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-1 ) (93.75 m ) (20.
0 m
) (20.01 m .

.
=
) (
)
20.01
= 93.7968 m
* True length = 93.75
20.0
-2 ) . (88.50 m .

) (20.0 m ) (20.0 cm .
= 20.0 m = 19.80 m = 20.0 0.20
19.80
= 87.615 m
20.0
* true length = 88.50
-3 ) (30.0 m ) (656.0 m2
) (29.99 m .
) (
) (
29.99
2
* True area = 656.0
= 655.562 m .
30.0
-4 :
-
- .
1
Prepared By:/ Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.
-
) ( 1:n 1
n .
H1
V1
V2
L2
L1
H2
L
2.n 2
Or the Horizontal distance (H) = L . cos
= )E (Correction
- ) (:
Data is the inclined distance (L), and level difference (V).
Assume that L2 = V2 + (L-E)2, where E is the correction value.
V2 V4
E = L L
2.L 8.L3
V2 V4
=E
+
2.L 8.L3
-5 ) (20.0 m ) (100.0 m ) (5.0 cm

) (20.01m ) (18.0 0C ) (20.0 0C (9*10-
)7 ) (60 0 .
-1 :
2
8.S
32.S
....
3.D 15.D 2
H = D
Where:
Horizontal distance
length of the measuring tape
sag of the tape
H
D
S

:
2
8.S
32.S
+
3.D 15.D 3
= E = DH
Correction of sag:
8 * (0.05) 2
= 0.033 cm.
3 * 20.0
=E
-2 :
) E = .H ( d 1 d
Where:
E
d1
d
Correction due to temperature change

coefficient of thermal expansion
degree of temperature at measuring
degree of temperature at calibration.
*E = 9*10-7
-6 ABC :
AB = 400.0 m , AC = 250.0 m.
D BC CD = 150.0 m BD = 125.0 m AD :
.
).(15
C
m
15
0.0
25
0.0
D
m
12
5.0
A
40 0. 0 m

AD =
( AB) 2 .DC + ( AC ) 2 .DB

BD.DC
BC
AD =
(400) 2 .150 + (250) 2 .125

125.0 *150.0 = 311.339 m
275
or,
( AC ) 2 + ( BC ) 2 ( AB) 2
cos( ) =
2 * AC * BC
cos( ) =
(250) 2 + (275) 2 (400) 2

=
2 * 250 * 275
(AD)2 = (AC)2 + (CD)2 2*AC*CD*cos ()

-7
: -
-1
2
e
e
B A
f
c
90.0
c
A
A
B
d

-8 .
C
H
F
A
D
-9 .

:
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Summation of internal angles of a closed polygon = (n-2)*180
. (1)
Where:
n
number of polygons sides.
Summation of internal angles of a closed polygon (with the help of members bearings) = of
back bearings - of front bearings + L*360 . (2)
Where:
L
number of points whose front bearing is greater than the back bearing of the previous
member.
.
Error of internal angles () = (n-2)*180 { of back bearings - of front bearings + L*360 }
Allowable error = K . 2.n
Where:
constant
The amount of correction for each direction (e) =
2.n
Examples:
1- A closed polygon (abcd) was created. The bearings of all its members was measured by a
compass, and they were as follows:
Member
Front
Bearing
Back
Bearing
Ab
1800 ...`
bc
2600 40`
Ca
610 50`
cd
3500 30`
Da
850 40`
0 20`
810
2400 40`
1700 40`
2650 30`
2- The following observations were taken by a compass for a closed traverse. It is required to
adjust the bearings of that traverse by the exact method, and the sides of the traverse by
Bowditch method (length of sides method).
Side
Length
Front Bearing
Back Bearing
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
96.23
121.15
79.16
102.77
94.75
64o 16`
128o 17`
201o 03`
288o 46`
324o 16`
244o 20`
307o 51`
22o 36`
107o 59`
144o 12`
Solution
:
: -1
:
. (1)
= 180 (n-2)
where n = total number of angles, or sides of the polygon

:
12817'0"
24420'0"
14412'00"
6416'0"
20103'0"
30751'0"
10759'0"
32416'00"
2236'0"
28846'0"
Angle (abc) = 244o 20` - 128o 17`

Angle (cde) = 360 (288o 46` - 22o 36`)

:
= + 360
)(2
)( =
) (d ) (de ) (cd ) (de

) (cd ) (d )(.
)( ) (bc
) (ab ` 1280 17 ` 2440 20 :
Back Bearing
Front Bearing
Line
Point
`244o 20
`64o 16
AB
`307o 51
`128o 17
BC
`22o 36
`201o 03
CD
`107o 59
`288o 46
DE
`144o 12
`324o 16
EA
`826o 58
`1006o 38
Summation
) (2
=2
) (d, e .
) ( : ) (1 )(2
} = 180 (5-2) { (826o 58` - 1006o 38`) + 2 * 360

`= 540.0 540o 20
`= -00o 20

)(

)(
:
Allowable error = k . 2.n , k is constant, n: number of internal angles.
) 10 = 2 5 = (2
=
:
= )error for each direction (e

), (fraction
2.n
ex: assume that n = 5, = 46,
46
= 4.6
2*5
-1 )(e 1 +
).(4, 4+1
e1 = 4, and
e2 = 5
-2 )(e2
d1 = - 2.n.e1
)= 46 2*5*4 = 6 directions (takes the correction 5
-3 )(e1
d2 = 2.n d1
)d2 = 10 6 = 4 directions (takes the correction 4
=e
`= -20.0 / 10 = -2.0
2.n
=e
= -20.0`,
)` (2.0 )`.(2.0
Corrected
Back Bearing
Corrected
Front Bearing
Back Bearing
Front Bearing
Line
`244o 18
`64o 18
`244o 20
`64o 16
AB
`307o 49
`128o 19
`307o 51
`128o 17
BC
`22o 34
`201o 05
`22o 36
`201o 03
CD
`107o 57
`288o 48
`107o 59
`288o 46
DE
`144o 10
`324o 18
`144o 12
`324o 16
EA
`826o 48
`1006o 48
o.k.
Summation
= 826o 48` - 1006o 48` + 2 * 360 = 540o

-2 :
F1
B b
F2
) (a , b ) (a , b
180
:
F2 + b 180 = F1 + a
) (3
)b - a = 180 (F2 F1
) (a , b , c , . :
-1 ) (
-2 ) ( 180 :
b - a = k1
c - b = k2
d - c = k3
..
= :
k1 + k2 + k3 + . = 0.0
10
Line
Corrected
Front Bearing
Corrected
Back Bearing
Difference
Back - Front
180 - d
AB
64o 18`
244o 18`
180
0.0
BC
128o 19`
307o 49`
179o 30`
0o 30`
CD
201o 05`
22o 34`
-178o 31`
1o 29`
DE
288o 48`
107o 57`
-180o 51`
-00 51`
EA
324o 18`
144o 10`
-180o 8`
-00 8`
b - a = 0.0
c - b = 0o 30`
d - c = -1o 29`
e - d = 0o 51`
a - e = 00 8`
for check
0o 30` - 1o 29` + 0o 51` + 00 8` = 0.0
b = a = 0.0
c = 00 30`
d = -1o 29` + c = -1o 29` + 0o 30` = -0o 59`
e = 0o 51` + d = 0o 51` - 0o 59` = -0o 8`
the last equation is used for check

a - e = 0.0 (-0o 8`) = 0o 8`
o.k.
Line
front
Back
AB
0.0
0.0
BC
0.0
0o 30`
CD
0o 30`
-0o 59`
DE
-0o 59`
-0o 8`
EA
-0o 8`
0.0
Corrected
Front Bearing
64o 18` + 0.0

= 64o 18`
128o 19` + 0.0
= 128o 19`
201o 05` + 00 30`
= 201o 35`
288o 48` - 0o 59`
= 287o 49`
324o 18` - 0o 8`
= 324o 10`
Corrected
Back Bearing
244o 18` + 0.0

= 244o 18`
307o 49` + 0o 30`
= 308o 19`
22o 34` - 0o 59`
= 21o 35`
107o 57` - 0o 8`
= 107o 49`
144o 10` + 0.0
= 144o 10`
11

:( )
_
+
+
East
West
_
_
+
N.E (North-East)
N.W (North-West)
S.E (South-East)
S.W (South-West)
:
the Vertical component is (+) and Horizontal component is (+)
the Vertical component is (+) and Horizontal component is (-)
the Vertical component is (-) and Horizontal component is (+)
the Vertical component is (-) and Horizontal component is (-)
Then,
The vertical component (V) = L * cos ()
The horizontal component (H) = L * sin (),
Where
is the reduced bearing ()
Line
Length
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
96.23
121.15
79.16
102.77
94.75
494.06
Length of error =
=
Corrected
Front Bearing
Reduced
Bearing
64o 18`
128o 19`
201o 35`
287o 49`
324o 10`
N.E 64o 18`

S.E 51o 41`
S.W 21o 35`
N.W 72o 11`
N.W 35o 50`
Vertical
Horizontal
Component Component
+41.731
-75.114
-73.61
+31.445
+76.816
+1.2684
(Vertical Components ) + (Horizontal Components )

2
+86.711
+95.054
-29.119
-97.841
-55.469
-0.6655
2
(1.2684) 2 + (0.6655) 2 = 1.4324
12
Length of error
1.4324
=
= 2.8992*10-3.
Total length of traverse lines 494.06
= % of error
) (1:100
) (1:500 .
:

Corrected Corrected
Vl. Comp. Hl. Comp.
41.484
86.841
-75.425
95.217
-73.813
-29.012
31.181
-97.703
76.573
-55.341
0.0
0.0
Vl.
Corr.
-0.2471
-0.3110
-0.2032
-0.2638
-0.2433
Hl.
Corr.
+0.1296
+0.1632
+0.1066
+0.1384
+0.1276
Vertical
Horizontal
Component Component
+41.731
+86.711
-75.114
+95.054
-73.61
-29.119
+31.445
-97.841
+76.816
-55.469
+1.2684
-0.6655
Length
Line
96.23
121.15
79.16
102.77
94.75
494.06
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
C
`A
`B
D
`D
`C
13
Area:
1- It is required to find the area of the closed traverse, if the coordinates of its corners are as
follows:
Point
XCoordinate
YCoordinate
10
45
87
138
104
36
40
77
65
83
14
D
C
A
F
Area = 0.50 { (X1.Y2 + X2.Y3 + X3.Y4 + X4.Y5 + X5.Y6 + X6.Y1)

(Y1.X2 + Y2.X3 + Y3.X4 + Y4.X5 + Y5.X6 + Y6.X1) }
= 0.50 { (10 * 77 + 45 * 65 + 87 * 83 + 138 * 3 + 104 * 14 + 36 * 40)
(40 * 45 + 77 * 87 + 65 * 138 + 83 * 104 + 3 * 36 + 14 * 10)
= 0.50 * 12123 = 6061.50
14
2- The area by the lines components:

A
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA
X component
150
175
-65
-160
-100
Y component
-275
-135
-130
300
240
Vertical
Y1 = -275
2Y1+Y2 = -685
2(Y1+Y2)+Y3 = -950
2(Y1+Y2+Y3)+Y4 = -780
2(Y1+Y2+Y3+Y4)+Y5 = -240
2*Area
-41250
-119875
61750
124800
24000
49425
Area = 0.50 * 49425 = 24712.50
15

.
.
-1 :
:
X1
a1
X2
b1
t
k
c1

.
a1.b1 =

m
a,c
b
a1 , b1 , c1
X
X1
X2
t
H
o
X
)+ ( X + t
ab
) = (ab
X
= K1
ab
K1 50 , 100 , 200
16
D = H.

(X + t ) = K = +

60 30.
D = H . K1 + K
( .
= +
.
) (:
a1
b1
c1
X1
Y1
X2
m
a
b
c
X
. cos 2 + ( X + t ). cos
ab
( .
D = H . K1 . cos2 + K . cos
)(Y
( .
17
D = H.
Y = D . tan
:
2.613
-1
7
4.106 150 .
3.154 1.146 200
.
Solution
:
D = H . K1 + K
150 = (4.106-2.613) . K1 + K
). (1
7:
). (2
D = H . K1 . cos + K . cos
) 200 = (3.154 1.146) . K1.cos2 ( 7 ) + K . cos ( 7
2 1 :
) (
) (
K1 = 103
K = 3.785
-2 40/1
) 9 = (X ) 4.5 = (t .
9 2.65 - 2.14 1.63
. = 80
4.50 ) (.
Solution
inch
X
)= 9.0 * 20.0 = 180 (dimensionless value
ab
Ft
= , then K1
inch = 13.50 / 12.0 = 1.125
inch
X = 9.0
K = X + t = 9.0 + 4.50 = 13.50

Ft
Ft
1
1
=
40 20
* ab = 2
H = 2.65 1.63 = 1.02
D = H . K1 . cos2 + K . cos
= 1.02 * 180 * cos2 (9) + 1.125 * cos (9) = 182.451
:
Ft
18
Y = D . tan
= 182.451 * tan ( 9 ) = 28.879

a1
b1
Y1
Y
c1
a
b
c
D
V
.
:
Ft
:
= Y Y1 + V = 28.879 2.14 + 4.5 = 31.239

Ft
19
= 80 31.239 = 48.761
-2 :
1850
:
- :
) (
) .(b ) (
):(a
D
a
H
H=ab
H
=D
tan
- :

) (1 ) (b
) (
).(a
a
H
20
ac bc = H
bc = D . tan
H
tan tan
=D
ac = D . tan ,
)H = D (tan - tan
-3 :
b
D

:
1
.ab. tan
2
2
21
=D

-1
. :
150
4.106 3.359 2.613

200
7
3.154 2.150 1.146
1
-2
40
1
4 . 80.0 9.00
2
9.0
:
(1.63 2.14 2.65 ) feet
4.50.
-3 ) (A, B )
= ( .100.0
`+10 o 12
2.80 2.00 1.20
75o
A
o
o
`- 4 48
1.30 2.10 2.90
345
B
-4 ) (AB ) (Subtense Bar )(AB

) (AB 684.0 28.0
) ( .
) (AB .
-5 2055 .
`` 5o 10 8o 40`` :
) (.
-6 ) (A ) (B ) (C
) (A, B:
A
B

``-7o 35` 30
``+10o 50` 30
)(
0.950
1.502
2.055
2.98
2.0
1.018
= 100 ) -42.03 = (B .
).(A
22

-7
1

300
) = (.
-8 12.0
. 301.50
= 3.0.

-10
4.26 = 0.044
= 0.161 = 1.75
4.0.
-12 ) (A, B A X
B . Y ) (X, Y
) (A, B :
Vertical
Hair
angle
Readings
09o 22` 1.50 2.11 2.72
12o 18` 1.80 2.25 2.70
Traverse Bearing
Point
A
`326o 42
B
`10o 27
Occupied
Co-ordinates
Point
Horizontal
Vertical
X
3800 E
1000 N
Y
3600 W
740 N
= . 100 AB .AB
-13 A 15.05 :B
) : ( = 100 = 14.40.
) : ( = 95 = 15.0.
) ( 1.45 = A
23
Theory of Errors

:
1- Types of Errors:
1-1- According to the sources:
a- Personal Errors
b- Instrumental Errors
c- Natural Errors
2-1 According to kind
a- Systematic Error
b- Un-systematic (random) Error
c- Gross error
2- propagation of Errors
) (n
) (E = ).(n.E
.
3- Random Errors:
:
.
.

Direct Measure
-1 :

.
Indirect Measure
-2 :
.

.
-3 :
The most probable value

.
.
24

.
-4 :
True error
) ( .
.
=
-5 :
Residual error
-6 Arithmetic mean :
= n
.
:
- ) = (
= .
-
-7 :
)Mean square error (MSE

).Mean Square Error (M.S.E
- :
MSE of a single observation
) (X i X
n
i =1
n 1
MSE of the arithmetic mean : .

:
2
n
the mean square error of the arithmetic mean
where o
25
= o2
= o
(X i X )
n
o =
i =1
n.(n 1)
Relative error
: -8
(
)
.
Re lative Error =
X
Mean error
: -9
: ()
. = 0.7979
Probable error
: -10
50% =
:
r = 0.6745
example:
3- A distance was measured eight times and the observations were as follows:
118.167 m
118.750 m
118.273 m
118.266 m
118.165 m
118.167 m
118.760 m
118.280 m
a- calculate the mean value ( X ) of this distance, and the mean square error (MSE) of the
observations (x) of a single measurement.
b- Calculate the (MSE) of the arithmatic mean (x).
c- Calculate the relative error.
d- Find the mean error (a) and the probable error (r) from the above observations, then check
their relations with ()
e- Supposing that if the true value of that distance was 118.248 m, what would you comment
upon these observations?
26

Solution
No.
Observation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
118.167
118.750
118.273
118.266
118.165
118.167
118.760
118.280
= 946.828
Residual error
Xi X
-0.1865
0.3965
-0.0805
-0.0875
-0.1885
-0.1865
0.4065
-0.0735
error
Sorting
True error
Xi Xt
error
Sorting
0.0735
0.0805
0.0875
0.1865
0.1865
0.1885
0.3965
0.4065
-0.081
0.502
0.025
0.018
-0.083
-0.081
0.512
0.032
0.018
0.025
0.032
0.081
0.081
0.083
0.502
0.512
Xi
a- mean value =
i =1
946.828
= 118.3535 m
8
(X i X )
n
- mean square error of a single observation (n-1) =
i =1
o =
= 0.252725
n 1
(X i X )
n
b- MSE of the arithmetic mean =
i =1
n.(n 1)
n1
n
0.252725
= 0.08935
8
c- relative error :
Re =
n1
X
0.252725
= 0.002135
118.3535
n
Xi X
d- Mean error (a) =
i =1
1.606
= 0.20075
8
check of mean error value with (n-1)

a = 0.7979 = 0.7979 * 0.2527 = 0.2016
d- Probable error:

.
n +1
2
n n
+ 1 ( =
2 2
. ) ,
27
0.1865 + 0.1865
= 0.1865
2
=r
r = 0.6745 = 0.6745 * 0.2527 = 0.1704

e- if the true value = 118.248, then, it can be concluded that both observations (118.750, and
118.760) contains random errors, and must be excluded.
-11:

.
= weight
Where:
Standard deviation
) (X i X
n
i =1
n 1
.
.
-12 ) (:

.

:
28
:
1- the angle (ABC) was measured 25 times, with equally accuracy. By taking the arithmetic
mean of the observations, the most probable value of the angle was (94o 04` 20.55``). The
values of observations are listed in the following table:
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Observations
o
Residual Error
+V
-V
1.80
1.45
1.45
1.20
0.95
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.40
0.30
0.15
0.05
1.80
1.50
1.50
1.05
1.00
0.80
0.55
0.55
0.30
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Xi X
94 04` 20.85``
94o 04` 20.50``
94o 04` 20.60``
94o 04` 20.50
94o 04` 20.70``
94o 04` 19.05``
94o 04` 20.50
94o 04` 22.00``
94o 04` 19.55``
94o 04` 19.75``
94o 04` 20.50``
94o 04` 19.05``
94o 04` 18.75``
94o 04` 20.00``
94o 04` 20.00``
94o 04` 21.25``
94o 04` 21.25``
94o 04` 22.00``
94o 04` 21.50``
94o 04` 19.50``
94o 04` 21.75``
94o 04` 22.35``
94o 04` 20.95``
94o 04` 20.35``
94o 04` 21.25``
0.30
-0.05
0.05
-0.05
0.15
-1.50
-0.05
1.45
-1.0
-0.80
-0.05
-1.50
-1.80
-0.55
-0.55
0.70
0.70
1.45
0.95
-1.05
1.20
1.80
0.40
-0.20
0.70
:( 0.50``)
Period
2.0-1.5
1.5-1.0
1.0-0.5
0.5-0.0
0.0-(-0.5)
-0.5-(-1.0)
-1.0-(-1.5)
-1.5-(-2.0)
No. of
Errors
1
3
4
4
5
4
3
1

:
. -1
29

-2 .
-3 .
6
5
3
2
Repetation of Error
)(1.5 to 2.0
)(1.0 to 1.5
)(0.5 to 1.0
)(0.0 to 0.5
)(-0.5 to 0.0
)(-1.0 to -0.5
)(-1.5 to -1.0
)(-2 to -1.5
Period of Error

) (
) (n ) (y
) ( :
-1 .
-2 - .
-3 ) (X .
)G(e
Error
30
:
:
) .X 2
.e ( h
= ) G (
Where:
)Probability of error X (for the Y-axis

)natural logarithmic base (2.71828
the error
)G(
e
X
= is a constant (h
)the standard deviation (MSE
1
)
. 2
) (
:
- ) ( .
)G(e

Error

:
31

10 15 25 :

10
1
= = 20%
10 + 25 + 15 5
= 1 .
.dx = 1
.X 2
.e h
= Area under the (Gauss) curve
)(X1 , X2
)G(e
X1
X2
X2 X1
Error
X1 X2
)= (X1 , X2
.X 2
32
.e h
X2
X1

:
) (
). (Probable Error
r = 0.6745
):(
= 0.7979
) ( :
-1 ) (.
) ( ) (r
-2
MSE
.
) (50% :
r = 0.6745
)G(e
0.6745
0.6745
Error
)= (X1 , X2
.X 2
33
.e h
X2
X1

) ( r ):(50%
.r 2
.e h
= 0.50
:
-1 ) (- , + 0.683
= 0.683
. 2
.e h
-2 ) (-2 , +2 0.953
= 0.953
.( 2 ) 2
.e h
= 0.997
.( 3 ) 2
+2
-3 ) (-3 , +3 0.997
.e h
+3
3 ) (100-99.7 0.30 %
) ( 3
.
Example:
2- A distance was measured 40 times from which the standard deviation was found to be 12
mm. How many of these forty observations containing errors that lie between 15 mm, and
?+10 mm
Solution
= 12.0 mm
= 0.683
.X 2
)e F ( x
= .dx
)F `( x
2
e h . X
=
.
2h 2 . X
h
X 12
34
.e h
)F ( x
h2 . X 2
but
1
0.683 =
2h
e h2 (12)2 e h2 ( 12)2
12
12
1
0.683 =
2h
e 144h2
h = 0.0688 * e 144 h
: 12
= 0.683 * 40 = 27 observations
G(e)
A = 0.683
Error
35

)(:
-1 ) ( Y :
)Y(x) = Y(-x
-2 ):(X = 0.0
= .e 0
= ) G (
at X = 0.0,
-2 ) (
X X
) G( . :
d
d h h2 . X 2
= )G ( x
.e
dx
dx
.X 2
. X .e h
* 1) = 0.0
.X 2
2h 3
) .(2h 2 X
* 2h 2 . X + e h
*1
.X 2
.X 2
.X 2
.e h
.( X * e h
* 2h 2 . X = e h
= `G
2h 3
= ``G
.X 2
X * e h
2h 2 . X 2 = 1
1
h. 2
1
h. 2
h 2 .
.e
= and that point is corresponding to Y

h
2
-4 ) (- )1= (+
36
=X
.e
Precision and Accuracy

) (Precision & Accuracy :
)`` (75o 12` 40 :
``70o 12` 42
``70o 12` 40
``70o 12` 39.5

``70o 12` 41
``70o 12` 39
``70o 12` 39.5
``70o 12` 40.5

``70o 12` 41.5
``70o 12` 41
``70o 12` 40

).(Precise but not Accurate
Precision:
.
Accuracy:
.
:

:
-1 :
Precise but not Accurate
-2 :
Accurate but not Precise
-3 :
Precise and Accurate
-4 :
Not Accurate and Not Precise
37
Precise and Accurate
Precise but not Accurate
Not Accurate & Not Precise
Accurate not Precise
)Coefficient of Coronation (CC
X .Y
X 2 . Y 2
= Cc
Variances and co-variances
.
Co-variance:

Variance
-1 ) (12 , 22 , 32 , 42 , . .
Co-variance
-1 ) (
-2 .
-3 .
38
):(Varianc
:
-1 :
) H = L . tan (
L :
-2

L L L
) H = L . tan (
-3 :
2
H
H
2
2
=
.( L ) +
) .(
L

) ( H
:
H , L ,
-4 : Scaling
180
) ( :
(H H H) H
39

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-1 ) (93.75 m ) (20.

* true length = 88.50

-5 ) (20.0 m ) (100.0 m ) (5.0 cm

Correction due to temperature change

( AB) 2 .DC + ( AC ) 2 .DB

(400) 2 .150 + (250) 2 .125

(250) 2 + (275) 2 (400) 2

(AD)2 = (AC)2 + (CD)2 2*AC*CD*cos ()

Summation of internal angles of a closed polygon = (n-2)*180

number of polygons sides.

The amount of correction for each direction (e) =

where n = total number of angles, or sides of the polygon

Angle (abc) = 244o 20` - 128o 17`

} = 180 (5-2) { (826o 58` - 1006o 38`) + 2 * 360

= )error for each direction (e

ex: assume that n = 5, = 46,

= 826o 48` - 1006o 48` + 2 * 360 = 540o

the last equation is used for check

64o 18` + 0.0

244o 18` + 0.0

is the reduced bearing ()

N.E 64o 18`

(Vertical Components ) + (Horizontal Components )

(1.2684) 2 + (0.6655) 2 = 1.4324

Area = 0.50 { (X1.Y2 + X2.Y3 + X3.Y4 + X4.Y5 + X5.Y6 + X6.Y1)

2- The area by the lines components:

Area = 0.50 * 49425 = 24712.50

inch = 13.50 / 12.0 = 1.125

K = X + t = 9.0 + 4.50 = 13.50

H = 2.65 1.63 = 1.02

= Y Y1 + V = 28.879 2.14 + 4.5 = 31.239

4.106 3.359 2.613

-4 ) (AB ) (Subtense Bar )(AB

The most probable value

)Mean square error (MSE

MSE of a single observation

MSE of the arithmetic mean : .

- mean square error of a single observation (n-1) =

b- MSE of the arithmetic mean =

check of mean error value with (n-1)

r = 0.6745 = 0.6745 * 0.2527 = 0.1704

)Probability of error X (for the Y-axis

)the standard deviation (MSE

= Area under the (Gauss) curve

= and that point is corresponding to Y

Precision and Accuracy

``70o 12` 39.5

``70o 12` 40.5

Precise and Accurate

Precise but not Accurate

Not Accurate & Not Precise

Accurate not Precise

)Coefficient of Coronation (CC

Variances and co-variances

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(AD)2 = (AC)2 + (CD)2 2ACCD*cos ()