+Copper for Busbars

Prefaces
1. Design Considerations
2. Copper for Busbar Purposes
3. Current-carrying Capacity of Busbars
4. Alternating Current Effects in Busbars
5. Effect of Busbar Arrangements on Rating
6. Short-Circuit Effects
7. Jointing of Copper Busbars
8. Mechanical Strength Requirements
9. Busbar Impedance
10. Appendices
Bibliography
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCATION
Publication 22, June 1996
Reprinted January 2001 with some amendments

Prefaces
Preface to 1984 Edition
This C.D.A. publication has long been accepted as the standard reference work on busbar design.
This revised and updated edition incorporates recent progress in the technology of busbar design
as reflected in new standards and engineering practices.
All data and formulae have been metricated and the method of presentation facilitates the use of
calculators or computers. The many variables to be considered are clearly explained and special
attention has been given to determining the most economic loadings in order to maximise current
carrying capacity for minimum installation costs and running losses. There is, therefore, a useful
comparison of the electrical and mechanical properties of high conductivity copper and aluminium.
Extra attention has been given to recommended jointing techniques, both by bolting and welding.
Improvements have also been made to the section dealing with skin effects. The information on
impedance has been expanded so that power factor variations can now be further predicted. The
tables of ratings and properties have been expanded as have the examples of typical calculations.
The references have been updated to include recent publications.
CDA wishes to acknowledge the considerable help given in the revision of this text by Mr G M
Boothman, Chief Engineer, Busbar Unit, Balfour Beatty Power Construction Ltd and by Mr W
Jefferies, Chief Metallurgist, Thomas Bolton & Sons Ltd. also for many helpful comments made on
the text by Mr K G Cary (Simplex - G.E. Ltd),
Mr A Jackson (GAMBICA), Mr J C Power
(British Electric Repairs Ltd), Mr E G Wright (Ottermill Switchgear Ltd) and members of the British
Non-Ferrous Metals Federation High Conductivity Copper Group.
Preface to 1996 Edition

1. Design Considerations

Introduction
Types of Busbar
Choice of Busbar Material

Introduction
The word busbar, derived from the Latin word omnibus ('for all'), gives the idea of a universal
system of conveyance. In the electrical sense, the term bus is used to describe a junction of
circuits, usually in the form of a small number of inputs and many outputs. 'Busbar' describes the
form the bus system usually takes, a bar or bars of conducting material.
In any electrical circuit some electrical energy is lost as heat which, if not kept within safe limits,
may impair the performance of the system. This energy loss, which also represents a financial
loss over a period of time, is proportional to the effective resistance of the conductor and the
square of the current flowing through it. A low resistance therefore means a low loss; a factor of
increasing importance as the magnitude of the current increases.
The capacities of modern-day electrical plant and machinery are such that the power handled by
their control systems gives rise to very large forces. Busbars, like all the other equipment in the
system, have to be able to withstand these forces without damage. It is essential that the
materials used in their construction should have the best possible mechanical properties and are
designed to operate within the temperature limits laid down in BS 159, BS EN 60439-1:1994, or
other national or international standards.
A conductor material should therefore have the following properties if it is to be produced
efficiently and have low running costs from the point of view of energy consumption and
maintenance:
a) Low electrical and thermal resistance
b) High mechanical strength in tension, compression and shear
c) High resistance to fatigue failure
d) Low electrical resistance of surface films
e) Ease of fabrication
f) High resistance to corrosion
g) Competitive first cost and high eventual recovery value
This combination of properties is met best by copper. Aluminium is the main alternative material,
but a comparison of the properties of the two metals shows that in nearly all respects copper is
the superior material.

Types of Busbar
Busbars can be sub-divided into the following categories, with individual busbar systems in many
cases being constructed from several different types:
a) Air insulated with open phase conductors

b) Air insulated with segregating barriers between conductors of different phases.

c) Totally enclosed but having the construction as those for (a) and (b)
d) Air insulated where each phase is fully isolated from its adjacent phase(s) by an earthed
enclosure. These are usually called 'Isolated Phase Busbars'.
e) Force-cooled busbar systems constructed as (a) to (d) but using air, water, etc. as the cooling
medium under forced conditions (fan, pump, etc.).
f) Gas insulated busbars. These are usually constructed as type (e) but use a gas other than air
such as SF6, (sulphur hexafluoride).
g) Totally enclosed busbars using compound or oil as the insulation medium.
The type of busbar system selected for a specific duty is determined by requirements of voltage,
current, frequency, electrical safety, reliability, short-circuit currents and environmental
considerations. Table 1 outlines how these factors apply to the design of busbars in electricity
generation and industrial processes.
Table 1 Comparison of typical design requirements for power generation and industrial
process systems
Feature

Generation

Industrial Processes

Voltage drop

Normally not important

Important

Temperature rise

Usually near to maximum allowable.

Capitalisation becoming important.

In many cases low due to optimisation

of first cost and running costs.

Current range

Zero to 40 k A a .c . with frequencies of zero to

400 Hz.

Zero to 200 kA a.c. and d.c.

Jointing and connections

Usually bolted but high current applications are

often fully welded. Joint preparation very
important

Usually bolted. Joint preparation very

important.

Cross-sectional area

Usually minimum. Somewhat larger if

optimisation is required.

Usually larger than minimum required

due to optimisation and voltage drop
considerations.

Kelvin's Law

Not applied. Other forms of optimisation are

often used.

Applies. Also other forms of

optimisation and capitalisation used

Construction

Up to 36 k V. Individually engineered using

basic designs and concepts.

Usually low voltage. Individually

engineered. Standard products for low
current/voltage applications.

Enclosures

Totally enclosed with or without ventilation.

Usually open. Enclosed or protected

by screens when using standard
products.

Fault capacity

Usually large. Designed to meet system

requirement.

Usually similar to running current.

Standard products to suit system
short circuit.

10

Phase arrangement

Normally 3 phase flat though sometimes trefoil.

Normally flat but transposition used to

improve current distribution on large
systems

11

Load factor

Usually high. Normally 1.0.

Usually high but many have widely

varying loads.

12

Cost

Low when compared with associated plant.

Major consideration in many cases.

Particularly when
optimisation/capitalisation is used.

13

Effects of failure

Very serious. High energies dissipated into

fault.

Limited by low voltage and busbar

size.

14

Copper type

High conductivity.

High conductivity.

15 Copper shape Usually rectangular. Tubular used for high current force-cooled. Usually large cross section rectangular. Tubular
used for some low current high voltage applications and high current force-cooled.

Choice of Busbar Material

At the present time the only two commercially available materials suitable for conductor purposes
are copper and aluminium. The table below gives a comparison of some of their properties. It can
be seen that for conductivity and strength, high conductivity copper is superior to aluminium. The
only disadvantage of copper is its density; for a given current and temperature rise, an aluminium
conductor would be lighter, even though its cross-section would be larger. In enclosed systems
however, space considerations are of greater importance than weight. Even in open-air systems
the weight of the busbars, which are supported at intervals, is not necessarily the decisive factor.
Table 2 Typical relative properties of copper and aluminium
Copper(CW004A)

Aluminium (1350)

Units

Electrical conductivity
(annealed)

101

61

% IACS

Electrical resistivity (annealed)

1.72

2.83

cm

Temperature coefficient of
resistance(annealed)

0.0039

0.004

/ C

Thermal conductivity at 20C

397

230

W/mK

Coefficient of expansion

17 x 106

23 x 106

/ C

Tensile strength (annealed)

200 250

50 60

N/mm2

Tensile strength (halfhard)

260 300

85 100

N/mm2

0.2% proof stress (annealed)

50 55

20 30

N/mm2

0.2% proof stress (halfhard)

170 200

60 65

N/mm2

Elastic modulus

116 130

70

kN/mm2

Specific heat

385

900

J/kg K

Density

8.91

2.70

g/cm3

Melting point

1083

660

The electromagnetic stresses set up in the bar are usually more severe than the stress introduced
by its weight. In particular, heavy current-carrying equipment necessitates the use of large size
conductors, and space considerations may be important. It should be realised that the use of

copper at higher operating temperatures than would be permissible for aluminium allows smaller
and lighter copper sections to be used than would be required at lower temperatures.
The ability of copper to absorb the heavy electromagnetic and thermal stresses generated by
overload conditions also gives a considerable factor of safety. Other factors, such as the cost of
frequent supports for the relatively limp aluminium, and the greater cost of insulation of the larger
surface area, must be considered when evaluating the materials.
From published creep data, it can be seen that high conductivity aluminium exhibits evidence of
significant creep at ambient temperature if heavily stressed. At the same stress, a similar rate of
creep is only shown by high conductivity copper at a temperature of 150C, which is above the
usual operating temperature of busbars.
Table 3 Comparison of creep and fatigue properties of high conductivity copper and
aluminium
a) Creep properties
Material

Testing Temp. C

Min. Creep Rate % per 1000

h

Stress N/mm2

Al (1080) annealed

20

0.022

26 *

HC Cu annealed

150

0.022

26 *

Cu-0.086% Ag 50% c.w.

130

0.004

138

Cu-0.086% Ag 50% c.w.

225

0.029

96.

Fatigue strength N/mm2

No. of cycles x 106

annealed

20

50

half-hard (H8)

45

50

annealed

62

300

half-hard

115

300

* Interpolated from fig.3

b) Fatigue properties
Material
HC Al

HC Copper

If much higher stresses or temperatures are to be allowed for, copper containing small amounts
(about 0.1%) of silver can be used successfully. The creep resistance and softening resistance of
copper-silver alloys increase with increasing silver content.
In the conditions in which high conductivity aluminium and copper are used, either annealed (or
as-welded) or half-hard, the fatigue strength of copper is approximately double that of aluminium.
This gives a useful reserve of strength against failure initiated by mechanical or thermal cycling.
The greater hardness of copper compared with aluminium gives it better resistance to mechanical
damage both during erection and in service. It is also less likely to develop problems in clamped
joints due to cold metal flow under the prolonged application of a high contact pressure. Its higher

modulus of elasticity gives it greater beam stiffness compared with an aluminium conductor of the
same dimensions. The temperature variations encountered under service conditions require a
certain amount of flexibility to be allowed for in the design. The lower coefficient of linear
expansion of copper reduces the degree of flexibility required.
Because copper is less prone to the formation of high resistance surface oxide films than
aluminium, good quality mechanical joints are easier to produce in copper conductors. Welded
joints are also readily made. Switch contacts and similar parts are nearly always produced from
copper or a copper alloy. The use of copper for the busbars to which these parts are connected
therefore avoids contacts between dissimilar metals and the inherent jointing and corrosion
problems associated with them.
The higher melting point and thermal conductivity of copper reduce the possibility of damage
resulting from hot spots or accidental flashovers in service. If arcing occurs, copper busbars are
less likely to support the arc than aluminium. Table 4 shows that copper can self-extinguish arcs
across smaller separations, and at higher busbar currents. This self-extinguishing behaviour is
related to the much larger heat input required to vaporise copper than aluminium.
Table 4 Self-extinguishing arcs in copper and aluminium busbars
Copper

Aluminium

Minimum busbar spacing, mm

50

100

Maximum current per busbar, A

4500

3220

Copper liberates considerably less heat during oxidation than aluminium and is therefore much
less likely to sustain combustion in the case of accidental ignition by an arc. The large amounts of
heat liberated by the oxidation of aluminium in this event are sufficient to vaporise more metal
than was originally oxidised. This vaporised aluminium can itself rapidly oxidise, thus sustaining
the reaction. The excess heat generated in this way heats nearby materials, including the busbar
itself, the air and any supporting fixtures. As the busbar and air temperatures rise, the rates of the
vaporisation and oxidation increase, so accelerating the whole process. As the air temperature is
increased, the air expands and propels hot oxide particles. The busbar may reach its melting
point, further increasing the rate of oxidation and providing hot liquid to be propelled, while other
materials such as wood panels may be raised to their ignition temperatures. These dangers are
obviated by the use of copper busbars.
Finally, copper is an economical conductor material. It gives long and reliable service at minimum
maintenance costs, and when an installation is eventually replaced the copper will have a high
recovery value. Because of its many advantages, copper is still used worldwide as an electrical
conductor material despite attempts at substitution.

2.Copper for Busbar Purposes

Types of High Conductivity Copper available

Properties of Wrought HC Copper

In most countries, coppers of different types for specific applications have been given separate
identities. In the United Kingdom this takes the form of an alloy designation number which is used
in all British Standards relevant to copper and its alloys. Copper for electrical purposes is covered
by the following British Standards:
BS 1432 : 1987 (strip with drawn or rolled edges)
BS 1433 : 1970 (Rod and bar)
BS 1434 : 1985 (Commutator bars)
BS 1977 : 1976 (High conductivity tubes)
BS 4109 : 1970 (wire for general electrical purposes and for insulated and flexible cords)
BS 4608 : 1970 (Rolled sheet, strip and foil)
(Copies of these are obtainable from the BSI Sales Office. 398 Chiswick High Road, London WS4
4AL.)
To bring the UK in line with current European requirements BS EN standards are being
introduced. The European Standards relevant to electrical applications are expected to
supersede the British Standards in due course.
The current standards most relevant to busbar applications are BS 1432, BS 1433 and BS 1977
which specify that the end products shall be manufactured from copper complying with the
following requirements:
Cu-ETP Electrolytic tough pitch high conductivity copper CW004A (formerly C101)
Cu-FRHC Fire-refined tough pitch high conductivity copper CW005A (formerly C102)
Cu-OF
Oxygen-free high conductivity copper CW008A (formerly C103)
European Standards EN1976 and EN1978 have replaced BS 6017:1981. Table 5 shows the
European material designations along with International Standards Organisation (ISO) and old
British Standard designations.
Table 5 EN, BS and ISO designations for refinery shapes and wrought coppers
Designation
Description

ISO cast and wrought

European Designation

Former UK Designations

Electrolytic tough pitch highconductivity copper

Cu-ETP

CW004A

C101

Fire- refined tough pitch highconductivity copper

Cu-FRHC

CW005A

C102

Oxygen-free high-conductivity
copper

Cu-OF

CW008A

C103

Copper to be used for electrical purposes is of high purity because impurities in copper, together
with the changes in micro-structure produced by working, materially affect the mechanical and
electrical properties. The degree to which the electrical conductivity is affected by an impurity
depends largely on the element present. For example, the presence of only 0.04% phosphorus
reduces the conductivity of high conductivity copper to around 80% IACS. (The approximate effect
on conductivity of various impurity elements is shown in Figure 1). The level of total impurities,
including oxygen, should therefore be less than 0.1% and copper of this type is known as high
conductivity (HC) copper.
Microscopic and analytical controls are applied to ensure a consistent product and in the
annealed condition conductivities over 100% IACS are usual. This figure corresponds to the
standard resistivity of 0.017241 m set some years ago by the International Electrotechnical
Commission.
Figure 1 - Approximate effect of impurity elements on the electrical resistivity of copper

Types of High Conductivity Copper available

Tough pitch copper,CW004A and CW005A (C101 and C102 )
Coppers of this type, produced by fire-refining or remelting of electrolytic cathode, contain a small,
deliberate addition of oxygen which scavenges impurities from the metal. It is present in the form
of fine, well-distributed cuprous oxide particles only visible by microscopic examination of a
polished section of the metal. Typical oxygen contents of these coppers fall in the range 0.020.05%. Between these limits the presence of the oxygen in this form has only a slight effect on the
mechanical and electrical properties of the copper. It can, however, give rise to porosity and
intergranular cracks or fissures if the copper is heated in a reducing atmosphere, as can happen
during welding or brazing. This is a result of the reaction of the cuprous oxide particles with

hydrogen and is known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'. Provided a reducing atmosphere is avoided,

good welds and brazes can be readily achieved. (See Jointing of Copper Busbars.)
Oxygen-free high-conductivity copper, CW008A (C103)
In view of the above remarks, if welding and brazing operations under reducing conditions are
unavoidable, it is necessary to use a different (and more expensive) grade of high conductivity
copper which is specially produced for this purpose. This type of copper, known as 'oxygen-free
high conductivity copper', is normally produced by melting and casting under a protective
atmosphere. To obtain the high conductivity required it is necessary to select the best raw
materials. The result is a high purity product containing 99.95% copper. This enables a
conductivity of 100% IACS to be specified even in the absence of the scavenging oxygen.
Effects of hot and cold working on structures
In the as-cast form, HC copper is available in wirebar and billet form, although the advancement
of modern casting technology is leading to a decline in wirebar production. The cast shape is hotworked by rolling or extrusion to produce a form suitable for further processing by cold work into
its final wrought form, either by rolling or drawing through dies.
In the case of tough-pitch HC copper, the as-cast structure is coarse-grained with oxygen present
as copper-cuprous oxide eutectic in the grain boundaries. The hot working operation breaks up
the coarse grains and disperses the cuprous oxide to give a uniform distribution of oxide particles
throughout a new network of fine grains. In the case of oxygen-free HC copper, the hot working
operation breaks up the coarse grains into a new network of fine grains.

3. Current-carrying Capacity of Busbars

Design Requirements
Calculation of Current-carrying Capacity
Methods of Heat Loss

Heat Generated by a Conductor

Approximate dc Current Ratings for Flat and Round bars

Design Requirements
The current-carrying capacity of a busbar is usually determined by the maximum temperature at
which the bar is permitted to operate, as defined by national and international standards such as
British Standard BS 159, American Standard ANSI C37.20, etc. These standards give maximum
temperature rises as well as maximum ambient temperatures.
BS 159 stipulates a maximum temperature rise of 50C above a 24 hour mean ambient
temperature of up to 35C, and a peak ambient temperature of 40C.
ANSI C37.20 alternatively permits a temperature rise of 65C above a maximum ambient of 40C,
provided that silver-plated (or acceptable alternative) bolted terminations are used. If not, a
temperature rise of 30C is allowed.
These upper temperature limits have been chosen because at higher maximum operating
temperatures the rate of surface oxidation in air of conductor materials increases rapidly and may
give rise in the long term to excessive local heating at joints and contacts. This temperature limit
is much more important for aluminium than copper because it oxidises very much more readily
than copper. In practise these limitations on temperature rise may be relaxed for copper busbars if
suitable insulation materials are used. A nominal rise of 60C or more above an ambient of 40C
is allowed by BS EN 60439-1:1994 provided that suitable precautions are taken. BS EN 604391:1994 (equivalent to IEC 439) states that the temperature rise of busbars and conductors is
limited by the mechanical strength of the busbar material, the effect on adjacent equipment, the
permissible temperature rise of insulating materials in contact with the bars, and the effect on
apparatus connected to the busbars.
The rating of a busbar must also take account of the mechanical stresses set up due to
expansion, short-circuit currents and associated inter-phase forces. In some busbar systems
consideration must also be given to the capitalised cost of the heat generated by the effective
ohmic resistance and current (I2R) which leads to an optimised design using Kelvin's Law of
Maximum Economy. This law states that 'the cost of lost energy plus that of interest and
amortisation on initial cost of the busbars (less allowance for scrap) should not be allowed to
exceed a minimum value'. Where the interest, amortisation and scrap values are not known, an
alternative method is to minimise the total manufacturing costs plus the cost of lost energy.

Calculation of Current-carrying Capacity

A very approximate method of estimating the current carrying capacity of a copper busbar is to
assume a current density of 2 A/mm2 (1250 A/in2) in still air. This method should only be used to
estimate a likely size of busbar, the final size being chosen after consideration has been given to
the calculation methods and experimental results given in the following sections.

Methods of Heat Loss

The current that will give rise to a particular equilibrium temperature rise in the conductor depends
on the balance between the rate at which heat is produced in the bar, and the rate at which heat
is lost from the bar. The heat generated in a busbar can only be dissipated in the following ways:
(a) Convection

(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
In most cases convection and radiation heat losses determine the current-carrying capacity of a
busbar system. Conduction can only be used where a known amount of heat can flow into a heat
sink outside the busbar system or where adjacent parts of the system have differing cooling
capacities. The proportion of heat loss by convection and radiation is dependent on the conductor
size with the portion attributable to convection being increased for a small conductor and
decreased for larger conductors.
Convection
The heat dissipated per unit area by convection depends on the shape and size of the conductor
and its temperature rise. This value is usually calculated for still air conditions but can be
increased greatly if forced air cooling is permissible. Where outdoor busbar systems are
concerned calculations should always be treated as in still air unless specific information is given
to the contrary.
The following formulae can be used to estimate the convection heat loss from a body in W/m2:

where = temperature rise, C

L = height or width of bar, mm
d = diameter of tube, mm
The diagrams below indicate which formulae should be used for various conductor geometries:

It can be seen when diagrams (a) and (b) are compared and assuming a similar cross-sectional
area the heat loss from arrangement (b) is much larger, provided the gap between the laminations
is not less than the thickness of each bar.
Convection heat loss: forced air cooling
If the air velocity over the busbar surface is less than 0.5 m/s the above formulae for Wv, Wh and
Wc apply. For higher air velocities the following may be used:

where Wa = heat lost per unit length from bar, W/m

v = air velocity, m/s
A = surface area per unit length of bar, m2/m
Radiation
The rate at which heat is radiated from a body is proportional to the difference between the fourth
power of the temperatures of the body and its surroundings, and is proportional to the relative
emissivity between the body and its surroundings.

The following table lists typical absolute emissivities for copper busbars in various conditions.
Changes in emissivity give rise to changes in current ratings, as shown in Table 7.
Bright metal 0.1
Partially oxidised 0.30
Heavily oxidised 0.70
Dull non-metallic paint 0.9

Table 7 Percentage increase in current rating when is increased from 0.1 to 0.9 - threephase arrangement
Phase centres, mm
No. of bars in parallel

150

200

250

23

23

25

15

16

18

10

11

14

12

The figures given in Table 7 are approximate values applicable to 80 to 160 mm wide busbars for
a 105C operating temperature and 40C ambient. The relative emissivity is calculated as follows:

where e = relative emissivity

1 = absolute emissivity of body 1
2 = absolute emissivity of body 2
The rate of heat loss by radiation from a body (W/m2) is given by:

where e = relative emissivity

T1 = absolute temperature of body 1, K
T2 = absolute temperature of body 2, K (i.e., ambient temperature of the surroundings)
Radiation is considered to travel in straight lines and leave the body at right angles to its surface.
The diagrams above define the effective surface areas for radiation from conductors of common
shapes.

Heat Generated by a Conductor

The rate at which heat is generated per unit length of a conductor carrying a direct current is the
product I2R watts, where I is the current flowing in the conductor and R its resistance per unit
length. The value for the resistance can in the case of d.c. busbar systems be calculated directly
from the resistivity of the copper or copper alloy. Where an a.c. busbar system is concerned, the
resistance is increased due to the tendency of the current to flow in the outer surface of the
conductor. The ratio between the a.c. value of resistance and its corresponding d.c. value is
called the skin effect ratio (see Section 4). This value is unity for a d.c. system but increases with
the frequency and the physical size of the conductor for an a.c. current.
Rate of Heat generated in a Conductor,
W/mm = I2 RoS
where I = current in conductor, A
Ro = d.c. resistance per unit length, /mm
S = skin effect ratio
also

where Rf = effective a.c. resistance of conductor, (see above)

Approximate dc Current Ratings for Flat and Round bars

The following equations can be used to obtain the approximate d.c. current rating for single flat
and round copper busbars carrying a direct current. The equations assume a naturally bright
copper finish where emissivity is 0.1 and where ratings can be improved substantially by coating
with a matt black or similar surface. The equations are also approximately true for a.c. current
provided that the skin effect and proximity ratios stay close to 1.0, as is true for many low current
applications. Methods of calculation for other configurations and conditions can be found in
subsequent sections.
(a) Flat bars on edge:

(1
where I = current, A
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
p = perimeter of conductor, mm
= temperature difference between conductor and the ambient air, C
= resistance temperature coefficient of copper at the ambient temperature, per C
= resistivity of copper at the ambient temperature, cm
(b) Hollow round bars:

(2
(c) Solid round bars:

(3
If the temperature rise of the conductor is 50C above an ambient of 40C and the resistivity of
the copper at 20C is 1.724 cm, then the above formulae become:
(i) Flat bars:

(4
(ii) Hollow round bars:

(5
(iii) Solid round bars:

(6
For high conductivity copper tubes where diameter and mass per unit length (see Table 14) are
known,

(7
where m = mass per unit length of tube, kg/m
d = outside diameter of tube, mm
Re-rating for different current or temperature rise conditions
Where a busbar system is to be used under new current or temperature rise conditions, the
following formula can be used to find the corresponding new temperature rise or current:

(8
where
I1 = current 1, A
I2 = current 2, A
1 = temperature rise for current 1, C
2 = temperature rise for current 2, C
T1 = working temperature for current 1, C
T2 = working temperature for current 2, C
20 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 20C ( = 0.00393)
If the working temperature of the busbar system is the same in each case (i.e., T1 = T2), for
example when re-rating for a change in ambient temperature in a hotter climate, this formula
becomes

Laminated bars
When a number of conductors are used in parallel, the total current capacity is less than the rating
for a single bar times the number of bars used. This is due to the obstruction to convection and
radiation losses from the inner conductors. To facilitate the making of interleaved joints, the
spacing between laminated bars is often made equal to the bar thickness. For 6.3 mm thick bars
up to 150 mm wide, mounted on edge with 6.3 mm spacings between laminations, the isolated
bar d.c. rating may be multiplied by the following factors to obtain the total rating.
No. of laminations Multiplying factor

No. of
laminations

Multiplying
factor

1.8

2.5

3.2

3.9

4.4

5.5

10

6.5

4. Alternating Current Effects in Busbars

Skin Effect
Proximity Effect
Condition for Minimum Loss
Penetration Depth

Skin Effect
The apparent resistance of a conductor is always higher for a.c. than for d.c. The alternating
magnetic flux created by an alternating current interacts with the conductor, generating a back
e.m.f. which tends to reduce the current in the conductor. The centre portions of the conductor are
affected by the greatest number of lines of force, the number of line linkages decreasing as the
edges are approached. The electromotive force produced in this way by self-inductance varies
both in magnitude and phase through the cross-section of the conductor, being larger in the
centre and smaller towards the outside. The current therefore tends to crowd into those parts of
the conductor in which the opposing e.m.f. is a minimum; that is, into the skin of a circular
conductor or the edges of a flat strip, producing what is known as 'skin' or 'edge' effect. The
resulting non-uniform current density has the effect of increasing the apparent resistance of the
conductor and gives rise to increased losses.
The ratio of the apparent d.c. and a.c. resistances is known as the skin effect ratio:

where Rf = a.c. resistance of conductor

Ro = d.c. resistance of conductor
S = skin effect ratio
The magnitude and importance of the effect increases with the frequency, and the size, shape
and thickness of conductor, but is independent of the magnitude of the current flowing.
It should be noted that as the conductor temperature increases the skin effect decreases giving
rise to a lower than expected a.c. resistance at elevated temperatures. This effect is more marked
for a copper conductor than an aluminium conductor of equal cross-sectional area because of its
lower resistivity. The difference is particularly noticeable in large busbar sections.
Copper rods
The skin effect ratio of solid copper rods can be calculated from the formulae derived by Maxwell,
Rayleigh and others (Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, 1912):

where S = Skin effect ratio

d = diameter of rod, mm
f = frequency, Hz
= resistivity, cm
= permeability of copper (=1)
For HC copper at 20C, = 1.724 cm, hence

where A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, mm2

Figure 4 Skin effect in HC copper rods at 20C. Relation between diameter and x, and
between Rf/Ro and x where x = 1.207 x 102 (Af)
(Note: For values of x less than 2. use inset scale for Rf/Ro)

Copper tubes

Skin effect in tubular copper conductors is a function of the thickness of the wall of the tube and
the ratio of that thickness to the tube diameter, and for a given cross sectional area it can be
reduced by increasing the tube diameter and reducing the wall thickness.
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7, which have been drawn from formulae derived by Dwight (1922)
and Arnold (1936), can be used to find the value of skin effect for various conductor sections. In
the case of tubes (Figure 5), it can be seen that to obtain low skin effect ratio values it is desirable
to ensure, where possible, low values of t/d and (f/r). For a given cross-sectional area the skin
effect ratio for a thin copper tube is appreciably lower than that for any other form of conductor.
Copper tubes, therefore, have a maximum efficiency as conductors of alternating currents,
particularly those of high magnitude or high frequency.
The effect of wall thickness on skin effect for a 100 mm diameter tube carrying a 50Hz alternating
current is clearly shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Resistance of HC copper tubes, 100 mm outside diameter, d.c. and 50 Hz a.c.

Figure 6 Skin effect for rods and tubes

Flat copper bars

The skin effect in flat copper bars is a function of its thickness and width. With the larger sizes of
conductor, for a given cross-sectional area of copper, the skin effect in a thin bar or strip is usually
less than in a circular copper rod but greater than in a thin tube. It is dependent on the ratio of the
width to the thickness of the bar and increases as the thickness of the bar increases. A thin
copper strip, therefore, is more efficient than a thick one as an alternating current conductor.
Figure 7 can be used to find the skin effect value for flat bars.
Figure 7 Skin effect for rectangular conductors

Square copper tubes

The skin effect ratio for square copper tubes can be obtained from Figure 8.
Figure 8 Skin effect ratio for hollow square conductors

Proximity Effect
n the foregoing consideration of skin effect it has been assumed that the conductor is isolated and
at such a distance from the return conductor that the effect of the current in it can be neglected.
When conductors are close together, particularly in low voltage equipment, a further distortion of
current density results from the interaction of the magnetic fields of other conductors.
In the same way as an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor by its own magnetic flux, so may the
magnetic flux of one conductor produce an e.m.f. in any other conductor sufficiently near for the
effect to be significant.
If two such conductors carry currents in opposite directions, their electro-magnetic fields are
opposed to one another and tend to force one another apart. This results in a decrease of flux

linkages around the adjacent parts of the conductors and an increase in the more remote parts,
which leads to a concentration of current in the adjacent parts where the opposing e.m.f. is a
minimum. If the currents in the conductors are in the same direction the action is reversed and
they tend to crowd into the more remote parts of the conductors.
This effect, known as the 'proximity effect' (or 'shape effect'), tends usually to increase the
apparent a.c. resistance. In some cases, however, proximity effect may tend to neutralise the skin
effect and produce a better distribution of current as in the case of strip conductors arranged with
their flat sides towards one another.
If the conductors are arranged edgewise to one another the proximity effect increases. In most
cases the proximity effect also tends to increase the stresses set up under short-circuit conditions
and this may therefore have to be taken into account.
The currents in various parts of a conductor subjected to skin and proximity effects may vary
considerably in phase, and the resulting circulating current give rise to additional losses which can
be minimised only by the choice of suitable types of conductor and by their careful arrangement.
The magnitude of the proximity effect depends, amongst other things, on the frequency of the
current and the spacing and arrangement of the conductors. The graphs in Figure 14 (Section 6)
can be used to obtain values of proximity effect for various conductor configurations at 50 or 60
Hz. Methods of calculation for other frequencies are available (Dwight 1946). The unbalancing of
current due to the proximity effect can be reduced by spacing the conductors of different phases
as far apart as possible and sometimes by modifying their shape in accordance with the spacing
adopted. In the case of laminated bars a reduction may be obtained by transposing the
laminations at frequent intervals or by employing current balancers using inductances.
Proximity effect may be completely overcome by adopting a concentric arrangement of
conductors with one inside the other as is used for isolated phase busbar systems.
The magnetic field round busbar conductors may be considerably modified and the current
distortion increased by the presence of magnetic materials and only metals such as copper or
copper alloys should be used for parts likely to come within the magnetic field of the bars.

Condition for Minimum Loss

Both skin and proximity effects are due to circulating or 'eddy' currents caused by the differences
of inductance which exist between different 'elements' of current-carrying conductors. The
necessary condition for avoidance of both these effects (and hence for minimum loss) is that the
shapes of each of the conductors in a single-phase system approximates to 'equi-inductance
lines'. Arnold (1937) has shown that for close spacing, rectangular section conductors most
closely approach this ideal. Such an arrangement is also convenient where space is limited and
where inductive voltage drop due to busbar reactance must be reduced to a minimum. In the case
of heavy current single-phase busbars and where space is slightly less restricted, the single
channel arrangement gives the closest approximation to the equi-inductance condition, the
channels of 'go' and 'return' conductors being arranged back-to-back, while for wider spacing a
circular section is preferable.

Penetration Depth
In the case of special conductor arrangements, or where high frequencies are employed, the
alternating current resistance may be calculated using the earlier sections. It is often necessary to
know the depth of penetration of the current into a conductor, that is the depth at which the
current density has been reduced to 1/e, or 0.368 of its value at the conductor surface. This can
be calculated using the following formula when its resistivity and the frequency are known.
depth of penetration

where d = depth of penetration, mm

= resistivity of copper, cm
f = frequency, Hz

5. Effect of Busbar Arrangements on Rating

Laminated copper bars

Channel and angle bars

Inter-leaving of conductors

Comparison of conductor arrangements

Transposition of conductors Enclosed copper conductors

Hollow square arrangement

Compound insulated conductors

Tubular bars

Plastic insulated conductors

Concentric conductors

Isolated phase busbars

The efficiency of all types of heavy current busbars depends upon careful design, the most
important factors being:
a) The provision of a maximum surface area for the dissipation of heat.
b) An arrangement of bars which cause a minimum of interference with the natural movements of
air currents.
c) An approximately uniform current density in all parts of the conductors. This is normally
obtained by having as much copper as possible equidistant from the magnetic centre of the
busbar.
d) Low skin effect and proximity effect for a.c. busbar systems.
To meet these requirements there are many different arrangements of copper busbars using
laminations, as well as copper extrusions of various cross-sections.
Figure 9 Busbar arrangements

Laminated copper bars

To obtain the best and most efficient rating for rectangular strip copper conductors they should be
mounted whenever possible with their major cross-sectional axes vertical so giving maximum
cooling surfaces.
Laminations of 6 or 6.3 mm thickness, of varying widths and with 6 or 6.3 mm spacings are
probably the most common and are satisfactory in most a.c. low current cases and for all d.c.
systems.
It is not possible to give any generally applicable factors for calculating the d.c. rating of laminated
bars, since this depends upon the size and proportions of the laminations and on their
arrangement. A guide to the expected relative ratings are given in Table 8 below for a 50 Hz
system. The ratings for single bars can be estimated using the methods given in Section 3 and
Section 4.
Table 8 Multiplying factors for laminated bars

Table 13 (Appendix 2) gives a.c. ratings for various configurations of laminated bars based on test
measurements.

For all normal light and medium current purposes an arrangement such as that in Figure 9a is
entirely satisfactory, but for a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A where large numbers of laminations
would be required it is necessary to rearrange the laminations to give better utilisation of the
copper bars.
The effect of using a large number of laminations mounted side by side is shown in Figure 10 for
a.c. currents. The current distribution is independent of the total current magnitude.
Figure 10 Alternating current distribution in a bar with ten laminations

This curve shows that due to skin effect there is a considerable variation in the current carried by
each lamination, the outer laminations carrying approximately four times the current in those at
the centre. The two centre laminations together carry only about one-tenth of the total current.
The currents in the different laminations may also vary appreciably in phase, with the result that
their numerical sum may be greater than their vectorial sum, which is equal to the line current.
These circulating currents give rise to additional losses and lower efficiency of the system. It
should also be noted that the curve is non-symmetrical due to the proximity effect of an adjacent
phase.
For these reasons it is recommended that alternate arrangements, such as those discussed in the
following sections, are used for heavy current a.c. svstems.

Inter-leaving of conductors
Where long low-voltage a.c. bars are carrying heavy currents, particularly at a low power factor,
inductive volt drop may become a serious problem with laminated bars arranged as in Figure 9a.
The voltage drop for any given size of conductor is proportional to the current and the length of
the bars, and increases as the separation between conductors of different phases increases. In
the case of laminated bars the inductive volt drop can be reduced by splitting up the bars into an
equivalent number of smaller circuits in parallel, with the conductors of different phases
interleaved as shown in Figure 9b. This reduces the average spacing between conductors of
different phases and so reduces the inductive volt drop.

Transposition of conductors

The unbalanced current distribution in a laminated bar carrying a.c. current due to skin and
proximity effects may be counteracted by transposing laminations or groups of laminations at
intervals. Tappings and other connections make transposition difficult, but it can be worthwhile
where long sections of bars are free from tappings. The arrangement is as shown in Figure 9e.

Hollow square arrangement

To obtain a maximum efficiency from the point of view of skin effect, as much as possible of the
copper should be equidistant from the magnetic centre of a bar, as in the case of a tubular
conductor. This can reduce the skin effect to little greater than unity whereas values of 2 or more
are possible with other arrangements having the same cross-sectional area.
With flat copper bars the nearest approach to a unity skin effect ratio is achieved using a hollow
square formation as shown in Figure 9c, though the current arrangement is still not as good as in
a tubular conductor. The heat dissipation is also not as good as the same number of bars
arranged side by side as in Figure 9b, due to the horizontally mounted bars at the top and bottom.
Modified hollow square
This arrangement (Figure 9d) does not have as good a value of skin effect ratio as the hollow
square arrangement, but it does have the advantage that the heat dissipation is much improved.
This arrangement can have a current-carrying capacity of up to twice that for bars mounted side
by side, or alternatively the total cross-sectional area can be reduced for similar current-carrying
capacities.

Tubular bars
A tubular copper conductor is the most efficient possible as regards skin effect, as the maximum
amount of material is located at a uniform distance from the magnetic centre of the conductor.
The skin effect reduces as the diameter increases for a constant wall thickness, with values close
to unity possible when the ratio of outside diameter to wall thickness exceeds about 20.
The natural cooling is not as good as that for a laminated copper bar system of the same crosssectional area, but when the proximity effects are taken into account the one-piece tube ensures
that the whole tube attains an even temperature - a condition rarely obtained with laminated bar
systems.
Tubular copper conductors also lend themselves to alternative methods of cooling by, for
example, forced air or liquid cooling where heat can be removed from the internal surface of the
tubes. Current ratings of several times the natural air cooled value are possible using forced
cooling with the largest increases when liquid cooling is employed.
A tubular bar also occupies less space than the more usual copper laminated bar and has a
further advantage that its strength and rigidity are greater and uniform in all deflection planes.
These advantages are, however, somewhat reduced by the difficulty of making joints and
connections which are more difficult than those for laminated bars. These problems have now
been reduced by the introduction of copper welding and exothermic copper forming methods.
Copper tubes are particularly suitable for high current applications, such as arc furnaces, where
forced liquid cooling can be used to great advantage. The tube can also be used in isolated phase
busbar systems due to the ease with which it can be supported by insulators.

Concentric conductors
This arrangement is not widely used due to difficulties of support but has the advantage of the
optimum combination of low reactance and eddy current losses and is well suited to furnace and
weld set applications. It should be noted that the isolated phase busbar systems are of this type

with the current in the external enclosure being almost equal to that in the conductor when the
continuously bonded three-phase enclosure system is used.

Channel and angle bars

Alternative arrangements to flat or tubular copper bars are the channel and angle bars which can
have advantages. The most important of these shapes are shown in the diagrams below.
These are easily supported and give great rigidity and strength while the making of joints and
connections presents no serious difficulty.
The permissible alternating current density in free air for a given temperature rise is usually
greater in the case of two angle-shaped conductors (diagram (a)) than in any other arrangement
of conductor material.

For low voltage heavy current single-phase bars with narrow phase centres, single copper
channels with the webs of the 'go' and 'return' conductors towards one another give an efficient
arrangement. The channel sizes can be chosen to reduce the skin and proximity effects to a
minimum, give maximum dissipation of heat and have considerable mechanical strength and
rigidity. Where high voltage busbars are concerned the phase spacing has to be much larger to
give adequate electrical clearances between adjacent phases with best arrangement being with
the channel webs furthest apart. For high-capacity generators which are connected to
transformers and allied equipment by segregated or non-segregated copper busbars, the double
angle arrangement gives the best combination with the copper bar sizes still being readily
manufactured. The current ratings of these arrangements are given in Table 15 (Appendix 2). The
ratings given are the maximum current ratings which do not take the cost of losses into account
and hence are not optimised.

Comparison of conductor arrangements

The extent to which the a.c. current rating for a given temperature rise of a conductor containing a
given cross-sectional area of copper depends on the cross-section shape. The approximate
relative a.c. ratings for a typical cross-sectional area of 10 000 mm2 are shown in Figure 11. For
cross-sectional areas greater than 10 000 mm2 the factors are greater than those shown, and are
smaller for smaller cross-sections. In the case of double-channel busbars, the ratio of web-toflange lengths and also the web thickness have a considerable effect on the current carrying
capacity.
Figure 11 Comparative a.c. ratings of various conductor arrangements each having a cross
sectional area of 10,000 mm2 of HC copper

Enclosed copper conductors

In many cases busbars are surrounded by enclosures, normally metallic, which reduce the busbar
heat dissipation due to reduction in cooling air flow and radiation losses and therefore give current
ratings which may be considerably less than those for free air exposure. Ventilated enclosures,
however, provide mechanical protection and some cooling air flow with the least reduction in
current rating.
The reduction in rating for a given temperature rise will vary considerably with the type and size of
bar and enclosure. The greatest decrease in current rating occurs with bars which depend mainly
on free air circulation and less on uniform current distribution such as the modified hollow square
arrangement (Figure 9d). In these cases the rating may be reduced to between 60 and 65% when
the conductors are enclosed in non-magnetic metal enclosures. In the case of tubular conductors
or those of closely grouped flat laminations, which are normally not so well cooled by air
circulation, the ratings may be reduced to about 75% of free air ratings for normal temperature
rises.
Where the busbar system is enclosed in thick magnetic enclosures, such as in metal-clad
switchgear, the reduction is approximately a further 15%. The effect of thin sheet-steel enclosures
is somewhat less. These additional reductions are due to the heat generated by the alternating
magnetic fields through hysteresis and eddy current losses. Besides the derating caused by
enclosure conditions, other limitations on maximum working temperature are often present, such
as when the outside of enclosures should not exceed a given safety value. These deratings are
affected by the electrical clearances involved and the degree of ventilation in the enclosure. The
above figures and the curves shown in Figure 12 should only be taken as a rough guide to the
required derating; an accurate figure can only be obtained by testing.
All parts such as conductor and switch fittings, enclosures and interphase barriers may be subject
to appreciable temperature rise due to circulating and eddy current losses when close to the
heavy current bars and connections. These losses can be reduced to a minimum by making these
parts from high conductivity non-magnetic material such as copper or copper alloy.
Figure 12 Comparison of approximate current ratings for busbars in different enclosures

Compound insulated conductors

The current rating of copper immersed in oil or compound depend upon a number of factors which
may vary widely with design, and can normally only be confirmed by carrying out temperature rise
tests on the complete assembly.
The ratings of enclosed bars are nearly always much lower than the free air ratings. The
temperature rise is dependent on the rate at which heat is conducted through the insulating media
and dissipated from the outside casing by radiation and convection. There is nearly always a
closer phase spacing between conductors giving high proximity effects and higher heat losses in
the magnetic outer casings and so giving rise to higher temperature rises.
Proximity effect is often more important for insulated bars than those in air. Laminated bars have
fewer advantages when immersed in oil or compound and circular copper conductors either solid
or hollow though are often preferred particularly for high-voltage gear and high current generators,
transformers, etc., where more effective cooling such as water cooling can be employed to
improve conductor material utilisation and hence reduce the overall size of plant.

Plastic insulated conductors

There is a widening use of plastic continuous insulation as the primary insulation for low current
and voltage busbars. This insulation is usually of the shrink-on P.V.C. type though wrap-on tape is
sometimes used. This method is used for voltages up to about 15 kV, though much higher levels
can be attained when specialised insulation systems such as epoxy resin or similar based tapes
and powders are employed. These systems are particularly useful where high atomic radiation

levels, or high temperatures (up to 130C) are encountered, although account must be taken of
the possibility of halogen gassing from P.V.C. insulations at temperatures around 100C. Modified
P.V.C. materials with improved high-temperature performance are available.

Isolated phase busbars

solated phase busbars consist of a metallic enclosed conductor where each individual phase or
pole is surrounded by a separately earthed sheath which is connected at its ends by a full shortcircuit current rated bar. The sheath is intended primarily to prevent interphase short-circuit
currents developing. They have the further advantage that the high magnetic fields created by the
conductor current are almost completely cancelled by an equal and opposite current induced in
the enclosure or sheath with reductions of 95% or better in the external magnetic field being
possible. An important result is that the likelihood of steelwork overheating when adjacent to the
busbar system is considerably reduced except where the sheath short-circuit bars are located.
This current flowing in the enclosure makes the method of estimating the performance of the
busbar system much more complicated and can only be resolved by obtaining a heat balance
between conductor and enclosure using an interactive calculation method.
These busbars are used normally for operating voltages of between 11 kV and 36 kV though
equipment using much lower voltages and higher voltages are increasingly changing to this
system. Examples of such equipment are exciter connections, switchgear interconnections,
generator to transformer connections, high voltage switchgear using SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride)
gas insulation (this gas having an insulation level many times better than air). The current flowing
in the conductor ranges from as little as 1000 A to in excess of 40 kA. To obtain the higher
currents forced cooling is used, the most commonly used cooling media being air and water
though other cooling gases or liquids can be used. The use of these cooling systems usually
creates much increased heat losses and so their use must be justified by benefits in other areas,
e.g., reduced civil costs, reduced physical size where space is at a premium or reduction in size to
enable normal manufacturing methods be used both for the basic busbar material and also the
complete busbar system.
Another factor which influences the method chosen for forced cooling is the naturally cooled rating
of the busbar system and also its ability to sustain overload conditions. The busbars are usually
manufactured in single-phase units of transportable length and consist of a central conductor
usually tubular of round, square or channel cross-section, supported by porcelain or epoxy resin
insulators. The insulators are located by the external metallic sheath through which they are
normally removed for servicing.

6. Short-Circuit Effects
Short-Circuit Heating of Bars
Electromagnetic Stresses
Corona Discharge

Short-Circuit Heating of Bars

Copper busbars are normally part of a larger generation or transmission system. The continuous
rating of the main components such as generators, transformers, rectifiers, etc., therefore
determine the nominal current carried by the busbars but in most power systems a one to four
second short-circuit current has to be accommodated. The value of these currents is calculated
from the inductive reactances of the power system components and gives rise to different
maximum short-circuit currents in the various system sections.
These currents are very often ten to twenty times the continuous current rating and therefore the
transitory heating effect must be taken into account. This effect can, in many cases, lead to
dangerous overheating, particularly where small conductors are part of a large heavy current
system, and must be considered when determining the conductor size. To calculate the
temperature rise of the conductor during a short circuit it is assumed that all the heat generated is
absorbed by the conductor with none lost by convection and radiation as for a continuous rated
conductor. The temperature rise is dependent therefore only on the specific heat of the copper
conductor material and its mass. The specific heat of copper varies with temperature, increasing
as the temperature rises. At normal ambient temperatures it is about 385 J/kg K and at 300C it is
about 410 J/kg K.
Short-circuit heating characteristics are not easy to calculate accurately because of complex a.c.
and d.c. current effects, but for most purposes the formulae below will normally give sufficiently
accurate results:

where t = maximum short-circuit time, s

A = conductor cross-section area, mm2
I = conductor current, kA
= conductor temperature rise, K
If = 300C, then

The value of t obtained from the above equation should always be greater than the required short
circuit withstand time which is usually 1 to 4 seconds.
The temperature rise per second due to a current I is given by the following approximate formula:

(I/A) should be less than 0.25 for reasonable accuracy.

The maximum short-circuit temperature is very often chosen to be 300C for earth bar systems
but the upper limit for the phases is normally lower and is dependent on the mechanical properties
required and surface finish of the copper material.
Heating time constant
The previous section considered very short time effects but in many cases it may be necessary to
calculate the temperature rise of a conductor over an extended time, for example the time taken
for a conductor to reach normal operating temperature when carrying its rated continuous current.
Under these conditions the conductor is absorbing heat as its temperature rises. It is also
dissipating heat by convection and radiation, both of which increase with rising temperature
difference between the conductor and the surroundings. When maximum operating temperature is
reached then the heat loss by convection and radiation is constant and the heat absorbed by the
conductor ceases.
The temperature rise after time t from the start of heating is given by the following formula where
the change of resistance with temperature can be assumed to be negligible:

where = temperature rise, C

max = maximum temperature rise, C
e = exponential constant (=2.718)
t = time, s
= time constant, s
The time constant can be found using the following formula:

where w = rate of generation of heat at t=0, W

m = mass, kg
c = specific heat, J/kg K
The time constant gives the time taken to reach 0.636 of the maximum temperature rise, max.

Electromagnetic Stresses
When a conductor carries a current it creates a magnetic field which interacts with any other
magnetic field present to produce a force. When the currents flowing in two adjacent conductors
are in the same direction the force is one of attraction, and when the currents are in opposite
directions a repulsive force is produced.
In most busbar systems the current-carrying conductors are usually straight and parallel to one
another. The force produced by the two conductors is proportional to the products of their
currents. Normally in most busbar systems the forces are very small and can be neglected, but
under short-circuit conditions, they become large and must be taken into account together with
the conductor material fibre stresses when designing the conductor insulator and its associated
supports to ensure adequate safety factors.
The factors to be taken into account may be summarised as follows:
a) stresses due to direct lateral attractive and repulsive forces.
b) Vibrational stresses.
c) Longitudinal stresses resulting from lateral deflection.
d) Twisting moments due to lateral deflection.
In most cases the forces due to short-circuits are applied very suddenly. Direct currents give rise
to unidirectional forces while alternating currents produce vibrational forces.
Maximum stresses
When a busbar system is running normally the interphase forces are normally very small with the
static weight of the busbars being the dominant component. Under short-circuit conditions this is
very often not the case as the current rises to a peak of some thirty times its normal value, falling
after a few cycles to ten times its initial value. These high transitory currents create large
mechanical forces not only in the busbars themselves but also in their supporting system. This
means that the support insulators and their associated steelwork must be designed to withstand
these high loads as well as their normal structural requirements such as wind, ice, seismic and
static loads.
The peak or fully asymmetrical short circuit current is dependent on the power factor (cos ) of
the busbar system and its associated connected electrical plant. The value is obtained by
multiplying the r.m.s. symmetrical current by the appropriate factor given in Balanced three-phase
short-circuit stresses.
If the power factor of the system is not known then a factor of 2.55 will normally be close to the
actual system value especially where generation is concerned. Note that the theoretical maximum
for this factor is 22 or 2.828 where cos = 0. These peak values reduce exponentially and after
approximately 10 cycles the factor falls to 1.0, i.e., the symmetrical r.m.s. short circuit current. The
peak forces therefore normally occur in the first two cycles (0.04 s) as shown in Figure 13.

In the case of a completely asymmetrical current wave, the forces will be applied with a frequency
equal to that of the supply frequency and with a double frequency as the wave becomes
symmetrical. Therefore in the case of a 50 Hz supply these forces have frequencies of 50 or 100
Hz.
The maximum stresses to which a bus structure is likely to be subjected would occur during a
short-circuit on a single-phase busbar system in which the line short-circuit currents are displaced
by 180.
In a three-phase system a short-circuit between two phases is almost identical to the single-phase
case and although the phase currents are normally displaced by 120, under short-circuit
conditions the phase currents of the two phases are almost 180 out of phase. The effect of the
third phase can be neglected.
In a balanced three-phase short-circuit, the resultant forces on any one of the three phases is less
than in the single-phase case and is dependent on the relative physical positions of the three
phases.
In the case of a single-phase short-circuit, the forces produced are unidirectional and are
therefore more severe than those due to a three-phase short-circuit, which alternate in direction.
The short-circuit forces have to be absorbed first by the conductor. The conductor therefore must
have an adequate proof strength to carry these forces without permanent distortion. Copper
satisfies this requirement as it has high strength compared with other conductor materials (Table
2). Because of the high strength of copper, the insulators can be more widely spaced than is
possible with lower-strength materials.
Figure 13 Short-circuit current waveform

Single phase short circuit stresses

The electromagnetic force developed between two straight parallel conductors of circular crosssection each carrying the same current is calculated from the following formula:

where Fmax = force on conductor, N/m

I = current in both phases, A
s = phase spacing, mm
The value of I is normally taken in the fully asymmetrical condition as 2.55 times the r.m.s.
symmetrical value or 1.8 times the peak r.m.s. value of the short-circuit current as discussed
above. It is possible, in certain circumstances, for the forces to be greater than this due to the
effect of an impulse in the case of a very rigid conductor, or due to resonance in the case of bars
liable to mechanical vibration. It is therefore usual to allow a safety factor of 2.5 in such cases.
Balanced three-phase short-circuit stresses
A three-phase system has its normal currents displaced by 120 and when a balanced threephase short-circuit occurs the displacement is maintained. As with all balanced three-phase
currents, the instantaneous current in one phase is balanced by the currents in the other two
phases. The directions of the currents are constantly changing and so therefore are the forces.
The maximum forces are dependent on the point in the cycle at which the fault or short-circuit
occurs.
The maximum force appearing on any phase resulting from a fully offset asymmetrical peak
current is given by

(9

The condition when the maximum force appears on the outside phases (Red or Blue) is given by

(10
The condition when the maximum force is on the centre phase (Yellow) is given by

(11
where Fmax = maximum force on conductor, N/m
I = peak asymmetrical current, A
s = conductor spacing, mm
The peak current I attained during the short-circuit varies with the power factor of the circuit:
Power factor

I, x Irms (symmetrical)

2.828

0.07

2.55

0.2

2.2

0.25

2.1

0.3

0.5

1.7

0.7

1.5

1.0

1.414

Correction for end effect

It has been assumed so far that the conductors are of infinite length. This assumption does not
generally lead to great errors in the calculated short-circuit forces. This is not true, however, at the
ends of bars where there is a great change in flux compared with the uniform magnetic field over
most of the long straight conductor. Where the conductor is relatively short this effect can be
considerable, the normal formulae giving overestimates for the forces. To overcome this problem
the preceding formulae can be rewritten in the following form:

where Ftot = total force on the conductor, N

L = length of conductor, m
c = constant from relevant previous formula
The following substitution may then be made:

The formula will then be of the form

(12
If

is very large then

is almost equal to

and therefore the modified formula becomes almost identical with the standard formula. In many
cases, the following formula is sufficiently accurate:

(13
where Ftot is again the total force along the conductor in Newtons.
Formulae 9 to 11 may be used where

is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4, is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4,
equation 13 above should be used. For values less than 4, equation 12 should be used.

Proximity factor
Figure 14 - Proximity factor for rectangular copper conductor

The formulae in the previous section used for calculating short-circuit forces do not take into
account the effect of conductors which are not round as they strictly only apply to round
conductors. To overcome this when considering rectangular conductors, a proximity factor K is
introduced into the ordinary force formulae, its value being found using the curves in Figure 14.
Except in cases where the conductors are very small or are spaced a considerable distance apart
the corrected general formula for force per unit length becomes:

The value of

is first calculated then K is read from the curve for the appropriate

ratio.
From the curves it can be seen that the effect of conductor shape decreases rapidly with
increasing spacing and is a maximum for strip conductors of small thickness. It is almost unity for
square conductors and is unity for a circular conductor.
Alternatively, the proximity factor can be calculated using the following formula, from which the
curves in Figure 14 were drawn (Dwight 1917). (See Figure 14 for explanation of symbols).

This formula gives the intermediate curves of Figure 14, for s>a, b>0, a>0
Vibrational stresses

Stresses will be induced in a conductor by natural or forced vibrations the amplitude of which
determines the value of the stress, which can be calculated from the formulae given in Section 8.
The conductor should be designed to have a natural frequency which is not within 30% of the
vibrations induced by the magnetic fields resulting from the currents flowing in adjacent
conductors. This type of vibration normally occurs during continuous running and does not occur
when short-circuit currents are flowing.
The stresses resulting from the short-circuit forces are calculated using the beam theory formulae
for simply supported beams for a single cantilever to multispan arrangements, the applied forces
being derived from the previous sections. The resulting deflections enable the conductor stress to
be calculated and so determine if it is likely to permanently damage the conductor because it has
exceeded the proof stress of the conductor material.
Methods of reducing conductor stresses
In cases where there is a likelihood of vibration at normal currents or when subjected to shortcircuit forces causing damage to the conductor, the following can he used to reduce or eliminate
the effect:
a) Reduce the span between insulator supports.
This method can be used to reduce the effects of both continuous vibration and that due to shortcircuit forces.
b) Increase the span between insulator supports.
This method can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration resulting from a continuous
current. It will increase the stresses due to a short-circuit current.
c) Increase or decrease the flexibility of the conductor supports.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to continuous current but has very little effect
on that due to short-circuit forces.
d) Increase the conductor flexibility.
This can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration due to a continuous current. The shortcircuit effect is increased.
e) Decrease the conductor flexibility.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to either a continuous current or a shortcircuit.
It will be noted that in carrying out the various suggestions above, changes can only be made
within the overall design requirements of the busbar system.

Corona Discharge
With very high voltage air-insulated busbars, particularly of the type usually installed out of doors,
it is necessary to ensure that with the spacing adopted between conductors of different phases, or
between conductors and earth, the electromagnetic stress in the air surrounding the conductors is
low enough not to cause a corona discharge. Corona discharge is to be avoided where possible
as it creates ionised gas which can lead to a large reduction in the air insulation surrounding the
conductor and so can cause flash-over. Should flash-over occur, this will in many cases lead to a

short-circuit between either adjacent phases or poles or the nearest earth point or plane. This will
cause considerable burning of the conductors and associated equipment together with
mechanical damage. Corona discharge can also cause radio interference which may be
unacceptable.
To avoid these conditions the busbar system should be free from sharp edges or small radii on
the conductor system. If this is not possible then additional equipment will have to be incorporated
in the design such as corona rings and stress relieving cones mounted in the areas of high
electric stress. The smallest radii required for prevention of corona can be calculated from the
formula:

where E = r.m.s. voltage to neutral, kV

r = conductor radius, mm
d = distance between conductor centres, mm
= air density factor
m = conductor surface condition factor
The values for the factors m and d are as follows:
m = 1 for a polished conductor surface, 0.98 to 0.93 for roughened or weathered surfaces, and
0.87 to 0.80 for stranded conductors.
d = 1 at 1 bar barometric pressure and 25C. At other pressures and temperatures the value is
found as follows:

where b = barometric pressure, bar

T = temperature, C
At locations above sea level the normal pressure is reduced by approximately 0.12 bar per 1000
m of altitude.
The voltage Ev at which the corona discharge normally becomes visible is somewhat higher than
given by the above formula and can be determined as follows:

In bad weather conditions the discharge may appear at a voltage lower than that indicated by the
formulae and it is therefore advisable to make an allowance of about 20% as a safety factor.

7. Jointing of Copper Busbars

Busbar Jointing Methods
Joint Resistance
Bolting Arrangements
Clamps
Welded Joints

Busbar Jointing Methods

It is necessary that a conductor joint shall be mechanically strong and have a relatively low
resistance which must remain substantially constant throughout the life of the joint.
Efficient joints in copper busbar conductors can be made very simply by bolting, clamping,
riveting, soldering or welding, the first two being used extensively, though copper welding is now
more generally available through improvements in welding technology.
Welded joints in copper busbars have the advantage that the current carrying capacity is
unimpaired, as the joint is effectively a continuous copper conductor.
Bolted joints are compact, reliable and versatile but have the disadvantage that they necessitate
the drilling or punching of holes through the conductors with the bolt holes causing some
distortion of the lines of current flow. This joint type also has a somewhat more uneven contact
pressure than one using clamp plates.
Clamped joints are easy to make with the full cross-section being unimpaired. The extra mass at
the joint and hence cooling area helps to give a cooler running joint and with a well-designed
clamp, gives a very even contact pressure. The further added advantage is that of easy erection
during installation. A disadvantage is the much higher costs of the clamps and associated fixings.
Riveted joints are efficient if well made, but have the disadvantage that they cannot easily be
undone or tightened in service and that they are not so convenient to make from an installation
point of view.
Soldered or brazed joints are rarely used for busbars unless they are reinforced with bolts or
clamps since heating under short-circuit conditions can make them both mechanically and
electrically unsound.

Joint Resistance
The resistance of a joint is affected mainly by two factors:
a) Streamline effect or spreading resistance Rs, the diversion of the current flow through a joint.
b) The contact resistance or interface resistance of the joint Rj.
The total joint resistance Rj = Rs + Ri.

The above is specifically for a d.c. current. Where a.c. currents are flowing, the changes in
resistance due to skin and proximity effects in the joint zone must also be taken into account.
Before considering the effect of the above factors on the efficiency of a joint, it is important to
realise the nature of the two contact surfaces. No matter how well a contact surface is polished,
the surface is really made up of a large number of peaks and troughs which are readily visible
under a microscope. When two surfaces are brought together contact is only made at the peaks,
which are subjected to much higher contact pressures than the average joint contact pressure,
and hence deform during the jointing process. The actual contact area in the completed joint is
much smaller than the total surface area of the joint. It has been shown that in a typical busbar
joint surface the effective contact area is confined to the region in which the pressure is applied,
i.e., near the bolts in the case of a lapped joint.
Streamline effect
The distortion of the lines of current flow at an overlapping joint between two conductors affects
the resistance of the joint. This effect must also occur when the current flows from peak to peak
from surface to surface though the overall effect is that through the joint.
In the case of an overlapping joint between two flat copper bars, the streamline effect is
dependent only on the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness of the bars and not on the
width, provided that this dimension is the same for both bars. It has been shown both
mathematically and experimentally that even in a perfectly made overlapping joint between two
relatively thin flat conductors having a uniform contact resistance, the distribution of current over
the contact area is not uniform. Practically all of the current flowing across the contact surfaces is
concentrated towards the extremities of the joint and the current density at the ends of the
overlapping conductors may be many times that at the centre of the joint.
It is evident from the above that the efficiency of an overlapping joint does not increase as the
length of the overlap increases and that from a purely electrical point of view no advantage is to
be gained by employing an unduly long overlap.
The relation between the resistance due to streamline effect of an overlapping joint between two
flat copper conductors and the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness is shown in Figure
15. It has also been found that the distortion effect in a T-joint is about the same as a straight
joint.
The resistance ratio e in Figure 15 is the ratio of the resistance of a joint due to streamline effect
RS, to the resistance of an equal length of single conductor Rb, i.e.

where a = breadth of bar, mm

b = thickness of bar, mm
l = length of overlap, mm
= resistivity of the conductor, mm
From the graph it can be seen then that the effect falls very rapidly for ratios up to two and then
very much more slowly for values up to seven. This means that in most cases the streamline
effect has very little effect as the overlap is of necessity much greater than seven.

Figure 15 Streamline effect in overlapping joints

Contact resistance
The contact interface between the two faces of a busbar joint consists of a large number of
separate point contacts, the area of which increases as more pressure is applied and the peaks
are crushed.
There are two main factors which therefore affect the actual interface resistance of the surfaces.
a) The condition of the surfaces.
b) The total applied pressure.
The type of coating applied to the contact surfaces to prevent or delay the onset of oxidation when
operating at elevated temperatures or in a hostile environment is also important, particularly in the
long term.
Condition of contact surfaces
The condition of the contact surfaces of a joint has an important bearing on its efficiency. The
surfaces of the copper should be flat and clean but need not be polished. Machining is not usually
required. Perfectly flat joint faces are not necessary since very good results can in most cases be

obtained merely by ensuring that the joint is tight and clean. This is particularly the case where
extruded copper bars are used. Where cast copper bars are used, however, machining may be
necessary if the joints are to obtain a sufficiently flat contact surface.
Oxides, sulphides and other surface contaminants have, of course, a higher resistance than the
base metal. Copper, like all other common metals, readily develops a very thin surface oxide film
even at ordinary temperatures when freely exposed to air, although aluminium oxidises much
more rapidly, and its oxide has a much higher resistivity.
The negative temperature coefficient of resistance of copper oxide means that the joint
conductivity tends to increase with temperature. This does not, of course, mean that a joint can be
made without cleaning just prior to jointing to ensure that the oxide layer is thin enough to be
easily broken as the contact surface peaks deform when the contact pressure is applied.
Preparation of surfaces
Contact surfaces should be flattened by machining if necessary and thoroughly cleaned. A ground
or sand-roughened surface is preferable to a smooth one.
It is important to prevent the re-oxidation of the joint in service and it is therefore recommended
that the contact faces should be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly immediately after
cleaning the contact surfaces. The joint surfaces should then be bolted together, the excess
petroleum jelly being pressed out as the contact pressure is applied. The remaining jelly will help
to protect the joint from deterioration.
It should be noted that in cases where joints have to perform reliably in higher than normal
ambient temperature conditions, it may be advisable to use a high melting point jelly to prevent it
from flowing out of the joint, leaving it liable to attack by oxidation and the environment.
The following sections describe the use of coatings on conductor contact surfaces. It should be
noted that recent tests carried out to investigate the performance of bolted joints under cyclic
heating with wide temperature variations indicate that joints without coatings give the most reliable
long-term performance (Jackson 1982). The reason for this is that most coatings are of soft
materials which when subjected to continuous pressures and raised temperatures tend to flow.
This has the effect of reducing the number of high pressure contact points formed when the joint
is newly bolted together.
Tinning. The tinning of the contact surfaces of a bolted or clamped joint with pure tin or a lead-tin
alloy is normally unnecessary, although advantages can be gained in certain circumstances.
If the joint faces are very rough, tinning may result in some improvement in efficiency. In most
cases, however, its chief virtue lies in the fact that it tends to prevent oxidation and hence
subsequent joint deterioration. It may therefore be recommended in cases where the joints
operate at unusually high temperatures or current densities or when subjected to corrosive
atmospheres.
For the best results the surfaces should be tinned or re-tinned immediately prior to the final joint
clamping. It should be noted that both the electrical conductivity and the oxidation protective
action decrease as the lead content of the solder increases. Lead also has the effect of reducing
the surface hardness of the coating and a high lead content in the tinning material should be
avoided as this can cause the plating to creep once the joint is bolted together resulting in
premature failure due to overheating.
Silver or nickel plating. This type of plating is being used increasingly, particularly where
equipment is manufactured to American standards which require plated joints for high
temperature operation. Nickel-plating provides a harder surface than silver and may therefore be
preferable. These platings are expensive to apply and must be protected prior to the final jointing
process as they are always very thin coatings and can therefore be easily damaged. There is also

some doubt as to the stability of these joints under prolonged high temperature cycling. Very high
contact resistances can be developed some time after jointing. It is therefore suggested that
natural metal joints are in most cases preferable.
Effect of pressure on contact resistance
It has been shown above that the contact resistance is dependent more on the total applied
pressure than on the area of contact. If the total applied pressure remains constant and the
contact area is varied, as is the case in a switch blade moving between spring loaded contacts,
the total contact resistance remains practically constant. This can be expressed by an equation of
the form:

where Ri = resistance of the contact

p = total contact pressure
n = exponent between 0.4 and 1
C = a constant
The greater the applied total pressure the lower will be the joint resistance and therefore for high
efficiency joints high pressure is usually necessary. This has the advantage that the high pressure
helps to prevent deterioration of the joint. Figure 16 shows the effect of pressure on joint
resistance.
Figure 16 The effect of pressure on the contact resistance of a joint between two copper
conductors

Joint resistance falls rapidly with increasing pressure, but above a pressure of about 15 N/mm2
there is little further improvement. Certain precautions must be observed to ensure that the
contact pressure is not unduly high, since it is important that the proof stress of the conductor
material or its bolts and clamps is not exceeded.

As a bar heats up under load the contact pressure in a joint made with steel bolts tends to
increase because of the difference in expansion coefficients between copper and the steel. It is
therefore essential that the initial contact pressure is kept to a such a level that the contact
pressure is not excessive when at operating temperature. If the elastic limit of the bar is exceeded
the joint will have a reduced contact pressure when it returns to its cold state due to the joint
materials having deformed or stretched.
To avoid this, it is helpful to use disc spring washers whose spring rating is chosen to maintain a
substantially constant contact pressure under cold and hot working conditions. This type of joint
deterioration is very much more likely to happen with soft materials, such as E1E aluminium,
where the material elastic limit is low compared with that of high conductivity copper.
Joint efficiency
The efficiency of a joint may be measured in terms of the ratio of the resistance of the portion of
the conductor comprising the joint and that of an equal length of straight conductor.
The resistance of a joint, as already mentioned, is made up of two parts, one due to the distortion
of lines of current flow and the other to contact resistance. The resistance due to the streamline
effect at an overlap joint is given by:

where for a given joint a, b and l are the width, thickness and overlap length, these all being
constant, and contact resistance of the joint is:

where Y = contact resistance per unit area.

The total joint resistance is:

and the efficiency of the joint is:

The resistance of an equal length of straight conductor is given by:

The resistance ratio e is obtained from Figure 15.

In most cases it is inadvisable to use contact pressures of less than 7 N/mm2, 10 N/mm2 being
preferred. The contact pressure chosen is influenced by the size and number of bolts or clamps,
the latter giving a more even contact pressure. For the sake of symmetry the length of overlap is
often made equal to the width of the bar, though with thick and narrow bars the overlap can be
increased to improve the overall joint performance.
Owing to the larger surface area from which heat may be dissipated, efficient joints between
single copper conductors usually have a lower temperature rise than the conductors themselves.
It is important, in general, to ensure that all joints have a reasonable margin of safety. This is
particularly so where multi-conductors join at one joint and/or the conductors are normally running
close to the specified maximum temperature rises.

Bolting Arrangements
In deciding the number, size and distribution of bolts required to produce the necessary contact
pressure to give high joint efficiency, both electrical and mechanical considerations have to be
taken into account. The methods used to determine these requirements have been given in
previous sections.
A joint normally decreases in resistance with an increase in the size and number of bolts used.
Bolt sizes usually vary from M6 to M20 with between four and six being used in each joint with a
preference for four bolts in narrow conductors and six in large conductors. The torque chosen for
each bolt size is dependent on the bolt material and the maximum operating temperature
expected. Because of the strength of copper, deformation of the conductor under the pressure of
the joint is not normally a consideration.
Table 9 shows typical bolting arrangements for various busbar sizes. The recommended torque
settings are applicable to high-tensile steel (8.8) or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly Cy104)
fasteners with unlubricated threads of normal surface finish. In the case of stainless steel bolts,
these torque settings may be used, but the threads must be lubricated prior to use.
In addition to the proof or yield stress of the bolt material and the thread characteristics, the
correct tightening torque depends on the differential expansion between the bolt and conductor
materials. Galvanised steel bolts are normally used but brass or bronze bolts have been used
because their coefficients of expansion closely match the copper conductor and hence the contact
pressure does not vary widely with operating temperature. Copper alloy bolts also have the
advantage that the possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion is avoided. Because these alloys do
not have an easily discernible yield stress, however, care has to be taken not to exceed the
correct tightening torque.
Because of their non-magnetic properties, copper alloys may also be preferred to mild or hightensile steel where high magnetic fields are expected. Alternatively, a non-magnetic stainless
steel may be used. In most cases however, high-tensile steel is used for its very high yield stress.
Table 9 Typical busbar bolting arrangements (single face overlap)
Bar width
mm

Joint
overlap
mm

Joint area
mm2

Number of
bolts *

Metric bolt
size
(coarse
thread)

Bolt
torque Nm

Hole size
mm

Washer
diameter
mm

Washer
thickness
mm

16

32

512

M6

7.2

14

1.8

20

40

800

M6

7.2

14

1.8

25

60

1500

M8

17

10

21

2.0

30

60

1800

M8

17

10

21

2.0

40

70

2800

M10

28

11.5

24

2.2

50

70

3500

M12

45

14

28

2.7

60

60

3600

M10

28

11.5

24

2.2

80

80

6400

M12

45

14

28

2.7

100

100

10000

M12

45

15

28

2.7

120

120

14400

M12

45

15

28

2.7

160

160

25600

M16

91

20

28

2.7

200

200

40000

M16

91

20

28

2.7

* high-tensile steel or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly C104)

Clamps
The choice of clamp material and method of manufacture depends on the a.c. or d.c. current
requirements, and on the number of clamps of a given size required. The manufacturing methods
used include machining from plate, sand or die casting, or stamping from plate. In the case of low
current a.c. (less than 3000 A) and d.c. systems the clamps should be made from a high-strength
material compatible with the required contact pressure. They can therefore be made from steel in
cast, forged or stamped form. Where a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A are concerned, the choice
of material is between the low or non-magnetic steels or a brass or bronze. Steel clamps are
generally unsuitable because of the hysteresis losses induced in them.

Welded Joints
The inert gas shielded arc processes, tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metal inert gas (MIG) are the
preferred welding methods for high conductivity coppers and are capable of producing excellent
busbar joints. The welding data given in Table 10 are provided as a guide to good practice, but
the actual welding conditions that will give the best results for a particular joint must be
determined from experience. Certain physical and metallurgical properties of copper must,
however, be taken account of when welding. The high thermal diffusivity of copper - four or five
times that of mild steel - opposes the formation of an adequate weld pool necessary for good
fusion and deoxidation which can give rise to lack of fusion defects and porosity. The rapid heat
sink effect, which is particularly pronounced in thicker sections, must therefore be overcome.
Preheating of the copper before welding is necessary for thickness above about 3 mm as
indicated in Table 10.
As explained in Section 2, the tough pitch grades of copper, CW004A and CW005A (formerly
C101 and C102), contain particles of cuprous oxide which are normally in a form which has a
minimal effect on electrical and mechanical properties. Prolonged heating of the copper however,
allows the oxide particles to diffuse to grain boundaries where they can seriously affect the
properties. This diffusion effect is both time and temperature dependent and is minimised by
performing the welding operation as quickly as possible and by restricting the overall heating of
the component as far as possible consistent with adequate fusion and a satisfactory weld profile.
This consideration obviously does not apply to oxygen-free coppers which do not contain the
oxide particles.
Table 10 Welding data for HC copper

a) Recommended usage of BS 2901 filler alloys for TIG and MIG welding of high
conductivity copper.
TIG
Designation

MIG

Grade
Argon or Helium

Nitrogen

Argon or Helium

Nitrogen

CW004A

Electrolytic tough
pitch high
conductivity

C7, C21

Not
recommended

C7, C8, C21

Not recommended

CW005A

Fire-refined tough
pitch high
conductivity

C7, C21

Not
recommended

C7, C8, C21

Not recommended

CW008A

Oxygen-free high
conductivity

C7, C21

Not
recommended

C7, C21

Not recommended

b) Typical operating data for TIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(Direct current; electrode negative; argon and helium shielding)
Shielding gas
Argon

Helium

Thickness
(mm)

Preheat
temperature*
(C)

Electrode
diameter
(mm)

Filler rod
diameter
(mm)

Gas
nozzle
diameter
(mm)

Weld
current
(A)

Gas flow
(l/min)

Weld
current
(A)

Gas flow
(l/min)

1.5

None

1.6-2.4

1.6

9.5

80-130

4-6

70-90

6-10

None

2.4-3.2

1.6

9.5-12

120-240

4-6

180-220

6-10

up to 400

3.2-4.8

3.2

12-18

220-350

6-8

200-240

10-15

12

400-600

4.8

3.2-4.8

12-18

330-420

8-10

260-280

10-15

>12

500-700

4.8

3.2-4.8

12-18

>400

8-10

280-320

12-20

* May be reduced significantly in helium shielding

c) Typical operating data for MIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(1.6 mm diameter filler wire; argon shielding)
Thickness (mm)

Preheat
temperature (C)

Welding current
(A)

Arc voltage (V)

Wire feed rate

(m/min)

Gas flow rate

(l/min)

None

240-320

25-28

6.5-8.0

10-15

12

up to 500

320-380

26-30

5.5-6.5

10-15

18

up to 500

340-400

28-32

5.5-6.5

12-17

24

up to 700

340-420

28-32

5.5-6.5

14-20

>24

up to 700

340-460

28-32

5.5-6.5

14-20

Thermal expansion should be allowed for during welding as this leads to the closing of root gaps
as the temperature of the metal rises. The root gaps indicated in Table 11 should therefore be
allowed.
Oxy-acetylene and oxy-propane welding methods can be used with oxygen-free copper but they
are not recommended for welding tough pitch coppers as the reducing atmosphere produced in
the flame can react with the cuprous oxide particles to produce steam inside the metal. This gives
rise to porosity and is known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'.
Further details of the factors involved in the welding of copper can be found in the CDA
publication No 98.
Table 11 Recommended edge preparations for TIG and MIG butt-welds.

8. Mechanical Strength Requirements

All busbar systems have to be designed to withstand the mechanical forces to which they may be
subjected, whether these be due to their own weight, wind and ice loads, or short-circuit forces.
This force becomes more onerous with increasing voltage and decreasing current due to
respectively longer insulators and smaller conductors.
The conductor itself should have sufficient material strength under all operational conditions. It
must be able to support itself without undue deflection under normal working conditions, and not
suffer permanent damage under abnormal conditions. The following section enables the
mechanical strength requirement of a conductor to be calculated using the short-circuit forces
obtained from the formulae given previously.
Deflection
Natural Frequency
Wind and Ice Loadings
Maximum Permissible Stress
Thermal Expansion

Deflection
The maximum deflection of a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load and freely supported at
each end is given by the formula:

where = maximum deflection, mm

w= weight per unit length of loaded beam, N/mm
L = beam length between supports, mm
E = modulus of elasticity (124 x 103N/mm2)
I = moment of inertia of beam section, mm
If one end of a beam is rigidly fixed in a horizontal position the deflection is 0.415 times that given
by the above formula and it follows that if a freely supported beam is also supported at its midpoint then its maximum deflection is reduced to 0.025 of its former value. If both ends of a beam
are rigidly fixed in a horizontal position the deflection is 0.2 times that given by the above formula.
Thus with a continuous beam freely supported at four or more points the maximum deflection in
the centre spans may be assumed to be 0.2 times that given by the formula, while the deflection
in the end spans is 0.415 times. The deflection in the end spans, therefore, may be assumed to
be twice that in the centre spans, assuming equal span distances.

Moments of inertia
In the above formula the moment of inertia I for the section of the beam has to be calculated
about the neutral axis which runs parallel to the beam where the beam has zero tensile forces. In
most cases this is the same axis of the centre of cross-section.
For a rectangular section of depth D and breadth B

For a circular section of diameter D

For a tubular section of internal diameter d and external diameter D

It should be noted that the value of I for a given cross-section is dependent on the direction in
which each individual force is applied. Moments of inertia for a range of copper rods, bars,
sections and tubes are given in Tables 12 16 (Appendix 2).

Natural Frequency
The natural frequency of a beam simply supported at its end is

and for a beam with both ends fixed horizontally it is

where fn = natural frequency, Hz

= deflection, mm
As the deflection with fixed ends is 0.2 times the value with freely supported ends it follows that
the natural frequency is increased by 2.275 times by end-fixing; fixing one end only increases the
natural frequency by about 50%. Where equipment is to be mounted outside, natural frequencies
of less than 2.75 Hz should be avoided to prevent vibration due to wind eddies.

Wind and Ice Loadings

In considering the loading of a conductor for outdoor service not only must the weight of the
conductor itself be taken into account but also the weight of a coating of ice which it may carry,
together with the wind pressure on the ice loaded conductor.
The maximum thickness of the ice and the maximum wind speed are normally specified by the
purchaser of the busbars but where these are not specified they are usually available from
national standards bodies within the country where the equipment is to be installed.
The wind and ice loading can be calculated using the following formulae:
Wind loading:
Ww = p(D+2t) x 105
Ice loading:

where ww = wind loading, N/m

wi = ice loading, N/m
p = wind pressure, N/mm2
D = diameter, mm
t = ice thickness, mm
It is assumed that the wind load is at right angles to the vertical load of the conductor weight, and
that its ice load and hence the resultant load on the conductor has to be added vertically. The
resultant load is given by:

where R = resultant load, N/m

w = conductor weight per unit length, N/m
and where R acts at an angle to the vertical given by the formula

The vertical sag or deflection in the conductor span is given by

where i is the sag in mm in a plane inclined at an angle to the vertical.

Maximum Permissible Stress

The maximum permissible stress in a conductor is the resultant of its own natural weight (w) and
the additional forces of wind (ww) and ice (wi) loadings (see above) and the magnetic forces
resulting from a short circuit. It should be noted that the direction of a short-circuit force (Ws)
depends on the position of adjacent phases and the direction of the currents in them.
In a general case the following method should be used for calculating the resultant force and its
direction:

and

The maximum skin stress in the conductor can then be calculated using the following formula:

where f = maximum skin stress, N/mm2

M = maximum bending moment, N mm
Z = section modulus, mm3

For a single beam of length L (mm) uniformly loaded and freely supported at both ends or freely
supported at one end and fixed at the other,

where W = load, N/mm

L = span, mm
For a circular section of external diameter D or for a rectangular section of depth D,

where I = moment of inertia, mm

D = diameter, mm
Then the maximum stress

The maximum permissible stress is dependent on the conductor material, temper, etc., but must
not exceed the material proof stress or permanent deformation will occur. For a conductor
manufactured from hard drawn copper the value is approximately 245 N/mm2.
For a beam which is horizontally fixed at both ends the bending moment at the centre is reduced
to one third and that at its ends to two-thirds of those for a simple supported beam.

Thermal Expansion
If the changes in length that occur in a conductor as it expands and contracts with temperature
variations are not allowed for, undue forces will be set up in the conductor support system or in
the equipment to which the busbar is connected.
The coefficient of linear expansion for copper may be taken as 17 x 106 /C (for temperatures
from ambient up to 200C) compared with 23 x 106 /C for aluminium. The lower value for copper
is of great importance when allowing for thermal expansion under both normal and transitory
conditions, as up to 25% less expansion need be accommodated for a particular length of busbar.
If a length of copper bar were to be kept from expanding or contracting, a force of nearly 2 N per
mm2 of cross-sectional area would be developed for a temperature change of 1C.
In most cases the supports expand far less due to much smaller temperature changes and lower
thermal expansion coefficients. It is therefore normal practice to allow for the full expansion using
flexible conductor connections at suitable points.
Types of expansion joints

In the case of short bars it is usually not necessary to make any special provision to
accommodate expansion. There will normally be one or two reasonably flexible bends capable of
relieving any undue stresses which may be set up.
Figure 17 Types of expansion joints in copper conductors

To relieve intermediate supports of stress, clamps which allow the conductor to move freely in the
longitudinal direction should be provided. These clamps must be designed and arranged with care
to avoid the danger of stresses building up at any point at which the bar may become wedged or
prevented from moving freely.
In the case of long straight runs it is advisable that expansion joints should be introduced. The
joints may use laminated thin copper strips or leaves and have the same total current rating as the
busbar itself.
As an alternative to laminated flexible joints, copper braid may be used. This type of joint is
usually more expensive to manufacture but has the advantage that it can accommodate
expansion in more than one direction (in most cases three directions) and also tends to eliminate
vibration forces being passed from one piece of equipment to another. It is important that the
ferrule into which the copper braid is clamped is of sufficient thickness to ensure consistent high
conductivity after manufacture and during its service life. Where high resistances develop in the
joint after manufacture, overheating and ultimately braid failure due to oxidation of the braid
material may result

9. Busbar Impedance
VoltDrop
Inductance Formulae
Capacitance Formulae
Geometric Mean Distance Formulae
The busbar reactance is not normally sufficiently large to affect the total reactance of a power
system and hence is not included in the calculations when establishing the short-circuit currents
and reactive volt drops within a power system. The exception to this is when considering certain
heavy current industrial applications such as furnaces, welding sets, or roll heating equipment for
steel mills. In these cases the reactance may be required to be known for control purposes, or to
obtain busbar arrangements to give minimum or balanced reactance. This may be important
because of its effect on both volt drop and power factor, and hence on the generating plant kVA
requirement per kW of load, or on the tariffs payable where the power is purchased from outside.
The busbar impedance is made up of three components: resistance, inductance and capacitance.
The values of these components are given an ohmic value which in the case of inductance and
capacitance is dependent on the frequency of the system. They are defined as follows:
Resistance:

where Rf = resistance at frequency f (Hz),

Ro = d.c. resistance
S = skin effect ratio
K = proximity ratio
Inductance:

where XL = inductive reactance,

f = frequency, Hz
L = inductance, H
Capacitance:

where Xc = capacitive reactance,

f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
Impedance:

where X = XL - XC
The value of XC is usually very much smaller than XL, and XL is usually much larger than Rf. The
value of X is taken to be positive with the sign of XL - XC to indicate whether the system has a
positive or negative power factor.

Volt Drop
The volt drop in a busbar system is estimated as follows from the usual formula:
VB = I ZB
where VB = volt drop, V
I = current flowing in the conductor, A
ZB = busbar impedance,
However, to find the magnitude of the load voltage VL available, the busbar volt drop VB must be
subtracted vectorially from the supply voltage VS:

VS = supply voltage, V L = angle of load,

VB = busbar volt drop, V

= angle of busbar,

VL = load voltage, V RB = busbar resistance, W

I = current, A XB = busbar reactance, W

The apparent volt drop in the busbar trunking, phase to neutral, is given by:

Multiply by 3 for phase to phase volt drop.

The above formula gives a very close approximation as long as the busbar system volt drop
remains small in comparison to the system voltage.

10. Appendices
Summary of Methods of Busbar Rating
Tables of Properties of HC Copper Conductors
Table 12. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - strips and bars
Table 13. a.c. current ratings of laminated bars
Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and working
temperatures

Summary of Methods of Busbar Rating

The following examples summarise the rating methods detailed in section 3 and section 4 for
typical cases. Unless otherwise stated, a temperature rise of 50C above an ambient of 40C and
a frequency of 50 Hz have been assumed. The ratings may be increased by blackening the
busbar surfaces. (see Radiation)
Case I d.c., single rectangular-section bar on edge in still air
Case II d.c., single circular-section bar (solid or hollow) in still air
Case III d.c., laminated bars in still air
Case IV a.c., single rectangular-section bar in still air
Case V a.c., single circular section bar, in still air
Case VI a.c., laminated bars, in still air
Case VII Enclosed busbars
Case VIII Economical use of busbar configurations

Case I d.c., single rectangular-section bar on edge in still air

Apply formula 4 or read direct from Table 12, for standard sizes.
Example:
Copper bar l00 mm x 6.3 mm (A = 630 mm2, p= 212.6 mm)
I = 7.73 (630)0.5 (212.6)0.39 = 1570 A
(or read direct from Table 12).

Case II d.c., single circular-section bar (solid or hollow) in still air

Apply formula 6 or read direct from Table 16 for standard sizes.

Example:
50 mm diameter copper rod
I = 8.63 (1964)0.5 (157)0.36 = 2360 A
(or read direct from Table 16).

Case III d.c., laminated bars in still air

a) Apply formula 4, or read direct from Table 12 for one bar.

b) Multiply by appropriate factor from section 3
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm with 6.3 mm spacing.
I = 1570 A per bar.
Multiplying factor for 4 bars = 3.20.
Hence I = 3.2 x 1570 = 5020 A

Case IV a.c., single rectangular-section bar in still air

Divide d.c. rating by appropriate value of

as obtained from Figure 7

Example:

Copper bar 100 mm x 6.3 mm (a/b = 100/6.3 = 16)

d.c. rating = 1579 A (Case I).
Rf/Ro = 1.12 from Figure 7
1.12= 1.058
Hence I = 1570/1.058 = 1480 A

Case V a.c., single circular section bar, in still air

a) Divide d.c. rating by appropriate value of

as obtained from Figure 4 (solid rods or tubes).

Example:
50 mm diameter copper rod.
d.c. rating = 2360 A (Case II)

Hence Rf/Ro = 1.61, from Figure 4

Hence

Case VI a.c., laminated bars, in still air

a) Determine rating of one bar as for Case IV.

b) Multiply by appropriate factor, Table 8
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm with 6.3 mm spacing.
d.c. rating per bar = 1570 A (as Case I)
a.c. rating per bar = 1480 A (as Case IV).
Multiplying factor for 4 bars = 2.3
Hence I = 2.3 x 1480 = 3404A

Case VII Enclosed busbars

a) Multiply still air rating by appropriate constant (see Enclosed copper conductors) i.e.. by 0.6 to
0.65 for conductor configurations largely dependent on air circulation (e.g., modified hollow
square arrangement, Figure 9c), or by 0.7 for tubular conductors or closely grouped flat
laminations.
b) Multiply by further 0.85 if enclosure of thick magnetic material.
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm arranged as in Figure 9c, to carry a.c.
d.c. rating, single bar = 1570 A (as in Case I).
a.c. rating, single bar = 1480 A (as in Case IV).
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations (Table 8) = 2.3
Multiplying factor for configuration of Figure 9c, (see Figure 11) = 1.28
Hence still air rating for this configuration = 1480 x 2.3 x 1.28 = 4360 A
Multiplying factor for non-magnetic enclosure (Enclosed copper conductors) = 0.60
Hence enclosed rating = 4360 x 0.6 = 2610 A
Multiplying factor for magnetic enclosure = 0.85
Hence rating in magnetic enclosure =2610 x0.85 = 2220 A
Case VIII Economical use of busbar configurations

Example:
Two channels, each 100 mm high x 45 mm flange width x 8.6 mm thick (A = 1430 mm2 per
channel). a.c. 60 Hz, 30C rise on 40C ambient in still air. From Table 15, rating based on 50C
rise on 40C ambient. = 5550 A
Use re-rating formula (equation 8) to obtain rating for 70C working temperature and 40C
ambient.
Hence rating under conditions specified = 5550 x 0.756 = 4195 A
Equivalent 4-bar laminated configuration for same cross-sectional area = 118 mm x 6.3 mm per
bar (A = 743 mm2, p = 249 mm).
Hence d.c., rating per bar for 50C rise on 40C ambient. = 1300 A (from equation 4, and
application of appropriate conversion constant as above).
a/b = 118/6.3 = 18.7 (see Figure 7)
= 1.08 (from Figure 7 for 60 Hz).
Hence a.c. rating per bar = 1300/1.08 = 1190 A
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations = 2.3 (Table 8)
Hence a.c. rating for 4 laminations = 1190 x 2.3 = 2760 A
Thus the double channel arrangement is able to carry more current than laminated bars, in the
ratio 1.52:1 for this cross-sectional area. This corresponds to the factor given in Figure 11. For
larger cross-sectional areas this factor would be still greater, for smaller sections the increase
would be rather less than this, the exact value depends on the ratio of web to flange lengths of the
channel used, and on the thickness of web and channel; a rather wide spacing between "go" and
"return" conductors is also assumed in Table 15, in order to approximate to the "equi-inductance
line" condition (see Condition for minimum loss).

Tables of Properties of HC Copper Conductors

Table 12. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - strips and bars

Busbar
Size
mm

Approx. d.c.
rating (1)

Approx. a.c.
(2) rating

Moment of inertia, I

Flat
mm4

Modulus of
Section, Z

XSectional
area mm2

Weight
kg/m

Approx
d.c.resistanc
e 20C /m

Still
air
(3)A

Free
air
(3)A

Still
air A

Free
air
A

Edgewis
e mm4

Edgewis
e
mm3

Flat
mm3

Busbar
size mm

10 x
1.60

16.0

0.143

1077

105

115

105

115

133.3

3.413

26.66

4.266

10 x
1.60

12.5 x
1.60

20.0

0.179

862

125

135

125

135

260.4

4.266

41.66

5.333

12.5 x
1.60

16 x
1.60

25.6

0.229

673

155

170

155

170

546.1

5.461

68.26

6.826

16 x
1.60

20 x
1.60

32.0

0.286

538

185

205

185

205

1066

6.826

106.6

8.533

20 x
1.60

25 x
1.60

40.0

0.357

431

225

250

225

250

2083

8.533

166.6

10.67

25 x
1.60

30 x
1.60

48.0

0.429

359

265

290

265

290

3600

10.24

240.0

12.80

30 x
1.60

10 x
2.00

20.0

0.179

862

115

130

115

130

166.6

6.666

33.32

6.666

10 x
2.00

12.5 x
2.00

25.0

0.223

689

140

155

140

155

325.5

8.333

52.08

8.333

12.5 x
2.00

16 x
2.00

32.0

0.286

538

175

190

175

190

682.6

10.66

85.33

10.66

16 x
2.00

20 x
2.00

40.0

0.357

431

210

230

210

230

1333

13.33

133.3

13.33

20 x
2.00

25 x
2.00

50.0

0.446

344

255

280

255

280

2604

16.66

208.3

16.66

25 x
2.00

30 x
2.00

60.0

0.536

287

295

330

295

330

4500

20.00

300

20.00

30 x
2.00

40 x
2.00

80.0

0.714

215

380

420

380

420

10660

26.66

533

26.66

40 x
2.00

10 x
2.50

25.0

0.223

689

130

145

130

145

208.3

13.02

41.66

10.42

10 x
2.50

12.5 x
2.50

31.25

0.279

557

160

175

160

175

406.9

16.27

65.60

13.02

12.5 x
2.50

16 x
2.50

40.0

0.357

431

195

215

195

215

853.3

20.83

106.70

16.66

16 x
2.50

20 x
2.50

50.0

0.446

344

235

260

235

260

1666

26.04

166.6

20.83

20 x
2.50

25 x
2.50

62.5

0.558

275

285

315

285

315

3255

32.55

260.4

26.04

25 x
2.50

30 x

75.0

0.670

229

330

370

330

370

5625

39.06

375.0

31.25

30 x

2.50

2.50

40 x
2.50

100

0.893

172

425

475

425

475

13330

52.08

666.5

41.66

40 x
2.50

50 x
2.50

125

1.115

137

520

575

520

575

26040

65.10

1041

52.08

50 x
2.50

60 x
2.50

150

1.339

114

605

675

605

675

45000

78.13

1500

62.50

60 x
2.50

10 x
2.75

31.5

0.281

547

150

170

150

170

262.5

26.05

52.5

16.54

10 x
2.75

12.5 x
2.75

39.4

0.352

437

180

200

180

200

512.7

32.56

82.03

20.67

12.5 x
2.75

16 x
2.75

50.4

0.450

342

220

245

220

245

1075

41.67

134.4

26.46

16 x
2.75

20 x
3.0

60.0

0.536

287

260

290

260

290

2000

45.00

200.0

30.00

20 x 3.0

25 x
3.0

75

0.670

229

315

350

314

350

3906

56.25

312.4

37.5

25 x 3.0

30 x
3.0

90

0.803

191

365

405

365

405

6750

67.50

450.0

45.0

30 x 3.0

40 x
3.0

120

1.071

143

470

520

470

520

16000

90.00

800.0

60.0

40 x 3.0

50 x
3.0

150

1.339

114

570

635

570

635

31250

112.50

1250

75.0

50 x 3.0

60 x
3.0

180

1.607

95.7

665

740

665

740

54000

135.00

1800

90.0

60 x 3.0

80 x
3.0

240

2.142

71.8

860

955

860

955

128 x 103

180.00

3200

120.0

80 x 3.0

10 x
4.0

40

0.357

431

175

195

175

195

333.3

53.33

66.66

26.67

10 x 4.0

12.5 x
4.0

50

0.446

344

210

230

210

230

651.0

66.67

104.2

33.34

12.5 x
4.0

16 x
4.0

64

0.571

269

255

285

255

285

1365

85.33

170.6

42.67

16 x 4.0

20 x
4.0

80

0.714

215

305

340

305

340

2666

106.7

266.6

53.35

20 x 4.0

25 x
4.0

100

0.893

172

365

410

365

410

5208

133.3

416.6

66.65

25 x 4.0

30 x
4.0

120

1.071

143

430

475

430

475

8999

1600

599.6

80.00

30 x 4.0

40 x
4.0

160

1.428

107

545

610

540

605

21330

213.3

1066.5

106.7

40 x 4.0

50 x
4.0

200

1.785

86.2

665

740

660

735

41660

266.7

1666

133.4

50 x 4.0

60 x
4.0

240

2.142

71.8

775

860

770

855

72000

320.0

2400

160.0

60 x 4.0

80 x
4.0

320

2.856

53.8

995

1120

980

1105

170 x
10E3

426.7

4268

213.4

80 x 4.0

100 x
4.0

400

3.571

43.1

1210

1365

1185

1340

333 x
10E3

533.3

6666

266.7

100 x
4.0

10 x
5.0

50

0.446

344

200

225

200

225

416.7

104.2

83.34

41.68

10 x 5.0

12.5 x
5.0

62.5

0.558

275

240

265

240

265

813.4

130.2

130.1

52.08

12.5 x
5.0

16 x
5.0

80

0.714

215

290

325

290

325

1707

166.7

213.4

66.68

16 x 5.0

20 x
5.0

100

0.893

172

345

385

345

385

3333

208

333.3

83.20

20 x 5.0

25 x
5.0

125

1.116

137

415

465

415

465

6560

260.4

520.8

104.2

25 x 5.0

30 x
5.0

150

1.339

114

485

540

480

540

11250

312.5

750.0

125.0

30 x 5.0

40 x
5.0

200

1.785

86.2

615

685

610

680

26670

416.7

1334

166.7

40 x 5.0

50 x
5.0

250

2.232

68.9

745

830

740

820

52080

520.8

2083

208.3

50 x 5.0

60 x
5.0

300

2.678

57.4

870

970

865

960

90000

625.0

3000

250.0

60 x 5.0

80 x
5.0

400

3571

431

1120

1260

1110

1250

213 x
10E3

833.3

5333

333.3

80 x 5.0

100 x
5.0

500

4464

344

1355

1530

1345

1520

417 x
10E3

1042

8334

416.8

100 x
5.0

10 x
6.3

63

0.562

273

235

260

235

260

525

208.4

105.0

66.16

10 x 6.3

12.5 x
6.3

78.75

0.703

218

275

305

275

305

1025

260.5

164.0

82.70

12.5 x
6.3

16 x
6.3

100.8

0.899

171

335

370

335

370

2150

333.4

268.8

105.8

16 x 6.3

20 x
6.0

120

1.071

143

385

430

385

430

4000

360.0

400.0

120.0

20 x 6.0

25 x
6.0

150

1.339

114

460

515

460

515

7813

450.0

625.0

150.0

25 x 6.0

30 x
6.0

180

1.607

95.7

535

600

535

595

13500

540.0

900.0

180.0

30 x 6.0

40 x
6.0

240

2.142

71.8

680

760

675

755

32000

720.0

1600

240.0

40 x 6.0

50 x
6.0

300

2.678

57.4

825

915

815

910

62500

900.0

2500

300.0

50 x 6.0

60 x
6.0

360

3.214

47.8

965

1075

955

1065

108 x
10E3

1080

3600

360.0

60 x 6.0

80 x

480

4.285

35.9

1230

1370

1220

1355

256

1440

6400

480.0

80 x 6.0

6.0

x10E3

100 x
6.0

600

5.356

28.7

1490

1680

1480

1670

500
x10E3

1800

10000

600.0

100 x
6.0

120 x
6.0

720

6.428

23.9

1750

1970

1700

1915

864
x10E3

2160

14400

720.0

120 x
6.0

160 x
6.0

960

8.570

17.9

2250

2535

2130

2400

2.05
x10E6

2880

25600

960.0

160 x
6.0

20 x
8.0

160

1.428

107

460

510

455

510

5333

853.3

533.0

213.3

20 x 8.0

25 x
8.0

200

1.785

86.2

545

610

545

605

10420

1067

833.6

266.7

25 x 8.0

30 x
8.0

240

2.142

71.8

630

705

630

700

18000

1280

1200

320.0

30 x 8.0

40 x
8.0

320

2.856

53.8

800

890

795

885

42670

1707

2134

426.8

40 x 8.0

50 x
8.0

400

3.571

43.1

965

1070

950

1055

83300

2133

3333

533.3

50 x 8.0

60 x
8.0

480

4.285

35.9

1120

1250

1110

1235

144 x
10E3

2560

4800

640.0

60 x 8.0

80 x
8.0

640

5.713

26.9

1435

1595

1420

1580

341 x
10E3

3413

8533

853.3

80 x 8.0

100 x
8.0

800

7.142

21.5

1735

1955

1595

1800

667 x
10E3

4267

13330

1067

100 x
8.0

120 x
8.0

960

8.570

17.9

2032

2290

1760

1985

1.15 x
10E6

5120

19200

1280

120 x
8.0

160 x
8.0

1280

11.43

13.4

2610

2935

2230

2510

2.73 x
10E6

6827

34140

1707

160 x
8.0

200 x
8.0

1600

14.27

10.8

3170

3570

2760

3110

5.33 x
10E6

8533

53330

2133

200 x
8.0

20 x 10

200

1.785

86.2

525

585

480

535

6670

1667

667

333.4

20 x 10

25 x 10

250

2.232

68.9

625

695

580

645

13020

2083

1042

416.6

25 x 10

30 x 10

300

2.678

57.4

720

825

700

795

22500

2500

1500

500.0

30 x 10

40 x 10

400

3.571

43.1

910

1030

880

995

53330

3333

2667

666.6

40 x 10

50 x 10

500

4.464

34.4

1090

1235

1060

1200

104 x
10E3

4167

4168

833.4

50 x l0

60 x 10

600

5.356

28.7

1270

1435

1200

1355

180 x
10E3

5000

6000

1000

60 x 10

80 x 10

800

7.142

21.5

1615

1840

1525

1735

427 x
10E3

6667

10670

1333

80 x 10

100 x
10

1000

8.928

17.2

1950

2225

1800

2065

833 x
10E3

8333

16670

1667

100 x 10

120 x
10

1200

10.71

14.3

2285

2610

2100

2395

144 x
10E3

10000

23980

2000

120 x 10

160 x
10

1600

14.28

10.7

2930

3380

2620

3040

341 x
10E3

13330

42660

2666

160 x 10

200 x
10

2000

17.84

8.62

3550

4150

3140

3630

6.67 x
10E6

16670

66670

3334

200 x 10

250 x
10

2500

22.30

6.89

4320

5030

3710

4310

13.0 x
10E6

20830

104 x 103

4166

250 x 10

25 x 12

300

2.678

57.4

700

710

640

650

15630

3599

1250

599.8

25 x 12

30 x 12

360

3.214

47.8

805

820

750

765

27000

4319

1800

719.8

30 x 12

40 x 12

480

4.285

35.9

1010

1100

950

1030

64000

5759

3200

959.8

40 x 12

50 x 12

600

5.356

28.7

1210

1330

1160

1275

125 x
10E3

7199

5000

1199

50 x 12

60 x 12

720

6.428

23.9

1405

1550

1320

1455

216 x
10E3

8639

7200

1439

60 x 12

80 x 12

960

8.570

17.9

1785

2000

1670

1870

512 x
10E3

11519

12800

1919

80 x 12

100 x
12

1200

10.71

14.3

2155

2420

2010

2255

1.00 x
10E6

14390

20000

2398

100 x 12

120 x
12

1440

12.85

11.9

2520

2880

2310

2640

1.73 x
10E6

17280

28800

2880

120 x 12

160 x
12

1920

17.14

8.97

3225

3650

2860

3235

4.10 x
10E6

23040

51200

3840

160 x 12

200 x
12

2400

21.43

7.18

3910

4480

3380

3870

8.00 x
10E6

28790

80000

4798

200 x 12

250 x
12

3000

26.78

5.74

4750

5440

4060

4650

15.6 x
10E6

35990

125 x 103

5998

250 x 12

25 x 16

400

3.571

43.1

840

960

740

855

20830

8533

16.7 x
103

1067

25 x 16

30 x 16

480

4.285

35.9

960

1095

845

975

35990

10240

24.0 x
103

1280

30 x 16

40 x 16

640

5.713

26.9

1200

1370

1055

1220

85330

13650

42.7 x
103

1706

40 x 16

50 x 16

800

7.142

21.5

1430

1635

1260

1450

167 x
10E3

17070

66.7 x
103

2134

50 x 16

60 x 16

960

8.570

17.9

1660

1895

1460

1685

288 x
10E3

20480

96.0 x
103

2560

60 x 16

80 x 16

1280

11.43

13,4

2100

2400

1850

2130

683 x
10E3

27310

171 x 103

3414

80 x 16

100 x
16

1600

14.28

10.7

2530

2880

2220

2560

1.33 x
10E6

34130

267 x 103

4266

100 x 16

120 x
16

1920

17.14

8.97

2940

3360

2590

2990

2.30 x
10E6

40960

384 x 103

5120

120 x 16

160 x
16

2560

22.85

6.73

3750

4360

3180

3700

5.46 x
10E6

54610

683 x 103

6826

160 x 16

200 x

3200

28.57

5.38

4540

5725

3760

4370

10.7 x

68270

1.07 x

8534

200 x 16

16

10E6

106

250 x
16

4000

35.71

4.31

5520

6425

4500

5250

20.8 x
10E6

85330

1.67 x
106

10670

250 x 16

300 x
16

4800

42.84

3.59

6460

7525

5270

6150

36.0 x
10E6

102 x
103

2.40 x
106

12800

300 x 16

Notes:
1. Ratings apply for single bars on edge operating in a 40C ambient temperature with 50C
temperature rise. For other ambient and working temperatures apply formula 8, section 3.
2. a.c. ratings are for frequencies up to 60 Hz.
3. 'Free air' conditions assume some air movement other than convection currents, and may be
applicable for outside installations. 'Still' and 'free' air conditions both assume no enclosure.

Table 13. a.c. current ratings of laminated bars

Number and
size of bars

Total Section

Current for stated temperature rise above 20C ambient

mm

mm2

20C

30C

40C

50C

2 - 20 x 5

200

430

540

640

720

2 - 25 x 5

250

500

640

750

855

2 - 30 x 5

300

590

750

880

1000

3 - 30 x 5

450

800

1020

1200

1360

4 - 30 x 5

600

1030

1300

1530

1740

2 - 40 x 5

400

750

950

1120

1270

3 - 40 x 5

600

1030

1300

1530

1740

4 - 40 x 5

800

1260

1600

1890

2140

2 - 50 x 5

500

880

1120

1320

1500

3 - 50 x 5

750

1200

1520

1790

2030

4 - 50 x 5

1000

1500

1900

2240

2540

2 - 60 x 5

600

1030

1300

1530

1740

3 - 60 x 5

900

1380

1750

2060

2340

4 - 60 x 5

1200

1700

2150

2540

2880

2 - 80 x 5

800

1260

1600

1890

2140

3 - 80 x 5

1200

1700

2150

2540

2880

4 - 80 x 5

1600

2080

2630

3100

3520

2 - 100 x 5

1000

1460

1850

2180

2470

3 - 100 x 5

1500

1990

2520

2970

3370

4 - 100 x 5

2000

2420

3060

3610

4090

4 - 50 x 10

2000

2330

2950

3480

3950

4 - 60 x 10

2400

2580

3260

3850

4360

4 - 80 x 10

3200

2970

3760

4440

5030

3 - 100 x 10

3000

2880

3650

4300

4880

4 - 100 x 10

4000

3240

4100

4840

5480

Notes:
All values are bars arranged on edge and spacing equal to the bar thickness. All bars in free air
and painted black.
Values for 30C rise based on test results, values for 20, 40 and 50C rise based on 30C rise
values and assume temperature rise proportional to 1.75 power of I.
Courtesy of Ottermill Switchgear Ltd.

Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
a. Metric sizes
Outsidediameter

WallThickness

Crosssectionalarea

Approxweight

Moment
ofinertia
ofsection

Modulusof
section

Approxresistanceper
m 20C

Approx.
d.c.currentrating
(1)A

mm

mm

mm2

kg/m

mm4

mm3

Indoor

Outdoor

12

1.0

34.56

0.307

527.0

87.83

502

185

250

12

1.5

49.48

0.440

695.8

116.0

351

220

300

12

2.0

62.83

0.559

816.8

136.1

276

250

340

15

1.0

43.98

0.391

1083

144.4

394

225

300

15

1.5

63.62

0.566

1467

195.6

273

275

360

15

2.0

81.68

0.726

1766

235.5

212

310

400

18

1.0

53.40

0.475

1936

215.1

325

265

350

18

1.5

77.75

0.691

2668

296.4

223

320

420

18

2.0

100.5

0.894

3267

363.0

172

365

480

18

2.5

121.7

1.08

3751

416.8

143

405

530

22

1.0

65.98

0.587

3645

331.4

263

320

410

22

1.5

96.61

0.859

5102

463.8

179

385

500

22

2.0

125.7

1.12

6346

576.9

138

440

570

22

2.5

154.1

1.37

7399

672.7

112

490

630

22

3.0

179.1

1.59

8282

752.9

97.0

525

680

28

1.5

124.9

1.11

11000

785.5

139

480

620

28

2.0

163.4

1.45

13890

991.8

106.3

550

700

28

2.5

200.3

1.78

16440

1157

86.7

605

780

28

3.0

235.6

2.10

18670

1334

73.7

660

850

35

1.5

157.9

1.40

22190

1268

110

585

750

35

2.0

207.4

1.84

28330

1619

83.7

670

850

35

2.5

255.3

2.27

33900

1937

68.0

740

950

35

3.0

301.6

2.68

38940

2225

57.5

805

1030

54

1.5

247.4

2.20

85300

3160

70.2

855

1090

54

2.0

326.7

2.91

110600

4096

53.1

980

1250

54

2.5

404.5

3.60

134400

4978

42.9

1090

1390

54

3.0

480.7

4.27

156800

5808

36.1

1190

1520

76.1

2.0

465.6

4.14

319800

8404

37.3

1330

1690

76.1

2.5

578.1

5.14

392000

10300

30.0

1480

1880

76.1

3.0

689.0

6.13

461000

12110

25.2

1610

2050

76.1

3.5

798.3

7.10

527200

13850

21.7

1740

2210

108

2.5

828.6

7.37

1.153x106

21360

20.9

2010

2550

108

3.0

989.6

8.80

1.365x106

25280

17.5

2190

2790

108

3.5

1149

10.2

1.570x106

29080

15.1

2360

3010

133

3.0

1225

10.9

2.590x106

38940

14.1

2630

3350

133

3.5

1424

12.7

2.987x106

44920

12.1

2830

3610

159

3.0

1470

13.1

4.474x106

56280

11.8

3070

2910

159

3.5

1710

15.2

5.171x106

65040

10.1

3310

4420

b. Sizes based on Imperial dimensions

OutsideDiameter

WallThickness

Approx.sectionalarea

Approxweight

Momentof
inertiax
103

Modulusof
sectionx
103

Approx.resistanceper
m 20C

Approx. d.c.
currentrating (1)A

mm

mm

mm2

kg/m

mm4

mm3

Indoor

Outdoor

12.5

1.22

43.9

0.387

0.738

0.115

400.2

205

285

12.5

2.65

83.9

0.744

1.14

0.178

210.0

285

390

19

1.22

68.4

0.610

2.75

0.286

257.0

300

400

19

2.65

136

0.218

4.74

0.494

129.0

420

560

19

5.1

223

1.984

6.20

0.646

78.73

540

715

25

1.22

92.9

0.819

6.84

0.534

189.2

390

505

25

1.63

118

1.063

8.69

0.679

148.7

440

570

25

2.04

149

1.325

10.3

0.808

118.1

490

640

25

2.65

189

1.684

12.5

0.976

92.95

555

720

25

4.07

272

2.431

16.2

1.26

64.52

665

865

25

6.36

380

3.38

19.3

1.51

45.93

785

1020

32

1.63

154

1.378

17.6

1.10

114.8

540

695

32

3.26

291

2.59

30.2

1.89

60.14

745

955

32

6.36

506

4.51

43.8

2.74

35.00

985

1260

38

1.63

186

1.65

31.3

1.63

94.37

635

838

38

3.26

356

3.178

54.9

2.86

49.43

880

1138

38

7.64

730

6.498

90.7

4.73

24.06

1260

1620

44

1.63

219

1.955

50.6

2.26

80.48

730

935

44

3.26

421

3.74

90.6

4.04

41.77

1020

1300

44

7.64

882

7.84

157

7.01

19.90

1470

1880

50

1.63

250

2.227

76.6

2.99

70.42

820

1050

50

2.04

312

2.775

93.4

3.65

56.42

915

1170

50

4.07

597

5.30

165

6.46

29.52

1270

1620

50

4.87

702

6.25

189

7.39

25.04

1380

1760

50

6.41

892

7.93

227

8.85

19.68

1560

1980

50

10.2

1300

11.5

287

11.2

13.56

1870

2390

64

2.04

392

3.48

187

5.85

44.83

1110

1420

64

4.07

759

6.89

339

10.6

23.18

1550

1980

64

10.2

1700

15.1

632

19.8

10.33

2310

2960

75

1.63

380

3.40

267

6.95

46.26

1170

1500

75

2.04

472

4.21

328

8.55

37.29

1300

1670

75

2.65

610

5.43

417

10.9

28.87

1490

1900

75

4.07

912

8.13

606

15.8

19.25

1830

2320

75

4.89

1090

9.69

704

18.3

16.18

2000

2530

75

5.40

1200

10.78

761

19.8

14.65

2080

2660

75

10.2

2110

18.7

1190

30.9

8.311

2760

3530

89

2.65

716

6.37

672

15.0

24.60

1700

2170

89

5.40

1410

12.64

1250

27.8

12.47

2400

3050

89

12.7

3040

27.05

2290

51.0

5.785

3500

4470

100

3.26

1000

8.93

1230

23.9

17.50

2100

2680

100

6.41

1910

17.0

2200

42.9

9.196

2910

3710

100

12.7

3550

31.5

3600

70.4

4.954

3960

5050

115

3.26

1130

10.1

1760

30.6

15.53

2330

2970

115

6.41

2170

19.3

3200

55.5

8.103

3210

4090

115

12.7

4050

36.0

5350

92.9

4.341

4400

5610

127

4.07

1570

14.0

2990

46.8

11.15

2850

3600

127

7.64

2860

25.4

5150

80.5

6.156

3850

4850

127

12.7

4560

40.5

7600

119

3.860

4870

6130

140

4.89

2065

18.4

4740

67.3

8.518

3340

4000

140

8.86

3630

32.3

7870

112

4.844

4430

5600

140

19.1

7220

64.2

13600

193

2.438

6240

7900

150

5.90

2710

24.1

7350

95.6

6.484

4000

4930

150

10.2

4540

40.4

11600

151

3.871

5180

6370

150

19.1

7980

71.0

18200

238

2.209

6850

8450

1. Current ratings are for 50C temperature rise and 40C ambient

hthmm

Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
SINGLE CHANNEL
Width
offlange
fmm

Thicknesstmm

AreaAmm

Approx.weight
*kg/m

TWO CHANNELS

Moment
of
inertiax
105
mm4

Modulus
of
sectionx
105 mm3

Approx.d.c.resistanceat20C

Approx
a.c.
rating(A)

x-x

y-y

x-x

y-y

/m

Test 1

Calculate

33.3

4.91

542

4.82

5.06

0.543

0.133

0.0226

31.8

2200

3000

33.3

5.49

690

6.15

6.30

0.673

0.165

0.0286

24.9

2500

3400

33.3

7.21

884

7.86

7.78

0.822

0.204

0.0358

19.5

2800

3800

44.5

5.08

890

7.92

14.5

1.60

0.286

0.0497

19.4

3200

4400

44.5

6.10

1050

9.35

16.9

1.86

0.333

0.0583

16.4

3500

4800

44.5

8.59

1430

12.7

22.3

2.42

0.439

0.0780

12.0

4000

5550

55.6

6.60

1450

12.9

36.4

4.05

0.573

0.102

11.9

4500

6150

55.6

8.61

1850

16.4

45.4

5.02

0.796

0.127

9.35

5000

6850

68.3

7.01

1850

16.8

68.9

7.30

0.901

0.147

9.15

5600

7700

68.3

9.75

2550

22.7

90.9

10.7

1.19

0.220

6.76

6300

8600

68.3

12.5

3180

28.3

111

12.9

1.45

0.270

5.41

6700

9200

81.0

8.26

2610

23.2

129

15.9

1.46

0.272

6.59

7000

9650

81.0

13.2

4010

35.7

191

23.7

2.18

0.417

4.29

7900

10850

81.0

11.9

4280

38.0

272

34.3

2.68

0.513

4.04

8900

12300

105

12.7

5140

45.7

413

51.7

3.61

0.688

3.35

10000

13750

63.5 x
63.5

4.76

542

4.81

3.62

0.957

0.0806

0.0533

31.8

2750

3000

76.2 x
76.2

4.76

671

5.95

6.41

1.71

0.119

0.0583

35.7

3300

3600

76.2 x
76.2

6.35

910

8.08

8.08

1.92

0.150

0.0637

18.9

3650

4100

88.9 x
88.9

6.35

1070

9.52

13.3

3.33

0.211

0.0957

16.1

4200

4500

102 x
102

6.35

1230

10.9

17.5

5.00

0.243

0.128

14.1

4800

5200

114 x
114

6.35

1390

12.3

29.1

7.33

0.359

0.167

12.4

5400

5850

114 x
114

7.94

1650

14.7

35.5

9.20

0.439

0.208

10.4

6000

6550

127 x
127

7.94

1850

16.4

49.2

12.4

0.549

0.251

9.32

6750

7400

152 x
152

7.94

2260

20.1

86.5

21.6

0.803

0.370

7.61

8000

8700

* Weights based on 8.89 g/cm3

1. 30C rise on 40C ambient
2. 50C rise on 40C ambientFor approximate values for ambients below or above 40C decrease
or increase rating by 0.25% per C. Increase ratings by 20% if painted matt black.

Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Sectional
area

Weight

Moment
of
inertia
x 103

Section
modulus x
103

Approx
resistance per m
at 20C

Approx. d.c.
current capacity
(1)

Approx. a.c.
current rating
(1)

mm

mm2

g/m

mm4

mm3

28.27

251.9

0.0636

0.0212

609.7

130

130

50.27

447.9

0.2011

0.0503

343.0

195

195

10

78.54

699.8

0.4909

0.0982

219.5

265

265

12

113.1

1008

1.018

0.1696

152.4

340

340

15

176.7

1575

2.485

0.3313

97.56

460

460

18

254.5

2267

5.153

0.5726

67.75

590

590

22

380.1

3387

11.50

1.045

45.35

770

770

25

490.9

4374

19.17

1.534

35.12

920

910

28

615.8

5486

30.17

2.155

28.00

1070

1020

35

962.1

8572

73.66

4.209

17.92

1455

1275

42

1385

12344

152.7

7.274

12.44

1860

1550

50

1963

17495

306.8

12.27

8.780

2360

1850

56

2463

21945

482.8

17.24

7.000

2755

2040

63

3117

27775

773.3

24.55

5.531

3230

2270

68

3632

32358

1050

30.87

4.747

3585

2410

75

4418

39363

1553

41.42

3.902

4095

2630

Diameter

50C temperature rise and 40C ambient

Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and working
temperatures
a. Ambient temp = 30C
Calculated from formula 1, section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 30C = 3.781 x 103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 30C = 3.794 x 103
Resistivity, , at 30C = 1.772.cm
Size

Temp rise (C)

mm

10

20

30

40

50

60

12.5 x 2.5

65

95

120

145

160

175

16 x 2.5

80

120

150

175

200

215

20 x 2.5

95

145

180

210

240

260

25 x 2.5

115

175

220

255

290

315

31.5 x 2.5

140

210

265

310

350

385

40 x 2.5

175

260

325

385

430

475

50 x 2.5

210

315

395

465

525

575

63 x 2.5

255

385

485

570

640

705

16 x 4

105

155

195

230

260

285

20 x 4

125

185

235

275

310

340

25 x 4

150

225

280

330

370

410

31.5 x 4

180

270

340

400

450

500

40 x 4

220

335

420

490

555

610

50 x 4

270

405

510

595

670

740

63 x 4

330

495

620

725

820

900

80 x 4

405

605

765

895

1010

1110

100 x 4

490

735

925

1085

1225

1350

25 x 6.3

195

290

365

425

480

530

31.5 x 6.3

235

350

440

515

580

640

40 x 6.3

285

425

535

630

710

780

50 x 6.3

345

515

650

760

855

940

63 x 6.3

420

625

790

925

1040

1145

80 x 6.3

515

770

970

1135

1280

1405

100 x 6.3

620

930

1175

1375

1550

1705

125 x 63

755

1130

1425

1670

1885

2070

160 x 6.3

935

1405

1770

2070

2335

2570

50 x 10

445

665

835

980

1105

1215

63 x 10

535

805

1015

1190

1340

1475

80 x 10

655

985

1240

1455

1640

1800

100 x 10

795

1190

1500

1755

1980

2180

125 x 10

960

1440

1815

2125

2400

2640

160 x 10

1190

1785

2245

2635

2970

3265

200 x 10

1445

2165

2725

3195

3605

3965

250 x 10

1755

2635

3315

3885

4380

4820

100 x 16

1025

1535

1935

2270

2555

2815

125 x 16

1235

1855

2335

2735

3085

3395

160 x 16

1525

2290

2880

3375

3805

4185

200 x 16

1850

2770

3490

4090

4610

5070

250 x 16

2240

3360

4230

4955

5590

6150

315 x 16

2740

4105

5170

6060

6830

7515

b. Ambient temp = 40C

Calculated from formula 1, Section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 40C = 3.644 x 103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 40C = 3.656 x 103

Resistivity, , at 40C = 1.833 .cm

Size

Temp rise (C)

mm

10

20

30

40

50

60

12.5 x 2.5

65

95

120

140

160

175

16 x 2.5

80

115

145

175

195

215

20 x 2.5

95

140

180

210

235

260

25 x 2.5

115

170

215

250

285

315

31.5 x 2.5

140

210

260

305

345

380

40 x 2.5

170

255

320

380

425

470

50 x 2.5

205

310

390

460

515

570

63 x 2.5

255

380

480

560

635

695

16 x 4

100

155

190

225

255

280

20 x 4

120

185

230

270

305

335

25 x 4

145

220

280

325

365

405

31.5 x 4

180

270

335

395

445

490

40 x 4

220

330

415

485

545

600

50 x 4

265

395

500

585

660

730

63 x 4

325

485

610

715

810

890

80 x 4

400

595

750

880

995

1095

100 x 4

485

725

915

1070

1210

1330

25 x 6.3

190

285

360

420

475

525

31.5 x 6.3

230

345

435

510

575

630

40 x 6.3

280

420

530

620

700

770

50 x 6.3

340

505

640

750

845

930

63 x 6.3

410

615

775

910

1030

1130

80 x 6.3

505

755

955

1122

1260

1390

100 x 6.3

610

920

1155

1355

1530

1685

125 x 6.3

745

1115

1405

1645

1855

2045

160 x 6.3

920

1385

1740

2040

2305

2535

50 x 10

435

655

825

965

1090

1200

63 x 10

530

795

1000

1170

1320

1455

80 x 10

645

970

1220

1430

1615

1780

100 x 10

780

1170

1475

1730

1955

2150

125 x 10

945

1420

1790

2095

2365

2605

160 x 10

1170

1755

2215

2595

2930

3225

200 x 10

1420

2135

2685

3150

3555

3915

250 x 10

1730

2595

3265

3830

4320

4755

100 x 16

1010

1515

1905

2235

2520

2775

125 x 16

1220

1825

2300

2700

3045

3350

160 x 16

1500

2255

2840

3330

3755

4130

200 x 16

1820

2730

3435

4030

4545

5005

250 x 16

2205

3310

4165

4885

5510

6070

315 x 16

2695

4045

5095

5975

6740

7415

c. Ambient temp = 50C

Calculated from formula 1, Section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 50C = 3.516 x 103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 50C = 3.527 x 103
Resistivity, , at 50C = 1.888 .cm
Size

Temp rise (C)

mm

10

20

30

40

50

60

12.5 x 2.5

65

95

120

140

155

175

16 x 2.5

75

115

145

170

195

210

20 x 2.5

95

140

175

205

230

255

25 x 2.5

110

170

210

250

280

310

31.5 x 2.5

135

205

260

305

340

375

40 x 2.5

170

250

320

375

420

465

50 x 2.5

205

305

385

455

510

565

63 x 2.5

250

375

470

555

625

690

16 x 4

100

150

190

220

250

275

20 x 4

120

180

230

265

300

330

25 x 4

145

215

275

320

365

400

31.5 x 4

175

265

335

390

440

485

40 x 4

215

325

410

480

540

595

50 x 4

260

390

495

580

655

720

63 x 4

320

480

605

705

800

880

80 x 4

390

590

740

870

980

1080

100 x 4

475

715

900

1060

1185

1315

25 x 6.3

185

280

355

415

470

515

31.5 x 6.3

225

340

430

500

565

625

40 x 6.3

275

415

520

610

690

760

50 x 6.3

335

500

630

740

835

920

63 x 6.3

405

610

765

900

1015

1120

80 x 6.3

500

745

940

1105

1245

1370

100 x 6.3

605

905

1140

1340

1510

1665

125 x 6.3

730

1100

1385

1625

1835

2020

160 x 6.3

910

1365

1720

2015

2275

2505

50 x 10

430

645

815

955

1075

1185

63 x 10

520

780

985

1155

1305

1435

80 x 10

635

955

1205

1415

1595

1755

100 x 10

770

1155

1455

1710

1930

2125

125 x 10

935

1400

1765

2070

2335

2575

160 x 10

1155

1735

2185

2565

2890

3185

200 x 10

1400

2105

2650

3110

3510

3865

250 x 10

1705

2555

3220

3780

4265

4700

100 x 16

995

1495

1880

2210

2490

2745

125 x 16

1200

1800

2270

2665

3005

3310

160 x 16

1480

2220

2800

3285

3710

4085

200 x 16

1795

2690

3390

3980

4490

4945

250 x 16

2175

3265

4110

4825

5445

5995

315 x 16

2660

3990

5025

5900

6655

7330

Bibliography
Note that only CDA Publications are available from Copper Development Association. Other
reference material is available from the appropriate standards organisation or from a technical
library service.
National and International Standards
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
Section 9

National and International Standards

British and European Standards:
BS 23 Copper and copper-cadmium trolley and contact wire for electric traction.
BS 7884 Copper and copper-cadmium stranded conductors for overhead electric traction and power transmission systems.
BS 159 Busbar and busbar connections.
BS 6931 Glossary of terms for copper and copper alloys.
BS 1432 Copper for electrical purposes, strip with drawn or rolled edges.

BS 1433 Copper for electrical purposes, rod and bar.

BS 1434 Copper for electrical purposes - commutator bar.
BS 1977 High conductivity copper tubes for electrical purposes.
BS EN 1652 Copper and copper alloys. Plate, sheet and circles for general purposes.
BS EN 12165 Copper and copper alloys. Wrought and unwrought forging stock.
BS EN 12166 Copper and copper alloys. Wire for general purposes.
BS EN 12163 Copper and copper alloys. Rod for general purposes.
BS EN 1652 Copper and copper alloys. Plate, sheet, strip and circles for general purposes.
BS 4109 Copper for electrical purposes-wire for general electrical purposes and for insulated cables and cards.
BS 4608 Copper for electrical purposes-rolled sheet, strip and foil.
BS 5311 High voltage alternating-current circuit-breakers.
BS EN 60439-2 Specification for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. Particular requirements for busbar trunking
systems (busways).
BS EN 1976 Copper and copper alloys. Cast unwrought copper products.
BS EN 1978 Copper and copper alloys. Copper cathodes
BS EN 60439-1 Specification for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. Specification for type-tested and partially
type-tested assemblies.

IEC Specifications
IEC 28 International standard of resistance for copper.
IEC 137 Bushings for alternating voltages above 1000V.
IEC 273 Dimensions of indoor and outdoor post insulators and post insulator units for systems with nominal voltage greater than
1000V.
IEC 344 Guide to the calculation of resistance of plain and coated copper conductors of low frequency wires and cables.
IEC 349 Factory-built assembler of low-voltage switchgear and controlgear.

American Specifications
C 29.1 Electric power insulators, test methods for.
C 37.20 Switchgear assemblies including metal-enclosed bus.
C 37.30 High voltage air switches insulators and bus supports, definition and requirements for.
C 37.31 Indoor apparatus insulators, electrical and mechanical characteristics.

Section 2
BOWERS, J.E. and MANTLE, E.C.: Copper for Transformer Windings. J. Inst. Met., 91,1961/2, pp
142-146.
BRANDES, E.A.: Smithells Metals Reference Book. 6th Edition, (Butterworths), 1983.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Copper in Electrical Contacts. C.D.A. Pub. TN23,
1980.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: High Conductivity Coppers-Properties and
Applications. C.D.A. Pub. TN29, 1981.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: High Conductivity Coppers Technical Data. C.D.A.
Pub. TN27, 1981.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Megabytes on Coppers, CD-ROM, 1994.
RUSKIN, A.M.: On the Safety of Copper and Aluminium Busbars. I.E.E.E. Technical Conference
on Industrial and Commerial Power Systems, Toronto, 6th May, 1975.

Section 3
BURNS, R.L.: Determination of Current-Carrying Capacity of Rectangular Copper Busbars. Pub.
224/77, Copper and Brass Information Centre, Australia, 1977.
BURNS, R.L.: Determination of Current-Carrying Capacity of Rectangular Copper Busbars. Paper
1, Copper Busbar Symposium, Johannesburg, 21st Nov., 1978.
CHIN, T.H. and HIGGINS TJ.: Equations for the Inductances and Current Distribution of MultiConductor Single-Phase and Polyphase Buses. A.I.E.E Paper 57-654, 1957.
DWIGHT, H.B., ANDREW, G.W., and TILESTON, H.W.: Temperature Rise of Busbars Calculated
and Test Results for Single and Built Up Bar Forms, Also Solid and Tubular Round and Square
Tubular Forms. Cen. Elec. Rev., 43, pp 213-218.
FUGILL, A.P.: Carrying Capacity of Enclosed Busbars. Elect. World, 99, 1932, pp 539-540.
HOLME, R.: Electric Contact. (Gebers), Stockholm, 1946.
MCADAMS, W.H.: Heat Transmission. (McGraw-Hill), 1933, p 44.
MELSOM, S.W. and H.C. BOOTH: Current-Carrying Capacity of Solid Bars. Jour. I. E. E., 62,
1924, pp 909 915.
MONTSINGER, V.M., and WETHERILL, L.: Effect of Colour of Tank on Temperature of Self
Cooled Transformers. Trans. A.l.E.E., 49, 1930, pp 41-51.
PABST, H.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Busbars. Elect. World, 94, Sept., 1929, pp 569-572.
PABST H.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Hollow Conductors. Elect. J., July, 1931, pp 411-414.
PRAGER, M., PEMBERTON, D.L., CRAIG, A.G., and BLESHMAN, N.A.: Thermal Considerations
for Outdoor Bus Design. I.E.E.E. Trans., PAS-95, No. 4, July/Aug., 1976.

RICHARDS, T.L.: The Current Rating of Rectangular Copper Busbars with Metric Dimensions.
Elec. Rev., 186, 6th Mar., 1970. (Also C.D.A. Pub. No. R39).
SCHURIG, O.R. and FRICK, C.W.: Heating and Current-Carrying Capacity of Bare Conductors
for Outdoor Service. Gen. Elec. Rev., 33, No. 3, Mar., 1930, pp 141-157.

Section 4
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Alternating Current Resistance of Parallel Conductors of Circular CrossSection. J. I. E. R., 77,1935, pp 49-50.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Altemating Current Resistance of Tubular Conductors. J.l.E.E., 78, 1936,
pp 580-593. Discussion J.I.E.E., 79, 1936, pp 595-596.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Transmission of Altemating Current Power with Small Eddy Current
Losses. J.I.E.E., 80, 1937, pp 395-400.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: Proximity Effects in Solid and Hollow Round Conductors. J.I.E.E., 88, 1941, pp
349-359
BILLHIMER, F.M.: Current Capacity of Copper Busbars. Elec. J. ,15, 1918, pp 94-96.
Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards (Washington), 8,1912, pp 173-179.
BURNS, R.L.: Current Rating of Open Type Three Phase Rectangular Busbars by Actual Test.
Pub. 219/76, Copper and Brass Infommation Centre, Australia, 1976.
BURNS, R.L.: A.C. Current Rating of Open Rectangular Copper Busbars by Calculation. Pub.
221/77, 1977, Copper and Brass Information Centre, Australia.
COCKCROFT, J.D.: Skin Effects in Rectangular Conductors at High Frequencies. Proc. Roy. Soc.
,122, 1929, pp 533-542.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect of a Return circuit of Two Adjacent Strap Conductors. Elec. Jour. ,13,
1916, pp 157-158.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect in Tubular and Flat Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 37, Pt. 2,1918, pp
1379-1403.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Skin Effect and Proximity Effect in Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 41, 1922,
pp 189-198.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Proximity Effect in Wires and Thin Tubes. Trans. A.l.E.E., 42, 1923, pp 850-859.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance and Skin Effect of Concentric Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 61,
1942, p 513
ESCHBACH, O.E.: Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals. (J. Wiley and Sons).
FORBES, H.C. and GORMAN, L. J.: Skin Effect in Rectangular Conductors. Elec. Engineering,
Sept. 1933, pp 636-639.
FUGILL, A.P.: Carrying Capacity of Enclosed Busbars. Elec. World, 99, 1932, pp 539-540.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Geometric Mean Distance of Rectangular Areas and of Line
Segments. J. App. Phys., 14, No. 4, 1943, p 188.

HIGGINS, T.J.: Theory and Application of Complex Logarithms and Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A. I.E.E., 66, 1947, p 12.
MAYE, E.: Industrial High Frequency Electric Power. (Chapman and Hall), p 167.
SIEGEL, C.M. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for Determining Current Distribution Among the
Conductors of Buses Compromised of Double Channel Conductors. A.I.E.E. Paper 54-467, 1954.
WADDICOR, H.: Principles of Electric Power Transmission. 3rd Edition, (Chapman and Hall),
1935.
WAGNER, C.F.: Current Distribution in Multi-Conductor Single-Phase Buses. Elec. World, 79,
1922, pp 526-529.
WILSON, W.: Discussion, J. l. E. E., 71, 1932, pp 341-342.
WRIGHT, E.G.: A.C. Ratings of Rectangular Conductors. Elec. Rev., 199,. No 5, 30th July 1976.

Section 5
ARNOLD, A.N.M.: The Transmission of Alternating Current Power with Small Eddy Current
Losses. J.I.E.E . 80, 1937, pp 395 400.
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Alternating Current Resistance of Hollow Square Conductors. J.I.E.E., 82,
1938, pp 537-545 .
BOAST, W.B.: Transpositions and the Calculation of Inductance from Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A.I.E.E., 69, 1950, pp 1531-1534.
BOHN, D.l. rnd BABST, H.W.: Conductors of Heavy Alternating Currents. Iron and Steel
Engineer, June, 1951.
CONAUGLA, A.: Heat Losses in Isolated Phase Bus Enclosures. I.E.E.E. Paper 63-65, 1963.
DEANS, W.: What Shape Conductors for Electrical Busbars? Power, Feb., 1943, pp 75-78.
DWIGHT, H.B., ANDREW, G.W., snd TILESTON, H.W.: Temperature Rise of Busbars Calculated
and Test Results for Single and Built Up Bar Forms, Also Solid and Tubular Round and Square
Tubular Forms. Gen. Elec. Rev., 43, pp 213-218.
FISCHER, L.E. and FRANK, R.L.: Paired Phase Busbars for Large Polyphase Currents. A.l.E.E.
Paper 43-17, 1943.
HOUSE, H.H. and WHIDDEN, P.: Self-lnductance of Bus Conductors with Complex CrossSections. A.I.E.E. Paper 57-797, 1957.
KILLLIAN, S.C.: Induced Currents in High-Capacity Busbar Enclosures. Trans. A.I.E.E., 69,1950,
p 1388.
MORMIER, C.: Busbars and Low and Medium Voltage Connections. Rev. Elect. Mec. ,1952, 89, p
17.
RICHARDS, T.L.: Current-Rating Tests on Double Angle Section Copper Conductors.
Engineering, 184, 1957, p 823.

SKEETS, W.F. and SWERDLOW, N.: Minimising the Magnetic Field Surrounding Isolated Phase
Bus by Electrically Continuous Enclosures. I.E.E.E. Paper 62-171, 1962.
WAGNER, C.F.: Current Distribution in Multi-Conductor Single Phase Buses. Elect. World, 79, pp
526-529.
WYMAN, B.W., and SHORES, R.B.: A New Isolated-Phase Metal-Enclosed Bus. Trans. A.l.E.E.,
67, 1948, p 699.

Section 6
Asea Jour., Electromagnetic Forces on Busbars. 25, 1952, p 84.
BATES, A.C.: Basic Concepts in the Design of Electrical Bus for Short-Circuit Conditions. A.l.E.E.
Paper, 57-717. 1957.
CHIN, T.H. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for Evaluating Short-circuit Forces on Multi-Strap
Single-Phase and Polyphase Buses for Supplying Low Frequency Induction Furnaces.
DARLING, A.G.: Short-Circuit Calculating Procedure for Low Voltage A.C. Systems. A.l.E.E.
Trans., 60, 1941, pp 1121-1135.
DUNTON, W.F.: Electromagnetic Forces on Current-Carrying Conductors. J. Sci. Instr., 4, pp 440446.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Repulsion Between Strap Conductors. Elect. World, 70, 1917, pp 522-524.
EVERITT, L.M.R.: The Calculations of Short Time Ratings of Bare Electrical Conductors. J.I.E.E.,
93, 1945, pp 380-387 .
FRICK, C.W.: Electromagnetic Forces on Conductors with Bends, Short Lengths and CrossOvers. Gen. Elec. Rev., 36, 1933, pp 232242.
KNOWLTON, A.E.: Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers. 8th Edition, (McGraw-Hill),
Tables 12-27, p 1144.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low-Voltage Breaking Capacity: Fault Current More Important than kVA
Ruptured. Elec. Rev. ,119, No. 3100, 30th Apr. 1937, p 654.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low-Voltage Short Circuit Calculations: The Effect of Equivalent High-Voltage
Reactance. Elec. Rev., 123, No. 3182, 18th Nov. 1938.
PAPST, H.W.: Stresses in Buses During Short circuit. Elec. J., 31, 1934, pp 322-323.
PILCHER, E.E.I.: Short circuit Forces on Busbars. World Power, 24, 1935, pp 116-123.
SCHURIG, O.E. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During ShortCircuits. A.l.E.E. Trans., 44, 1952, pp 217-237.
SCHURIG, O.E., FRICK, C.W. and SAYRE, M.F.: Practical Calculations of Short-Circuit Stresses
in Supports for Straight Parallel Bus Conductors. Gen. Elec. Rev., 29,1926, pp 534-544.
SIEGEL, C.M. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for the Inductance and Short-Circuit Forces of
Buses Comprised of Double-Channel Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 71, 1952, p 425.
TANBERG, R.: Stresses in Bus Supports. Elect. J., 24, 1927, pp 517-525.

TIMASCHEFF, A.S.: Standard Curves for Calculations of Forces Between Parallel and
Perpendicular Conductors. Eng. J., Oct., 1953.
VAN ASPEREN, C.H.: Mechanical Forces on Busbars Under Short Circuit Conditions. Trans.
A.I.E.E., 42, 1923, pp 1091-1111.
WAGNER, C.F. and EVANS, R.D.: Symmetrical Components. (McGraw-Hill).
WILSON, W.: The Calculation and Design of Electrical Apparatus. (Chapman and Hall), London,
1940.
WILSON, W.R. and MANKOFF, L.L.: Short-Circuit Forces in Isolated Phase Buses. A.l.E.E. Paper
54-138. 1954.

Section 7
CONSTABLE, F.H.: Growth of Oxide Films. Proc. Roy. Soc., 115, 1927-8, p 385.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Joining of Copper and Copper Alloys. C.D.A. Pub.
TN25, 1980. (now superseded by Publication No 98)
DENAULT, C.L.: Electrical Contact of Busbar Joints. Elect. J., 30, 1933, pp 281-282.
DONATI, E.: Overlapping Joints in Electric Furnace Circuits. L'Energia Elettrica, 12, No. 6,1935.
DWIGHT, H.B. and WANG, T.K.: Reactance of Square Tubular Busbars.A.l.E.E. Trans., 57, 1938,
pp762-765.
FRICK, C.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Bare Cylindrical Conductors for Indoor and Outdoor
Service. Gen. Elec. Rev., 34, 1931, pp 464-471.
HALPERIN, H.: Economical Utilisation of Electric Power Equipment. Power App. and Systerns,
Apr., 1953, p 203.
JACKSON, R.A.: Electrical Performance of Aluminium and Copper Bolted Joints. Proc. I.E.E.,
129, Pt. C, No . 4, Jul., 1982 pp 177-184.
KOUWENHOVEN, W.B. and LITTLE, C.: Contact Resistance. Welding J., 31, No. 10, Oct. 1952,
p 457.
LANCTOT, E.K.: Temperature Rise and Joint Resistance of Three-Phase Bus Assemblies of
Aluminium and Copper. A.l.E.E. Paper 57-718, 1957.
LUKE, G.E.: The Resistance of Electrical Connections. Elec. J., 21, 1924, pp 66-69.
MELSOM, S.W. and BOOTH, H.C.: The Efficiency of Overlapping Joints. J.I.E.E., 60,1922, pp
889-899.
SAYERS, D.P., FORREST, J.S. and LANE, F.J.: 275 kV Developments on the British Grid
System. Proc. I.E.E.. 99. Pt. II, No. 72,1953, p 582.
WATSON, C.G.: Sags and Tensions in Overhead Lines. (Pitman), 1931.
WENNER, F., NUSBAUM, G.W. and CRUIKSHANKS, B.C.: Electrical Resistance of Contacts
Between Nuts and Bolts. Bur. Stand. J. Res. Wash., 5, 1930, pp 757-766.

Section 8
ASHDOWN, K.T. and SWERDLOW, N.: Cantilever-Loaded Insulators for Isolated Phase Bus.
A.I.E.E. Paper 54-141, 1954.
KILLIAN, S.C.: Mechanical Forces on Buses due to Fault Currents. Elect. World, Dec. 12th, 1942,
pp 60-62.
SCHURIG, O.R. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During ShortCircuits. A.I.E.E., 44, 1952, pp 217-237.
SCHURIG, O.E., FRICK, C.W. and SAYRE, M.F.: Practical Calculations of Short-Circuit Stresses
in Supports for Straight Parallel Bus Conductors. Gen. Elec. Rev., 29, 1926, pp 534-544.
TRIPP, W.A.: Forces on Conductors During Short-Circuit. Elect. J., Dec., 1937, pp 493-497.

Section 9
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Inductance of Linear Conductors of Rectangular Section. J.I.E.E., 70,
1932, pp 579 586.
BOGARDUS, L.R.: Resistance Welder Feed has Low Reactance Drop. Elec. World, 10th Sept.
1938, p 702.
DEANS, W.: What Shape Conductors for Electrical Busbars? Power, Feb., 1943, pp 75-78.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance of Strap Conductors. Elec. Rev., 70, 1917, p 1087.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance Values for Rectangular Conductors. Elec. J., 16, 1919, p 255.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance and Skin Effect of Concentric Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 61,
1942, p 513
DWIGHT, H.B.: Geometric Mean Distance for Rectangular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 65, 1946,
p 328.
DWIGHT, H.B. and WANG, T.K.: Reactance of Square Tubular Busbars. Trans. A.l.E.E., 57,
1938, p 762. Discussion, p 765.
Elec. Times: Transformers for Electric Furnaces. 5th Dec. 1940, p 375.
GRAY, A.: Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism. 2nd Edition, (MacMillan), 1921,
Chapter XIII.
GROVER, F.W.: The Calculation of Inductance and Reactance of Single Layer Coils and Spirals
Wound with Wire of Large Cross Section. Proc. I.R.E. (US), 17, No. 11, Nov. 1929, p 2053.
GROVER, F.W.: Inductance Calculations. (Van Nostrand), 1946.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E.,
60, 1941, p 1046.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. J.App. Phys. ,
13, No. 11,1942, p 1046.

HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Calculation of the Inductance of Linear Conductors of Structural
Shape. Trans. A.l.E.E., 62, Feb., 1943, p 53.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Geometric Mean Distance of Rectangular Areas and of Line
Segments. J. App. Phys.!eu!, 14, No. 4, 1943, p 188.
HIGGINS, T.J.: The Design of Busbars for Industrial Distribution Systems and Epitomisation of
Available Data. Trans. A.l.E.E., 64, 1945, p 385.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Theory and Application of Complex Logarithms and Geometric Mean Distances.
Trans. A.l.E.E., 66, 1947, p 12.
HIGGINS, T.J. and MESSINGER H.P.: Equations for the Inductance of Three-Phase Co-Axial
Buses Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. J. App. Phys. ,18, 1947, p 1009.
KARAPETOFF, V.: The Inductance of Cables and Transmission Lines. (McGraw-Hill), 1914.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low Voltage Short-Circuit Calculations: The Effect of Equivalent High-Voltage
Reactance. Elec. Rev., 123, No. 3182, 18th Nov. 1938.
LYTHALL, R.T.: The J and P Switchgear Book. (Johnson and Phillips Ltd.), 1947, p 271.
MAXWELL, J.C.: On the Geometrical Mean Distance of Two Figures in a Plane. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin., 26, 1872, p 729.
MESSINGER, H.P. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Reactance of Co-Axial Buses
Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 65, 1946, p 328.
MILLER, W.H.: Three-Phase Rectangular Conductors-A Simplified Reactance Formula.
Electrician, 20th June 1947, p 1681.
O'RAHILLY, A.: A Note on Self-Inductance. J.l.E.E.,86, No. 518, Feb. 1940, p 179. Discussion,
June 1940, p 567.
ROSA, E.B.: On the Geometrical Mean Distances of Rectangular Areas and the Calculation of
Self-Inductance. N. B. S. Bull., 3, 1907, p 1.
ROSA, E.B. and GROVER, F.W.: Formulas and Tables for the Calculation of Mutual and Self
Inductance (Revised and Extended). N. B. S. Bull., 8, 1912, Paper No. 169.
ROTH, E.D.: Champ Magnetique et Inductance d'un Systeme de Barres Rectangulaires
Paralleles. Rev. Gen. de l'Elec, 44, No. 9, 3rd Sept. 1938, p 275.
SCHURIG, O.R.: Engineering Calculation of Inductance and Reactance for Rectangular Bar
Conductors. Gen Elec. Rev., 36, No 5, May 1933, pp 228-231.
SCHWANTZ, W.G. and HIGGINS T.l.: Formulas for Calculating the Inductance of Channels
Located Back to Back. Trans. A.l.E.E., 65, 1946, p 893.
SIEGEL, C.M. end HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for the Inductance and Short-Circuit Forces of
Buses Comprised of Double-Channel Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 71, 1952, p 425.