1998). Another critical element that social networks offer parents is that of sharing ideas and resources on child rearing issues. Homeless parents often lack this context for feedback, sharing, and help. As Toohey et al. (2004) found, social networks of homeless women are less supportive and more distant than for housed women. While they do have social contacts, these contacts seem less invested in them and they have slightly more negative functions. Chronic poverty is interrelated with the issues facing parents and families who are homeless (Bassuk et al. 2001). Resource issues such as not being able to meet childrens basic needs and lacking the accompanying status to command attention to childrens lack of educational resources are symbolic of the stress that homeless parents experience (Whitbeck et al. 1997). Poverty not only reduces parents power to meet immediate needs it also is a barrier to gaining acceptance by others for receiving social and educational opportunities (Lindsey 1998; Payne 2005). Parents say that, even when they are able to get their children into school and community opportunities, they usually experience discrimination that is linked to being poor (Rosier 2000).

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Empowering Parents Who Are Homeless: A Meaningful Role for Parent Education Parents who are homeless or in similar housing-distressed situations often note their need for a proactive form of parent education that afrms their value to their child and enhances their skills in relating to their child. (Swick 2004). In many cases homeless parents experienced homelessness or related family issues in their own childhoods (Bassuk et al. 2001). Thus, they often lack any substantive knowledge or experience of positive parenting and have few resources upon which to gain knowledge and support. A basic tenet of parent education for homeless parents of young children must be to empower them with knowledge on meaningful parenting perspectives and practices (Gorzka 1999b). Parents need information and skills for relating to: child development, parenting, the attachment/bonding process, creating nurturing environments, using positive discipline, gaining needed social support, and developing their personal self competence (Powell 1998). They may also need skills for dealing with family violence problems that have negatively impacted the parentchild relationship (Anooshian 2005). They are likely to need skills for acquiring needed life resources (Nunez 1994). In particular, homeless parents need support and encouragement as they develop and renew their parenting skills (Swick 2004). In this sense, parent education is a dynamic process that includes both formal learning activities and informal social support experiences (Kelly et al. 2000). An extension of the parent learning focus is engaging parents in experiences that will help them develop nurturing relations with their child (Swick 2004). In many cases homeless parents express frustration over their lack of experience in building positive and nurturing relations with their children. They also express the need for having helpers who are positive and caring mentors, and who support them as they develop more caring ways to interact with their children (Swick 2005). An example of one strategy is the use of professionally guided parentchild interaction activities that focus on increasing parent power in planning and carrying out positive relations with their child (Gorzka 1999a). This involves early childhood teachers or home visitors in providing parents with some activities they can use with their children. This includes opportunities for parents to discuss their involvement with the early childhood professionals who are guiding the overall process (Klass 1996; Powell 1988). It should also support parents re-developing the family environment to support these new parentchild activities. The ideal would be for parents to experience caring parentchild activities within a positive early childhood program setting where they have opportunities to see and interact with caring early childhood leaders.

Opportunities for discussing these new behaviors is essential so they can develop practical and realistic strategies for integrating these behaviors into their family dynamics (Catalogue for Philanthropy 2007). Another strategy utilizes parent mentors or advocates who are experienced using positive interaction with children in supportive roles with homeless parents who are having difculty with this aspect of parenting (Killian 2000; Rioux and Berla 1993). The idea is to engage homeless parents in positive, nurturing experiences so they can transform their relations with their children into empowering and caring efforts (Kelly et al. 2000). The benet of having a personal mentor who forms a supportive relationship with you is potentially very powerful. In particular, parents have opportunities for more intensive help in dealing with barriers that may be inuencing them negatively. One approach utilizes formerly homeless parents who are now functioning successfully in life as helpers to homeless parents (Nunez 1994). Homeless parents of young children also need support in gaining ideas on creating enriching environments for their children (Torquati 2002). A need exists for shelters, schools, and other groups to include this element in parenting programs. In particular, they need support in developing nurturing activities for young children that can be used in various settings. A reading ritual is one example of an activity that can be used daily in even the most restrictive environments (Knitzer and Lefkowitz 2005). Daily afrmation and bonding experiences with children is another powerful activity. Additional activities include: encouraging parents to have chat time during meals, develop daily times for sharing as a family, and using times like weekends to plan outings as simple as walks to a nearby library (Kelly et al. 2000). Homeless parents also need support in organizing activities that enable them to renew and strengthen their personal and parenting competence (Swick 2005). Homeless parents often share that they feel isolated and have few opportunities for reecting and renewing their parenting and personal lives (Letiecq et al. 1998). Shelters, early childhood centers, and other school and community programs can develop parenting programs especially focused on encouraging this renewal process. For example, one early childhood center formed a coffee group where mothers have a chance to share concerns and ideas, and to support each other in developing more caring roles in their families.

Enhancing Parent Education Through Social Support Resources Parent education is most effective when combined with essential social support resources. Homeless parents

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confront several issues in relation to engaging in and then using parenting education programs and materials. Support resources enhance their ability to not only better access parent programs and activities, but to also be more effective in integrating the knowledge they acquire into their parenting (Letiecq et al. 1998). Social support strategies have proven effective in helping homeless parents to better utilize new knowledge and skills in parenting. One factor in the social support strategy is that it increases the parental position to actually participate in program activities (Powell 1998). This includes basic supports such as child care and transportation. Beyond these physical resources are the importance that home visitors and other parent educators play in nurturing homeless parents to participate and use the parenting programs. These resources also inuence parents to better use the environment to strengthen the family. Social support is also known to enhance parents in their ability to be more effective in parenting (Plant and King 1995). It appears that with caring and supportive relations with important others, parents are more comfortable in changing their parenting behaviors. Swick (2007) noted that parents involved in an Even Start program were more open to change because the staff were non-threatening, supportive, and validating in their interactions with the parents. Positive support from others also opens new venues for learning and integrating new knowledge and skills (Hanson and Lynch 2004). Social learning within the group often is more powerful when staff has provided the nurturance and support for helping parents see their strengths. For example, Kumpfer and Fowler (2007) report that homeless mothers in their parenting and drug rehabilitation program were more effective in improving their parenting and solving their problems with drugs when they were able to use the group learning experience in positive ways. In effect, homeless mothers seem to learn from each other in a positive sense and gain needed moral support from other mothers involved in the parenting education. Support is also a form of parent education that can increase parental skills in better using the environment to meet family needs (Powell 1998). For example, homeless mothers suggest that the most effective parenting programs involve them in discussion time with other homeless parents and the staff. This process enabled them to nd out how to better meet family needs (Nunez 1994). Further, they report that they learn about new resources, new ways to access programs and supports in the community, and how to partner with other parents and professionals to better serve their children and themselves (Styron et al. 2000). Time spent in increasing parents social skills appears to strengthen their collaboration skills.

Ultimately, strong social and related supports strengthen the parentchild relationship (Bronfenbrenner 2005). The case of homeless parents is especially instructive in this regard. Homeless mothers show very positive responses when involved in high supportive relations with staff. In every dimension, homeless mothers indicate lowthreat, high support contexts provide them with the needed processes for empowering their families. Applications for Early Childhood Professionals In a sense, all early childhood professionals are parent educators because, through our work with children, we reach parents and families in a continuous manner. Homeless parents especially need our support and guidance as they seek to improve their parenting and empower their children. The following application points are possible ways we can support homeless parents as they seek to become more effective in the parenting roles. Reach out to parents who are homeless through regular conferences, visits to shelters, and through other means such as school or community programs. The goal is to establish and nurture positive and supportive relations with the parents (Reed-Victor 2000). Communicate with the childrens parents in a caring and supportive way. Make these communication activities especially positive and helpful, providing homeless parents with guidance on how they can be involved in their childrens learning, growth, and education (Swick 2004; Swick and Bailey 2004). Develop intervention strategies that help parents overcome cognitive and social barriers that impede their parenting (Backer and Howard 2007). Provide formal and informal parenting education opportunities for homeless parents that include them in the design and delivery of these activities. Small group discussion strategies that engage parents in learning and sharing with each other are especially effective (Nunez and Collignon 2000; Powell 1998). Provide homeless parents with many opportunities to interact with you where you provide modeling of parent child literacy and social learning activities. These activities should include time and support for discussing new parenting behaviors and skills (Nunez 1994). Provide relevant counseling services so parents can develop skills for being effective in family leadership roles (Nunez and Collignon 2000). Advocate and/or sponsor parenting education programs that enhance parents in their efforts to be more effective in parenting roles. These efforts should include needed supports that assist parents in strengthening their lives

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