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ALGEBRA
SEQUEL
TO
ELEMENTARY
ALGEBRA
EOR
SCHOOLS.
s.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA
SEQUEL
TO
ELEMENTARY
ALGEBRA
FOR
SCHOOLS
BY
H.
FORMERLY MASTER OF THE
S.
OF AND
HALL,
CHRIST'S
ENGINEERING
M.A.,
COLLEGE, SIDE,
SCHOLAR
MILITARY
CAMBRIDGE,
CLIFTON COLLEGE
AND
S. K
FORMERLY
KNIGHT,
OF TRINITY AT
B.A.,
COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
COLLEGE.
SCHOLAR ASSISTANT-MASTER
LATE
MARLBOROUGH
FOURTH
EDITION.
Honfcon:
MACMILLAN
AND NEW
AND
YOKE.
CO.
1891
[The Right of Translation
is reserved.}
2- TO
"
4 2 2
First Second Edition Edition
12/
1887.
corrections
and
Printed
with
1888.
Third
revised
enlarged 1889.
Edition
Reprinted 1890.
Fourth
1891.
PREFACE.
The
present
work
is intended
as
sequel
to
our
Elementary
devoted and
in
to
The
of
first few
chapters
are
fuller
discussion
Ratio,
the
we
Proportion, Variation,
work
here
were
the
an
in
;
treated
and
are
introduced for
a
theorems
course
examples
which
first
of
reading.
From this
to
:
point
the
work
covers
ground
upon
for
the of
most
part
new
the
student, and
we
enters
subjects
to
special
importance
and witli
our
these
have
treat
minutely examples
thoroughly, discussing
that
fulness
as
and found
which
we
always
necessary
in
experience
It has been
teachers.
our
aim
to
all
the limits
essential of
a
parts
as
completely
but
to
as
possible
few
the
single
possible im;
volume,
in find
cases
of
for
the
more
chapters
an
it has
been
room
introductory
to
sketch suitable
in
all
such
our
object
map
to
out
first
course
of
student
special treatises
for fuller In
are
information.
the
chapter
indebted
on
and W. A. the
Combinations
for in
we
much
to
to
use
Whitworth
mission per-
make
of
proofs given
we
his
Choice
and in
our
Chance.
own
many
years
we are
have convinced
used
that
these
this
proofs
teaching,
and
vi
PREFACE.
to the beginner intelligible part of Algebrais made far more from first principles sense reasoning by a system of common text-books. found in algebraical than by the proofs usually and Divergency of Series The discussion of Convergency his first to the student on great difficulty always presents reading. The inherent difficultiesof the subjectare no increased by the placeit and these are doubt considerable, and by the somewhat has ordinarily occupied, inadequate have it has hitherto received. Accordingly treatment we later than is usual; much placed this section somewhat arrangement,and thoughthas been bestowed on its general the selection of suitable examplesto illustratethe text ; on and have endeavoured to make it more and we interesting short chapter on a introducing by previously intelligible Fractions. Values and Vanishing Limiting Summation of Series we have laid In the chapter on
much
stress
on
the
"
Method
the absence of
Finite
396, we
can sidered algebraical hardlybe conpurely proof The proof of the admissible in a treatise on Algebra. Difference formula which we have givenin Arts. 395, and original, and the development believe to be new
has enabled
us
to
introduce many interesting types of serieswhich have hitherto been relegated later stage in the student's reading. to a much We have received able and material Rev.
warmest
the
our
T.
of due
him, both
at our placing original problems. It is hardly possible to read any modern Conies or Solid Geometry without Analytical
on
know-
PKEFACE.
yii
We have applications. therefore givena brief elementary discussion of Determinants in Chapterxxxm., in the hope that it may provide the student with a useful introductory course, and prepare him for a more complete studyof the subject. The last chapter contains all the most useful propositions in the Theoryof Equations suitable for a first reading.The the study of Theory of Equationsfollows so naturally on is needed for here introducing Algebrathat no apology position prowhich usually find place in a separatetreatise. In considerable part of Chapter xxxv. a fact, may be read with advantage at a much earlierstage, and may conveniently be studied before some of the harder sections of previous chapters. It will be found that each chapter is as nearly as possible that the order of their succession can in itself, so complete
be varied at the discretion of the teacher ; but it is recomwith an asterisk should be mended that all sections marked reserved for
In
a
ledge of
Determinants
and
their
second
reading.
from which
we
have derived
one
book
it is difficult to
say how
indebted.
has been the Algebra for Schools and Colleges Englishtext-book for so long that it is hardly recognised text-book on Algebra that any one at the a writing possible influenced by it. At the presentday should not be largely same time,though for many years Todhunter's Algebrahas have rarely been in constant use we our pupils, among adoptedthe order and arrangement there laid down; in have found it expedient to make we frequent chapters many and we have alwayslargely of alternative proofs; use supplemented These notes, the text by manuscriptnotes. the present work, which now appear scattered throughout the last twenty have been collected at different times during Todhunter's
H. H. A.
Viii
PREFACE.
definite acknowledgeto make ment years, so that it is impossible in every case where assistance has been obtained from other writers.
are
But
our speakinggenerally,
ments acknowledge-
due to the treatisesof Schlomilch, Serret, chiefly besides Todhunter's and Laurent;and among English writers, consulted the works of De have occasionally we Algebra, Gross,and Chrystal. Morgan,Colenso, MatheTo the Rev. J. Wolsienholme, D.Sc, Professor of matics thanks at the Royal Indian Engineering our College,
to select questions us allowing from his unique collection of problems ; and the consequent we gratefully acknowledge. gainto our later chapters It remains for us to express our thanks to our colleagues assisted us in reading and and friends who have so largely the proof sheets ; in particular indebted to we are correcting the Rev. H. C Watson of Clifton College for his kindness in the whole work, and for many valuable suggestions; revising
are
due
in
H. S. HALL, S. R. KNIGHT.
j
"
PREFACE
In
TO
THE
THIRD and
EDITION.
examplesare
a
substantially
the
been
same
in
few articles
havej
been verified
again.
We
also added
laneous Miscel-
Examples which will be found useful for advanced students. These exampleshave been selected mainly but from Scholarship Senate House not exclusively or papers ;
much
care
has been
to
taken
to illustrate every
part
of the
and subject,
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
ratio.
PAGE
Commensurable Ratio of
and
incommensurable less
quantities
2 3
inequality
i
_c
_e
+ +
qcn
qdn
+ren+
+
...\n
'
b~d~f~"'~\pbn
a1 + a2 + a3+...
+ bl + b2 + b.i
...
rfn+...J
greatest and
least
flh
a
n
+ an
+
lies between
of
fractions
bn
V
8
Cross
multiplication
of three I linear
Eliminant
equations
9
10
Examples
CHAPTER
II.
proportion.
Definitions
and
Propositions
algebraical
and
13
Comparison
Case
between
geometrical
definitions
1G 17 19
of incommensurable II.
quantities
Examples
CHAPTER
III.
VARIATION.
B,
then
mB
21 22 23
variation variation
B
when
is
constant,
and
"
when
is constant,
then
23
A=mBG
Illustrations.
Examples
on
joint
variation
. . . . .
.21 20
Examples
III
b-1
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Sum of
n
IV.
ARITHMETICAL
PROGRESSION.
PAGE
terms
of
an
arithmetical series
28
Fundamental Insertion
formulae
means
29 31 31
of arithmetic
IV.
a
Examples
Discussion
of roots
of dn~ +
(2a-d)n-2s
33 35
Examples
IV. b
CHAPTER
V.
GEOMETRICAL
PROGRESSION.
38
.
39
40
an
infinite
a.
series geometrical
Examples V.
Sum
of
n
41
of
an
43
44 45
Examples
V. b
CHAPTER
VI.
PROGRESSION.
PROGRESSIONS.
THEOREMS
CONNECTED
H. P.
are
in A. P.
of squares of cubes
numbers
.
numbers
notation
a.
.....
Examples VI.
Number
of shot in
on on a a
pyramid
on
square
base
Pyramid Pyramid
base triangular
5J
Examples VI.
CHAPTER
VII.
of notation
scales
of
notation.
Explanation of systems
57 59 in
59
01
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
The
difference between
number
and
tho
sum
of its
is digits
divisible
by
Proof Test of
1
"
62
the nines
"
of rule for
C3
64
65
VIII.
denominator
SURDS
AND
a
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
07 68
of
sjb+
jc + s/d
69
*Jb
70 72
74
.
J
If If
-ax
a
J
= =
-b=
sjab
a
=
75
=
+ ib
+ ib
0, then
c
Q, b
a
=
75
d
id, then
+ ib
c, b
75 moduli 77 77
Modulus
of
Square
Powers Cube Powers
root of
of i roots of of
u
79
unity; 1 +
.
-f or
79 80
Examples VIII.
CHAPTER
A
b.
81
IX.
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
two roots
EQUATIONS.
...
83
84 85
Sum
of roots of
"
product of roots
Formation
equationswhen
a
the roots
are
given
.....
86
be
(1)equal in magnitude
88 88
Examples IX.
For
real values of
signas
Definitions Condition
expressionax2 + exceptions
x
the
bx +
has in
generalthe
same
90 92
...
Examples IX.
93 into two
9i
may
be resolved
linear factors
0 and
0 may
have
common
96
IX.
c.
Examples
96
Xll
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
one Equations involving
X.
unknown
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
page
quantity
97
100 101
equations Reciprocal
Examples X. a Equations involvingtwo unknown Homogeneous equations
....
quantities
Examples
X. b
several unknown quantities Equations involving Examples X. c. examples Indeterminate equations ; easy numerical
107
109 111 113
Examples X.
CHAPTER
XL
permutations
and
combinations.
Preliminaryproposition
Number Number The of of permutations of
n n r things
"
"
at
time
of combinations
things r
of of
m
n n n
at a time
number number
thingsr
at
time
is
equal to the
. .
Number
of ways
+
...
classes containing m,
p,
things severally
'unlike'
....
terms
'like' and
.....
124
of
alike of
Number
arrangements of n thingstaken all at a time, when p things one are alike of a second kind, q things kind, "c. of permutations of n thingsr at a time, when each may be
.
125
repeated
The total number of combinations value of
r
126
the
of
127
. .
.
127
proof of the
at a time
formula
of combinations
of
r things
128
...
Total of
number
one
are
Examples XI.
CHAPTER
Illustrations of the method Product
of
n
XII.
of
mathematical
induction.
proof
x
133
+
a
binomial
134 135
Examples
XII
CONTENTS.
Xlii
CHAPTER
XIII.
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
PAGE
when n is a positive Expansion of (x+ a)11, integer General term of the expansion to depend upon the case The expansion may be made term is unity
....
137 139
in which
Second
theorem
Examples
The
are
142
coefficients of terms
equidistant from
the
beginningand
end
143
equal
of the greatestterm
Determination
Sum
143 146
Sum
is
equal to
sum
of coefficients of
even
CHAPTER
Euler's General
XIV.
the binomial
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
proofof
term
theorem
for any
.....
index
of the
a
expansion of
(1+ x)'1
Examples is only arithmetically when x"l Expansion of (l-rx)n intelligible The can expression(.r-f?/)'1 always be expanded by the binomial
theorem
XIV.
157 of the
-
expansion of (1 .r)_n cases expansions of (1 x)~n obtained by the binomial theorem Approximations
term
....
General
157
158
Particular
of the
159
161 162
out
Examples XIV. b. term in the expansion of (l+ x)n Numerically greatest Number formed of homogeneous productsof r dimensions
.
of
105
beingallowed time,repetitions
166
107
Examples XIV.
CHAPTER
General term
in the
XV.
MULTINOMIAL
THEOREM.
expansionof (a+
^ is
integer positive
General
term
170
in
the
expansion of (a+
bx +
cx-
//
is a rational quantity
171
173
Examples
XV
XIV
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Definition.
N=a)ogaN
XVI.
LOGARITHMS.
PAGE
175
Elementary propositions
176
178
" "
Examples XVI.
Common Determination
Logarithms
of the characteristic
.179 180
by inspection
.....
181 Advantages of logarithmsto base 10 182 Advantagesof always keepingthe mantissa positive Given the logarithms of all numbers to base a, to find the logarithms
....
to base b
183
183
loga"xlog6a
=
Examples XVI. b
185
CHAPTER
XVII.
ax.
EXPONENTIAL
AND
LOGARITHMIC
SERIES.
Expansion of
e
Series for
187
n
is the limit of
(1
l\n
+
-
V
Construction
when
,
is infinite
188
191 192
194
of Tables
of
The
is incommensurable
195 195
CHAPTER
Interest and Amount of
a
XVIII.
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
given sum at simpleinterest Present Value and Discount of a given sum at simpleinterest Interest and Amount of a given sum at compound interest
. . .
.198
.
198
199
200
Nominal
Case of
and
true
annual
rates of interest
....
compound interest payableevery moment Present Value and Discount of a given sum at compound interest
.
200
.
Examples XVIII.
Annuities.
Definitions
unpaid annuity, simpleinterest unpaid annuity, compound interest Present value of an annuity, compound interest Number of years' purchase
Amount of Present value of
a
Amount
of
deferred
of
a
lease
ExamplesXVIII.
CONTENTS.
XV
CHAPTER
XIX.
INEQUALITIES.
PAGE
208 the
geometric
209
The
sum
of two
they are
equal
The
their product is greatestwhen quantities being given, is least when theyare the sum equal: product beinggiven, 210
mean
arithmetic
the
of
number
of
geometricmean
of a, ", c, ...; to find the greatestvalue of ambncp of maxima
a
Given
sum cases
and
minima
arithmetic
mean
of
the
of
number
of
positive
mean, 214
of their arithmetic
and b
are
"
(1 + ^ )
216
?1"*"""0'Vrr|"vrrf
y
217
Examples XIX.
CHAPTER
218
XX.
LIMITING
VALUES
AND
VANISHING
FRACTIONS.
220
is a0 when
is
zero
....
222
...
By
enough, any term of the series a0 + arr + a^x- + be made as large of all as we compared with the sum please may be that follow it; and by taking x large enough, any term may of all that made as large as we please compared with the sum precedeit
.
222 221
Method
of
vanishing fractions
the solution of
Discussion
in peculiarities
simultaneous
equations
Peculiarities in the solution of
226
quadraticequations
....
227 228
Examples XX
CHAPTER
Case of terms
XXI.
CONVERGENCE
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
.....
230
232
~n
is less than
-i
"u
XVI
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Comparison of 2rtnwith
The series auxiliary ^p
+
an
2P
3~p
.
log71
n
and nxn
when
is infinite of factors
of
an
infinite number
a.
.
Examples XXI.
241
243
v
.
v-
series is
convergent,if
u ji-i v n-l
]nI
"
"
"
\un+i
" "
)
]
244
( n log
)"
245
247
248
(log n)p
\n (
"
J
-
log l|
248 249
252
Examples XXI. b.
CHAPTER
If the
XXII.
UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS.
equation f(x)-=0has more than n roots,it is an identity coefficientsfor finite series Proof of principle of undetermined Examples XXII. a of undetermined Proof of principle coefficients for infinite series
254 254
256
. .
257
2C0
Examples XX1T.
CHAPTER
XXIII.
PARTIAL
FRACTIONS.
261 265
expansions
Examples
265
CHAPTER
Scale of relation
Sum of
a
XXIV.
recurring
series.
267
269 269 272
series recurring
Generating function
Examples XXIV
CHAPTER Summary
un the un the Method of
XXIX.
summation
of
series.
.312
" "
314
n
factors in A. P
Examples XXIX.
Method
Method If an is
a
of Differences succeeds when function of n un is a rational integral function of n, the series 2anx'1is rational integral
326
recurring
327
329 332
series Further
cases
of
Examples XXIX.
Miscellaneous
methods
Sumof
series lr + 2r + Sr+...+nr
Bernoulli's Numbers
Examples XXIX.
CHAPTER
Statement Number No of of
XXX.
theory
of
numbers.
principles
can
341 342
rational
A number
can
Number Number
of divisors of
only one
way
Sum
of ways an integer be resolved into two can of the divisors of a given integer of
a
factors
Highestpower
Product of
r
prime contained in In
consecutive
is divisibleby integers [r
Fermat's Theorem
NP-ia
l=M(p)
prime
to 2?
347
348
Examples XXX.
Definition of congruent
....
350
CONTENTS.
XIX
PAGE
If
is
prime
to
b, then
a,
2a, 3a,
......
...
(6- 1)a
when
divided
by
6 leave
different remainders
350 352
352
(p(abcd...)="p(a)(p(b)"p(c) "p(d)
"PO-"'(i-i)(i-J)(i-l)
Wilson's A Theorem
:
1 +
\p
-
(p)where
....
p is
prime
Proofs
by induction
b.
.......
Examples XXX.
CHAPTER
XXXI.
the
general
theory
of
continued
FRACTIONS. of formation
Law
of successive
a
convergents
359 362
"
"
"
...
has
a,+
a.2+
The
convergents
order of
to
\
al
~
h
. . .
are
positive proper
a2~
magnitude, if an"kl + bn
an and
General Cases
bn are
can
constant
.
where
generalvalue of convergent
is incommensurable, if
"
be found
"1
ax+
a2 +
cl
367
continued
fractions
continued b
Examples XXXI.
CHAPTER
Definitions and illustrations.
a
XXXII.
probability.
Simple Events
373
(ExamplesXXXII.
376
377
.
/Compound Events IProbability that two independent events will both happen is pp' holds also for dependentevents formula The [ in mutually exclusive ways Chance of an event which can haj^pen
.
378 379
381
Examples XXXII.
Chance of
an
b
r happening exactly
.......
383 times in
n
event
trials
385 386
388
Expectationand
"Problem of
value probable
.
points"
.......
XX
CONTENTS.
PAOE
Examples
Inverse Statement Proof
XXXII.
c.
389 391
.
probability
of Bernoulli's Theorem
P P
of formula
Qr= ^rj-jn
....
392 396
....
899
methods 401 402 405
XXXIII.
dktkrminants.
.....
409
. .
.410
.
and columns
410
411
Development
of third order
Sign of
If two
determinant
. .
is altered
. .
or
columns
rows
or
412 vanishes
. .
columns
to any
112
A factor
common
column up of
may
a
be
placedoutside
of terms
or
.
412
413
Cases where
constituents
made
number
rows
Keduction
of determinants
of by simplification
columns
.111
417 419
Examples XXXIII.
Determinant Determinant Notation
equations
...
422
423
42jl
.
...
...
425
.
b.
\-r,
CHAPTER
Keview
XXXIV.
miscellaneous
theorems
and
examples.
laws of
a
Algebra /"
a
429 432
433 434
f(x) when
Method Horner's
leaves remainder
x
-
divided by Coefficients
Method
of
SyntheticDivision
out
434
Symmetricaland Examples
Functions Alternating
435
437 438
of identitiesworked
.
CONTENTS.
XXI
PAGE
Examples
XXXIV.
Identities provedby
Value
of
unity
440 441
Linear factors of a3 + 63 + c3
of an + bn + cn when b.
.
Sabc
c
=
+ b+
Examples XXXIV.
Elimination Elimination
Euler's method
method
....
Miscellaneous
examples
c.
.
of elimination
. .
447 449
Examples XXXIV.
CHAPTER
of Every equation the nth
XXXV. degreehas
n
theory
of
equations.
more
roots and
no
452
Kelations between
These Cases
the roots
not
452
454 454 455 456
relations are
of solution under
cases
given conditions
of the roots
Easy
of
symmetricalfunctions
roots
occur
and solution of
in
Signs
b Examples XXXV. Value of /(.r + //).Derived Functions Calculation of f(x+h) by Horner's process /( x) changesits value gradually If f(a) and/ (b)are of contrary signs, f(x)
a
0 has
root
between 464
and 6
an an
An An
of equation of equation
roots
odd degreehas
even
one
465
degree with
a,
has negative
1 roots
two
real 465
If
/ (x)
=
0 has
roots
Determination
of
f (x)
=
0 has
equal to
466
467
468
/'(*)_ I1,1,
J (X) Sum of
x-a an
x-b
assignedpower
c
of the roots
468
.
Examples XXXV.
Transformation of
Equation Equation
with
f(x)
0
.
471
472
with roots
f{x)=0
"
"
"
XX11
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Equation
Discussion
with of with
roots
reciprocals equations
of
those
of
/ (x)
0
.
472 473
reciprocal
roots
....
Equation
squares
of
those
of those
f(x)
of
0
. .
475
0
.
Equation
Bemoval
with
of
an
roots
exceeding
term
by
f (x)
475 476
.
assigned
roots
Equation Examples
Cubic
with XXXV.
given
d
functions
of
those
of
f{x)-.
0
.
477
478
.
equations.
of
Solution
.
480 481
.
Discussion Solution
by
Trigonometry
Equations.
Solution
in
the
irreducible Solution
case
.
482
.
Biquadratic
Descartes'
Ferrari's
483
. .
484
.
Undetermined
multipliers
.
Discriminating
cubic
roots
486
Solution
of
three
simultaneous
equations
a+\
+ b
+
+ \
c
=1,
+
"c.
.
487
Examples
Miscellaneous Answers
XXXV.
e.
488
Examples
490 525
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
CHAPTER
I.
RATIO.
1. bears
to
Ratio
same
is
the
relation the
which
one
quantity
made is of
kind,
or
comparison
one
considering
other. The A and
"
multiple, part,
parts,
being quantity
by
the
ratio B the
are
of A
to
is
usually
terms
written the
A ratio.
B.
The
The
quantities
term
called
the the
of
first
is
called
antecedent,
find the shall what ratio
second
term
the A
consequent.
is of
2.
To
; hence
we
multiple
A
:
or
part
be
B,
we
divide
by
-^
,
may
measured
to
by
the this
fraction notation.
and
usually
find
it convenient
adopt
must
In
terms
....
order of the
"
to
same
two
quantities they
the ratio of "2
be
expressed
in
Thus 8
to
15s. is measured
by
the
traction
"
or
Note.
ratio and
another, 3. Since
expresses therefore
the every
number
ratio is
of
an
times abstract
that
one
quantity
tains con-
quantity.
by
the
laws
of
a
fractions,
ma
b=mJ'
it follows
that and that value the ratio
a a :
is
equal
divided
to
the
ratio
ma
mb
is, the
the
H.
of
are
ratio
remains
unaltered
if the
the
same
antecedent
consequent
H.
multiplied or
by
quantity.
1
A.
2
4. Two
or more
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
ratios may
to two
a
be
fractions equivalent
_ _
common
xxt
suppose bx
,
a
-
and
y J
are
ratios.
JNow
aV
=
~
x
"
and
="
hence
by
by3
the ratio bx. ratio
the
x :
ratio y 5.
b is
than
less than
a
The
ratio of two
can
Ch
be
C
as expressed
of two
integers. Thus
"
"
"
is measured
by the
fraction
"
or
="
and
is therefore
be
equivalentto
the
ratio
d ad
:
be. If
6.
either,or
no
both, of
Thus the
the
terms
of
surd
then quantity,
measure
two
can integers
be found
exactly
ratio
J'2:
1 cannot
exactly
expressed by
7.
integers.
If the
ratio of any two quantities be can the quantities expressed exactly by the ratio of two integers, said to be commensurable are ; otherwise, they are said to be Definition. incommensurable. which will exactly integers incommensurable the ratio of two we can measure quantities, whose ratio differs from that required always find two integers as we please. by as small a quantity
Although
we
cannot
find
two
Thus
J5 V
4
.
2-236068...
=
-.
"A1I, -559017...
, and , therefore
J5
"
559017
"
559018 and
,
mm("
"
-jooOOOO;
:
so
1000000
and
decimals
a further,
closer 8.
approximation may
Definition. the fractions which the antecedents for
be arrived at.
together compounded by multiplying denote them ; or by multiplying together and the consequents new antecedent,
are
Ratios
for
new
consequent.
Find the ratio
2a
Example.
compounded
:
Sb, Q"ab
5c2,c
4
The the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
will illustrate
//
,
.
.
d
+
'
these each of J
ratios
/pan (
"
qcn
j-
re11 +
.\n
r-
\pbn + qdn +
rtn
)
+
. . .
where
p, q, r, n
are
any
ace
ivhatever. quantities
j "
Ijet
')
b then whence
a
"
7-
",
"
J
=
~""
"
"
"
"
bk, c
=
dk,
=fk,...;
=
rf"k",... ;
'''
+ + qd"kn + rf"kn pa" + gc"+ ren+ _pb"k" +r/i+... fbn+ qcln pbH+ qd"+rf+...
'
k";
k
,
^
b
c
=
-,=
By givingdifferent values to p, q, r, n many be deduced ; of this generalproposition may method. by usingthe same provedindependently
a
For
instance,
_c
b-~d'f-'"
each of these ratios b+d
a
+f+
the
:
When
series
each
sum
by the
""
=-
Example
1.
If
shew
that
azb + 2c2e
Sae2/
_
ace
"-"-"-X;.
a
=
6_rf_^._A,,
bk, c
=
dk, e =fk
RATIO.
'*
""
...
ace
=
bdf'
Example
2. If
-
f
b
prove
that
*2 + a2
#+a
x
y2+
"2
32 + c2
_
y + b
z
+ ?/+
+ "+c
it
=
Let
r
y
A;,
so
that
ch ;
then
"
sa + a3
=
(k* +
=
"
L_
l)a '
; + l)c (fc2
"
a:
ah +
Jc+1
x*+a*
ar
ya+y
?/+ "
"
/c+ 1
+ l)(a+ Jfc2
" + 1
6 +
" + 1
c)
fc+1
Jfc8(a+6+c)8+(a+6+c)a
"(a +
+ kb (lea
_
"+
+
c)+
+ 6+
(ka+
_
kb
b+ b+
c)2
c
(x+y+z)*+(a+
x+y+z+a+b+c
b+
cf
is homogeneous with respect to certain equation substitute in the equation we quantities, may for these quantities For the equation to them. instance, any others proportional
13.
If
an
0 three
is
homogeneous
in x, y,
%
z.
Let
a,
j3, y
be
to x, y,
x 11
=
respectively.
z
-
"
"
75
so
that
ak, y
z /3k,
yk ;
y
+ n^y'k4 0, + ma(32yk* Ia3f3k4
=
is,
; but
a,
form y,
z
the
with
6 14.
.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
The
.
.
theorem following
.
.
is
important.
the de-
If y*
1
y~
2
."
,.... 3
nominators
are
all
of the
a,
same +
then sign,
...
the fraction
an
a8 + a3+
bl+b2+b3+
liesin
"'"
+bn
least of them. Let positive.
"=* be
magnitudebetween
Supposethat
the
it
/c i
'
by
k ; then
.'.a
r
"
ko
r
"
b
a
"
k " y-1
.-.
a"
kb
i '
bl
a
2"
b
a
k;
so
.-.
a2
"
kb2;
and
.*.
on;
by addition,
a
,+"2
"3 +
+ K+ +an"(bl+b, +
+K)k'"
.
al + a2 + a3+
au
n
b.+b9
1
b.+
3
+b that
+ +
'
ar b
r
we Similarly
may
prove
+
al
a2 + a3
an
at
6.+*.+*" +
where In
+K"
may be
like
the
theorem
denominators
15. that any
an
negative.
the
The
of readyapplication
in Art. 12 is of such
great value in
the
student should
case particular
freedom in it with some be able to use that may arise, without necessarily introducing
auxiliary symbol.
Example 1.
If
x
X"
-
V=
=
z a
"
b +
+
c-a
c z
=
a-b
b-c
prove that
a
y +
*"+*)+?
(*+*)+* (*+V)
+ b +
2(ax + by + cz)
RATIO.
sum
=
t Each
e ,i of the given
"
ie fi actions
"f numerators
"
__
sum
of denominators + y +
+ b +
z
"
x
_ '
(
and
''
Again,
if
we
multiply both
y + z,
z
numerator
denominator
of
the
three
givenfractions by
each fractions
+ x, +
+ y
respectively,
=
+ c-a) (y z)(b
z) \{lj +
'(* + *)
-
(x+ y)(a+b-e)
sum sum
x
=
(y+z) +
(2).
.'.
from
+ y +
_x
+ b + c~
Example
2.
If
l(mb
I
nc-la)
m(nc + la-mb)
m n
+ (la
mb
nc)
'
prove that
x(by
cz-ax)
x
+ ax-by) (cz
z(ax+ by -cz)
z n
y
m
"
We
have
mb
+
nc
la
nc
+ la-mb
z n
la + mb
"
nc
-+m
=
'"2/a"
two
mz
similar
nx
_
expressions ;
mx
ny +
a
_lz +
b
+
c
ly
and
below
by
by
by
then
+
ax mxz
_
nxy
Jyz+ nxy
_
mxz
+
cz
lyz
by
_2lyz
=
by +
=
cz-
ax
two
similar
m
expressions ;
n z
I
x
+ (by
cz
-ax)
+ ax-by) (cz
(ax+ by-cz)'
8
16. If
we
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
have
in quantities
the
unknown
alx
+
+
a2x
we
(1),
(2),
in the
cannot
solve these
form
X we
II
can,
by regarding
and
x
"
and
z
as z
the
unknowns,
solve
in the
ordinary way
obtain
blc2 b2ci
-
y
__ "
cxa2
c2al
"
or,
more
'
-a2bl afi2
'
y
'
bxc2 b2cx
-
cla2
c2a,
have
afi2 a_px
-
,(3).
the
It thus appears
that when
we
by represented
write down
(1)and
x
(2)
:
we :z
may in terms
:
type
formula
equations by
Write
rule following
down
those of y; and
in the way indicated by the Multiplythe coefficients across remembering that in forming the products any one arrows, obtained and any one obtained by by descendingis positive, is results The three ascending negative.
are
of Cross Multiplication,
9
: z
=
Example
y 3z
the
equations
7x=4y
By transposition
"Write down the
we
+
-
Qzt Ay
-
Uy.
have
7x 12x +
8-2=
=
0,
0.
lly-Sz
-8
thus coeilicients, -4
11
7
12
-4
-3
11,
whence
we
obtain
the
products
(-4)x(-3)-llx(-8),
or x "'*
(-8)xl2-(-3)x7,
100,
~
11
12
(-4),
-75,
y
125;
z
100
x,
^75~"125'
=
that
,.
is,
y -*-3
z
=
4 2.
Example
Eliminate
x,
y,
from
the equations
=
a1a;+ a^
+
+ c12 ^1?/
^y
c^^O
Ogaj+fegy+c^^O
From and (3), by cross (2)
multiplication,
y
_ "
*__
j*
~
k"C3 Vs
"
C2"i
C3"2
"263 llih
'
in (1), up, substituting denoting each of these ratios by k, by multiplying obtain out by A-, and dividing we Oj (Va
-
"
A-)
"-
of the
givenequations.
Example
3.
by +
y+
cz
0 0
(1), (2),
-
x+
(b c) (c-a)(a-b)
z
=
"
(3).
From
by (1)and (2),
x
-
cross
multiplication,
^"
"
b-c
.-. x
=
c-a
a-b
"
k, suppose
"
(b- c),y
(c a),z
-
k(a- b).
in (3), Substituting
k + {bc(b-c)
(c
a)+
ab
(a
.-.
fcss-lj
z
=
^ln'nce
-b, y
"
a-r,
a.
10 17.
If in Art. 16
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
we
put z
+
axx
bxy+
+ h2y
0,
"
"
v
and
(3)becomes
x
bxc2 b2cl
-
cxaa
c2ai
aj"% a2b]
-
'
alb2-a0bl
Hence any in the
two
afi2-a2bl
knowns uncross
simultaneous
first
degreemay
5x-3y
-1 5x
x
-
multiplication.
Example.
Solve
=
0, x
+ 1
2y
=
12.
By transposition,
3y
0,
2y -12
y
~
0;
1 10 + 3
;
x *'"
=
36 + 2
1 + 60
38
59 y
=
whence
is'
lS'
EXAMPLES.
I.
1.
Find
the ratio
compounded of
:
(1) (2)
36,and
the
ratio duplicate
:
of 9b2
ab.
:
ratio subduplicate of
of 64
2a
56.
/6a?
:
-
-j-
M--
2by.
2. 3.
exceeds
If #+7
(#+ 14)in
the
ratio duplicate
:
of 5
so
8, find
x.
in the ratio of 7
12
4.
to make
What
it
number
:
must 3 \
be added
to each
term
of the ratio 5
37
equalto 1
:
5. 6.
If x
If 15
y=3
-
4,find the
=
ratio of
7x-4y
x
3x+y.
y.
the ratio of
12 18.
shew If
x
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
cy +
X
bz,y
=
az+cx}
II
=
z=bx
z2
+ ay,
that
j"*
a1
\-bl i
""
\"cL
"
19.
Given
that
a(y
bc +
+ ab + 2abc
l.
equations: following
+ 7z
=
20.
3x-4y
0,
21.
x+y=
z,
=
2x-y-2z
0,
3x-2y+17z
x* + 23. 3x2
0,
l67.
to?-f+"=l8.
22.
3f
+ 2zs
tyz+ 3sa?=4an/,
2tys Sac 4ry, ff+2y+32=19.
-
7a*
0, 0,
6.
5.0-4^ + 73
24.
If
.--*
I
+-^L^
m
*""",
n
Ja+Jb
shew that
" "
Jb+Jo
"/c+V"
?===
'
=-
(a-b)(c-\/ab) (b
Solve the
c)(a
V be)
ac) (c a) (b \J
-
equations:
ax
25.
by+
+
cz
0, 0,
0.
abz
26.
x
27.
prove 1
If
s2
=
that
"
"
{I-be)
=
b(l-ca)
+
c(l-ab)
+
cz
=
28.
prove
If that
ax
ky+gz
0, kx
0,
x2
bc-f2
y2 ca-g2
-
z2
ab-h2
-
CHAPTER
II.
PROPORTION,
18.
Definition.
When them d
are
two
ratios
to
are
equal,
the
four
quantities composing
ft c
=
-
said
be
proportionals.
This is
Thus
if
then
,
a,
b, c,
b
as
are
proportionals.
d,
b
: :
expressed by
is written
saying
that
is to
is to
a :
and
c :
the d ; d.
proportion
or
b
"
The
terms
and
are
called
the
extremes,
b and
the
means.
19.
extremes
the
product
of
the
Let
b,
by
J
c, d
be
the
proportionals.
"
"
Then
definition
=.
"
b ad
=
d be. of
a
terms
proportion
are
are
given,
b
=
"
the
may
found.
Thus
if a,
c,
given,
then
that
there
a,
are
any
are
b,
c, d
four
extremes,
20.
b and
the
means
or
Definition. when
as
are
Quantities
the the
first
are
said
to
be
as
in the
so
continued
proportion
to a,
is
to
to
the the
second,
fourth
;
second
on.
is Thus
the
third, d,
third
and
b,
c,
in continued
a
proportion
c
when
bed
14
If three
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
quantities a, b,c
a
are
in continued
"
then proportion,
b
=
: c
.-.
ac
b2.
18.] [Art.
a
In this
c
case c
\ and 21.
and
If
to
the
tJie second.
then
be quantities
1
a.
b,c:
-.
be
a
=
b
x
-
Now
cue
a
=
a2
b that
X6 =F,;
=
is,
seen
: c
a2
b2.
the
v.
same as
It will be of
that this
is proposition
the
definition
'f=g
,
h, then
will
ae
bf= eg
dh.
"
.bor
and
""=!-:
j
ae
h eg
=
"'*
bf
or ae :
dhy
:
bf= eg
:
dh.
If
d,
v/,
b
a
: x
d
c
: x
y-
known
as
ex
in Geometry. cequali d
If four
quantities a, b, c,
be deduced
form
proportion, many
proportions may
results of
are
often
of fractions. by the properties these operations and of are some very useful, borrowed from quoted by the annexed names
Geometry.
PROPORTION.
15
d
: c.
(1)
For
-
If
b
;
d, then b
-f- ==
: a
[Invertendo
therefore 1
-r- -_
b
that
is
d'
b
-
d'
=
-
a or
c
=
: a
d
: c
=
: c.
(2)
If
. -
d,
then
d.
[Alternando
For acZ
be ; therefore
"
j
a
"
b
=
"! that
is,
a
-,
c or : c
=
b
+
d.
:
(3)
lor
If
"
d, tlien
s-
b
1
c +
d.
[Componeudo.'
7-
-, :
therefore
+ 1
o a
d
+
7"
-,
b
=
"
c +
="
d
:
that
or
is
a +
c +
d
:
d.
c-
(4)
For
"
If
d, then
"
a-b
1
b
1
:
d.
[Divideudo.]
=-
b
.
-,
therefore
b
a
"
-7
bc-d
=
"
that
or
is,
a
-
"7"
-="
b
a
d
: a
d.
(5)
For
If
"
then df,
+6
"
b=c+d:c"
d.
by (3)
a
"
-j-
bc"d
and
.
by (4)
,
.
.
/ * \
-j
"
^-j
"
=
=
c +
d
"
.'.
by division, J
a
a-b
+
c-d'
=
or
a-b
c +
c-d. JJivi-
This
dendo.
Several other proportions may
similar way.
16
24. The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
article are the algebraical results of the preceding fifth in the book of Euclid, of the propositions of some equivalents himself familiar with them and the student is advised to make in their verbal follows
:
form.
For
dividendo example,
may
be
quoted as
the excess above of the first four proportionals, the second is to the second, as the excess of the third above the fourthis to the fourth.
When there
are
25.
We with
definition algebraical
of proportion
Euclid's definition is
Four
are quantities
follows
if any equiwhen said to be proportionals multipl first and third, and also any whatever be taken of the second and of of the the wJiatever fourth, multiple equimultiples
the third is
greaterthan,equalto,or
less than
definition may
are
Four
c, d
in
when proportion
p"c
qd
as according
qb,p
the
and
I.
To
deduce
definition geometrical
from proportion
u
,
Since
-z
both by multiplying
pa 2)C
sides
by
we
obtain
qb
qd
'
as qd according
pa
qb,
proves To
the
proposition.
the definition algebraical of
deduce
from proportion
as qd according
pa
to qb,
prove
b=~d'
PROPORTION.
17
them
must
If
-j-
is not
equalto
; then
one
of
be
the
greater.
Supposeg
which
"
-^
it will be and
to possible
"p
find
some
fraction 2
P
lies between
them, q
beingpositive integers.
-
Hence
"
0). (2"
(1) (2)
and
pa"qb;
2)c"qd\
hypothesis.
not
Therefore
the
are
that unequal;
is
-"
which proves
proposition.
26.
It should be noticed that the geometrical definitionof proportion deals with concrete magnitudes, such as lines or areas, but not referred to any common unit geometrically represented of measurement.
as
commens to inapplicable
to commensurable
quantities ; whereas
mensurable definition, strictly speaking, applies onlyto comalgebraical it that is the since assumes a same tacitly quantities, of b that c is of d. But the determinate multiple, part,or parts, for will commensurable which have been given quantities proofs
the
the ratio of two incomcan always be made to differfrom the ratio of two quantity.This lias been by less than any assignable integers in the it be also as shewn in Art. 7 ; provedmore generally may for
next
since incommensurables,
article. 27.
Suppose that
and
are
into
m/3,where
in
a more
is a
n
positive integer.Also
times and then
i,
less than
n+
a
-
suppose 1 times; nB
.
f3is contained
*
than
" o
-^
mp
and
(n+1)
imp
B
,
"
/^
m
that
is,
-="
lies between
"
and
so
that
-j-
differs from
"
by
"
And
.
since
we
H. H. A.
18
choose
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
can
B
as
unit (our
of
we
as measurement)
small 1
"
as
we
m please,
can
be
as
made
we
great
as
please. Hence
and
m
can
be made
as
small ratio
and please,
that
two
n integers
can
be found
whose
of
and
b to any
proved in Art. 23 are often useful in propositions the solution of certain equations problems. In particular, solving of skilful the comfacilitated use is greatly operations by a ponendo and dividendo.
Example
If 1. 6mb + Snc +
d
+
-
(2ma +
that
prove
a,b, c,
2ma 2ma
are
Snc + Snc
-
Gmi
Snc
dnd),
2ma
2
ma
+
-
Qmb 6mb
9nd
'
bmb
+ Snc
\)nd
Snc + 9nd
.*.
componendo
and
dividendo,
2
(2ma + Snc)
_
2 2
{2ma
Sue)
'
2~{Gmb + 9nd)
2ma
+
(Smb
"
9m/)
"
Snc
="
=
Gmb + (.)nd
-
Alternando,
n-
"
,.
2ma-Snc
bmb-vna
Again,componendo
and
dividendo,
Ama
_ ~
\2mb
One
a
lQnd
b
=
whence
or
a :
-,
a
"
d.
Example
2.
4a; -1
_
Jx+l
_
4a;+ 1
.r
+
-
+ l_16a;2
"
8a;+l
*
*'"
x
16a;2-24a; + 9
32a;2- 16a; + 10
~
32a;
-8a; + 5 16a;2
"X~
16a;- 4
-
'
whence
16a;2
4a;=
x
16a;2 8a;+ 5
-
5
" "
-.
20
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
18.
If the
2
men
work in
x
-
done
1
by
"
men
in
+
:
days
is to
x.
the
work
done
by
days
in the
ratio
of 9 that
10, find
sum
19.
Find
sum
four of the
proportionals such
means
the of
of
the
extremes
is
21, the
numbers
19, and
the
sum
the
squares
of
all four
is 442. Two cask What shall Nine A casks in A the and ratio
must
20.
in the
1
:
were
filled with
:
two the
kinds cask
to
of B
sherry, mixed
in the ratio mixture other \ of
a
of
7, and
taken
one
in from
5.
quantity
consist of 2
be of
each
9
form
which 21.
gallons
drawn
kind
and cask
gallons
of
are
of the
gallons
then with of
are
from of
full
water,
nine
gallons
in it
as
the
mixture
is
water.
If the 16
quantity
to
of wine much
in the the
cask cask
water
9, how
does
hold?
22.
that the
as
If
four
positive quantities
between the between the the
are
in
continued is at
proportion,
least three
shew
as
difference the In
last
two.
times
great
difference
23.
1871 and
England
1881;
if the
4
per per
cent,
cent,
country
in
population
1871. In certain of
per
cent., compare
the
town
and
country
tions popula-
24.
coffee
cent,
were more
country
If the per
a
the per
consumption
cent,
more
of
tea
tea
the
more
consumption
were more
coffee.
and
cent, be
more
consumed,
;
aggregate
cent,
more
amount tea
consumed and
a
1c
but
if b the
a
consumed,
:
aggregate
b.
amount
consumed
per would
be
3c
per
compare Brass
80
and
25.
of
is per and
an
alloy
of
of
copper
4 to
and of
zinc
; bronze
is tin.
an
alloy
fused
containing
mass
cent,
brass and
10
bronze
:
zinc, and
74
to
16
of
contain of copper
of
zinc,
of tin
find
ratio
of brass.
26.
crew row
row
can
row same
a course
certain down
:
course
up would
stream
in minutes take
84
minutes;
less than down
row
they they
with
can
the
it in
stream
in
could the
still water
how
long
they
to
stream
CHAPTER
III.
VARIATION.
29.
as
Definition.
One the
two
another
a manner
B,
when that
such ratio.
if B
directly
other the
same
in
Note.
as
The
word
directlyis
omitted,
and
is said
to
vary
B.
instance in in 60 120
if
train it
moving
will
so
at
uniform miles in
rate
travels
minutes, minutes,
or
travel
on;
20 the
same
30 in
as
minutes,
each the
case
and
distance
ratio
being
This the the
increased is
diminished
in that the
the when
time.
the
or
velocity
the
is
uniform varies
as
time,
distance
The is read
symbol
"A
oc
is
as
used B."
to
denote
variation
so
that
on
B 31.
varies
constant
If A. varies quantity.
suppose of A and that B.
as
B,
tlien A
is
equal
to
multiplied by
some
For values
a,
corresponding
a
mi
b
=
=-
a
:
"
b
=
"
b
,
Inen,
by
deimition,
/"
","
"
"
",
V
,.j-
-r
and
so
on,
"3
K
to
/. s-i
"=*
y^=
each
being equal
6,
TT
62
63
of A
. _
any
-=
value
r.
Hence
="
is
always
the
same
the
corresponding
" "
value
ot
that
is,
7u,
where
is constant.
.'. A=mB.
22
If any the constant
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of A
and
are
=
known,
3 when
be
determined.
For
if A instance,
^=12,
we
have
=m
12;
and 32.
as
A Definition.
when Z?,
\B.
is said to vary inversely the reciprocal of B.
if A
varies
as B, inversely
-^
where
is constant.
:
is an following in 8 in 24
men
If 6 work
men
do 4
certain work
the number
hours,12
men
would
do the
same
in
hours, 2
when
Thus it appears that hours ; and so on. the time is proportionately of men is increased,
and decreased;
vice-versa.
cube root of x varies when y = l^. where have
m
Example 1. The
x=8
as the inversely
square
of y ; if
when
3, find
By supposition "/x=
"
is constant.
Tit
if
Puttingx
8, y
3, we
2=n"
.*. ?;t =
18,
18
=
"
and
v *jx
hence, by putting y
^,
we
obtain
a; =
512.
the cube
The square of the time of a planet's revolution varies as of its distance from the Sun; find the time of Venus' revolution, and assuming the distances of the Earth and Venus from the Sun to be 91-J 66 millions of miles respectively.
Example 2.
measured
in
in millions
P2
D3,
P*=kD3,
k is
some
where
constant. 365
x
365
4x4x4
whence
365 4
. "
4
"
'
p2 r
_ ~
365
VARIATION.
23
66
For
Venus,
pa^i^ili 66 3
x
b.)
6G ;
whence
4x66
/264
:":
365
264 264
x x
a/*7233, approximately,
-85
224-4. is
Hence
nearly224" days.
to vary
Definition.
of A the
One
others,when
varies interest
on
it varies B
jointly as
For
their A
=
product.
mBC.
as jointly
as jointly
a
C, when
stance, inthe
the principal,
time,and
sum
varies
3 -i. Definition.
as C, when versely
as directly
and
in-
varies
35. when
vary.
7/*A
varies
as
when
is constant,and
as
varies
as
C C
is constant,then tvill A of A
vary
BC
ivhen both B
and
The
variation each
on dependspartly
that of C.
Suppose these
a,
b,c
1
.
that of B and partly on latter variations to take place rately, sepaeffect on A ; also let producingits own values of B
A, B, C.
A must intermediate value
b ; then
C be constant
while will
changesto
some
assume
"=-
(1)
2.
Let B
c
changesto
intermediate
let it retain its value b,while C be constant,that is, its change and pass from its complete ; then A must value a' to its final value a, where
From
"
x a
"
: c
that
is,
=-
BC,
as
be
or
A varies
BC.
24
36. The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
are following
provedin
the last article. varies by a givennumber of men of of days they work, and the amount the number as directly of men the number as work done in a giventime varies directly ; of men of days and the number are the number therefore when will vary as the productof of work the amount both variable, of days. and the number of men the number varies directly as Again,in Geometry the area of a triangle the and a s is the height directly its base when height constant, and base both the when and is constant base the when height ; the productof the numbers varies as are variable, the area and the base. the height representing The
amount
of work
done
Example. The volume of a rightcircular cone varies as the square of the the the height is constant, and as the height when radius of the base when and the 15 is feet base feet, radius of the 7 If the height constant. is base is 132 whose volume the volume is 770 cubic feet ; find the height of a cone is 3 feet. radius whose base which stands on a cubic feet and
the height ani radius Let h and r denote respectively in cubic feet. measured in feet ; also let V be the volume Then of
the base
V=mr2h,
where
is constant. 770
"
By supposition,
whence
72 x 15
22
;
"
.*.
V= by substituting
132, r
S, we
132="
get
22
xOxft;
X
7i= 14 ;
heightis
14 feet.
37.
case
The
of proposition
Art. 35
two
to the
than
inverse.
be either direct or may because of its frequent is interesting currence ocThe principle For example, in the theory of Science. in Physical
of a gas gases it is found by experimentthat the pressure (p) its volume when varies as the "absolute (v)is (t) temperature" the volume as constant, and that the pressure varies inversely when the
temperature is
2?
oc
constant
v
; that is
t, when
is constant
VARIATION.
25
and
From
cc
when
t is constant.
these
results should
we
should
expect that,when
both
t and
are
we variable,
have
the formula
p and
cc
or
pv
kt,where
k is constant
by
actual
this experiment
duration of
a
is found
to be the- case.
varies
Example.
distance
square
The
railway journey
directlyas
the
varies directly the the velocity;the velocity as as inversely root of the quantityof coal used per mile, and inverselyas the In a journey of 25 miles in half an hour in the train. of carriages and
carriages 10
in
a
much coal will be of coal is required; how 16 with in 28 21 miles minutes of carriages? journey
cwt.
Let t be the time expressedin hours, d the distance in miles, in miles per hour, v the velocity of coal in cwt., the quantity q of carriages. c the number We have
t
oc
and
oc
*!l
,
whence
oc
"
or
"
"
7-
where
k is constant.
the Substituting
values
given,we
1
_
have
x
18
25
;
2~
jm
=
that
is,
25x36"
v/lO cd
.
Hence
now Substituting
t=
"
0^ 2o
^"
36
Jq given in the
second
the values
of t, c, d
part of
the
question, we
have
28
710x16x21.
25x36^2
^
'
,-
60"
"" a that
is,
/ s/q="
=5^10,
6|.
"
6|cwt.
26
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
If
x
III.
when y
=
varies
as
y, and
#=8
15,find
when
when
=
10.
If P
varies
as Q, and inversely
P=7
3, find P when
x"3
If the square
of
varies
.
as
the cube
of y, and
when
4,
#=-yand i?
=
4.
varies
A
=
as
C
3.
if jointly;
2 when
and
C="
10
,
find 0 when 5.
54 and
as
C, and
i? varies
as
will
C
as
BC,
as inversely
-7
7.
varies
as directly
Q and
as R\ inversely
also P
=
~
when
o
and
="
find
as
(^when
P=a/48
that
and
jR=\/"5.
as
8. 9.
If
a'
varies
y, prove
x2+y2 varies
x2-y\
one
of which of two quantities, sum if y 6 when as x ; and inversely between and x equation y.
=
varies
x=4, and
varies
or
10.
sum as
of two x2
one quantities
of which
19 when
and inversely;
if y
x=2,
11.
the cube and
the square root of B and inversely If A varies directly as as and C=2, find B when A 24 3 when ."=256 of C, and if 4
=
C=g
12.
Given
that
+ y
varies
x
as
and
,
that
"
varies
when
x
as
"
and
z,
that provided
=2
=3
and
\.
13.
varies 14.
If J. varies
as
as
inversely A,
varies
as
and Z"2,
of which the first is of three quantities If y varies as the sum and third the second the varies as as x2; and if y 0 when constant, .r, find and when l when 4 x 3; x=l, y x=2, y when x=7. y
= = = =
When a body falls from rest its distance from the starting : if a body falls pointvaries as the square of the time it has been falling through 402^ feet in 5 seconds, how far does it fall in 10 seconds ? Also how far does it fall in the 10th second?
15.
CHAPTER
IV.
ARITHMETICAL
PROGRESSION.
38.
Definition. when
Quantities
are or
said decrease
to
be
in
a
Arithmetical
common
Progression
they
increase
by
ference. dif-
Thus
each
:
of
the
following
15,
series
forms
an
Arithmetical
Progression
3, 7, 11, 8, 2, -4,
a,
a
-10,
a
d,
2d,
3d,
common
difference that
common
is found
by subtracting
it. In the the first second
any
term
of
from the
which
follows
of
the
"
above 6 ; in
examples
the third
difference
is 4 ; in
it is
it is d.
39.
If
we
examine
a,
a
the
+
series
a
d,
2d,
3d,
we
in
any
term term
the hi
coefficient of
the seiies. is is is is
a
is
always
less
by
one
than
of
the
2d;
5d
;
I9d',
and, generally,
If
n
the
pth
(p
and
"
\)d.
if I denote the
be
we
the have
number
of I
=
terms,
a
last,
or
?ith term,
(n
"
1) d.
of
terms
40.
To
find
the
sum
of
number
in
Arithmetical
Progression.
Let
the
a
denote
of
the
terms.
first
term,
let
the
common
difference, and
the
n s
number
Also
I denote
last
term,
and
ARITHMETICAL
PROGRESSION.
29
the
sum required 8
; then
+
a+(a
...
(I 2d)+ (l-d)+ l;
-
reverse
order,
a.
I+
(I d)+ (I 2d)+
-
(a + 2d)+ (a + d) +
two
series,
to
...
terms
"'"
^(a+ l)
a
and
l~a
(n-l)d
+
.-.
-^{2a (n-l)d\
we
41.
In
have
one
(1),
(2),(3);
the
in each
any
unknown
the three
others
in (1)if we instance,
givenvalues for s, n, I,we obtain in the other formulae. a ; and an equationfor finding similarly of these But it is necessary to guard against a too mechanical use will found a nd it often solve be better to formulae, general simple than reference mental rather actual to the a an questions by by formula. requisite
substitute
Example
Here the
1.
common
Find the sura of the series 5^, GJ, 8, difference is 1^; hence from (3),
=
to 17 terms.
the
sum
\2
"
16
*li|
y (11+20)
17x31
~2
=
263".
of
a
Example
400
:
first term
of terms, and of
the
sum
If
terms, then
"
(1)
400 whence
(5+ 4r");
n
=
10.
30
If d be the
common
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
5 + 15d;
whence
2f
an
42. furnish
If
two
any
two
can
terms
of
Arithmetical
given,the givethe
23rd term. If
a
series
be the
simultaneous and
54th and
first term
The
difference.
of
an
Example.
4th terms
A. P.
are
61 and
64 ; find the
d the
=
common
=
difference,
a
61 64
53d ;
and whence
we
+ 3d ;
obtain
=
-jr,
Hh.
22d
16".
three
are quantities
When Definition. middle one Progression the 43. the other two. Thus 44. Let Then
a a
in Arithmetical
mean
of
is the arithmetic
mean
between
"
d and
d.
To
findthe
A, b
arithmetic
mean
betiveen two
givenquantities.
mean.
and
b be the two
are
quantities ; A
we
=
the arithmetic
since a,
in A. P.
b
-
must
have
"
a,
each
beingequalto
the
common a +
difference ; b
"
whence
A Between
two
45.
insert
is
to always possible
of terms such any number formed shall be in A. P. ; and by an Art. 43, the terms thus inserted are
the
whole
series thus
extension
of the definition in
means.
Example.
to find
a
Insert 20 arithmetic
means
67.
number of terms will be 22 ; so that we have in A.P., of which 4 is the first and 67 the last.
Let d be the
difference ;
then
whence d
=
67
4 + 21d ;
and the
means required
7, 10, 13,
ARITHMETICAL
PROGRESSION.
31
means
46.
two
givennumber givenquantities.
To insert
a a
of
arithmetic
betiveen
Let
and
b be the
number
of
means.
the Including
so a
extremes
number
n +
have
2 terms
common
difference ; b
=
the
term (n + 2)th
71+
are
'
b
a
"
a
-
2
,
a) (b *
"
"
nib
,
"
=-'
*
" "
a)
'
_.
n+l
n+l
n+l
in A.P. is 27, and the
sum
Example
their squares Let numbers
a
1.
of
be the middle
are a
-
number,
+ d.
d the
common
difference ; then
the three
d, a,
Hence whence
a
=
a-d
+ d
27 ;
are
d, 9, $
=
d.
+ 81 (9-rf)2
whence
and
d="5;
are
the numbers
4, 9, 14.
the
sum
Example
w"' term is 3n
2.
-
Find
of the first p
terms
of the
series whose
1.
obtain we respectively,
=
first term
2, last
+
term
=3p
"
1;
.-.
EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
Sum Sum
to 20 terms. 2, 3|,4J,... to 17 49,44,39,... 3 2
"
IV.
a.
terms.
7
I
,...
"
Sum-,
4
-,
o
to 19 terms.
32
7 4. Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
3, -,
o
to If,...
terms.
5. 6. 7. 8.
to 3'75,35, 3-25,...
to 1-3,-3-1, -7-5,... 6
-.-
12
,
3x/3,-75 "...
4
-tt
to 50 terms.
9.
10.
-j=
to V5;-..
25 terms.
36, 2a
-
56, 3a
76,
. .
to 40 terms.
. .
11.
12.
2a
tt
6,4a
,
36,6a
^
"
56,.
,
,,
to
,
terms.
Sum
-"-
+ 6 a,
3a-6
"
,...
to 21 terms.
means
and
"
9|.
"
means
3^ and
-
41".
S.v.
means
36.17and 1.
arithmetic
sum
means
x2 and
the
numbers.
29, the
the
sum
155;
ence differ-
19.
of
an
A. P. is 600, and
common
20.
find the
an
A. P. is
term
is 30 ;
of three numbers
in A. P. is
27,and
their
product is
of their
in A. P. is
sum
23.
24.
of 15 terms of 35 terms
nth term
is 4?i4- 1. is
sum
pihterm
nth term
^+
+
2.
25. 26.
Find Find
the the
sum
of p terms of 2a2
a n
-
is
b.
sum
terms 1
,
6a2 -5
, ,
. . .
4a
a
ARITHMETICAL
PROGRESSION.
s, a, d
33
are
In 47. to determine
an
given,
values
of
we
have
the
quadratic equation
"2a
(n-
l)d\ ;
when in
a
and integral there is no difficult positive the result corresponding to each. In some interpreting cases suitable interpretation be for can a value of n. given negative both
roots
are
Example.
taken that the
How
sum
many
may
terms
of the
series -9,
-6, -3,...
must
be
be G6 ?
Here
{-18 + ("-l)3}=66;
n--ln-U
=
that is,
or
Q,
(n-ll)(n+4)=0;
.'.
?i=ll
or
4.
If
we
take 11 terms
-
of the
-
have we series,
9,
6,
the
sum
of which
is 66.
If we beginat the last of these terms and count backwards four terms, the is also 66; and thus, although the negativesolution does not directly enabled to give the question it an intelligible we are answer proposed, meaning, and we see that it answers a questionclosely connected with that to which the positive solution applies.
sum
48. the
We
can
in
following way.
The
to equation
determine dn2
+
is
=
(2a-d)n-2s
(1).
have equation
n
.
-
Since in the
case
under
The
last
(nl
-
if
we
beirin
at
difference must
and
backwards,
the
sum
the
common
by
d, and
of
terms yi.,
is
(" |{2
and
we
+ (", ",-!"/)
-!)(-"/)}
6-.
shall shew
A.
H. H.
34
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
For
the
expression -? \ 2a
=
(2n{
"
n2
"
l)dl
1
=
I 2nxn2d (da*
-
2a
.n2)\
l(4s-2s)
=
s,
since
"
n2 satisfies dn2
the roots When
(2a d) n"
"
2s
0, and
is
"
n}n2
is
the
productof
49. of terms
of this
equation.
n
no
exact
ber num-
to corresponds
terms
solution.
be taken
to
Example.
amount to 71 ?
many
Here
that is,
or
5)i2
57u + 148
0, 0;
(n-4)(5n-37)
.*.
?i
=
or
1%.
sum
Thus
the number
is greater,while the
sum
is 4. of terms of 8 terms
0
of 7 terms
50.
We
add
1.
:
some
Miscellaneous
Examples.
are
Example
ratio of 7?t+ l
of two arithmetic series The of n terms sums 4" + 27; rind the ratio of their 11th terms. and
common
in the
series be av
dx and
d2 respectively.
We have
4?i +
Now
we
have
"
"
tttt',
a2 +
l0d2'
4
_ "~
we
obtain
148
_
111
'
requiredratio is
2.
3.
Example
series whose
If
first terms
sums
of
terms
of arithmetic
whose
common
differences are
36
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
9.
Sum
the
series
-_
."
to
,
...
terms.
If the
sum
sum
n
of 7 terms
terms.
is
49, and
the
sum
of 17 terms
is 289,
of
11.
that
If the
terms
of
an
A. P.
are
a,
=
(q-i')a + (r-p)b+(p-q)c
12.
The
sum sum
of p
terms
of
an
A. P. is q, and
the
sum
of q terms
is
find the p ;
ofp
q terms.
of four
integers in
parts which
A. P. is
24, and
their
product
that and
is
14.
Divide
20
into four
are
in A.
P., and
such
the
product
15.
mtb
term.
fourth
is to the
product of
the
the second
third
in the ratio of 2 to 3.
The
pth
term
of
an
A. P. is q, and
term qth
is p ; find
the
16.
make
How
many
terms
of the
be
taken
to
306?
17.
If the
sum
of of
terms
m
of
an
A. P. is 2n +
an
3n2,find
sum
terms
of
A. P. is to the
terms
"
as
is to the
an
nth term
as
2m
"
1 is to 2n
1.
19.
to the
Prove middle If
5
=
that
term
n
of
odd the
number
number
of terms of terms.
in A. P. is
equal
multipliedby
-
20. 21.
terms
(pn
3) for
all values in
an
of nt find the A.
pth term.
;
The is
number
even
of terms
terms
P. is
even
the
sum
24, of the
There
sum
30, and
exceeds
by
10 1
of terms.
sets of numbers set is 15.
22. and
is the
two
each
common
3 terms
of each
1 than
The
of the
greater by
the
common
difference
second set
as
set, and
7 to 8
product
23. between
n means
of the
product
of the second
find
the numbers.
Find
x
the
relation
between
same case.
x as
and the
and
2y may
be the in each
being inserted
24. If the sum of an A. P. is the that its sum for p + q terms is zero.
same
for p
as
for
terms, shew
CHAPTER
V.
GEOMETRICAL
PROGRESSION.
51.
Definition. when of
Quantities
are
said
to
be
a
in
Geometrical
Progression
Thus
:
they
the
increase
or
by
a
constant
factor.
gression Pro-
each
following
Geometrical
3, G, 12, 24,
1
-1
3'
ar,
I
9'
-I
27'
a,
ar2, ar3,
is also
term
The found
constant
factor
any
called
common
ratio, and
ratio
it is
by dividing
In the
it.
the
first of the it is ; in
above the
by that examples
third it is
immediately iwecedes
common
is 2 ; in
second
"
r.
52.
If
we
examine
a,
the ar,
term
series
we
notice
that
in
any
of
is
always
less
by
one
tlian
the number
of
Thus
ars; ar19;
the
is
and, generally,
If
n we
the number
pih
of l
=
term
be
the
terms,
ar"~\
last, or
n,h
term,
have
53.
When
one
three is called
quantities are
the
in
mean
Geometrical
between
Progression
the other
geometric
two.
38
To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
between two
givenquantities.
the
mean. geometric
Let Then
and
b be
the
two
quantities ; G
P.,
b
since a,
G, b
are
in G.
_G
a'
ratio ;
G~
each
being equalto
the
common
.-.
G2 G
ab;
whence
Jab.
means of geometric
54.
two
givennumber givenquantities.
To insert
a a
between
Let In
and
b be the
the n givenquantities,
n
number
we
of
means.
2 terms which
so a
that
have
to
find
series of Let
then
r
2 terms
common
in G.
P.,of
ratio ;
is the firstand
b the last.
be the
the
term (n + 2)th
"r"+1;
"
~a'
i
"""""""
the found value
Hence
means required in (1). are
""
where
r
of,
arn, a?-2,...
has
the
Example.
We sixth. Let have
Insert 4
geometric means
between
100
and 5.
and is the first,
5 the
to find 6 terms
in G. P. of which
160
be tbe
common
ratio ; tben 5
=
160?'5;
1
'
~32'
whence
r=o'
means are
and the
GEOMETRICAL
PROGRESSION.
o!)
find Progression.
55.
To
the
sum
of a
number
of
terms
in
Geometrical
Let
be
s
the
common
n ratio,
the
number
of
terms, and
sum
required. Then
+ car +
ar2
r,
+
we
arn~2
ar"~l ;
multiplying every
rs
=
term
ar
by
ar2
+
have
+
ar"~2
ar""1
ar*,
Hence
by subtraction,
rs
"
arn
"
.-.
(r-l)s
a(r"-l);
(i).
1
,..-5fe^a
r
-
numerator
and
denominator,
.-?S=*3
1
Note. for
s.
(2).
-r
both forms given above It will be found convenient to remember and in all when?1 cases isj^ositive greater than 1. using(2) except
Since ar'^1^
1,the formula
(1)may
be written
rl-a
S=7--T:
a
form
which
is sometimes
useful.
2 3
,
Example.
The
Sum
the series
3
-1,
-,
to 7 terms.
common
ratio
hence
by formula
(2)
(-23
the
sum
=
"
II
2
~
2187]
128
I
2315
X *
2 5
128
403
40
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
series
1,
r,
^-2,
~3,
2
The
sum
to
terms
"-
-H1
2 .2-
27
"
2"-i
From taken
see
this
sum
the
result it appears that however terms many of the above series is always less than 2. Also
n
be
we
that,by making
as
sufficiently large,
we
can
make
the fraction
njr-^i
smaU the
as
we
please. Thus
can
by takinga by
as
of terms from 2.
sum
be made
to differ
please
In the next
article Art. 55
more
case general
is discussed.
57.
From
we
have
\
1
a -r
ar"
t
"
1 the
'
"
Suppose r
n
is
proper
the smaller
is the value
n
of consequently
can
therefore
n
by making
we sufficiently large,
make
a
the
sum
of
terms
by
as
small
as quantity
we
please.
This result is
usuallystated
thus
the
sum
of
an
infinite
^
number
:
"
or
more
to
is infinity
1-r'
sum
three numbers
in G. P. whose
is
19, and
whose
the numbers
by
-, r
a, ar;
then
x r
ar
216 ; hence
6, and
the numbers
are
6, 6r.
GEOMETRICAL
PROGRESSION. 6
-
41
+ 6 +
6r=19;
6r2 =
2
.-.
6-13r 3
0;
or
4, 6, 9.
of
an
Example 2.
the
sum
sum
infinite number
of terms
in G. P. is
15, and
of the
of their squares
a
Let
terms
the
common
'
the
sum
is
1
-
;
r
and
the
sum
of their squares
is
1 -r*
"
Hence
,"=15 1
-
(1),
a2
=
45
(2)(3),
l +
r
=
5;
whence
r=x
and
therefore 10
5.
20
"
an,
Thus
+1
the
...
series
is
o,
"
EXAMPLES.
112
V.
a.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
-,-,-,...
A
to 7 terms.
9
6 terms.
8 terms.
terms.
3, -4,
"
,...
o
to 1, N/3,3,...
1
8
' ,
9.
v/2
-j-
-2,
-jr
s'2
,...
42
11
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
3
3,
10.
Sum
-~,
-j,.-
to ^ terms.
4
11.
means geometric
2^ and
12.
13. Sum
means geometric
3f and 40|.
14 and
means geometric
I
-
"
64
series following
to
14. 16.
18.
-1, |,
?,...
15. 17.
1-665,-1-11, -74,...
3, v/3,1,...
19.
20. The sum the first 3 terms 21. The the series.
G. P. is 9 times
the
sum
of
fifth term
G. P. is 81, and
the second
term
is 24; find
The sum of a G. P. whose common 22. last term is 486 ; find the first term.
ratio is 3 is
728,and
the
the
23.
In
is
7,the
last term
448, and
sum
24.
1728;
25.
the
sum
in G. P. is
The continued in G. P. is 216, and product of three numbers of the productof them in pairs is 156 ; find the numbers. If the of the series 1
26. sp the
sum
Sp denote
sum
"
and inf.,
...
/Op +
Sp== ^*ij'2p'
27. that
If the
of a G. P. be a, a"-r6r-*c*-"=l.
28.
sum
The sum of an infinite number of terms of their cubes is 192 ; find the series.
a
G. P. is
4, and the
58.
good illustration
of infinite
23
+
23
+
io
iooo
iooooo
~io+ IP+105+
44
60. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
find the
a,
sum
ofn
terms
of the
series
is the
in
an
series. geometric
sum
by
S ; then
+
S=a+(a
.-.
d)r+(a
ar
2d)r2+
. .
...
(a+
n~^ld)r"-' ;
n
rS=
(a+ d)r2+
+(a+ n-2d)rn~l+(a+
-ld)rn.
By subtraction, S(l
-
r)
=
(dr+
"
dr2
dr""1)(a+ n-lct)rn
-
dr(\-rn~l)
a
=
"
, (a
v
-N +
n
-
Id) r
'
"
1
a
'
"'"
r" (a + n~^\d)
_
T^r
'
Cor.
S in the form dr
l-r+ (l-ry~
then
dr"
if
make
r"
small
as
we
pleaseby taking n
In this case,
so
be made
+
7^ r"
assuming that all the terms which be neglected, small that they may we
sum
-z
"
for the
to
1-r
We infinity. J
shall refer
In
class it is
best usually
to
Example
1.
If
"1,
sum
the series
to
infinity.
;
Let
.-.
S xS=
2x* + 3x*+
"
"
S(l-x)
l+ 1
x2 + x*+
~l-x]
"
a-
GE0METK1CAL
PROGRESSION.
45
Example
2.
Sum
the series 1 +
-, o-
" .
to
terms.
0"*
^
T
Let
+ S==i+i+_ 1
"""
"
10 _+
Sn-2 +
_..
1
+
4
+
3n
+
3n-2
5*4
,
5
/3
52
3
53+
3
-57^-+
3 \
5,"
3n-2
3 A
1
f
\
"
57-"1" +5"-"j"~5"~
3n- _2
*
3
,
"
1 +
'""-i
'
3
=
/
"
1 + 7
~
(1 5" J
_
1\
3"-2
-
-5.-
12w + 7
5*
35
"'*
12/t+7
'
16
16
5"-1
EXAMPLES.
V. b.
1. 2.
3.
1 4- 2a 4- 3a2 + 4a3 43 1+
-
to
terms. to
7
477.
15 +
^,
31 +
c^rr. zoo
"
infinity.
lb
64
...
to
infinity.
4.
1+
4 + -2 -3 +
to
terms.
5 +
-7
7
+
+
Q
...
5. 6.
Sum Sum
1+
to
infinity. infinity.
to l + 3^ + 6lf24-10ji"34-...
of which the first term term of a G. P., 7. Prove that the (n+ l)th of a G. P. of term and the the third is term to a (2"+l)th b, equal 6. which the first term is a and the fifth term is The sum of 2n terms of a G. P. whose firstterm is a and common ratio r is equalto the sum of n of a G. P. whose first term is b and of the first two ratio r1. Prove that b is equal to the sum common of the firstseries. terms
8.
46
9. Find the
l+
r sum
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
b + b2 +
b3)r3+...,
and
being proper
fractions.
extremes
of three numbers in G. P. is 70 ; if the two 10. The sum be multiplied each by 4, and the mean by 5, the productsare find the numbers.
in A. P. ;
11. The first two terms of an and every term is 3 times the sum the series.
Sum the series following
:
together equalto 5,
that follow
it; find
12. 13.
14.
..
to
terms.
. . .
to
terms.
"
"
+...
2p
terms.
3 +
2
+
3 +
2
+
3 +
15.
3
^2
33
34
35
p+-- to
76
+
mfinity.
454545
16.
7
72
73
74
to
-
75
llifinity-
"
.,
17.
If a,
18.
geometric mean,
19.
Find
as
great as the
of which is
of
terms
(2r-f-l)2'\
is 20. Find the sum of 2n terms of a series of which every the term before it, and every odd term a times c times before it, the first term beingunity.
even
21.
a, and
If
common
Sn denote the
of n terms of a G. P. whose first term sum ratio r, find the sum of SlfS3,/8'5,.../8r2B_1.
is
22.
whose
If Sv JS2, of infinite geometricseries, the sums are S3,...SP first terms are 1,2, 3,..,j2, ratios are and whose common 2' 3' 4
'
* ' '
^Ti
.
Hence shew
that nrn
shew that and m is a positive integer, positive, + 1. + l)rwl(l-r)"l-r2wi (2"i small when n is indefinitely is indefinitely great.
CHAPTER
VI.
HARMON
ICAL
PROGRESSION.
THE
THEOREMS
CONNECTED
WITH
PROGRESSIONS.
61. Harmonical
DEFINITION.
Three
quantities a, b, c
-
are
said
to
be
in
Progression when
"
"
said of quantitiesare Any number consecutive three Progression when every Progression. 62.
are
to
be
terms
in
Harmonical
are
in
monical Har-
in A
Harmonical
Progression
if ", b, c By definition,
in Harmonical
a
"
Progression,
~c^~b^~c'}
.'.
a(b
"
c)
(a b),
"
dividing every
term
by abc,
1111
c
a'
which
proves
the
proposition.
properties are
because interesting chiefly : of their importance in Geometry and in the Theory of Sound of in Algebra the proposition any just proved is the only one of any importance. There is no general formula for the sum number of quantities in Harmonical Progression. Questions in H. P. are generally solved by invertingthe terms, and making use of the properties A. P. of the corresponding 63. Harmonical
48
64. Let then
-
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
To
a,
find the
b be
are
harmonic
two
7tiean
between two
their
givenquantities.
harmonic
mean;
the
H quantities,
-~
11
in A. P. ; 1
I
a~b
2
I
11
I
IV
''11
H~
,,
a+
2ab
a
"'
Example.
Here
common
Insert
40 harmonic
means
between
7 and
6 is the difference
42na term
; then
of
an
A. P. whose
first term
is
; let d
be the
41d ; whence
2 3
-
-.
Thus
the
arithmetic
41
---
means
are
; and
monic
means
are
3", 2\,...~.
*
65.
means
If
A, G"
a
II and
be
the
we
harmonic
between
b,
proved
+
A
G
~Y~
(!)"
Jab
(2).
(3). v '
ab
7
=
H=^ a+b
_,
Therefore
"
a
Tr =
"
+
"
b
.
2ab a+b
T
=
All
~2
that
is,G
is the these
geometricmean
results
we see
between that
a
=
and
//.
From
. -
G=-~-Jab
,-z-
b-
g-^_
2 Jab
HARMONICA!
PROGRESSION.
49
which
mean mean.
is
if a positive
two
of any
Also from
and
therefore positive;
the
equation G*--A1I,
we
see
that G
is intermediate
"
G,
in value therefore
means
between A and 11; and it lias been proved that G " II ; that is,the arithmetic, and geometric,
harmonic
order
descending
ofmagnitude.
in the Progressions afford scope Miscellaneous questions the often solution for skill and ingenuity, being neatlyeffected student will find the following artifice. The special by some
66.
be added to, or subtracted from, all quantity terms will form an A. P. with P., the resulting difference
terms
as
before. A.P.
be
[Art. 38.]
or multiplied
2.
the with
same a
If all the
of
an
divided A.
by
will form
an
P., but
difference.
[Art. 38.]
3.
same same
divided by the or If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied will form G.P. with the terms a the resulting quantity, ratio as before. [Art. common 51.] If a,
4.
also in continued
portion^ pro-
1
'
bed
in series of quantities a Conversely, by x, aw, xr'2, represented
continued
proportion may
c
be
Example
in H. P.
1.
If
in A. P., shew
that
b + c,
+ a,
+ b
are
By addingab
a* + ab + that is
+ ac + bc to each +
term,
we
see
that
+
ac
bc, b2 +
ba + bc + ac,
c'2+ ca + cb
ab
are
in A.P.
+ b)are + a) (c {b+ c)(b+ a),(c {a+ b)(a+ c), + a), by (a+ b)(b+ c)(c
in A. P.
-.
b+
are
a
A. P.
+
c
+ b + b are
that is, H. H. A.
b + c,
+ a,
in H. P
50 Example
of
n
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
2.
an
terms
of
and s the sum difference, If I the last term, d tlie common A. P. be connected by the equation Sds={d + 2l)2, prove that
d
=
2a.
Since
the
given relation is
true
for any
a
=
number
of terms, put
n=
1 ; then
l=
s.
Hence
or
by substitution,
8ad
{d + 2a)2,
(d-2ay- 0;
=
.-.
"
2a.
Example 3.
p
-
q, q
r,
of
an
A. P.
are
in G.
have
+
(p-l)d_a
(g-l)d_a+(r-l)d
^V(q^lJd-^T"^l)~d-aT(^l)d
.*.
LAlt-bb-
(4)J'
each
of these ratios
{a + (p-l)d}-{a+(q-l)d\
_ ~ "
\a + (r- 1)d}
-
{a + (q 1)d\
-
=p-q^q-r
q-r Hence
p
-
'
"
8
s are
q, q
r,
in G.P.
often referred to are 1, 2, 3, 67. The numbers of nth the series is n, and the term natural numbers ; the
the first n terms
as sum
the
of
is
(n+1).
sum
68.
To
find the
sum
of the by
22
+
squares
of
the first n
natural
numbers.
Let
the
be denoted
S ; then
3'
=
"=l2
We and have n3
-
+n2.
-
(n l)a
-
3n2
3n+
1 ;
by changingn into n"l, (n \y (n 2)3 3(" l)2 3(w 1)+ similarly (w 2)3 (71 3)3 3(w 2)2 3(n 2)+
_ _ _
1 ; 1 ;
33-23=3.32-3.3+l;
23-l3=3.22-3.2 13-03=3.12-3.1
+ +
l;
1.
52
70. In
meet
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
to referring
the
results
we
have
just proved
the
it will
be convenient
student
We
shall denote
series
1
+
+ n
by
2,n ;
;
1* + 2* + 3* + l3
where which
+
...
+na
by %n*
23 + 33+...
a
+"8by 2n3;
the signifies
sum
placedbefore
is the
1. Sum
term
of all terms
of
that term
general type.
3 + 3 4 +
Example
The wth
the series
1
.
2 + 2
.to
terms.
term=ra(n+l)=n2+";
and
one
.".
the
sum
2m2
+ 2?i
_w(m+1) (2m+ 1)
6
T'
n(n
l)
2
)
n(n+l) j2n+l
n(n + l)(n+2)
3
Example
Let the
2.
sum
Sum
to
terms
Mth term
is 2'1_1+ 8m3
6m2.
be denoted S
=
by
S ; then
1
+
-
8m2(m+ 1)2
~~
6m
(m+1)(2m + 1)
6
-
2
=
1
-
4~
2"
1 +"
+
2'l-l
EXAMPLES.
1. Find the fourth term
VI.
a.
in each of the
series : following
between between
5 and
11. 2
means
and
"
1"3
EXAMPLES
OX
THE
riiOGltESSlOXS.
53
means,
4.
If 12 and 9:l are the geometric and between two numbers, find them. If the harmonic
means as
harmonic
ively, respect-
5.
quantitiesis
are quantities
to their geometric
in the
ratio
of 4 to 9. 6. If a,
b,c be in H. P.,shew
a : a
"
that
=
a +
: a
"
c.
7.
of
H. P. be
equal to
n, and
m m
be
equal to
8. that 9.
that the
term (m + n)th
is equal to
+ n
If the
rth terms of a H. P. be a, b,c respectively, pth, "7th, prove ("j r)be + (r p) ca + (p-q) ub 0.
-
"
If b is the harmonic
1
o
mean
between
111
=
,
-
and
c, prove
that
j"
+
a
"
Find
the
sum
of
terms
nth term
is
3n*-n.
11.
14.
ns+^n.
3" -2".
12. 15.
"("+2).
3 + 2;i2)-4/i:J. (4'l
"2(2"+3).
( i.
If the (m+iy\ (?^+l)th, of an A. P. are terms and (r+ l)th and in the ratio of the common H. shew that P., P., on, ny r are
2
in
in the A. P. is
"
in G. If I,m, n are three numbers and ?ithterms are of an A. P. whose "th, mth, difference as m-\-\ to 1.
17.
first term
common
18.
term
and
series be
+ bu +
nth
19.
terms
nth term
is
4?i(?i2+l)-(6"i2-fl).
20. If between
two
any
there be inserted two arithmetic quantities means geometric Gly G2; and two harmonic means : II1H.2 Al + A2 : I^ + IL,. 6^0',,
two
=
21.
and
If p be the firstof n arithmetic means between the first of n harmonic means q that the value of q cannot lie between
two two
numbers,
numbers,
prove
p and
"
J p.
A.
Find the sum 22. of the cubes of the terms of that it is exactly divisible by the sum of the term-.
an
P.,and
shew
54)
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Piles
of
Shot
and
Shells.
71.
To
on
find
a
the
number
of
shot
arranged in
complete
pyramid
number
in
square
base.
Suppose
the
that each side of the base contains n shot ; then the is n2 \ in the next it is (n"l)2; of shot in the lowest layer shot to a single at the and so next on, up (n-2)2;
top.
.-.
S^n2
+ (n-l)2+ (n-2)2+...
n(n+l)(2n
=
l)
72.
To the
pyramid
number
complete
the
Suppose that
shot ; then
(n 1)+ (n 2)+
-
1 j
xi
that
"
n(n
"
+
"
is,
V"
1)
or
-
1
,
[n
"
n)
"
for n, and
we
thus obtain
layers.
[Art7a]
complete
short side
73.
To
find
the number is
a
pyramid
Let
m
of which
longand
of
singlerow
is 2 is 3
"
(n l), or
"
n+1
number number
(in
"
2); 3);
(in
"
and
so
on
in the lowest
the layer
number
is
(m
"
n).
PILES
OF
SHOT
AND
SHELLS.
55
.-.
S=
=
(m -01
1)+ *2(m-n
...
...
+n(rn-n
+
n)
...
n2)
n(n
=
1){3(m-n) 2n+l}
+
_n(n + l)(3m=
n+
1)
'
74.
of
a
shot
arrangedin
an
incomplete
sides of the
rectangle.
of shot in the two
and
b denote
the number of
layers.
of shot is ab ; is is
the number top layer the layer the layer number number
in the next
in the
and
so on
next
in the lowest
or
the layer ab
+ +
number
is
("+
--
"
(a + b)(n-l)+ ()i-l)2.
.-.
abn abn
6)
+
(n-l)n(2 .n-l
6
1)
|{6ab
75.
In
numerical
examplesit
is
easier generally
to
use
the
method. following
pile of 16
having 11 placeon the given pilea square pile of 27 obtain we a base, complete square pile courses;
number of shot in the
and
complete pile
=
^
11
x
")'.)30 ;
7 1 .] [Art.
12
"
23
=
also number
.*.
of shot
in the added
pile=
506;
number
of shot in the
56
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
Find the number A A A
50
VI. b.
of shot in
1. 2. 3.
square
pile, having
15 shot
in each
4.
and
a
An
having 18 shot in each side of the base. triangular pile, the lengthand the breadth of the base containing rectangular pile, and 28 shot respectively. a side of the base having 25 shot, triangular pile, incomplete
top 14.
side of the
pileof
a
27 courses,
having 40
shot in each
The
number
24395
; if
base, how
many
are
there in its
? length
7.
and
The
number
in the lowest
top layer of
many in
a
8.
Find
the
number
of shot
15 courses,
having 20
the
shot in the
longerside
in
an
9.
Find
number
of shot
of shot in the sides of its upper the number and the number in the shorter side of its lowest 10. its upper What is the number and
6 shot
of shot
pilehaving 15
11.
The
in the
course? number
a triangular pileis greater by 150 than of shot in a square pile, the number in each of layers find the number of shot in the lowest layerof the triangular
of shot in
Find when
the the
course.
number
number
of shot
in
an
incomplete square
course
pileof
16
is 1005
less than
in the lowest
Shew
of shot in
of shot in a square pile is one-fourth of courses. triangular pileof double the number
the
of shot in a triangular of pileis to the number double of find the number of 175 13 to a square courses as pile ; the number of shot in each pile. shot in
If the number
15.
value lowest of
The iron
value be
of
10s.
triangular pileof
16
6d. per
layer.
If from number
a
16.
the same will be number
be formed
just
another-
triangular pileof shew that the remaining shot and find the triangular pile,
courses a
CHAPTER
VII.
SCALES
OF
NOTATION.
76.
The
numbers with which we are acquainted in ordinary of multiples of powers of 10; are expressed by means 25-2 4705
=
10
5;
+
103
102
10
5.
common
or
of
numbers representing
ten
is called the
of the
are
system of notation
the
In like
the radix of this scale
expressed by
no.
other than ten may be taken as any number scale of notation ; thus if 7 is the radix, a number 2453 represents 2x73 + 4x7" + 5x7 + 3; and in
6
can occur.
digit higherthan
a
Again
number
in
radix
is denoted
+
2453 in the
4?,2+ hr denote
3.
More
we
the
formed
will be
a
a2,...aj then
rn
+ a
y~~
a/2
a,r + a,
r,
where which
,,...",. are
of
Hence
rangingfrom
77. The
0 to
names
"
1
.
Quinary,Senary, Quaternary, Binary, Ternary, Septenary, Octenary, Nonary, Denary, Undenarv, and Duodenary used to denote the scales corresponding to the values fae", are
twelve three,... of the radix.
58
In
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
symbols undenary, duodenary, scales we shall require which are greaterthan nine. It is unusual to representthe digits to consider any scale higherthan that with radix twelve ; when to denote necessary we shall employ the symbols t, e, T as digits
the
. . .
'
ten
', eleven
'
'
and
'
twelve '.
It is
especially worthy of
for
'
symbol not
78.
notice that in every scale 10 is the but for the radix itself. ten ',
of Arithmetic operations ordinary may be performed in mind that the successive powers of in any scale ; but, bearing the carrying the radix are no longer powers of ten, in determining not divide by ten, but by the radix of the scale must we figures in question. The
eightsubtract
371532
from
530225, and
136473 27 1226235
275166
4200115
Explanation. After the first figureof the subtraction,since we cannot take 3 from 2 we add 8 ; thus we have to take 3 from ten, which leaves 7 ; then 6 from ten, which leaves 4 ; then 2 from eightwhich leaves 6 ; and so on.
by 7, we Again,in multiplying
3x7
we
=
have
one
=
twenty
2x8
5;
5 and 7x7
carry 2.
+ 2
so
=
one fifty
6x8
3;
put down
In the
3 and
carry 6 ; and
on,
until the
is completed. multiplication
addition,
3 + 6
=
nine
lx8
l;
we
therefore put
down
1 and
carry 1.
=
Similarly
and
and
so on.
2 + 6 + l
nine=l
8 + +
1;
6+ l + l
eight
=
lx8
0;
Example
2.
Divide
15et20
by
9)15"?"20
lee96...G. Since 15
1 T + 5 seventeen 1 x9 + 8,
Explanation.
we
put down
Also 8
x
1 and T +
e
=
carry 8.
one
hundred
e
and
seven
e x on.
9+ 8 ;
we
so
60
Divide N
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
by
r, then
a
n
the remainder
a
71"1
is a0, and
+a0r
+
the
is quotient
r"
rn 2+
...
al.
r, the
remainder
is ai ;
a2 ;
on,
further
quotient.
determined ax, ag1...anare scale. the proposed
5213 in the scale of
seven.
Thus successive
all the
by
Example
Express
the
denary
number
7)5213
7)7447
7)106.
5 2 1 1
7)15.
2
Thus and
5213
2x74+lx73
+ lx7-
+ 2x7
5;
the number
Example
2.
to scale eleven.
e)21125
e)1244T ~e)Gl3.
.-.
0
t
the
number required
is 3t0t.
Explanation.
therefore Next therefore
on
2x7+l=fifteen
we
lx"? + 4; carry 4.
dividing by
+ 1
=
put down
=
1 and
+ 7 ;
so
4x7
we
twenty nine
2 and
put
3.
down Reduce
carry 7 ; and
on.
Example
the verify
r
7215 from scale twelve to scale ten result by working in the scale twelve.
by working
in
7215
f)7215
1
1 0
JL2
80
")874.
t)t^.
In scale of ten
In scale of twelve
12
1033 12
t)10.
1.
.4 .2
J
1 12401
Thus the result is 12401 in each
case.
7 x 123+ 2 x 122+ 1 x 12 + 5 in Explanation. 7215 in scale twelve means The calculation is most readily scale ten. effected by writingthis expression in the form x 12 + 2)} x 12 + 1] x 12 + 5 ; thus we [{(7 multiply7 by 12, and add 2 to the product; then we multiply 86 by 12 and add 1 to the product; then 1033 by 12 and add 5 to the product.
SCALES
OF
NOTATION.
f"l
80.
Hitherto
we
have
only
discussed
fractions may
also be
"
10
2 "25 in scale six denotes
-=
10*'
5
+
0 2 5
h
"
"25 in scale
thus
denotes
"
Fractions
expressedin
are
form
analogous to
of such
that the
of
ordinarydecimal
scale
r
fractions
point
The
generaltype
fractions in
"
where
or more
b2, 6a,
...
are
all integers,
less than
r, of which
any
one
may
be
zero.
To express be the
any
proposedscale.
proposed
the
b
,
left ; then
FJ-X+bA+b^3+
r
We
have
now
6p b2,63,
r
both Multiply
equation by
+
; then
h-l+
; rF
Hence
blis equalto
the
integral part of
have
and, if
we
denote
the fractional
part by Fx, we
H-i.+J+
Multiplyagain by r\ then,as before,b is the integralpart of rFx; and similarly by r, each of by successive multiplications in the pro the digits be found,and the fraction expressed may
posed scale.
62
If
the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
in
the
an
successive
can
by multiplications
terminates
products is
integerthe process
be
by a finite number of digits. expressed is an integerthe process will never But"if of the products none recur, forming a radixterminate, and in this case the digits decimal. fraction analogousto a recurring
given fraction
13
Example
1.
Express -^
as
13
ft
16x6=-87
a
4 +
7.
8'
7x3
Kj.1
I..1
1
a
lx3
^x6
=
3. 5 13
+
4
.-.
the
fraction required
g
=
Qi
"4513.
Example
We
must
2.
Transform
16064-24 from
treat the
and integral
5)16064
0 5)2644... 4 5)440... ..3 5)71. 2 5)13...
J"_
2-64
2...1
"_
4-04
5_
0-24 After number this the
digitsin
the
hence
the
required
is 212340-1240.
82.
In
any
scale
any
as
of notation of which
number divided divided
alt a2,
of of the digits
same
whole
remainder Let
by
"
1.
denote
number, a0,
an the
sum
with then
and place,
+ +
S the
of the
aQ
+ +
axr +
+ a2r2
+ arn a"_/,~1
S=a0
ax+a2+
+
an_l + an
+
r.tf-S=a1(r-l)
a2(r"--l)+
""_, (i*-
1)+
",
(f
1).
SCALES
OF
NOTATION.
03
r
"
Now
every
term
on
the iV-S
hand right
side is divisibleby
"
=-
"
an
r-
integer 6
; y
that
is,
r
-
-=/
+
r
-
'
when;
/ is
some
integer j
which
r
proves
tlie proposition.
Hence
sum
number
in scale
will be divisible
r
"
by
?"
"
1 when
the
of its
is divisible digits
by
we
1.
83. that
sum a
By taking ?-=10
number
"
learn
from the
the
same
above
"
proposition
as
divided
by
9 will leave
remainder
as
the
the
on
rule known of
property.
rule may
two
: explained
numbers
by represented
+
da
b and
9c
-f
d, and
their
productby P;
%c
9ad
bd.
Hence
s?nn
"
has the
same
remainder
as
and -^ ;
therefore
the
same
of
the
as
remainder
on
divided by 9, gives the digitsof /*,when divided by of the when the sum of digits bd,
not
9.
If
must multiplication
have
been
performed. incorrectly
sums
found
of the
are
readily
to be
numbers
together. multiplied
Example.
The
sums
Can of the
and
8127 be 263395312
we
have
two
these three numbers of the has 6 for the sum 6 and 7, and the multiplication differentremainders,
of the of digits
24, which
If N denote any number in between the difference, supposedpositive, D odd and the even places;then N
84.
"
r+
1.
64
Let
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
denote
the
that
a,r
r2
ar*
+ ,r"-1
r".
Ar-a0 +
the
and
a3on
right will
even.
be
or aw(r"+l) an(rn" 1)
accordingas divisible by r
is odd
Thus
every
term
on
the
is right
I ; hence
'=
! r
%
+
an
mteo-er.
"
NOW
a0~
.'.
a} +fl2~ CC3+
is an
"^D)
="
integer;
which
proves
the
proposition.
sum
Cor.
the
sum r
If the of the
of the
the
in digits
even
=
0, and
by
1.
1. Prove that 4 "41 is radix is greater than 4.
r
Example
whose Let
square
number
in any
scale of notation
rz
i=(2 -Y;
+
rj
thus the
given number
2.
is the square
of 2*1.
Example
213? Let
r
In what
scale is the
denary number
2-4375 represented by
2+
whence
"
+
r
2=2-4375=2-^; 16
r=
7r2- 16r-48
0 ; 0.
that Hence
is,
the radix is 4.
(7r+12)(/--4)
=
Sometimes
it is best to
In
use
the
method. following
nonary number
Example
3.
what
25607 be expressed
by
101215
The required scale must be less than 9, since the new number appears the greater ; also it must be greater than 5 ; therefore the requiredscale be 6, 7, or 8; and by trial we find that it is 7. must
SCALES
OF
NOTATION.
65 height of
the
area
a
find the By working in the duodenary scale, solid whose volume is 364 cub. ft. 1048 cub. in., and rectangular whose base is 46 sq. ft. 8 sq. in.
Example 4.
of
The
volume
is
in expressed
is
46^
sq.
by St-OS in 3*08)26473-4(7-e
22*48 36274 36274
Thus
the
EXAMPLES.
VII. b.
seven.
in the scale of
4. 5.
6.
Express1458
Transform
in the scale of three. powers from of nine. soale four to scale five.
398e
Express5381 in
212231
7. 8.
9. 10.
scale.
eight.
scale. quinary
11. 12.
13. 14.
20665152
in powers
common
of 12. scale.
Express
Transform Transform Transform
"
as
septenaryscale.
15.
16.
17 "15625
scale.
17. 18.
71*03 from
the
to duodenary
" "
octenaryscale.
as
19.
20.
Find
the value of *4 and of '42 in the scale of scale is the scale is the
seven.
In what In what
denarynumber
denary fraction
182 denoted 25
by 222? by
-0302?
21.
-"
denoted
H. H. A.
66
22. of 24. Find the radix
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
554
23. 24.
25.
In what Find
scale is 511197
by
1746335
the radix of the scale in which the numbers 479, 698, 907 are in arithmetical progression. In what ? progression scale
are
by
the radix-fractions
is in the scale of
six; in what
27.
Shew
perfect square
is a perfect Shew that 1234321 square in any scale whose radix is always expressed the and that root 4 than is greater by the square ; four digits. same
28.
29.
cube perfect
in any
scale whose
radix
is
30.
Find
one
which
of the
be used to
weigh
31.
ton.
lbs. must be used of the weights1, 3, 9, 27, 81,... which of each kind being used than one not more to weigh ten thousand lbs., but in either scale that is necessary. Find that 1367631 radix is greaterthan seven.
Shew
is
cube perfect
the
scale a number will be divisible by Prove that in the ordinary formed by its last three digits is divisible by eight. 8 if the number Prove that the square of rrrr in the scale of three consecutive integers.
s
is rm^OOOl,where
any q, r, number N' N be taken in the scale ?*,and a new If any number 35. t he order in shew that the of its digits be formed by altering any way, N and N' is divisible by r 1. difference between
"
s are
36.
divisible
If
by
of digits, shew that it is number has an even number if the digits from each end are the same. r+1 equidistant of digits
a
of the scale St be the sum 37. If in the ordinary the number the of and be the of sum digits JV, 3#2 and "S'2 is a multiple of 3. difference between aS^ Shew down writing
3iV,prove
38.
is
that in the ordinary scale any number formed by three digits and then repeating them in the same order of 7, 11,and 13. multiple the
sum
In a scale whose radix is odd, shew that of number will be odd if the number be digits any be even. the number 39. 40. If
odd, and
of the if even
be odd, and a number in the denary scale be n down and then repeating them n in the same by writing digits shew that it will be divisible by the number formed by the and also by 9090... 9091 containing \ digits. n-
formed
n
order, digits,
68
86. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
mial givenbino-
I.
Supposethe givensurd
=
is
"]a $b.
-
ZJa
yn are
xn ar_ "
x,
?Jb
=
y, and
let
be the
l.c.m.
of p and
q ; then
both
rational.
x
-
Now
yn is divisible by
y"
=
y""1).
Thus
the
xn~2y+ xn~y
"
; y"~l
and
the rational
productis xn
y'\
is pJa
+
Case
II.
n
Supposethe givensurd
have
the xn
"
fjb.
Let x, y,
same
(1)
Thus
If
xn
-
is even,
y" is divisible by
-
y, and
-
yn
xf~*
y""1).
the
factor rationalising
is
+
url-ary +
and
the rational
ay"-'-3r1;
productis x"
odd, x"
+
"
yn.
x
(2)
If
xn
+
is
y" is divisible by
-
y, and
+ yn~'). xyn~2
yn
Thus
the
factor rationalising
xn~1-xn~2y+
and the rational
+ y"-1; -xyn-2
productis x"
yn.
will rationalise ^/S+
Example
i
1.
Find
i
=
^/5.
Let
32,y
55 ;
"
then xb and
-
xe
for thus,substituting 32
and
y, the
requiredfactor
14
-
is
5
-
541
-
3223
32
5
53+ 32
13
53
32
53+ 32 53
.
53,
5
14
or
32-9.
32.
2.
53-55;
productis
32
5s" 33 =
52 =
SURDS
AND
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
69
Example
as an
2.
Express
("+") \55-9s)
*
a
rational denominator.
i i i
=
To
34
=
is
equal
to 5"
-3*, put 52
x,
y ; then
-yA
2
.
12
.
the
requiredfactor is
5- + 52
4
and
is 52
i\
/
3
3-* 52 =
2
22.
3\
1
.
12
'
.".
+Vl the
"
V 55+
=
3V
expression
'"
\" i
3
+ 52
"
3^+
5-
3~4 + 3V '
"
13
52 + 2
_
52.3j
.
+ 2.
5,J.34"+2.55.3j + 3t
22
113
_ll + o2.
3j+ 5.32+52.3j
11
87.
how
may
in the ElementaryAlgebra, Art. 277, have shewn We surd. to find the square root of a binomial We quadratic sometimes extract the square root of an expression ing contain-
more
than
two
as
Jb
Jc
4-
Jd.
Assume
.'. a +
Ja + Jb + Jc + Jd
Jb
+
Jx
+
Jy
Jz j
Jc + Jd
=
Jxy +
=
Jxz +
Jyz.
If then and
x +
if,at the
y
+
z
=
same we
x, y,
thus
found
satisfy
a,
shall have
the square
-
root. required
Example.
Assume
.'.
Find
root
of 21
V21 V5
21
-
V3
=
V15
+
slx+ Jy
+ 2
slz\
-
4^5
8^/3 4J15
-
y +
=
Jyz.
Put
2jxy
it follows that
8JS,
=
2jxl
=
4J15,
"Jo\
by multiplication,
whence
xyz
240 ; that is
=
Jxyz=4s/lo ;
2, "Jz s/5.
+
,Jx 2j3, Jy
And
root is
satisfythe equation x
y +
2^3
2-^/5.
70
88.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
If J a,
Jh
Jy, then
ivill J a,
"
Jh
"
Jy,
we For, by cubing, ci +
obtain
+
Jb=x3
and
+
3x2
+ 3xy + ^/y
Jy.
have
Equatingrational
a
=
irrational
=
parts,we
x3
3xy, Jb
=
3x2
Jy
+
Jy
.'. a-
Jb
x3
-
3x2
Jy
x"
3xy -y Jy;
that
is,
Ja
Jb
Jy.
Theorem, Chap. XIII.
,
the Binomial
Ja + Jb
where 89.
n
Jy, then J a
Jb
x-
Jy,
is any
integer. positive
method following the cube be found.
x
By
a
the
"
root of
an
expression
of the form
Jb
may
sometimes
Suppose
then
Ja + Jb Ja- Jb
.-.
Jy
x-
Jy.
(1).
Jtf^b=x2-y
article,
=
Again,as
in the last
a
x3
3xy
from
(2).
and (2). (1)
y in
The
values of
In
and
y have
to be determined
(1)suppose
obtain
that
J a2
a
=
"
b=c;
+
then
for by substituting
(2)we
that
x3
3x
(x2 c);
"
"
is,
If from this
kx3
"
3cx
a.
equationthe
value from
of
y
=
can
"
be determined
c.
by
x2
We do not here assume sjx+ sly for the cube root, as in the of the square root; for with this assumption,on cubing we should
a
Jb
cannot
equate
SUKDS
AND
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
71
Example.
Assume then
32x/5.
x
-
sf 72 -'62^5
=
^/y; s/y.
=
^72 + 32s/5
,
By multiplication
that
^5184
-
1024
=
a;2 y ;
-
is,
72
-
"
x'--y
-
(1).
-
Again
whence
From that
32^/5
=
.c3 x3 +
+ Sxy fkcPJy
y^'y;
(2).
72
3.t//
-
(1)and (2)
,
72
x:i + Sx (xar}-3x
=
4);
is,
x
=
18.
=
S; hence
o,
and
the cube
root is
3-^/5.
seekhi"
90.
When
the
binomial
whose
cube
root
we
are
consists of two
we surds, quadratic
proceedas follows.
Example.
Find
+ llv/2. 9N/3
find that
.-.
the
cube required
root
=*J3 ( 1
=
/- J
v/3+v/2.
91.
We
add
few
harder
examplesin
surds.
4
'Example1.
The
NV9-^3
expression
^
-
3fj
33 + 1
(J l)
+
l33 +
l) l) (33-3ri +
~d
iM"i]-33
l +1" + 3 + 1
72
Example
2.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
l(x-l) fj2x"i-7x-i.
+
The
expression
=
\{3x
-
3 + 2
+ J(2x
l)(x-4)}
"{(2x l)
+
{x-") +
root is
2jc2x+ l){x-")};
square
Example
3.
Given
^5
of
J2
numerator Multiplying
J7- 3J5'
by "J2,
and
denominator
the expression
^6-2^/5 2 + ^14-6^/5
2
n/5-1 + 3-^/5
EXAMPLES.
fractions Express as equivalent
1
i L-
Villa.
with rational denominator
1+
V2-V3'
2 A
J2+J3-J5'
3.
1-=.
+ b' + s/a sfa+ s/b
^^ *Ja-l-\/2a+ *Ja +
+ ^/2) (j3 + x/5)(j5
^10
^5-^/3
fi
Find 7.
10.
#3 -a/2.
N3/3-l.
8. 11.
^/5+ ^/2.
2 +
9. 12.
06+6*.
4/7.
4/5-^3.
SUKDS
AND
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
73
Express with
rational denominator:
16
*/3
17
v8
^4
i"
the square
root
of
+
16-2N/20-2v/28
G +
2N/l3.-". 20.
22.
24+4^15-4^21-2^35.
5-x/10-N/15
+
,/12-^24-,/8.
N/G.
23. 24.
Find
a+36+4+4^/a-4^6-2V3oS
21+3
N/8
N/3
of
(5 Jl
v'24
N/56 +
N/21.
the eube
root
25.
28. Find 31.
10+6
JZ.
26.
38 +
17^5.
+
27. 30.
99-70^/2. 135^3-87^6.
38^14-100^2.
the square
a
29.
of
54^3
41^5.
root
\J%ax +
(l+a2
"
x2.
i
32.
2a
\/3a2
-
2ab
i
b'2.
33. 35.
l + "2 +
a4)2.
6
34.
l+(l-"2)"2.
-
If
-i"
=
"
"j-
lb'2.
36.
If
"
5jy
3^-
Find
the value of
V26-15J3
/6 +
1
2V3
5V2-V38T573'
1
V33-19N/32 "_"
39. 41.
(28
10
N/3)2 (7+
-
(26+
of
15
sfzf
-
(26+ 15
N/3)
Given
N/10+ N/18
'
N/18 a/3+V5
42. 43. 44.
Divide Find
N/8+ V3
-
V5
x*+ 1 + 3# #2 by
root
1 + */2.
+ 24a2) (b2 ^6* -3a8.
the cube
of 9a62
Evaluate
V^'2-1
when
,
2.r; =
Ja+
-i\'"
,
x-s/x*-\
74
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Imaginary 92.
Quantities.
Although from the rule of signsit is evident that a have a real square rootletimaginary cannot quantity negative represented by symbolsof the form J- a, J- 1 are of quantities and their in mathematical investigations, frequentoccurrence therefore proceedto explain leads to valuable results. We use such roots are to be regarded. in what sense
is negative, under the radical sign we can no quantity arithmetical a possible consider the symbol J as indicating longer defined be as a symbol which obeys operation ; but justas J a may shall define J" a to be such that the relation J a x Ja a, so we shall accept the meaning to which this J" a x J" a a, and we leads us. assumption When the
=
=
-
It will be found
that
of under the dominion imaginaryquantities results their use and that through may be obtained which rules, others which as be relied on with as much certainty depend can real of the use quantities. on solely
to
93.
By definition,
.-.
Jx
J -I
1.
that
is,
the
.
J- 1)2
=
a.
Thus the
may
be
to as regarded equivalent
convenient be found generally by the imaginary character of an expression symbol J- 1 ; thus 94.
to
indicate of
the the
presence
JZjtf Jja2 ( 1)
=
J7 J-T.
always consider that,in the absence of any statement to the contrary, of the signswhich be prefixed may before a radical the positive signis to be taken. But in the use of imaginaryquantities there is one pointof importancewhich
deserves notice.
95.
We
shall
76
Thus in order
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
be equal it imaginaryexpressions may and that the real parts should be equal, is necessary and sufficient the imaginary parts should be equal.
that
two
100.
Definition. the
When the
only in
sign of
conjugate.
Thus
a
"
"
1 is
+
to conjugate
"
1.
'2
-
^2 Similarly
101. The
are sum
3^-1
and
is
to J conjugate
two
J-
1.
the
product of
imayinary conjugate
expressions
For
(
both real.
a
b b
J -\
+a-b
-
J-\
b
2a. a2-
Again
(a+
J- 1)(a
The
J- 1)
(- b2)
a2 + b2.
of the square
root
102. a2
+
Definition.
of
conjugate expressions
1.
"
1 and
"
103. is
The
modulus
equalto
imaginary expressions
and
be expressions
by a+bj" 1
"
c+dJ"\.
is
an
product
= =
ac
bd
(ad + bc) J
+
1, which
modulus
+
a*d* + bs(?
J a2 +
b2
+ Jc2
d2 ;
which
proves
the
proposition.
of
a
104.
it may
bj" 1,
the
by
the multiplying
"
and
denominator
by
the
a conjugate expression
"
1.
SURDS
AND
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
77
For
instance
c +
a
bd
+
a
J (ad be)
"
"
b
"
72
ac a
+
+
bd
-i
ad
a'
be
b _"
"
b~
by reference to Art. 97, we see that the sum, difference, and quotient is in each case of two imaginaryexpressions product, the an same imaginary expression of form.
Thus 105. Assume
where
x
To
find the
square
+
root
of a
=x +
J
"
"
1.
J
y
are
V"
s/ 1,
and
real
+
quantities.
+
By squaring, a
bj"\=x2-y2
x2-y2
^!/
=
2xy J
"
1;
(1), (2);
-
b
+
.-.
(2xyY
2
=
b ;
2.2
."
xs
if
J a2 +
6"
(3).
From
we (1)and (3),
obtain b2 + 2
a
-*
Ja2+
"
Thus
Since the
x
the
and
root required y
are
is obtained.
real be
see
before prefixed
have
have the same that the productxy must and unlike like signsif b is positive,
sign as
b ;
signsif
is
negative.
78
Example
Assume
1.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Find
the square
root of
24
1.
J-
7-
l 21*/=
J-
1 ;
then
-7-24N/Tl
"""
+ 2^N/Tl; -^2-2/2
*2-?/2=-7
2a;?/ -24.
=
(1),
and
49 + 576
625;
.\ar
2/2 25
=
(2).
From
x(1)and (2),
9 and
.-.
16 ?y2=
x=
"3,
?/== "4.
must
#
=
-
Since the
we product xy is negative,
x
take
3, y =
-
4 j
1 and
or
3,
-
?/=
4.
Thus that
the roots
are
"/
-
-3
+ 4
*J
4
1 ;
is,
7
2.
247"TT=
^/
-
"
(3
J ~i).
Example
To
64a4.
It remains
\/"*J
-
1.
.".v/ + v/-l
Similarly
-
V-l). "-^(l
+
J J^l=
*
"
(1
-
^ ZI)
.".^"^^[="^(1=1=^31);
and
finally
^-64a4=
"
2a
(1"
^/^T).
SURDS
AND
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
70
106.
The
symbolJ
has
"
had
littlepractice in the
use
of
"
imaginary
1.
It is
symbol J
1
or
"
i ; thus
(7-1)^1,
and since each power
see
i*=ij
the by multiplying
now recur. one
is obtained
before it
by
"
we 1, or ?',
107.
We
shall
now
which quantities
certain
nary imagi-
Suppose
that
.
^1
x3
1, or
x+
x3
"
0 ;
is,
\
(x
x
"
1 ) (x2 +
1)^0.
+
either
0, or x2
or x
0 ;
-W-3
whence
35=1,
be
shewn
=
.
cubed
these
cube
roots,
-l+JZTs
2
two
"'
-1-733
2
~'
of which Let
us
are
imaginary expressions.
these
denote
by
and
ft;
+
then
since
they are
the roots
of the
equation
x2
+
x
l =0.
their
that is,
.
that
is,
since
a8
1.
we Similarly
may each
shew
that
ft2.
cube
is thr, square roots of unityby
108.
it other,
Since
of
the
imaginary roots
of thr
1, "d, ""~.
is usual to denote
the three
80
Also
a)
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
satisfies the
x2 + equation
.
0 ;
".
to
w2
0;
that
is,the
sum
of the
ofunityis zero.
1;
Again,
therefore
o"2
"
(1)the productof the two imaginary roots of w3 is unity. power (2)every integral
It is useful of
a"
is
unity;
109. it must If 3m
+
-rt"
to
notice and
; and to"
that w3m
the
n
successive he
a
positive
integral powers
n
are
1, to,
3m
if w2; for,
=
"
of 3, multiple
1.
be of the form 3m
+
of 3, it must multiple
n
1
or
2.
n
=
It
dm
om
+
.
1
,
3m
"
+ 1 =to
3m
W
"
o"
3m
.to
3m 2
to. 2
KO
110.
two
+-,
see
+2 =w
w=w
.w=to.
We
now are
of which
has three cube every quantity For the cube of a3 are roots imaginary. that
are
roots,
those
roots
of a7"x of 9
the
are
1, and
therefore
o"
a, ao",
aw2.
^9,
^9,
^79is the
taken
ordinary arithmetical
cube
root of
a.
unless future,
to denote
by the stated,
arithmetical
Example
1.
Reduce
/
,
1 \2
_
to the form
.
A +
Bj
1.
2 +
N/-l
+
The
expression
^4-9
(-5
12^-1
2 +
+
v/:=~l
12N/Jl)(2-V^l)
J-l)(2-J-T) J~l
4 + 1
(2+
-10
+ 12 + 29
2
=
5+W-1;
x3 +
29
/"
which
is of the
requiredform.
Resolve
Example 2.
Since
y3 into
=
three
x3 +
.'.
if (x+ y) (x2-xy
=
y2)
x*
w
for
-1, and w3
l.
SURDS
AND that
IMAGINARY
QUANTITIES.
81
Example
3.
Shew
+
(a+ wb
In the
arc) (a+
a
w26 +
toe) a2 + b2 + c2
-
60
ca
ab.
of product
+ wb + arc
and
1 ;
=
+ orb + wc,
or,
or
or
o"
1 ;
and
a"
1 ;
=
(a+
cob+
arc) {a+
that
urb +
wc)
a2 + b2 + c2
be
ea
ab.
Example 4.
Shew
(l+ "-"")'-(l-M+U?)*=0.
Since
+ (1
u-
1 +
-
+ o"2=
-
0, we
have
-
w2)3 (1
-8o"6 + 8a/{ -8 + 8 0.
EXAMPLES.
2 \/~~3 + 3 V3^ Multiply 3 V ^7 Multiply
-
VIII. b.
1. 2.
3.
by by
4 3
*J^3- 5 a/^2.
V^
V^+
V^.
A 4.
Multiplya;
IX'
l+V3^
5
by
l-V^
#
=
.
with Express
_
rational denominator
o.
0.
3-V-2
3+ 2
"
"
V~l
3-2 2 +
V^l
a+rV^l
a-x"f-i
2-5\/rl
g
+ V-l)a (.f
5V:rl'
ia
a-WisT-i a+a?V^-l"
(a+
+
(W-l)^
.r
V-lja-Cft-V-l)^
w
.v-V-1
11. Find
V-1
-
V-l)a# (a \/-l)2-("-
the value of
+ when 3, ( \/ l)4n
is a
40
positive integer.
12.
Jd +
40
V"-T+ V9
V -?.
(j
H. H. A.
82
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Find
the
square
+
root
of
13.
16.
-S
ISV^L
14.
-ll-COV17!". a2-l+2a^^l.
15.
-47
8V-3.
-SV^l.
17.
18.
"ab-2(a2-b2)*/^T.
in the form A
+
Express
iB
iy*
ZU"
zu
2-3r
2V3-i\/2' O8
9"*
"
1-T
a
09
+ 3
(^ + ^)2
a
"
("-^)2
a
ib
io
If
1,
co,
g"2
are
the
three
cube
roots
of
unity,
+
prove
4.
24.
(l+co2)4
(1
-
co.
25.
(l-co
-
co2)(l+co-or)
co)(1
5co +
co-
) (1
=
CO4) (1
2co +
co5)
9.
(2 +
2co2)6 (2 + co2)(l-co2
+
5a"2)6
=
729.
(l-co
Prove
to co4)(l-co4 + co8)...
2"i factors
22".
that ""
+yZ
If
2#gZ
(x+y+z)
y
"
(# +
aw
i/a" +
Za"2) (x +y"o2
+
Za).
30.
shew that
x=a+bt
s="co2 Z"co2,
6co,
(1) (2)
xyz=a3+b3.
^-2 +
?/2 + 52
6a6.
(3)
31.
shew that If
ax
a3+y3+s3=3(a3+"3)k
+
+
cy + 62
+
bz c2
X,
be
-
ex
by
az
I", Zu- +
+
ay
gs
if,
(a2
ca
z2-yz+
zx
xy)
YZXZ-
X2+Y2
Z2-
XY.
84
113.
so /3,
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
In Art.
roots in
be (2)
denoted
by
and
that -b
a
=
Jb2
-
Aac
' ,
"b-
2a
then
we
P
'
Jb2
"
Aac
_
2a
'
have If
(1)
a
and
(3are
If
(2)
0
results : following under the radical) is positive, b2 Aac (thequantity real and unequal. Aac is zero, a and b2 ft are real and equal,each
the
"
reducing in this
case
to
"
77-
2a
(3) (4)
If b2
If b2
Aac is
perfect square,
the
and
/3are
the
rational and
nature
of
roots
of
any
without
that
the
equation2x2-6a;
=
-
0 cannot
be
satisfied
2, b
6, c
"
7;
so
that
"2_4ac=(_6)2-4.2.7=-20.
Therefore the roots 2.
are
imaginary.
+ equation a?2
Example
The
If the for
(k+ 2)x
=
91c= 0 has
equal roots,find
l\
condition
(fc-4)(fc-l)=0j
.-.
A, or 1.
Example
are
3.
Shew
equation
r2 =
0
2p3 +p2-q2
2qr-
rational.
The
roots
-
will be rational provided (--2p)2 4 (p2 q2+ 2qr-r2) is a reduces to 4 (q2-2qr+ r2), or But this expression 4:(q-r)2. perfect square. rational. the roots are Hence
, 114.
D. Since
Jb2
-
Aac
'
-b-
a=
?=
Jb2
-
Aac
'
2a
we
have
by
addition
-
Jb2
-
Aac -b2a
Jb2
-
Aac
__M_b
2a
a
0);
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS.
85
and
have we by multiplication
n =
(- b
4ac
_
c
=
~4a2
(2).
"
the form
c
'
"
a
also be
expressedas follows.
**
term of the first coefficient
is
unity,
its
4**5d?
equal t0
the coefficient of
"
with
the roots is
equalto
*"%* """"
115. Since
""""**""
__=a+"
and
"
the
equationar+
a; +
0 may
+ ap x2-(a+ f])x
(1).
Hence
any
x2
-
quadraticmay
also be
expressedin
roots
=
(2).
have
(x-a)(x-p) Q
=
(3).
We
may
now
form easily
an
Example 1. Form
The equation is
or
3 and
2.
(* 3)(*+ 2)=0,
""-*6=0.
to
use
When
metnou.
the
roots
are
irrational it is easier
the
following
~"
86 Example 2.
We have Form the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
are
2 +
^3
and
^3.
of roots
4,
1;
product of roots
"
.
the
is equation
x-
Ax + 1
0,
by using formula
116.
roots.
of (2)
a
the
presentarticle.
to that used in Example 1 of analogous with three or more form an equation given
By
method
we can
Example 1.
The
Form
the
equationwhose
roots
are
2,
3, and
required equationmust
:
be satisfied
by
7
each
of the
#-2=0,
therefore the
+ 3
0,
"--
();
equationmust
be
(*-2)(*+3)(*-|)=0j
that is,
or
42
0.
Example 2.
The
Form
the
equationwhose by
roots
are
0, "",
equation has
to be satisfied
x
c
=
0,
a.
x=-a,
x=}
therefore it is
x
(x-J-a)(x a) ( x
-
j
=
0 ;
that
or
is,
bx4
ex3
a~bx- +
a-cx
0.
117.
are
The
results of Art.
to
114
are
most
solve should
sum
problems
be made
with
never
the be
such the
the questions
should
considered
of the
by
in terms
of the roots,and
equation.
+ q
=
Example 1.
We
and
/3are
have
(2=p,
a
=
a(3 q.
.-.
a2 +
+ /3)2-2a/3 /32=(a
=p*-2q.
THE
THEORY
OF a;{ + ft =
"
QUADRATIC
-
EQUATIONS.
87
Again,
Example 2.
equation whose
If
a,
p"are
are
"
mx equation/.r'-'-| +
7i
0, find the
roots
"We have
sum
of roots
^
=
= ,
a.
ap
product of
.-.
roots
-=1
a
or
0.
O
="
As
in the last
example o2+j8B=
n
0
and
a/3
=
_
.*. the
.,
equation
,.
?ji2-2wZ
-= v
"
?i x
is V
x-
it
0,
0,
or
/x-2 (m2
-
x 2nZ)
+ nl
Example
and shew
3.
When
.r
^
if
of 2x3 + 2x2-7x+l'2
"a
be substituted
for
x.
the
quadraticequation whose
=
roots 3 ;
are
17
productof
"
hence
.*.
the equationis
+
6.r+ 17
2x2-6x
17
is
, values
3*5^/-"!
^
m
"
Now
2a* + 2.t2
Ix + 72
+ 17)+ (2.r2C".c
-
(2.r2Cx
-
17) + 4
=xx0+4x0+4
=
4;
of the
which
is the numerical
value
88
118. ax2 in
+
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
To
+
c
=
find Vie
0 should
condition
bx
equation
opposite
their
is
zero
0,
or
0. their
roots must
will he have
c
"
when reciprocals
product is
i 1.
or
a.
The
Geometry,
condition general
in Analytioccurrence cal frequent of the more case a a particular of to applicable equations any degree. is
=
Example. Find the condition that the roots of ax2 + bx + c 0 may but the greater of them negative. both positive, (2)oppositein sign,
b
c
,
be
(1)
We
have
+ B=
"
a8=a
(1)
If the roots
are
both
therefore
and
Also, since
have
unlike
signs.
Hence and the to the opposite
requiredcondition sign of b.
of
is that the
signsof
ft
and
should
be like,
(2)
a
have
and
Also since
-
and therefore +/3 has the sign of the greater root it is negative,
b and
a
is
therefore positive;
the
have
like
signs.
a
(X
Hence and
to opposite
and
b should
be like,
EXAMPLES.
Form the
4
.
IX.
a.
whose equations
3
/
roots
are
m
n
n m
p-q
p + q p"y
p+q
6.
4.
7"2N/5.
5.
"2"/3~5.
-p"2s/Tq.
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS. 9. 12.
89
7.
10.
-3"5l
8.
11.
-a"ib. 0, -|. |,
-3,
Prove
i. |,
x2
-
13.
(1 )
+aa
6a
c2
-
0,
-
(2) (a
14. If the values of m. 15.
b+
c)
r-
+4
(a 6).v + (a
15
b
=
c)
=
0.
equationx2values of x2
-
-m(2x-8)
0 lias
equalroots,find
the
For what
will the
+ (1+ 3//0
equation
7
2x
(3+ 2m)
have
equalroots
For what
? value of
m
16.
will the
equation
m
-
x*
"
bx
ax-c
+ 1
have
roots
17.
Prove
(b+ c-a)
-
0,
+ 2b'1 0.
=
b2ex
6a2 -ab
18.
Find
",+".
the value of
19.
aW
aV.
20.
(|-f)2.
a3 + s2
x3
-
+ 22 when 8x +15
.r
1 + 2/.
x
=
Zx2
when
3+
-=
3.
24.
whose
If
and
are
/3 are
the
roots
of
x*+px+q=Ot
h2
are
form
the
equation
roots
25. 26.
Prove
-b) (x a)(.";
"
always red.
I f .'-, x%
,
the roots of
ctx*+bx +
(2) (ax^byt+iaxt+b)-*.
90
27.
n
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Find
times
that
one
root
of ax2
bx-\-c
=
shall be
28.
roots
If
are
(3are
bx +
29.
roots
are
the squares
of the
sum
and
2x* + 2
(m + n)x
the roots
m2 + n2=0.
30.
Discuss
the
signsof
of the
+ r
=
equation
px2+
119. The
qx
0.
following example
illustrates
useful
application
+ 2x
of the results
provedin Art.
x
113.
x"
11
-.
Example.
can
If
is
real
quantity, prove
as
that the
expression
""
have
all numerical
lie between
y,
so
2 and
6.
Let the
that
then
multiplying up
and
we transposing,
+ 6f/-ll rr2+2.r(l-?/)
0.
and in order that x may have real values equation, quadratic be or positive; dividingby 4 and simplifying, 4(1 -i/)2-4(Gy 11) must Hence that be positive is,(y 6)(y 2) must be positive. + 12 must ?/2 8*/ ; This is
a
" -
be both positive, the factors of this product must or both negative. In the Therefore former case y is greater than 6; in the latter y is less than 2. have any other value. 2 and 6, but may y cannot lie between
expression example it will be noticed that the quadratic does lie between the roots not 12 is so long as y positive y2 8y + of the corresponding quadratic y2 Sy + 12 0. equation
In this
" "
case particular
of the
article.
the
are
ax2 + bx+c when the the ax2+bx roots same sign a, except of equation real and unequal,and x has a value lying between them.
as
120.
For
of x
tlie expression
has
+ c
=0
Case
I.
Suppose that
equation
be the
ax2
are
bx
0 let
a
real ; denote
them
by
and
and ft,
greater.
92
ALGEBRA.
which Ix + 5 Ix +
a
Example.
must
5x2may
_
be
Put
capableof
all
5
=v;
then In order
+ (5-a?/):=0. (a-5?/)a:2-7.r(l-?/)
of
found
from
this
quadraticmay
be
be
the real,
expression
(1 y)'24 (a
-
positive,
be
that
hence
is,
(49 20a)y2+
-
positive ;
49
-
be
or negative
zero,
and
20a must
be
Now
is negative or zero, according as + 1)2 (49 20a)2 (2a2 2 (a2 10a + 25)x 2 (a2 + 10a 24) is negativeor zero
-
zero.
is negative This expression as 12, and for long as a lies between 2 and when is zero the expression 20a is positive; such values 49 a = 5, 12,or 2, the limiting values are 2 and is negative when 5. Hence but 49 -20a a = 12, and a may have any intermediate value.
-
EXAMPLES. 1.
the Determine the limits between
2ax
IX. b.
which
n
must
may
2.
If
be real, prove x
^"2
.774'-
that
1
'-
xl
-5
"
must
liebetween
1 1 and
-
"
bx + 9 3 and
r^
11
3.
Shew
that
-=
"
lies between
+ x+\
x.
x-
4.
5 and 9.
If
be
real, prove
x
that
sb3 + 34a?" 71
" " "
x1 + 2#
"=
"
=-
can
have
no
value between
5. 6.
Find If
the
equationwhose
roots of the
roots
are
s]a" sja b
-
a,
/3are
x2 equation
"
px+q=0,
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS.
:
7.
be in the ratio of p
8.
If
be
as
r
-
admits
of all values
(x n)
except such
lie between
9. Tf the roots of the equationax2 + 2hx + c=() be a and (3,and those of the equation Ax'ybe a-ffiand fi + 2Ux+C=0 + d,prove that
b*-ae_B*-AC
~~a2
10.
Shew
x
~
A2
'
values when
will be capable of all "5 L 4x* p + 3x is real, providedthat p has any value between 1 and 7.
that
the
expression
"
"
.#4-2
11. 12.
Find
x.
2x2 + 3x
n n
Shew
(x2-bc)(2x-b-c)~i
has
no
real values
between
b and
c.
13.
+ c
0 be
+ (a+ c)(ax2
2bx
c)
will be
14.
that the is
expression -fl(ox
-
will {-)- ,!
"
be capable of all
a) (ex a)
"
if a2 real,
b2 and
c2
"
d2 have
the
same
sign.
miscellaneous will
We and
shall conclude
this
some
here to introduce
frequently
whose of X.
meet
reading.
x, and
value
is
Functions
which involves Any expression dependent on that of x, is called a denoted of x are usually by symbolsof
f(x),
F(x),"f"(x).
Thus
to
a
the
equation y =f(x)
that any
statement
a
equivalent
as
will produce
and vice versd. The quantities x consequent change in ;//, the and y are called variables, and are further distinguished as independent variable and the dependent variable.
94
An value
we
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
which variable is a quantity independent may have any and the corresponding to it, choose to assign dependent
as soon as
123.
An
of expression
the form
2
pjs"+ pxxn
where of
n
pjf
pn_ tx + pn
is In
rational and
the
present chapterwe
attention
to
functions
of this kind.
A of
no
higher power
function is said to be linear when of the variable than the first; thus
x.
it contains
ax
no
b is
linear it
function
is said
to
be
quadratic
when
higherpower of the variable than the second ; thus function of x. of the third, Functions ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic of the degreesare those in which the highest fourth,... power in the last Thus the third, variable is respectively fourth, is a function of x of the nth degree. article the expression
*125.
variables
are x
The and
to denote
function
+
of two ey
+f
quadratic, equations fix) 0,fix, y) 0 are said to be linear, the are as linear, functions ratic,.. quadf(x), f(x,y) according
=
*126. ax2
+
We
c
have
bx
a
admits
Art. in
120 the
that form
+
a
the bx
where
and
a
j3are
the roots
ax2 equation
+
"
0.
bx-\-c is
into two
is,when
find the
condition linear
may
hy f(x,y) where
c.
THE
THEORY
OF
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS.
95
to zero;
Write thus
this in
descending powers
+
of x, and
c
equate it
-
ax*
2x
in Solvingthis quadratic
-
we
have
-
(h
g
=
" (j)
J{hy+ y)*
a
-
+ 2fy+ c) (by2
,
"
"
"v
ax
hy +
"
Jy2(h* ab)+
J\.r, y)
be the productof two linear may factors of the the radical px + qy + r, the quantityunder hence be a perfect must square ; Now form
in order
that
a,
we
obtain
"
ch2
0 ;
is the condition
This *128.
equations
c
-
bx
"
0,
b'x +
may
have
common
root.
both
+ +
c
=
satisfied
by
; then
aa.2+ ba a'a2+b'a
.*.
0,
c'
0;
1
by
cross
multiplication
a"
a
be To eliminate
a,
"
b'c
ca
"
c'a
ab'
"
ab
'
equate
square the second of these of the other two ; thus it to the product
a a
'
equal ratios
and
1
'
"
.'.
(ca c'a)2 (be b'c) (ab' ab) (ca ca)2 (be b'c) (ab' ab),
" " "
"
"
which
is the condition
required.
that the
two
It is easy to prove that this is the condition + functions ax2 + bxy + cy2and a'x2 + b'xy quadratic linear factor. a common
c'y' may
have
06
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
^EXAMPLES.
1. For what
IX.
c.
values of
will the
expression
-
y2+ 2xy +
be
2x + my
capableof resolution
2.
into two
rational factors ?
to the equivalent
3y2 5y
-
3.
Shew
that the
expression
alwaysadmits
4.
If the
of two
equations
x2
+
px
+ q
0,
x2 +
p'x+ q'
=
have
common
p'l'-p'q
nr
q-q
5.
Find
that the
+
expressions
l'x2 +
ny2,
m'xy-fn'y'1
may
have
common
linear factor.
6.
If the
expression
%a? +
+ 2Pxy + 2y2 2ax
-
4y +
1 must
can
roots
be resolved into linear factors, that P prove of the equation P'2+ 4aP + 2d1 + 6 0.
=
be
one
of the
7.
expressions
may
be
divisibleby respectively
Shew that in the x2
-
y -mx,
my +
x.
8.
equation
-
Zxy + 2y2
2x
3y
35
0,
of y, and for every
real value
real
9.
If
and y
are
two
+
by
0,
the
equation
2xy +y2
3 and
92.r
20y +
244
lie between
6, and y between
=
1 and
10.
x
10. may
be
CHAPTER
X.
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
129.
solved require
In
this
chapter
;
equations
the^l Z
but
some
cellaneous mis-
by
some
the
ordinary rules
equJtions, others
3_
_
Example
I.
Solve
8x2n-8x~^=63.
Multiplyby
.r2n and
transpose; thus
i.
-
8xn"
63x2'*-8
L
0; 0;
(a?"-8)(8x^+l)
=
-
1
=
"2n
8,
or--;
8'
2n
"=(*)* "(-p)*;
.-.*=""",
or
A.
^
=
Example
2.
Solve
/-+
V
"
/V
"
6 6a
I
"
.".%+!
=
*
+
""""
3a"
=
+ 2"%2-6a2?/-"2"/
0;
(2ay~")(ty-3a)=0;
6
3a
"2
9a2
4a
'
"l
"a
H.
H.
A.
98 Examples.
We Solve
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
504.
have
(x2
-
20)(x2
-
42)
-
504 ;
quadraticin
-
x2
-
x,
gives
=
(a2 x)2
.-.
62
(x2 x)+
336
(x2-a:-6)(x2-x-56) 0
= =
.-.
X*-X-Q
x
=
0f
or
a2
-a;
-56
whence
S, -2, 8,
-7.
130.
can
be thrown bx
=
bx
c +
J ax2 +
q bx
+
may
be solved
as
follows.
Putting y
J ax2 +
c,
we
obtain
Let
and
ftbe
so equation,
that
J ax2 +
from these "When
no
a,
J ax2 +bx
four
ft;
x.
we equations
shall obtain
values of
understood to a radical it is usually signis prefixed as hence, if a and ftare both that it is to be taken positive; the original all the four values of x satisfy equation. positive, the roots found from the resulting If however or a ftis negative, the equation will satisfy quadratic
ax2
but not the
bx
"
J ax2 +
bx
q,
equation. original
Solve x2
-
Example.
Add
ox
+ 2
Jx2
5z + 3
12.
rc2-5a; + 3 +
+ 3 2N/^-5a;
15.
=
Putting
Thus
Jx2-5x+3
-
y,
we
obtain
y2+ 2y
S
=
15
0 ; whence
or
5.
*Jx2 5x
+ 3
3,
or
Jx2-6x +
Squaring, and
ic=6
or
"
^
3
The
pair of
the equation but the second pair satisfies the given equation, satisfies
x2- 5x -2
Jx2-5x +
12.
100
133. The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
solution of ax4
"
an
"
the form
=
bx3
0,
the
from equidistant
as
beginning
a
be made to depend on can equal, of quadratic.Equations this type are known because they are and are so named not
is
changed into
For student
a
its
reciprocal
-
more
completediscussion
"
of
reciprocal equationsthe
=
570.
-
Example.
56x3 + 89a;2
56.x + 12
0.
12/W-2) -56^+^+89
=
0.
Put
-=z: x
then a;2+
+
"
z2-2;
x-
.-.
12
(z2- 2) -56^
z
=
-
89
0;
whence
we
obtain
or
-=-
1
a;
5
2
x
13 6 13 2
-
By solvingthese equationswe
find that
2,
134.
The
a
be
solved in
similar
Solve
6
Example.
We
have
6a;4
-
0.
fx (^2+^i)
-
-\+
"
12
0;
whence
6(a;
"
j -25
=
(a;
1+24
0;
.-.
0, (^--^-3
or
fx- -]-8-0;
-
whence
we
obtain
a; =
2,
3,
is obvious by quadratic equation often be readily obtained the other root may by inspection, of the of of the roots use properties quadratic equations making provedin Art. 114.
one
135.
When
root
of
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
-
101
Example.
This is
a
Solve
(1
a-){x+ a)
2a
(1
ar) 0.
=
one quadratic,
of whose
roots
is
a. clearly
be written
-
x (1 a2)
(1+ a2) 0,
=
"
"
the
productof
the roots is
and
EXAMPLES.
X.
a.
Solve the 1. 3. 5.
: following equations
a-2 -2x~1
8.
2.
9 + a-4
3
10a--'.
1
_J
2jx
2
2x "=51
4.
6.
6a?*~7**-8a7
JL
1
*.
3"+6=5#".
3.f2n-.rri-2=0.
"2*.
7-
""/;+Vj-"* \/S+\/?'
a
i
6x/a=5a
2-13.
10.
1+8.^
5
9^
=
0.
+ 5-*) (5*
=
26.
+ 1
32.2'.
22* + 3-57
65(2*-l).
,/*"+"-*
+ 1) (x 7)(a- 3){x+ 5)(.v
-
^.-#=5A-
1 680.
7){x+ 5)
-
385.
(2x+
1 )(.v
-
2)(2a 3)
+
63.
91.
(2a-7)(a2-9)(2a
A'2 + 2
5)
"/a2 + 6a
4a +
24
6x.
=
3a2
s/'3xi-4x-6l8.
3a2 -7 + 3
8 + 9
(N/3sa-16a? + 21
= =
16a;. 7a.
J("v-1) (x-2)
3.c2
-
25.
^-2+s/,,,_-5,+3=^:.
102
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
26.
27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
36.
W.Y. 7.-^hs"i_c"
x
\*j x
-
j
-
J4x2-7x-lb
+ 4 + "/2^2-9^
"Jx2-3x=Jx2
3
9. 2\x-l\. 0.
J%v-l
J2x2+
-
V2^2+
5^-7
V3(a;2-7a; + 6) J7x2-6x-l
-
+ 2ax-3x2 s/a2
Ja2+
ax-6x2
5a; 9
=
+ 3ao; ^/Sa2
9a;2.
J2x2+
-
bx
V2#2 +
-
1. 13. 1.
a?
x/3^2 2x
+ 9 +
2o; -4 x/3.r2
+
"/3^2 7^
-
30
+
7x */2o;2
-
o^ + a?-4o;2
8
a;+l
0.
x*
+ ^x2 9
3x3+3x.
37.
3*+l-3("s+#)=2tf*.
38.
+ 52a;2 10(o7t+l)-63a?(a;2-l)
0.
+ 2a; +
J 'a2
-
4x2
_ ~
bx
'
a+2x,"
"
J a2
-
4a;2
a;
.1 41.
+
-
sjx2 1
-
a; x
1 ^/.r2
-
sjx2
-
a/^2
-
8x
jx2
3x + 2.
42.
"/^+#I |. Jtf-x
=
43.
44.
2*2: 22*
1.
45.
46
^/a?-5 V3a?-7
=
18
' '
(7a; 3)
_
250
"
3a;-7
2
x-b
2
-
2a;+l
1
=
V^+T 3n/7^3
48.
49.
(a2 a;2)"3.
-
"/a;2 + aa;-l
Jx2+
bx-l
Ja
K/b.
50.
51.
.v4- 2.v3 +
a;
380.
52.
27^
+ 2U- + 8
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
some
108
136.
two
We
shall
now
discuss
simultaneous
equationsof
unknown
quantities.
Solve
Example 1.
x+2+y+S+
J(x+
2)(y+ 3)
39.
Put
+ 2
m,
and
y + 3
then
+
u+v
Juv
wv
Sd
(1),
(2),
w2 + v2 +
we hence, from (1)and (2),
741
obtain
u
by division,
-
+ v
Juv
19
(3)
.
From and
or
(1)and (3),
u+t?=29;
Juv
wv
10, 100;
v
=
whence thus
25, or 4;
4, or
or
25 ;
23, or 2; y=l,
.r4 +
22.
Example
2.
Solve
y*=
82
(1), (2).
ar-y=2
Put
then from
#
=
+ t", and
y
v
u-
v;
(2)we
obtain
l.
=
in (1), Substituting
u4 + 6u2-40
0;
whence and
Thus
w2
u=
4, or
"2,
"
10 ;
"
or
"/~10*
x=s,
-l, i"
V^iO;
ysal,-3, -li^-10.
JEa;ampZe3. e
Solve
f^
-
^
"
2A 29
Sx-yx
7x +
y10
=
(1),
5y
-
(2).
=
From
3z2 +
Axy
y-)
=
38
+ 2xy (3.x2
; y*)
129o;2-29xy-38?/20;
+ 19y)=0. {Sx-2y)(iBx
Hence
or
Sx 43#
2y -19y
(3),
(1).
104
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
From
(3),
y
=
__7x+ 5y
=
29
=
1, by equation (2). 2, y
=
.-.
3.
Again,
from
(4),
y
~
7x +
~
-
5y
19
^43
82 29
-gg,
by equation (2),
551
"*' X~
_1247
,V~
"
82
82
551 Hence
x
=
1247
,
2, y
3;
or
x-
"
11=
-^-
"
Example
4.
Solve
4#3 +
3a;2f/ + ?/3=8,
=
+ "?/2 2z3-2a;2?/
l. Thus
Put
mx,
and
substitute
in both
equations. m3)
=
z3(4+
3m +
+
8 l
(1).
z3(2-2m
"*'
m2)
=
_
(2).
'
4 + 3m + mz 2-2m
+
m2~
-12
=
m3-8"i9+19m
that is,
0;
(/;i-l)(?/i-3) (m-4)
.*.
0;
m=l,
or
3, or 4.
(i)
From and
Take
l, and
substitute in either
#3
=
(1)or (2).
(2),
1;
.*.
l;
3, and
substitute in 5:r3 l;
=
(2) ;
3 x=
thus
.*.
\/
3 */
/l
k'-"
3/1
-.
and
vix
3x
(iii)Take7?"
4;
we
obtain
3/ 10.r3=l;
and
.-.
3
x=^-;
/I
mx
4x=4.
/r^.
MISCELLANEOUS
EQUATIONS.
L05
Hence
the
V5'
To*
1'
s\/l" 4\/^*
always be homogeneous.
may
=
Note.
The
ahove
same
method
of solution
used
when
the
equations are
of the
degree and
Example 5.
Solve
3 lx2y2-7y4- 112^ + 64
(1),
x2-7xy
From
we (2)
4y2+
('2).
have
-
-8
x2-
0; j/")= =
31x-y2
-
7 j/4 +
(x2 Ixy
-
Ay2) (Uxy
x2
Ixy + Ay2)
=
0 ;
.-.
that
is,
.'.
s*-10sy+9y4=0
0; (x2-y2)(x2-9y2)
=
(3).
hence
x="y,
cases
ov
x=
"3y.
obtain
Taking these
in succession
x
=
and
in (2), we substituting
y="2;
x=-y=" x="3,
^J
y="l\
3"/-17'^=T\/
-
yj
Note. It should be observed that equation (3) is homogeneous. The method here employed by which one equation is made homogeneous by a suitable combination with the other is a valuable artifice. It is especially useful in Analytical Geometry.
Example 6.
Solve
(x+yft+2 {x
-
?/)*
=
{x2
-
y*fi
i i
-
(1).
(2).
3x-2y=13
i
Divide
each term
of
or
{x +y)* (x y)r;
i
(x+y\s+2(-~yY=3
\x-yj
\.v+
gj
106
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
This
in ( is a quadratic equation
i
[x
v\a
1
,
from
which
we
find, easily
(x"y-Y 2oTl;
=
whence
^=8
x-y y
=
or
\x-yj
1 ;
.'.
7x
9y,
or
0.
obtain 13
x=9,
7;
or
-^,y=0.
EXAMPLES.
X. b.
Solve the
: following equations
1.
3x-2y
xy
7,
%).
2.
bx -y
3,
25.
3.
4^-3^ 12^
+
1,
25.
y2- 6#2
=
13y2
=
4.
a,4 + x2"
#y+2/4
xy
931,
19.
5.
x2 +
x
-
ocy
+3/2 84,
=
+y2
=6. *Jxy+y
6.
+
+
Jxy +y
#y
65,
7.
+y
\A?y,
#2
+y2=2275.
=
x2
+y2
l33-xy.
10.
3.r2+ 165
=
8.
3#2-5y2 7,
Zxy
-
9.
5y2-7^
bxy
-
l7,
6.
16.ry,
1 32.
4y2
=
2.
6x2
7^y+ 3y2
=
11.
3x2+xy+y2
Zlxy
-
l5,
45.
12.
#2 + 2x2
-
y2-3
6 +
3.zy,
0.
3x2
-bf
y2
=
13.
.r4+y4=706,
x+y
=
14.
xA+y* 272,
=
15.
^-y5
x-y
992,
2.
8.
x-y
2.
16.
,r+i l,
=
17.
"+"-",
y
3
x
18.
y
4
|+t
=
5.
2
=
5
+
-
5
=
?/+-=25.
11
"e
1.
7;
11
19.
x
11
+y
1072,
20.
xy^+yx^=20,
33
21.
11
#2+y2 5,
=
^3+y3=ie.
^-2+y2=65.
2+y 6(.i?
2)
=
5.
108
Also whence Thus from
we
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
(1),
u
=
+z
or
=13;
7.
"
obtain
we
or
6;
x
have
+ y #?/
7,1
10 \
and
+ ?/=
6,
10
acy
Hence
the solutions
are
x=5,
y
*
=
or or
2, 65
or
J
+ (a;
z=l.
Example
2.
Solve
y){x+ z) 30,
= =
=18. [z+x)(z+y)
Write
m, 1;,w
for ?/+ 2,
viv
"
+ as, a; + y
tvu
=
respectively ; thus
mv
=
30,
15,
18 have
(1).
wVu"2
30
.*.
15
18
15*
62 ;
uvw
"90.
in (1), we equations
v
=
with
w
=
each
of the
w
=
have
3,
6,
y +
z x
5\
or
-3,
-6, w=-5;
.-.
z=3,\ x $, "
=
y+z=-S,\
or
z+x
x
-d",\
-5,i
+ y
5))
=
+ y
whence
ce=4, y
3.
l,
2;
or
x=-i,
=
y=-l,
"=-2.
Example
Solve
y2+ ys
22 +
z:r
+ 22
49
(1), (2),
:
= + a;2
19
y2=39
(3).
is,
(y-x){x +
y +
z)
30
(4).
[z-x){x+y+z)*=10
Hence from
(5).
y-*-3.
"
"-"
whence
3z-2x.
MISCELLANEOUS
in equation (3), we Substituting obtain
EQUATIONS.
10f)
z*-8xa+8zs=13.
From
(2),
a;="2,
x2 +
xz
z~
19. obtain
"
3 ; and therefore y
"
5;
or
jc=
"-ts,
2=
"-t^ ;
=
and
therefore
y=T
"
-,
Example
4.
Solve
.t2-yz
a2, y^ -zx
2,
a;
62, z2
"
xy
c2.
by y, Multiplythe equations
c2.r +
and respectively
=
add ; then
+ "2z "2//
0
; then
(1).
z, x, y
(2).
cross
multiplication,
=
~^"c2V^W ^W2
Substitute in any
one
suPP"se'
of the k2
+ (a6
11
1 ; 3a2Z"2c2)
=
a4_^2c2
^4_c2ft2
C4_ai7/j
*Ja*+b*+c*-3a?tP"?
EXAMPLES.
X.
c.
110
9.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
#VW=8, x*y*zhi=\%
^-3=54, aPy*z=12t
x*yz2u2l, 3xy2z2u24.
= =
10. 11.
.*%322 72.
=
ay+#+y=23,
xz+x +
ij z z
=
12.
4l,
27. yz +
2^-4?+2/ 3yz+y-6z
17,
52,
29.
yz
"xz + 3s + 2#=
xz+y^lz,
x=8z,
y +
=
l2.
+ # +
2 s
=
22
=
a2,#
a.
2^
+ ."y
+
"2,3.r-# +
=
a*/3.
=
#2+y2-M2 21a2,ys
^-.ry
6a2,3x+y-2z
3a.
Indeterminate
Equations.
138.
:
proposedfor
and
cows;
tion solu-
in
buying
how
horses many
cows
if each
"16,
of each does he
buy1?
of horses and
respectively ; then
23a; + Here
we
16^
461.
two unknown equation involving quantities, and it is clear that by ascribing value to we please x, we can any obtain a corresponding value for y ; thus it would appear at first admits of an infinite number the of solutions. problem sightthat of the question But it is clear from the nature that x and y must be positive shall see as we integers ; and with this restriction,
have
one
is greater than the quantities of independentequations, number unlimited there will be an of solutions, and the equations minate. number said to be indeterare In the presentsection we shall only discuss the simplest kinds of indeterminate attention to posiour confining equations, tive values of the unknown will it be seen integral quantities ; that this restriction enables
us
to express
the solutions in
very
simpleform.
in
The
indeterminate
will equations
be found
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS.
Ill
Example
Divide
1.
Solve 7#
y+^
x
=31
+ -;
.-.
y+^-~
must
=31
...
(1)
Since
anil y
are
to be
we integers,
have
5y-S
=
integer ; integer ;
and
therefore
l%-9
=
w-2
that is,
%-l+
and
therefore
integer =p
7p, lp +
2
suppose.
.-. or
y-2
y
(2).
this Substituting
value of y in
.r
(1),
2 +
+
=
7p +
5" +
31;
that
is,
2"-l2p
.(3).
If in these results we giveto p any integral value,we obtain corresponding that x is negative values of x and y; but if p " 2, we see from (3) integral ; is and if p is a negativeinteger, the Thus negative. only integral positive y values of x and y are obtained by putting 0, 1, 2. p
=
be exhibited
p=
a: =
as
follows
0,
28,
1,
2, 4,
16.
16,
9,
y=
2,
Note.
When
we
obtained
5y-S
we integer,
multiplied by
in order
the coefficient to make by unityfrom a multiple of y differ of 7. A similar artifice should always be employed before introducing a symbol to denote the integer.
Example
Divide
2.
Solve in
11// 29.
=
(1).
11
i/-2
+
ir;
3x-7
=
11
integer ;
112
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
12" hence
"
28
=
^
g*
^
=
that
is,
Qfc
'"
2 +
""
^
"
.-.
.*. X
\\p+
14p +
"
5
"
!
p
x
general solution of the equation, and by giving to value or zero, we obtain positive values of integral integral positive
we
and
y ; thus
p
.t
0,
1,
2,
3,
beinginfinite.
ways
can
"5
be
paidin
half-crowns
and
florins?
be the number
of florins ; then
4y 200;
=
"""
x+y+\=
x .'
.
.
5";
"
integer
2^ suppose
.*.
x=4p,
y
=
and
50-5p.
Solutions are obtained by ascribing the values 1, 2, 3, ...9; and to p therefore the number is of ways be paid either 9. If,however, the sum may also have the values 0 and 10. If ^ = 0, in half-crowns or florins, p may is paid entirely then x = 0, and the sum in florins ; if p = 10, then y = 0, and is paid entirely in half-crowns. the sum Thus if zero values of x and y are of ways is 11. admissible the number
each
party numbering 43
6d.,and
2s.
"5. 14s. Qd. ; if were each child Is.,how many were and
women,
z=
children, respectively;
y +
43 229. 143.
(1),
10.r +
+ 5?/
2z
Eliminating z,
The
we
obtain
of this
8x +
By
generalsolution
equationis x=Sp
y
=
l,
45-8p;
EQUATIONS.
obtain
113
Hence
5p-3.
may have values integral positive
Here from
p 1 to 5.
cannot
be Thus
negativeor
p=
x-
zero, but
1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 4, 7, 10, 13, 16; 37, 29, 21, 13, 5; 7, 12, 17, 22.
*
2=2,
EXAMPLES.
Solve in
: positive integers
X. d.
1.
4.
3.i +
8y
103.
2.
5.
5#+2y=53.
3. 6.
7.";+12y=152.
4L"; +
l"P+lly=414
23a?+25y=915.
47y
2191.
solution in positive and Find the general integers, the equations of x and y which satisfy :
7.
10.
5.v-7y
3.
8.
6a?-13y=l.
9. 12.
8#-2ty=33.
I7y-13#=0.
A farmer
and each
11.
19y-23a?=7.
77y-3Qa?=295.
13.
costs "37
spends"752 in buyinghorses and cows ; if each horse cow "23, how many of each does he buy ?
can
14.
In how
zero
including
"5
be
parts so that
for
one
may
be
of multiple
What
is the
simplest way
who has
person
who ?
has
only guineas
16,
only half-crowns
17. Find
and
number
by
18.
56
remainder
which beingdivided by 39 gives a remainder such 27. How numbers there ? are many
is the smallest number What if the debt of "1. (5s. a 6d., discharge
change is to
only?
divided by 5 of which when 19. Divide 136 into two parts one leaves remainder 2, and the other divided by 8 leaves remainder 3.
20.
at "17
:
of rams at "4, pigsat I buy 40 animals consisting of each do I buy ? if I spend "301, how many
"2, and
oxen
half-crowns which are sovereigns, In my pocketI have 27 coins, how I coins of have 6d. is amount 05. and "5. the or shillings, ; many ? each sort have I 21.
H.
H. A.
CHAPTER
XL
Permutations
and
Combinations.
139.
some or
Each all of
a
of the number
arrangements which
of
or
can a
be made
by taking
by taking
thingsis called
selections which
permutation.
be made
Each
some
or
can a
of
thingsis called
which
are can
combination.
Thus letters a,
"permutations
d two
at
a
be in
made
b, c,
time
twelve
ab,
ac, ca,
ad,
be, bd,
cd,
dc ; of two letters. letters
ba,
each of these The
a,
a presenting
different arrangement
can
combinations
two at
a
which
are
be
made
:
b, c, d
time
six in number
ab,
each of these From
ac,
ad,
a presenting
this it appears that in of with the number concerned whereas order if from
as
in four
of the
formingcombinations we are only things each selection contains ; forming permutations we have also to consider the which make things up each arrangement; for instance,
we
make admits
selection of
three,such
the
of
being arranged in
following ways
and
so
givesrise
to six different
permutations.
116
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
1 ways ; then be filledup in n can these ways, the second place be associated and since each way of filling up the first placecan of ways in the number of filling with each way up the second, be filledup is given by the product which the firsttwo places can
-
(n
1).
way,
And the
when third
placeshave
been
"
filled up
in
any
placecan
number
-
(n 1)(n 2).
new
that a thus, and noticing Proceeding with each new placefilled up, and that of factors is the have the number
same as
at
of
r
shall
of ways
n
placescan
factors ;
be
filled up
equalto
(n- l)(n" 2)
n
to
and
(r" 1), or
of
"
r+1.
n
Therefore
a
the number
of permutations
taken things
at
time is
n{n- 1)(n- 2)
Cor.
a
(n-r
1).
taken things all at
The
number
of
of permutations
to
n
time is
n
(n 1)(?i 2)
"
factors,
or
n(n
It is usual
Y)(n"2)
3.2.1. the
to denote this
productby
symbol \n,which
for of
,
is
read
"factorial 142. We
n."
Also
n\ is sometimes
used
\n.
shall in future
r
denote
the number
permutations
that
of
taken things
at
time
by
the
symbol nPr
so
"Pr w(w-l)(w-2)
=
(n-r + 1);
notice that the
also In
"P
\n.
of factors in
working numerical examplesit is useful to suffix in the symbol nPr always denotes the number the formula we are using.
143.
a
The
number
of
time Let
may
also be found
at
permutations of
things
taken
at
time.
PERMUTATIONS
AND
COMBINATIONS.
117
t;iken things
r
Supposewe
at
a
'
form
all the
of permutations
.
"
of these put
do this
we
one
of the
remainingn
number of the
"
r +
1
u
tilings.
shall
get
-
one
permutation of
+
things
at
n
time;
r
and
at
a
therefore time is
the whole
permutations
of
things
nPr_] (n
x
1); that
is,
By writing r"l
for
in this
formula,we
obtain
"P_1 '^r_2x(n-r-f2),
=
similarly,
'P
'Pr_a (n
x
r +
3),
"P^P.x
"Px=7l.
the Multiply together from each and side,
=
(71 -I),
vertical columns
and
we
obtain
nPr n(n-l)(n-2)
Example
seats ; in how 1.
(n-r+l).
which
Four
persons ways
can
enter
railwaycarriagein
their ? places
there
are
six
many
they take
The first person may seat himself in 6 ways ; and then the second person in 5 ; the third in 4 ; and the fourth in 3 ; and since each of these ways may is 6x5x4x3, be associated with each of the others, the required answer
or
360.
Example
of the nine Here
we
2.
How
many
different numbers
can
be formed
by using six
out
digits 1, 2, 3,...9?
have 9 different of them taken 6 at
* . .
thingsand
a
we
have
of permutations
time ;
=
the requiredresult
9P6
=9x8x7x6x5x4
=
60480.
144.
To
r
find
at
a
of
combinations
of
dissimilar
"Crdenote
each
of these
things which
be
arranged among
|rways.
[Art. 142.]
118
Hence
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
"Crx
of arrangements
of
taken things
rata
is,
*C x\r |
r
"P
r
(n 1)(n
"
"
2)
(n
r +
1);
V
'"
_tt(w-l)(w-2)...(w-r+l)
|r
Cor. form This formula for
nCr may
in
different
\n
"
; for if we obtain r we
n
the multiply
numerator
the denominator
by
(n 1)(n
-
2)
\r
...
{n
"
1)
\n
"
The numbers
numerator
now
consists of the
;
productof
from
to
\n
.'.
"Cr=.
to
(2).
both numerical it in
have
i
an
It will be convenient
remember
these
for expressions
result is
n,
we
\n
|0' n~jn|_0"
but
nCn=l,
so
is to be true for
n,
the
symbol 10
must
be considered
to 1. equivalent
12 books in how selection of 5 be can a Example. From many ways when book is always included, (2) when one one made, (1) specified specified book is always excluded ?
(1)
have
Since the
only
to choose
4 out
in every
we selection,
Hence
the number
C4
11x10x9x8
~
1x2x3x4
=
330.
PERMUTATIONS
AND
COMBINATIONS.
to be
119
we
(2)
Since
the
out
excluded,
have
to
the number
nC6
11x10x9x8x7
1x2x3x4x5
=
462.
145.
The
number
of combinations
of combinations
is
r a
combinations of n things, to each making all the possible of r things there is left we a corresponding select, group of of combinations of n things things ; that is,the number time is the
same as
at
"
the number
of combinations
of
things
at
time ;
.-.
"C =nC
r n
"
The
proposition may
"0
_r
also be
provedas
\n
="
follows
"
"
(n r)
-
[Art.144.1
"
Such
Note.
combinations
Put r=w,
are
called
=
complementary.
then
ttC0 nCn=l.
The
result
we
have
just proved is
useful
in
enablingus
to
work.
men
in how
many
=
ways
can
an
eleven be chosen?
requirednumber
14CU
14
13
12
1x2x3
=
If
we
had
made
use
of the formula
uCn,
we
expressionwhose
numerator
and
denominator
120 146.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Tojind the number of ways in which m + n thingscan be divided into two groups containing in and n thingsrespectively. of combithe number nations to finding This is clearly equivalent select of ra + n thingsra at a time, for every time we of leave behind. we a group n things one group of ra things
Thus the
required number
1
Ira + h=
ra
\7b in this
one
Note.
If
m,
the
groups
"
are
equal, and
"
case
the number it is
of
\2m
different ways
to of subdivision is two groups
~
[9
for in any
new
way
possible
the interchange
without
a obtaining
distribution.
To jind the number 147. can of ways in which m + n + p things be divided into three groups containing severally. m, n, p things First and
can n
divide
groups of ways
m containing
in which
this
\m
be done is
-r=
\m
Then
can
the number
of ways groups
in which
be divided
into two
\n+p
is tively
n
p the subdivision is
n
Hence groups
the number
of ways
n, p
in which
into three
containing m,
m
thingscan
n+p
x
, ,
be made
\m
+
n+p
n
]"
in
\n
-, 5
or
\p
Ira \n
\p
regards
occur
J3wi
Note.
as
If
we
put
?i=p
m.
we
obtain
"
r=-|
"
different all the possible orders in which ~th.e three mode of there And since subdivision. one are any
to
in
responding cor-
orders
each
mode
of
the subdivision,
can
number be made
different ways
-
in
which
"
771
"
Example.
three
number
is
,---
of ways
in which and
15 recruits
can
be divided into
in which
115
equal groups
the number
of ways
they
can
-_"
5 [6 J [6
I15 Hr
"
PERMUTATIONS
AND
COMBINATIONS.
121 notice
148.
In the
exampleswhich
follow
it is
not
important to
be used been
a
until the
have question
made.
this be done, (1) when ways 2 ? at least Americans 2 exactly Americans, (2)
(1)
2 Americans
and
Englishmen.
be chosen is 4C, ; and of ways in which the Americans can The number of ways in which the Englishmen can be chosen is 7C4. Each of the number be associated with each of the second ; hence the first groups can of ways = 4C2x 7C4 the requirednumber
li
=
\1
210.
|~2"[2X TTJ3
17
'J^
(2)
The committee contain
|2|2|3
may
2, 3, or
4 Americans.
all the suitable combinations by forming all the groups 4 Englishmen ; then 3 Americans and 3 Englishmen; and 2 Englishmen.
of the three
=
of ways
results will
Hence
the
required
|4
+
TK
17
X
17
1
X
2 [2 1
=
TTT^
rl-^+
[2)5
suitable formulae for
210 + 140 + 21
371. of the
have only to make use we with the concerned not for are we combinations, themselves. of the committee members among
In this
Example
possible arrangements
of the
made
and 4 vowels, how many Example 2. Out of 7 consonants and 2 vowels? each containing3 consonants The
words
can
be
is 7C3, and the of choosingthe three consonants of ways number is since each of the first 2 the vowels and of ways of choosing number *Ca; of number combined the the be associated with each of second, groups can and 2 vowels, is 7C3x 4C2. 3 consonants groups, each containing
Further,each of these
among
groups
contains Hence
which letters,
may
be
arranged
themselves
in
[5ways.
of words
=
the
requirednumber
7C3x 4C2x Jo
"
~|3|4X[2]2X
=
5x|7
r
25200.
122
many that the vowels occupy the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
be formed
out
Example
3.
How
words
even
can
places?
and the 4 consonants Here we have to put the 3 vowels in 3 specified places, 3 done in the be 4 first in the can remaining places operation ; 1 ways, and the second in
4 1
.
Hence
the requirednumber
of words
=|3x[4
=
144.
is In this Example the formula for permutations because by the statement of the questionthere is but vowels, and one way of choosingthe consonants.
EXAMPLES
1.
XI.
a.
In how many ways can a consonant the letters of the word courage?
and
and 8 candidates for a Classical, 7 for a Mathematical, are the In how Natural Science 4 can a Scholarship. ways many be awarded? Scholarships
2.
There
for
3.
Find
the value of
different arrangements 4. How many of the letters of the word equation ? of If four times the number number five times to the equal find n. 3 together,
be made
by taking 5
5.
is
6.
How
many
be made different selections can 7. How by many different How numbers ? the digits 1 3, 4, 7, 5,8, many ? with four of these digits 8. If
taking four
can
of be formed
2nC3 : nOj
=
44
3, find n.
be rung
with
a
9. 10.
How How
many
changescan changescan
pealof
a
5 bells ? tenor
many alwaysbeinglast ?
be rung with
how many nightsmay crew 24, so that no two watches be taken? would any one man
11.
On
of
12. How arrangements can be made out of the letters of the many wrord draught, the vowels never ? beingseparated
124
30.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
boat is to be manned An eight-oared by a crew chosen from 11 but canand the rest can row cannot but not steer of whom 3 can row, men, of the be if the crew arranged, two steer. In how many ways can men can only row on bow side? that the number be placedin a negative signs may be together is p + 1Cn. 31. Prove of ways in which two so that no row and n positive shall signs negative p
32. 33.
may
If
56Pr +
54Pr+
30800
1, find
r.
ently 6 differbe made by hoisting different signals How can many them of number above the other,when coloured flags one any be hoisted at once ?
34.
U^C2r
225 24C2r_4
=
11, find r.
we
149. have
some
been
one
unlike.
Before
have
sets of
thingsmay
the words are point out exactlyin what sense used. When like, unwe different, speak of thingsbeing dissimilar, be to that the unlike,so as we thingsare visibly imply On the other hand from each other. we distinguishable easily like things alike to denote such as are shall always use the term from each other. For be distinguished to the eye and cannot in instance, be said each but Ex. the 2, Art. 1-48,
a a
consonants
and
the vowels
may
to consist of
group certain
of
thingsunited
by
common
sense
to be of the
same
kind;
because there is an regardedas like things, which the things of each group individuality existing among from each other. makes them Hence, in distinguishable easily considered each to the final stage of the example we group therefore capable of [5 consist of five dissimilar things and
they cannot
be
arrangements among
150. 12
themselves.
Supposewe
books
on a
have
5 shelf,
of them
in different in each
a
languages.
characteristic ; but of other, the number of if
books
languagemay
common
united by class, be
they were
selves them-
each
permutations
among
arrangement
they are
PERMUTATIONS
AND
COMBINATIONS.
125
tinguisha If, however, the books in the same language are not disshould have to find the number from each other,we be of ways in which 12 things can alike of when 5 of them are exactly of
a
arrangedamong
one
themselves,
alike, exactly
kind, and
second
cases
kind
we
problem which
is not
included directly
in any
of the
have
be of ways in which n things may themselves, takingthem all at a time, when p arranged among alike of one kind, q of them exactly of the thingsare exactly alike alike of another kind,r of them exactly of a third kind,and the rest all different. 151.
To
find the
Let there be
to be
b, r of them
x
of permutations number required ; then if in the_pletters a were by p replaced any one of these permutations of from the this unlike letters different from any rest, single of of the the without remaining altering position any permutation, if Hence this I could form new we change permutations. letters, p should obtain we x x made in each of the x permutations were \p permutations. Let be the if the q letters b were Similarly, would of permutations number
x
x
by replaced
be
q unlike
letters,
the
\p x
|"7.
letters,
we
the r letters c by r unlike In like manner, by replacing obtain x x \px \q x \rpermutations. should finally But the
are things now
all
admit
of \n
permutationsamong
themselves.
x
x
\px \qx
r '
x
\n;
that
is,
" "
~.
"
\p\g p
number required in which the of
which
is the
case
permutations.
not
Any
treated
thingsare
be
similarly.
126 Example
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
different 1. How many assassination taken letters of the word We Hence have here the number
be made
out
of the
are
s, 3
are
a, 2
are
i, and
are
n.
~|^[3|2j"
=
13.11.10.9.8.7.3.5
1001
x
10800
10810800. be
numbers odd
the digits with formed digits always occupy the odd places?
can
The
odd
1, 3, 3, 1 digits
can
be
in arranged
their four
placesin
l^2ways
The
even
(1)-
2, 4, 2 digits
can
be 13
y^ ways
Each Hence of the ways in
(2).
of the ways in
(1)can
14
=
the
number required
y^=x--j^
(2).
152.
To
find
each
the number
time, when
times in any Here
we
thing may
at to
a r
arrangement.
have
to
consider
as
in please
arrangement.
it has first placemay be filled up in n ways, and, when been filled up in any one may also be filled way, the second place from using the same not are precluded up in n ways, since we of ways in which the number n2. The third be filled up iswxn or also be filled up in n ways, and therefore the first three n3 ways.
Therefore
the first
placecan in places
stage the
index
we
and
as
at any
the number
shall have
of ways
filled up
equalto
PERMUTATIONS
AND
COMBINATIONS.
127
to 4
Example. In
each
how
many
ways
can
boys,when
boy
is
prizes?
and then any one of the; ways; since it may be obtained by the two prizescan be given away in Hence the 5 prizescan be given
Any
one
prizescan
also be remaining prizes received has who already boy away in 45, or 1024 ways.
on.
153.
to
make Each
of
or
ways
in which
it is possible
all
of \\ things.
ways, for it may either of dealing with any one of
be taken
thing may
of the
with dealing
eacli
one
others,the number
2x2x2x2
But
this includes
the
in which
thingsare
left,
of ways
is 2"-l.
spoken of
"the
total number
of combinations"
things.
of them has to dinner?
A
man
Example.
more
6 friends ; in how
many
ways
may
he invite
one
or
He ways
or
of
result
can
manner. following
guests may
of selections
; therefore the
63.
154.
To
findfor what
at
a
value
of
the number
of combinations l)
r of n things
time is greatest.
Since
"C
=^(?l-1)(n-2) (w-r +
1.2.3
2)(n-r
2)
(r-l)r (w-r
(r-1)
+
_n(n-l)(n-2)
1. 2.3
n
"
r r
"C
=nC
.
The which
may
r
be
written Hence
as
"
1,
increases.
receives
128
the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
values
71 4-
1, 2, 3
1 becomes
in
until
r
equal to 1
less than
1.
Now
r
1^1,
71+1
so
long
as r
"
that
is,
"
"
"
r.
We this
have
to
choose
the
greatestvalue
of
consistent
with
inequality.
(1)
Let
be even,
n
and 1
equalto 2m;
2m +1
then 1
-2
and for all values of
?"
2"
up
=
"
"
+s;
greater than
r.
to
we
?n
Hence
by puttingr
is "C
n
.
"
greatestnumber
of
combinations
(2)
Let
be
1 ; then
-
2m
2
"
=-5"
r
li
and
but when
inclusive this is
*C.=nC
m
:
'
that
is,"C n+
'
-nC
1 7i"l 2
"
and
of combinations
or
"
is
greatest when
the
thingsare
same
^"
at
time;
the result
being the
cases.
at
time
things
for the
numbes Let
r
permutations.
the number let the
n
"Crdenote
time; d,
and
of combinations
of
at
thingsbe
denoted
by
a,
b,c,
PERMUTATIONS
AND
120
we cm
with tin1
n"
form
1 letters taken
1 at
time.
With
these write a;
at
a
r tilings
is
b is n~xC
and
n
x
so
Tlierefore
r
time
is equal to the number of combinations "~*Cr_l with those that contain b, contain a, together
so
on.
But
in this manner,
For if instance,
abc will be found anions; those containinga, those containing Hence c. b,and among those containing combination
*c=n-xcr
r
r"
1x-.
i .,
By writingu
"
1 and
"
1 instead of
ni
and
1
respectively,
r-l"
"-2
Similarly,
-V^
^Gr_z
n"
+ 2/~1 2
_n-r
+ \ri
U
".
"
o
;
^i
=
and
finally,
each side ; thus "C
n-r+1C1 "-r
1.
and cancel like factors
vertical columns
.n(rc-l)(n-2)
r(r-l)(r-2)
(n-r+l)
1
156.
to make
a
To
find the
total number
of ways
or
in which
it is -possible
selection
some by taking
alike
alike of one are tilings, ivJierenf-p third kind; and so on. ofa The p things of may be disposed
take
1 ways
; for
wo
may
0, 1,2, 3,
in
q
+
of disposed
so on.
H. II. A.
130
Hence the is number
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of Avays in which
all the
tilings may
be
(^ + 1)(q+ 1)(r+ 1)
the
case
this includes
in which
case,
none
of the total
thingsare
number of
the
is
+ .l) + l)fe+l)(r (jp
-1. number
at
a
157.
or
formula general
the expressing
of
tions, permutathe
a
time,when
complicated ; but
(1)a selection, (2)an
the letters of the
may
be solved in the
manner. following
rangement, ar-
Example.
of
Find four
word
proportion.
There In
are
p,p;
:
r, r; t;
i; n.
findinggroups
be classified as follows
alike,one
different.
different.
(4)
(1)
The p, r, t, is
n, can
be taken
can
; for each
selection
in
3C2ways
in 3
x
; for
pairs o,
o;
p, p;
can
This
selection
then two selection from
and pairs,
from
can
10 ways ; for we select one of the 5 the remaining letters. This gives30 selections. be made be made in
(1) This
Thus In
6C4ways,
as
we
have
to take 4 different
letters to choose
the six
o, p, r,
t, i,n.
This
the different arrangements of 4 finding all possible groups. ways each of the foregoing
have to permute in
(1) givesrise to
= ,
or
20
arrangements.
(2) givesrise
to 3
-^=^ or
,
18 arrangements.
to 30
-=-
or
360 arrangements.
(4) givesrise
Thus
to 15
j4
,
or
3G0 arrangements.
132
17.
A
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
and has 5 arms telegraph of the position including positions, ? made t hat be can signals
each
7 persons form a many ways can Americans sit down and 7 7 Englishmen ways two Americans beingtogether? 18.
In how
can
ring?
at
a
a a
of money from to draw a sum possible a a a a sovereign,half-sovereign, florin, shilling, crown, bag containing and a farthing? penny,
19.
In how
many
ways
is it
a
20.
From
3
can
cocoa
of fruit
be
made,
tions selec-
21.
n
Find
the number
of different ways
of
thingsinto
equalgroups.
22.
be made 4 flags of different can signals by hoisting when any number of them may be hoisted above the other, one with 5 ? ? How flags many How many
colours
at
once
of permutations which can 23. Find the number ? the letters of the word series taken three together
be formed
out of
in a plane, There are p points three of which are in the same no line with the exception of q, which are all in the same straight straight of of which result the number find (1) straight lines, (2) triangles line; them. from joining
24.
pointsin space, no four of which are in the same of q, which all in the same are exception plane; find the there each three of are planes containing points.
are
26. number
There of ways
are
in which
different books,and p copiesof each; find the be made from them. a selection can
can
of selections and of arrangements that 27. Find the number made by taking4 letters from the word expression. of 4 letters 28. How many permutations letters of the word examination ?
can
be
be made
out of the
of all numbers 29. Find the sum greaterthan 10000 formed in any number. usingthe digits no digit beingrepeated 1,3,5, 7,9, Find the sum of all numbers greater than 10000 formed in any number. using the digits beingrepeated 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, no digit
by
30.
by
31.
and alike,
the rest
(p + l)(q+l)2r-l.
32. Shew that the number of permutationswhich be formed can from 2n letters which are either a's or 6's is greatest when the number of a's is equalto the number of Z"'s. 33.
them
a
If the
-f 1 numbers
a,
b,c, d,
CHAPTER
XIT.
Mathematical
Induction.
158. demonstrated
Many
find mathematical
formula? are not important mathematical easily quently frewe by a direct mode of proof; in such cases it convenient of proofknown to employ a method as
induction, which
1.
we
shall
to
"
now
illustrate.
the of the cubes
Example
Suppose
it is
required
is
prove
^"
" "
that
.
sum
numbers
equal
to
'Jin
We
as
can
when
is true easilysee by trial that the statement 3 and from this we or or 2, re=l, might be ;
was
simple cases,
n
such
led to
that conjecture
terms
are
true
in all
cases.
Assume
that is,suppose
13 + 23 + 33+
to
itteims=|H(;t+1)j3.
each side ; then
\-
Add
the
that
is,(n+ 1)3to
13 + 23 + 33+
+ 1 terms
=jn^2+1^| +(n+iy
=
{n+
l\ iy-('j+n
+
(n+l)8(na+4n+4)
4
\(n -\
which is
l)(K + 2))\
2
we
'
of
the
same
form
as
the
result
assumed
to
be
true
for
terms,
take we words, if the result is true when n when it is true number we that be, a may when 3 terms it is true are that but increase that number see we by one; taken ; it is therefore true when 4 terms taken ; therefore it is true when are is true universally. the result Thus 5 terms are taken; and so on.
+ 1 taking the certain number
134 Example
x
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
2.
To
determine the
productof
binomial
a.
By
actual
we multiplication
=
have
x3 +
=
(a+
b+
+ c)x2 + (ab b+
c
bc +
ca)x
+ abc ;
d)x3 cd)x~
+ abed.
:
ac+
ad + bc+ bd +
x bed)
+ (abc
abd + acd +
we
the
rightis
one
more
than
the number
of
of the number is the same of x in the first term as the index is one less than binomial factors ; and in each of the other terms that of the preceding term. The index The coefficient of the firstterm is unity; the coefficient of the second is the sum of the letters a, b, c, ; the coefficient of the third two these letters taken is the of the of at a time; term sum products taken three at of their the fourth is the the coefficient of term sum products the of all letters. is the product a time ; and so on ; the last term 3.
term
Assume
case
of
1 factors ; that
...
is,suppose
,
+p"n^
+ b + c+
ac
...h;
...
p.2= p3
=
ab +
+ ah + bc + bd+
;
abc + abd+
pn_x
abc...h. factor
+
Multiplyboth
sides
by
another
k ; thus
(x + a) (x + b)
=
...
(x + h)(x+ k)
+
xn +
+ k)xn~l (px
(p.2 +pxk)xn~*
"+
c
+...
+l^n-xk.
Now
^i +
+ A;:=(a
=
+ " ..+/*)
n
sum
of all the
b+
letters a,
+
b,c,...k;
k (a+ p.2+p1k=p.2+
=
...
h)
two
at
a
sum n
of the
taken products
...
letters a, b, c,
k;
.
p.A+p.2k =p3 + k
=
(ab+
ac
ah + bc +
.)
a
sum
of the
n
productstaken
...
three at
time
of all
the
=
k; b,
c,
2?n_1A* productof
letters a,
k.
...
MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION.
when
135
are seen
If therefore the
laws of
hold
n
?t-l But
we
factors havo
multiplied together
that they hold
also
they
case
hold
of 4
in the
case
factors.
factors; therefore
so on
factors ; and
; thus
in the for 6
...
(x+ k)
n
x11 +
,VU_1
...
+ S.Axn~* + Stfp-*
8n
S^the
"So=
sum
letters a, b, c
two
Js;
at
a
the
sum
products taken
time
of these
letters.
Sn=the product
159. Theorems
of all the
letters.
often
be
blished esta-
by
Example.
values of
n.
induction.
Shew
division By J
if therefore xn~l But x'1
-
xn~l ^
"
x-1
1 is divisible
x-1
by
1, then
x3
-
x*
1 is also divisible
-
by
1.
1 is divisible
1 is divisible
by
-
1 ; therefore
so on
1 is divisible
x4,
-
by^r 1,and
of the
same
; hence
the
by x propositionis established.
in the
1 ; therefore
kind
will be found
chapter
on
the
1G0.
From
the
to
foregoingexamples
induction
cases can
it will be be
seen
that
the
only
which the
theorems admit
which
of successive numbers
natural
1, 2, 3,
EXAMPLES.
Prove
XII.
by
+
Induction
5+
+
1. 2.
3. 4.
1+3
(2n-l)
+
n2.
l2 + 22 + 32+
2 + 22 + 23 +
n2=i?i(n+l)(2tt+l).
=
+ 2"
2(2'l-l).
ton terms
=
"
T~o
+ o~q 1.22.33.4
q-~T
-^ n+1
5.
even.
Prove
by
Induction
that
.rn
"
yn is divisible by x+y
when
is
CHAPTER
XIII.
Binomial
Theorem.
Positive
Integral
Index.
161.
that by actual multiplication (x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c){x+ d) x* x4 + (a+ b + c + d) x3 + (ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd) + (abc x + abed + abd + acd + bed) (1). It may
be shewn
We
may,
however, write
of which
this result
completeproductconsists
each
one letters,
is formed which
by inspection ; for the "of partial of a number sum products four by multiplyingtogether
of the various four factors. If
we
being
the
see
taken
each the
examine
formed, we
in way that
partialproducts are
letter
x
(1) the
term
x4 is formed
by taking the
are
out
of each
of the factors.
(2) the
out
terms
x3 involving
formed
three
letter
of the
(3)the
out
terms
x2 involving
are
formed way
every
letter
of the
(4)the
out
terms
one
letter
out
of any
and factor,
b, c, d
of
the
is the
productof
",
b,c,
Example
=
1. x4 +
(-
2 + 3
+
+ 27
-45) a2
x4 + 5a;3
47."c2 69z
-
+ 270.
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
137
product (x 3) 5)[x 1)(x 2)(x 8). The terms involvingx* are formed by multiplying togetherthe x in any and two of the numerical three of the factors, out of the two requantities maining factors ; hence the coefficient is equal to the sum of the products 8 taken two at a time. of the quantities 3, 5, -1,2,
-
Example
2.
Find
(*+
Thus
the
coefficient required
=
-15 -39.
+ 3-
G + 2-1- 5 + 10-40-
2 + 8-
10
1G2.
If in
we
of equation (1) x4
the
article preceding
we
suppose
b=c=d=a,
The
obtain
(x+ a)4
=
iax*
6a V
4a3as+ a4.
of deducing a case exemplified particular result is of in one more a general frequentoccurrence often Mathematics for it that it is to more happens ; easy prove than it is of to it. a a case general proposition particular prove shall in the next article employ the same We method to prove Binomial known as the a formula Theorem, by which any binomial of the form x + a can be raised to any assigned integral positive method here from power. 163. To
is
positive
integer.
Consider
expression
(x + a)(x+ b)(x+ c)
(x+ k),
the continued
of factors
beingn.
this
+
of expansion
a,
x
is expression
productof
x + k, and b,x + c, every term in the plying is,of n dimensions, being a productformed by multiexpansion of factors. taken from each these n n one letters, together x + factors,
The letter
x
highest power
from
terms
of
n
is xn, and
is formed
by taking the
letter
...
each of the
factors.
are
formed
one
by takingthe
remainingfactor ; thus the of the letters a, final product *is the sum
The from
terms
"
any the
n"\
and factors,
b, c,
k;
denote
it
by^.
xn~2 involving 2 of. the
are
formed
two
by takingthe
letter
...
any n from the two remaining factors ; thus of the the final product is the sum
a,
and factors,
k in
b, c,
...
k taken
two
at
time; denote
productsof it by S2.
the
letters
138
the And, generally, letter
...
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
xn~r are formed by taking involving and r of the letters the r x factors, any k from the r remainingfactors ; thus the coefficient of a, b,c, of the products of the letters is the sum x"~r in the final product denote it by Sr. a, b, c, ...k taken r at a time;
terms
"
from
of the
The
last term
in the
productis abc
+
...
k;
denote
it
by Sn.
S
n
Hence
=
(x+ k)
+
xn
Sxn~l
12
SjxT* +
"""
" x"~r
r
...+S
n"
,x 1
In the
same
$j the
as
number
of terms
is
; in
S2 the
of
n
number
of terms
at
a
is
the number
of combinations
things2
so
time ;
of terms
is
nC3; and
on.
Sl becomes
thus
+
(x+ a)n
xn
"Ca" ;
obtain
(x+a)n
=
x"
x"+naxn
"
"-i
l+
n(n"l) \ r-^oV
"
"
n(n
"_"
"
J+
v1
\)(n"2) /v l
"
a3xn 3+...
n
"
"
an,
the
series
n+ containing
1 terms.
on expression
This is the Binomial Theorem, and the is said to be the expansion of (x+ a)*. 164. The Binomial
we can
the
right
Theorem find
may the
also be
proved as
follows
By
x
induction
x
a,
b, x
c,
...x
can
then 165.
deduce The
the
product of the n factors in Art. 158, Ex. 2; we + k as explained of (x+ a)n in Art. 163. as expansion
expansionof (x+ a)" are very expressedby the symbols "C,,"C2,nC3, nCn. conveniently We however, sometimes further abbreviate them by omitting shall, (7,, C2,C3, Cn. With this notation we have n, and writing + C3a3xn~3 + C2a2xn~2 + + Ca\ (x+ a)n x" + Cxaxn~l
coefficients in the
... ...
...
If
we
write
=
"
in the
placeof
a,
we
obtain
(x-a)n
=
x"
xn-
...
(- IYG
\
a\
n
"
Thus
the
terms
in the
the same, but in (x a)'1 numerically they are is positive and the last term and negative, or
-
as
is
even
or
odd.
140
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Example
The
1.
Find
of
(a+ 2a;3)17.
requiredterm
=17C4a13 (2a;3)4
17.16.15.14 xl6ft13.T12 1.2.3.4
=
38080a13 x12.
of (3
-
Example
The
2.
Find
a)15.
requiredterm
[Art.145.]
945a13.
167.
of Art. of
a.
The of
of the binomial
from
theorem the
is the
pansion ex-
(l+x)n.
is obtained
placeof x, and
+ + "Crxr
..+
"Cxn
1 the
n(n-\)
+
nx
"
^
"
2
~
zr"i
ar +
4+
r"
'
1.2
term being general
n(n"l)(n"2)
The upon the
(n-r+ 1)
tb
,
.
expansion of
case
binomial
may
in which
to
depend
{x+
yyJ(X(i+l)J
=
V
z
=
-
Example
1.
Find
of (as22a;)10. expansion
-
We
have
2\10
-
and,
this
in the
of ( 1 expansion
J
"
we
have
in
expansion to
the
which contains
Hence
7 xl6
1.2.3.4
=
3360.
In
some
cases
the
method following
is
simpler.
BINOMIAL
THEOEEM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
141
Example Suppose
The
2.
Find
expansion of
./"-
that xr
occurs
term (p + 1)"'
contains
r,
or
g(2n-r)(3n +
=
?")
n
-
"
i'
"
Unless
"
no
term
xr containing
in
the expansion.
1G8. the of
In Art.
n
163
we
deduced
the
productof proofthere
factors
(x+ a)(x+ b)
givenis valuable
Theorem
seen
should in
(x+ k),and the method in consequence of the wide generality But the following shorter proofof be noticed.
that
a
Chap. xv.
of the b
+ c+
similar method
is used
the
term general
of expansion
(a+
161). The To prove
)".
the Binomial
Theorem. each product of n factors, in the expansionis of n dimensions, n letters, by multiplying together Thus each term the
taken
from
each of the
factors.
out
involving
x"~rar out
terms
is obtained
of the
of any r of the factors, and x by takinga of remaining n r factors. Therefore the number
"
of ways the coellicient in which r things be selected out of n ; that is, can in and by givingto r the values 0, 1, 2, 3, of xn~rcC is "6'r, n of Hence coefficients all the terms. succession we obtain the
which
be
equalto
the number
...
(x+ a)n
=
xl
4-
+ nC,,xn-"-a2 + mCJX*-1a
.
+ nCrx"-ar
...+
a",
since
*C0and
"C
n
are
each
equalto unity.
142
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
XIII.
:
a.
Expand
1.
the
binomials following
2. 5.
(#-3)5.
(l-3a2)6.
(3^+ 2y)4.
3. 6.
{Zx-yf.
(1-^j/)7.
4.
{a?+x)\
"""
Write
12-
NT
of of
of
(a? 5)13.
-
14.
The The
10th term
(1 2x)12.
-
of
(2# 1)13.16.
-
28th term
(5x+ 8y)30.
(a
\10
+
The
of U
96
J
.
/ 18.
The
b\8
-
5th term
of (2a
-J
19.
The
Vth term
of
^-Y (^'
-
5. 8
20.
The
5th term
of
(
"
V-%
(V^^+^-CV^3^-^)5(2-Vr^)6 + (2+ v/I^^)6.
cV\10 +
-
22. 24. of
Find
the middle
term
a
-
\x
of ( 1
""
-
j
"
27. 28.
Find Find
(axA bx)9.
-
29.
1\15
-
-g
30.
middle terms
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
1 b3
31.
Find
the term
independent of
of
in
(-x2"
"
32.
Find
Ux
\-\
.
33.
If x*
occurs
in the
of lx+-\ expansion
/
1
-.,
\ 3"i
34.
Find
the
term
uf independent
;/;
in f x"
j
,
35.
....
If xp
,
.
occurs
in the
of expansion
( xr+-
1\'-'1
I
prove
that its
co-
\2n
-
eihcient
is
\@n+p) j3(4"-^
170. In the the
from
The
distant of(14- x)uthe coefficients of terms equiexpansion end and are equal. beginning
term (r+ l)th
coefficient of the
from
the
is beginning
"C..
Tlie terms the (n shewn
(r+l)thterm
it;
r +
before
to be
therefore
"
term, l)th
equalto
(r+1),or n-r beginningit is which has been and its coefficient is "Cn_r, 145.] Hence the proposition "Cr. [Art.
from the
n
end
has
1"
countingfrom
the
follows. 171. To
find
the greatest
in coefficient
the
expansion of
(l x)"
+
The
coefficient of the
term general
of
(1+x)"
is
mCrjand
we
have
value of is even,
,,
this is
greatest.
i
the
greatestcoefficient is "Cn;
,
and
is
odd, it is "C
2
or
"C
; these two
coefficients
beingequal.
172. We To
term findthe greatest
in the
have
xn
(x+ a)"
=
x"
(l+ -Y ;
term
since therefore,
multiplies every
greatestterm
in ( 1
-j
it will be
144
Let The the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
rth and
(r+l)thbe
1
r
any
two
consecutive
terms.
(r+l)thterm
"
is obtained
the by multiplying
rth term
L
by
_
that
is,by (
\
]
"
)
J
[Art. 166.1 J
Vh +
The
factor
r
decreases
as
the
term (r+l)th
is not 1
always greaterthan
becomes
only
until
( \
)
J
/n
+
r
1
1 1
a
-
Now \
"
Jx
x
"
-
"
1 "j
1
.,
so
long as
1
"
that
..
+ r
x
-
is,
1,
or
"
"
"
(1 ).
If
"
"
be 1
an
denote integer,
it
by
j" j then
if
"
]) the
factor becomes term 1,and the (p + l)th multiplying /"th ; and these are greaterthan any other term. 71+1 If
-
is
to equal
the
"
"
be 1
not
an
denote integer,
its
integral part by
q ;
then
(1)is
q\ hence
the
Since
the
numerically greatest
for
(x-a)";therefore
to consider the sign it is unnecessary Also it will be found best of the binomial. of the second term formula. of the general each exampleindependently to work
example
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
POSITIVE
INTEGRAL
INDEX.
1 to
Example
Denote
1.
If
-,
in the
expansionof (1+
9-r
hence
" T7^.l Tr
9-r
.
4
x
so
long "
as r
-"1;
3
that is
or
36
4r
"
3r,
3G"7r.
r
3i4
243~ Example
2.
Find
in the
(3- 2^
"
"
9-r+l
2*
...
Here
-*r+i= 10
"
-~o~xTr, numerically,
-
r X
^r,.; X3 Tr+1" Tr
,
iience
10~r
so
i
2
x
-
long as
r
"
i 1
20"5r.
have Tr+l"Tr; but if r=4, then for all values of r up to 3, we Thus the 4"' and 5th terms are Tr+x= Tr" and these are the greatestterms. value their other and term, equal and greaterthan any numerically
=3"x"C,x
H. H. A.
f| J =36x
84x8
=489888.
10
146 173.
To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
find
the
sum
of
=
the
of(I+x)".
In the
af, Ct
put
1 ; thus
+
sum
+ Cn Cx+ C2 + C3+...
of the coefficients.
C\ + Cg + Cq +
12 3
...
C
n
=T-l;
of
n
'
total number
of combinations
things"is 2"
"
1.
[Art. 153.]
174. To prove
terms.
that in the
terms
is
of the
even
In the
(1 identity
1 ; thus 0
...
=
x)n
=
...
C x\
put
1
=
-
(sum of
"
all the
coefficients)
175.
The
Binomial contain
:
Theorem
more
which expressions
Example.
Find the
-
expansionof (xz+
a
l)3.
Regarding2x
= =
term, the expansion single + 3 (a2)2 (x-)3 (2x 1)+ 3a;2(2x l)2 + (2x l)3
-
1 as
9a;2 + 6x
"
l, on
reduction.
176.
The
If
Example.
and
The series
+cnxn,
+
(n+l)cn
+ncn)
+il
+ncn2
(1), (?).
c2+
Jl +
(/t-l)+v
J_L
2n +
n(l + l)n~1
-2n+w.2"-1.
148
7. Shew
to
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that
sum
the
equal
8.
even
the
(l+ x)2n is
terms
of
(1+tf)2"-1.
If A
terms terms of the odd in the expansionof (x + a)n,prove
be
the
sum
and that
the
=
sum
of the
A2-B2
(x2-a2)n.
240, 720,
9.
1080
The
in the
are
respectively ; find x, y,
10. 11. 12. Find Find Find
the the
expansionof (1+
2x
(x + a)n.
(]\ x--j
14.
the In the
terms (r+ 2)th
2n
coefficients of the
15.
of the
Find
and
in order that
the coefficients
3rth and
Shew
(l+x)2n may
in the
be
equal.
of
16.
term
expansion
(1 +x)2n is
1.3.5...(2n-l)sn^
hi
...
"?n denote
expansion
of
(1+x)n,
17.
2^
c,
-
303+
c, 4o24-
+ncn=n.2n-1.
cn
. .
2n
=
1-l
.
18.
c0+i
2
4+
H +
"
n+l
n+\
ncn
io
c.2c2
"
3c8
1
r
n{n+\)
"
iy.
c0 20.
cx
v ,
C2
N ,
cn_x
.
O A
+ cn) (cn.1
=
c,c, -1-2
cn(n+l)H '-
21.
2c0+
"
2n +
"
1cn
3'1 + 1-1
-=-..
-p^ + l
+ l
|2w 22.
c(f+c1+c2+
c"
i7i]^
"
\2n
23. c0cr + CjCr +
j
+ c2cr + 2+
+cn_
rcn
--
=~~
.
CHAPTER
XIV.
Binomial
Theorem.
Any
Index.
In when
the
last the
chapter
was
we
the index
whether
Binomial shall
now case
in the
and negative
fractional
of the index.
one
be reduced to Since, by Art. 167, every binomial may it will sufficient be to confine attention common our type, binomials of the form
to
(1+x)n.
have
By
actual
we evolution,
(1 + xf
and
V 1 +
1+
X2
yr.
x3
by
actual
division, x)~2
=
(1
7^
-x-a=
2x
3x*
ix3
of terms
is unlimited. obtained
an
have
by independent processes
i
(1+ x)2and (1+ x)~~. expansionfor each of the expressions shall presently that they are of cases only particular prove of where is it (1 + x)n, generalformula for the expansion rational quantity.
This 178. powers
,
We
the any
formula
was
discovered have
by
Newton.
Suppose we
of x, such
m as
two
(m
v
1)
(m
x
mx+
'x-+
"
1 ) (m
/x
2)
, 'a?+
(I ).
and
l+n.v
"x-+-"] J
K-
a?
(2).
150
The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
productof
powers of x\
these
two
denote
will expressions it by
+
be
series in
cending as-
1+ Ax
then and
case
+Bx2
Cx3
Dx4
are
A, B, C,
the values of
; functions
of
and
n,
A, B, C,
m
depend upon
in which
and
in any in that
particular
case.
But
the coefficients of the powers of a; in (1) and is quite of to giveA, B, C, independent m and words, whatever values in and n may have,A, B, C,
same
(2)
n
invariable form.
will have
If therefore
we
can
determine
A, B, C,
A, B, C,
n.
for any value of m and n, we conclude form for all values of m the same
here explained is often referred to as an example principle of equivalent forms ; in the present case of "the permanence we the fact that in any algebraical have onlyto recognise product the whether the quantities volved inform of the result will be the same whole fractions are or numbers, or negative. ; positive, of this principle We shall make in the general use proofof for any Theorem index. The the Binomial proof which Ave giveis due to Euler. The
"
179.
To
prove
the Binomial
Theorem
is
fraction. positive
Wliatever be the value
let the fractional,
,
(m
1)
"
"
+ mx
"
y" ^
stand n(n
-x-
(m-Y) ' (m v
v
"
2) '
"
s x3+
...
will then.y(n)
-
1 If
nx
l)" '
x2
n(n v
"
l)(n ' v
"
2) '-
x3
"
....
will be series together the product these two multiply of x, whose loillbe another series in ascending coefficients powers unaltered inform whatever m and n may be.
we
To determine
this invariable
are
may
give
convenient
is the
integers.In this casey(m) positive is the expanded form of (1+ x)m, andy*(?i)
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
1.51
but when
and
-,
are
(m
n) (m
I
.
"
1)
This
then
is the
form
of the
m
cases, whatever
tlie values of
and
and
o# in agreement
+
with
our
it may
n
n) ;
fore there-
for
ofm
and
") x/( p)
n
+p), similarly.
in Proceeding
tliisway
we
may
shew
that
n
+p
+...to
terms).
"="
Let where
each h and k
of these
are
quantities m,
?i, j),
be
equal to
rC
integers positive ;
but since h is
but
y*(y ) stands
h
,
k\k
.*.
(1
,,
a;)
=
vi
h
,
k \k x
J
/
x-
"
1.2
Theorem
which
index.
proves
the
Binomial
for any
fractional positive
152
180. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
prove
the Binomial
Theorem
when
the index
is any
quantity. negative
It has been
provedthat
f(m) x/(w)=/(w*+ n)
for all values
we positive),
of
and
n.
Replacingin by
"
n (wliere
is
have
=/(0)
=%
since all terms of the series
"'"
/hr/(-n)'
value positive of n;
any
or
f("n)
1
+
stands
(-n) x
1
'-f", L 1
=
.
ar
...
(1+ ".)=
(_W) a. +
(rg)"" "
"
*"g"
which Hence
Binomial is
Theorem
for any
negative index.
established. completely
181.
not
The
to
appear
now
articles proofcontained in the two preceding and will probably presentsome whollysatisfactory, There is only one the student. point to which
shall
refer.
of terms is finite when iov f(in) the number expression See is a positive and unlimited in all other cases. vi integer, Art. 182. It is therefore necessary to enquire in what sense we In the
BINOMIAL
T11EOUEM.
ANY
INDEX.
153
regardthe statement thaty(m)x/(n)=f(m + n). It a\ ill be seen in Chapter xxi., that when x" 1, each of the series/^/), /(n)i/(m + n) *s convergent,and/(m + ") is the true arithmetical of f(m) *f(n). But when equivalent sol, all these series are and divergent, we can only assert that if we multiplythe series denoted by/(m) by the series denoted by f(u),the first r terms of the product will agree with the first r terms of f(m + n),
are
to
whatever
finite value
may
3
have.
[8eeArt. 308.]
Example
1.
Expand (1
-
to xf2
four terms.
Id-1), ,.J(H(S-)
Example
2.
four terms.
(2+ 3z)-4
=
^)~4 2-"(l
+
182.
In
findingthe
general term
we
must
now.
use
the
formula
m(w-1)(w-2)
(n-r
l)
x
written when
n
in full ; for the symbol "Cr can is fractional or negative. the coefficient of the
at
no
longerbe employed
vanish unless
Also
one
term general
can
never
stop
r=oi+
the
fore is zero; the series will therewhen is that 1 zero is, n r + ; this equality never can positive integer
"
is
the
Theorem
to
an
w+1
terms
when in all
infinite number
of terms
154
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
1
Example 1.
Find
the
generalterm
in the
expansion of
(1+x)'\
The
term(r+l)th
"
L"
r
-5)
2rlr The
;
(-2r + 3)
af.
number
therefore, by taking
1 of these are tive is r, and r of factors in the numerator nega1 out of each of these negativefactors, we may
--
expression
(-i)~1-8-6-""-V
i
Example
2.
Find
the
term general
in the
expansion of
(l-nx)n.
"
The
term + 1)'(r
V"
A"
/
E
wr Ir
" ( "")r
-
!(!-") (l-ar.)
=
(1-F^Un)
_
l(l-n)(l-2n)
(1-r-l.n)
( i)r ( i)r-i
_
(n-l)(2n-l)
(r-l.n-1)^
(n 1)(2" 1)
-
....(^l.n-l)
since
Example
3.
Find
the
generalterm
in the
expansionof (1 x)~3.
-
The(r
irterm="-3'(-4"'-_5)^-(-3-'-+1)(-,)
r
=
(1)r3.4.5(r+2)(1)ffa,
}
X
~[
1.2.3
.
_(r+l)(r+2)
~
1.2
*"
by removing
the numerator
and denominator.
156
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
what
conditions
the
its true
equivalent.
n
"
"
l;
x2
+
we
have
+
(1-x)~r
in this
1
we
+ x
x*
(1);
put equation
2 ;
then
+
obtain 23
+
(-l)~1=l+2
This take
,
22
24
result contradictory
is sufficient to shew
that
we
cannot
n(n-l) '
\
"
~"
x2
as
all
cases.
the know
formula that
sum
of the
sum
of
first
terms
of the
xr
"x
series
(1)
v '
-z
1 1
-
xr
X
1 than
as
y
-
and, when
we large can
is
less numerically xr
^
as
1, by takingr sufficiently
make
small the
^
.
we
sufficient number
as we
of terms
sum
be when
made
x
to
differ
as
little
pleasefrom
But
xr
is
numerically
therefore
greater than
no
1, the value of
r
-
increases with
r.
and
such
to approximation
the value
of
JL
vC
is obtained
by taking
any
number
of terms
of the series 1
+ X +
Xs
X3
4-
(1+x)" in
when But if
x
gency Convergency and Diverexpansionby the Binomial Theorem telligi inascending powers of a? is alwaysarithmetically
chapter on
is less than
1.
is
greater than
,
1, then
"
since the
generalterm
of
the series
1 +
n(n-\)
nx
.j I
.
x" +
-
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
157
contains
r
xr, it
can
be made
Unite
no
by quantity
limit to the therefore the expansionof (1 + x)n infinite series in ascending of x has no powers meaning
x
there is
is
greaterthan 1.
remark that we can may by the Binomial Theorem ; for we may forms : either of the two following
x"
expressionin
('*!)'" '(""ff.
expansionfrom
the
y.
and
we
obtain
x
the is
first
or
second
of these
as according
To
the
general term
in
the
The
(-*y
(-iy
"(*+1Hw+2) -(**
+ ""-
1)
(_ I)*
n
+ r-l) ttv*+l)(tt+2)...ytt
xr
(n+ 1)(n + 2)
...
(n +
1)
From
that
every
term
in the
expansionof
of any binomial in the expansion term Although the general in Art. 182, it will be found always be found as explained may the above form of the general in practice to use more expeditious term in all cases the where the index is negative, retaining form
n(n-
l)(n-2)
i
...
(n
1)
x
t
only in
the
case
of
indices. positive
158
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Example.
Find
the
. _
"
(l-3x)
-13.
The
term + l)th (r
1.4.7
(3r-2)3rrr
(Sr-2)^
: w "
1.4.7
^H
_i
If the formula
had been (1+ Sx) 3 given expression Sx by for the general term, replacing
we
-
should have
3x.
used the
same
186.
-
The
=
be remembered
(1 x)'1 (1 x)~2
-
+ +
x2
x3
+
+ +
xr
+
2x
3x2
"x3
(r+ 1)xr +
=1 (I x)~3
-
3x + 6x*
10x3
+(r+ lJ%"Kr+
in
no
value, will be
in difficulty in explained
example
method
172.
Find
20.
fi
j_
"t'
Example.
2
x
=
-
the greatestterm
in the
of (l+a;)~nwhen expansion
and
"
We
have
^V+i"
19+r
-
,xxTr, numerically,
"
"""
"'r+l"-'r"
"
2
so
long as is,
=
+ r) (19 "
"
1 ;
that
38
"r.
for all values of r up to 37, we have jrr+1"Tr;but if r=38, then the greatest terms. Thus the 38th and 39th terms are I^k , than any other term. and greater are equalnumerically Hence
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
159 Theorem
are
188.
Some
useful
the Binomial
in the
expansion of
_i
3. 3*)r-(l-2x)
as
binomials
far
as
the term
containingx'\ we
have
/3
,
2\
0/8
13
1 =
55
1 +
-QX + 72X"'
we that the third see Example ^='002, so that ar = -000004, 5 with decimal If fraction therefore term we beginning were a ciphers. value of the givenexpression to find the numerical correct to 5 places required
If in this
is
of decimals it would
in 1 +
x,
neglect-
ing the
term
Example 2. When x is so small that its square find the value of be neglected,
higherpowers
may
J("+ xJ*
Since
retain
x-
may
the
in the
the
expression
_tl"""l
b(i+|.)
-K-S-).
the term
xinvolving being neglected.
160
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Example
3.
Find
the value of
x/47
_i
-rj=
to four
placesof
2 \
2
decimals.
-^
=
--
(47)
1/
*=(7*-2)*=-(l-n)
--
1 /
1 +
+
3 3
^
-74
5
+
-7^
-7
To obtain the values
+
72
-7G+--
:L_
73
75
+ 2
*77+""
we
proceed as
follows
1)1
7 7
7
-142857
=t,
'
=
) -020408
) -002915
"000059
7-3,
7 ) -000416
=
^;
fraction beginning with
5 and 5
we
can
1
.
see
that
the
term
is
decimal
ciphers.
.-.
-i-
-142857
-002915
+ -000088
\/47
=
and
to at least four
Example
4.
Find
!
+ l)a (126)3 (53
=
5 1 1 M 5
+
~5V
~
/t
1
'
3"5:J
9'5"
81*59
1
"""
'")
1_
1
'
52~ 9
J.+ _1
55
+
81 *57 1
+3*"l029'105
_
1^1^
W_
"""
81 *107
-04
3
-00032
h
-0000128
"
5-1 ^
9
-
81
=5-f -013333
=
...
-000035
...+...
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
101
EXAMPLES.
Find the
term (r+1)"1 -I
XIV.
b.
in each of the
following : expansions
i
!"
(l+#)2. (l+#)
J 3.
2.
(l-.t-)-5.
(l+.r2)-3. (2-.r)~2.
*
3/
3.
(l+3.e):].
3
4.
5.
6.
(i-2.v)~*.
7.
10-
(a+fo?)"1.
8.
9. 12.
tt{rf-x*)\
*
7=A=. "/T+2*
(1 + .v) 7 when
~
11.
Nf/(l-3.^
in each of the
4
V"Z^
following : expansions
lo 2
a?=
"
14.
2 when (1 + a?)
-1-1
1
=
4wheu# (1 74?)
"
-.
a?
8 and
3.
(5 4.v)7
~
-
when
tv=25
18.
Find
+ 4/) (3-r2
when
9, y
2, "
1 5.
of to five places
v98. 1
19.
20.
4/998.
1
21.
\3/1003.
3
22.
\4/2400. tfilla
neglected,
23.
^=.
24.
(1^)3.
25.
(630)*.
26.
and
higher powers
may
be
162
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
31.
V^+C+jj
Prove that
'
^T^-^1^
32.
(1+5*)*+
33.
is
v2
'
(4+|Y
*
of (l-4r) expansion
31
Prove
that
(1+*)*=2-
|l
-"
"
-^
) (f^
35.
in the
1
of expansion
'
(1 + x)2Vl
36. Find the firstthree terms
3
+ 4x
in the
expansionof
bx
that
expansion of (1 x)~n is
-
(n-l)th.
in the
greatest term find the numerically of (1+ x)n, for any rational value of\\.
189. To Since
we
expansion
are
only concerned
shall consider
n
with
x
the numerical
value of the
term, we greatest
Case The
as throughout positive.
I.
Let
be
integer. positive
the by multiplying 1 rth term
term (r+l)th
.
is obtained
by
terms
; that
is, by f
so
; and
therefore the
continue
to increase
'n+
longas
1
Or1-1)-1'
that
.,
(n+ l)x
is. r
"
, "
x,
or
+ 1 )x (n *"
"
"r.
1+02
164
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
(1) (2)
If
be
no
that there is If
x
may
shew,
as
in Case
II.,
be less than
will be
greater than
1, so long
as
(m
that
is,
1 )x
"
"
x,
(m"\)x
or
" "
"
r.
I lyn. ^"
x
" "
-.
-x
1 ) CC
"
If
be is
it
by
are
p \ tlien the
term (p + l)th
equalto
pthterm,
and
these
greater than
any
1) "C '
"
If
be the
positivebut
term (q+ l)th
not
an
let integer,
q be
its inte-
gralpart ;
If
i
then
is the
greatest.
'"
be
tlien negative,
is less than
unity;
"
and
by
we
in the hence
form each
(1
term
J x,
the
is less than
first term
is the
greatest.
sions find the number of homogeneous productsof v dimenbe formed out of the n letters a, b, c, and their
powers.
or by By division,
Theorem,
+
we
have
"=
=
"
+ ax
a3x3
ax
1
=
bx
b2x2 + b3x3 +
"
bx 1
=
ex
c2x2 + c3x3 +
"
ex
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
KJ5
Hence, by multiplication,
1 1
=
_
1
ax
"
bx
+
"
ex
(1 +
1 1
+
x
ax
aV
b
+
+
c +
...) (1+
bx
b*x* +
ab
+
...) (1+
ac
ex
c"x2 +
4. .
...)
... .
(a+
b'2 + bc"c2
)+
...
suppose the
sums
where
Slt"S'.,, SaJ
are
of the that
homogeneous procan
duets of one, two, three, dimensions and their a, b, c, powers. To values obtain the number of these
be
formed
of
equalto
obtained
give the
1
number
of the
of homogeneousproducts 1 Also 1
"
one,
two, three,
1
dimensions.
ax
"
bx
"
ex
becomes
"
or
(1
"
(1
Hence
x)
". a;)
Sr
coefficient of xr in the
of (1 x)~ expansion
"
n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
~
(n+r- 1)
jr
n
r"1
find
when
the number
a
of
terms
in the
of any expansion
the index is
integer. positive
of expansion
+ aB + aB+ (at
+ar)",
of terms dimensions
every term is of n dimensions; therefore the number of n of homogeneousproducts the same the number as that
can
is
be formed
; and
out
of the
powers
therefore
by
the
...
ar, and
their
is
equalto
I?' +
n
1
1
"
166
192.
to relating
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
From
the
result of Art.
190
we
may
n
deduce
theorem
the number
n
of combinations
of
things.
if
we were
Consider
down formed would all the
letters a,
b, c, d,
their
; then
r
to write
can
dimensions every
r
which such
be
of these
powers,
product
the
n
of the
one
combinations,
the letters
at
time, of
once,
of
might
of
occur
twice,
thrice,
...
up to
times. of combinations is \n
n
Therefore
when
the number
thingsr
number be formed
at
time of
allowed
r
equal to
which
+
r
"
the
can
of homogeneous
out
n
dimensions
to
1
n+r
-
or
*C
.
of combinations allowed is
at
of
it
thingsr
number
at
time
binations com-
are repetitions n
equal to
a
the when
of
+ r"
things r
time
are repetitions
193.
We
shall
conclude
this
chapter
with
few
laneous miscel-
examples.
(1
-
Example
The The
1.
Find
expansionof
+
2a;)2
~
expression (1
=
-
Ax +
...
by 1,
requiredcoefficient=pr
+ 4pr_2. 4pr_x
But
pr=(- iy
the
fe"afc"9
.
[Ex. 3,
Art.
182.]
Hence
requiredcoefficient
+ +
f-l)r
BINOMIAL
TIIEOltEM.
ANY
INDEX.
Hi?
Example
2.
Find
5.7
T
5.7.!)
-4+
.
"""
4 3 |3.32^ 1 |_2. 3
.
"
3:J
1
"
5
"
1
.
mU
3.5.7
+
13
.
The
expression v
0 2 +
"
3.5.7.9 :
" _
1
.
[2
3
Q
33
'
3;! 3
'
14
5
'
34
1)
'
5
'
24
*35+
""'
5
2
7 2
2' 2
/2\a /2\-
2*2*2 2 2
/2V
*3+ "~J2~
"o-.r-ffl"1
=
Example
(3+ Jl)n
Then
Now
integral part of
of
Suppose I
3-N/7
=
less than
1, therefore
(S-^)'1
is
proper
(2).
we
Add
2 (3" + C2 3'1"2 7 +
.
and disappear, )
. . .
have
an
even
integer.
must
But
since/and/'
are
proper
:\
be 1 ;
I=an
XIV.
c.
in the
expansionof expansionof
2.
an
in the
3.
"* in the
expansionof
X
"T" X
168
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
4- x
+ X2
4.
5.
Find Prove
1
*
expansionof
(1 + ^J
1
2
1
'
1.3.5
271
that
2_+
1-3.5.7 2.4.6.8'2*
1^
V
3'
2*
2.4.6'23
6.
Prove
N/8
=
1 +
H' +
3^5 t^~;+ H~
4. 8
3.5.7 4.8.12
,
\ \n
7.
Prove
that
2n +
2n(2n
+~
2)
"+
2n(2n + 2)(2n+ 4)
+
~3
3.6
3.6.9
~2
V
8. Prove 7' that
+ 3
_3T6~+
3.6.9
h J
^(^-1) ?i +
n{n-\)(n-2)
7.14.21
+
7+
7.14
J
+
"n
Ji
(2
%
.
"(*+!)
j.
n(" + l)(n+ 2)
+"
,
\
J
"
2.4
2.4.6
x
9.
Prove
that
when approximately,
is very
small,
2(1+r6'V
10.
Shew that the
"7!
\2
256'
'
is odd, if "JQ)n
be
positive integer.
11.
Shew that the of
(8+
is odd, if V/7)H
be
integer. positive
12.
Find
the coefficient of
in the
expansionof
(l-2.v+ 3.v2-4.v3+
13.
Shew that the middle term / of ( x ^"
+
-
)-*.
1\4'1 1 is equalto the coefficient
of xn in the
expansionof (1-Ax)
that the
3nx
2
.
14.
Prove
be
put into
-
the form
(1 xfn +
-
(1 xfn
-
3n@n-3) xi (i xyn
_
BINOMIAL
THEOREM.
ANY
INDEX.
L69
15.
Prove
1
that
the
n
coefficient of
is of the form
at*
ill the
-
expansion
"
is
,
1,0,
as according
3m, 3m
1,or
3//".+1. of terms,
16.
In
sum
the
(2)the
17.
expansion of (a +
Prove
111
integer,
1
2""1
l\n-l
18.
\n \'S
-
\b\n-5
\u-\ ,1
the
|rc
'
when (1+.f)u,
If c0, (',, C2, the coefficients in fn are is a positive n integer, prove that
expansion of
I//-1
a)
c0-cl+c2-c3+
+
+(-mv-(-i)'-1/,|;^
+
(2) ^-2^
3^-4^+
0" (_i)n(/i4.1)t.M
=
(-l)"cn2=0, or
(-1)^,
that
is odd
or
even.
If *" denote
the
=
sum
of the first
+
natural
numbers, prove
(1) (l-;r)-3
(2)
2
^ + %^
^.^+
+
+V"~1+...
j2^+
4
8n8n +
l)
=
-"
"
"
1.3.5.7
T.
20.
If
(2)i-l)
2n
+
.
fr-
2.4.6,8
?2n 2
+ "Mj"
P*""
that
(!) (2)
Man
+
+ 2n- \"ln + +
+ ?"?"
1
+1
5-
{?2n
-
?1y,(l
_
g^a. _2+
1)"
-
tjn #"
_
21.
in the
Find
the
sum
of the
products,two
n
at
is
integer. positive
are
22.
a
proper
l.
If c0, "?!,c^, the coefficients in rn are where shew that ?i is a positive (1+#)*, integer,
23.
the
expansionof
1
c2
2
c\
3
(-I)n_1fn
n
,11
2 3
CHAPTER
XV.
Multinomial
Theorem.
194.
We
have
already
Theorem In the the
seen
in
Art. the
175,
how
we
a
to obtain
expansionof
a
may multinomial
not
as
expression.
much
to
objectis
multinomial
obtain
Example.
Find
expansionof
d)u.
The
every
we
term
expansionis the productof 14 factors each equal to a+b + c + d, and in the expansionis of 14 dimensions, being a product formed by
a
taking one
take
ways that
letter out of each of these factors. Thus to form the term a4b2c*d5, maining of any four of the fourteen factors,b out of any hco of the rethe But number the of of three out eight. of remaining c ten, any of ways of arbe done is clearly ranging in which this can equal to the number be a, two 6, three c, and five d ; must four of them 14 letters when
out
is, equal to
114
A 412
TTralg.
3
151.] [Art. J L
This
in the final
of times in which the term a4b2c*d5 appears coefficient the and requiredis 2522520. consequently product,
195. of The
a
To
find (a+ b +
the
c +
pansion ex-
expansion is
c +
the
product
term
of p
factors each
equal to
by
ft+
cZ +
and
...,
taking one
the number
in the
expansionis formed
...
of these p
any term of ways of arranging in the final productis equalto the number be a, (3 must be c; be b, y must must of them a p letters when and so on. That is, the coefficient of aabPcyds
...
is
\p
=
"
~f~^
o
"
\y
...
where
j3+
...
=p.
172
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
And, by
Art.
of the
expansionof
dx3
...)''
\P
\pjy_\o_"
where
ft, y,
is
8
. .
are
sum
is p. the
pression given ex-
Hence
the
general term
expansionof
/?+
y +
=
...
(a+
"A
bx
ex2
dx3
..)" may
a*
3
...
6
+-x +
a
c a
-x+-ar+
a
y
J
,
the
case
in which
the
hrst term
unity.
of bx
+
term general
(1 +
n is
-
ex2
dx3
.)"
(n-l)(n-2).
(n-p+l)bpcyd8 ^+9f+u+
y
+
\p\v\8
where
fi+
Find
"-\-...=p.
expansion of
Example.
(l-3z-2.r2+ 6x'3)3.
The generalterm
is
S(S-0(t-")...(|-*+o V
,., ,,
iO-sA-^e)8/-^^
(i).
values of /3, have to obtain by trial all the positive integral 7, 5 which from the found is then the equation j3 equation + Zy + 35 = 3 ; and p satisfy of the corresponding 2"=/3+ 7 + 5. The requiredcoefficientwill be the sum values of the expression (1). We
MULTINOMIAL
THEOREM.
173
it will be best to commence finding /3, 7, 5, by givingto 5 successive with the values admissible. In the present case beginning integral greatest In
...
the values
are
found
to be
8=1,
5= 5=
0,
18 0, p=l;
=
0, 7=1, 0,
7
=
0=1,
p=2;
p
=
0, 0=3,
3.
^)"^)(-")"-3"-2"+
(-3)s
4_4_4
3
3~3
198.
Sometimes
it is
more
to expeditious
use
the Binomial
Theorem. Example.
The Find the coefficientof x4 in the
expansion of (1 2x
-
3.r2)-3.
requiredcoefficient is found
the
+ {2x Sx2)
-
+ (2.r 3x2)2
-
10
stop
The
at
this term
other
terms
involve
powers
of
higher
9 + 10
(2)2 ( 3)+
-
15
(2)4
-66.
EXAMPLES.
Find 1. the coefficient of a2Pc4d in the
XV.
expansionof (a-b
b
"
"
c+d)w.
c
"
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
a2bryd in the
expansionof (a+
d)s.
a?bsc in the
x~yhA in
x3 in the xA in the
the
2a2)3.
3.r2)10. x2)'\ 4.r'!)4.
2.r + 2.v
-
7.
8.
(if (1 expansion
2.r + 3#2-
174
Find 9.
the coefficient
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of
of
.r23 in the
expansion expansion
(1
2x
3x2
x4
i
.i/')5.
10.
x5 in the
of
(1 -2x (1
( (1
2x
3x2)
3x2
X*\
2.
i
11.
x3 in the
expansion
expansion expansion
of
4a3)2.
~
X2
-
12.
x8
in the
of
"
'-")
x*
in the
of
(2 (1
4x
3x2) 2.
~
3
"
expansion
expansion
of of
i
Ax2 + 15x*
1 Ox4 +
20^G)
-
*
.
(3
18^') l.
16.
Expand Expand
(1
2x
2x2)* as far
2
as
x2.
17.
(1 + 3x2
6x*)
as
far
as
x5.
18. 19.
prove
Expand (8
If
that
9^
8a4)3" as
+xP)n
=
far
as
x8.
(l+x
+ x2 +
a0 + alx +
a.^v2+
allf"xnr",
(1) (2)
20.
a0+a1+aa+
+a^=(p+l)n. +"p.a"p=5"i"(p+l)*.
are
a1+2a2+3a8+
the
coefficients in order
"""
of the
expansion
a2-a2
a2-a2+
(-l)n-1aU1=^an{l-(-l)^an}.
+
21.
be shew
If the
expansion
a0 +
of
(1 +x
...
x2)n
+arafr
+
...
alx+a2x2+
+a2nx2n,
3n_1.
that "o + a3 + a6 +
...
=al
+ a4 +
a-+
...
="2
a6+a8+
=
...
CHAPTER
XVI.
Logarithms.
The
logarithm of any
to which
number
must
=
to
given
power base
the base if ax
be raised is called
in order the
to
equal the
N
given number.
a.
Thus
JV,x
logarithmof
Examples.
to the
34
=
(1) Since
of 81 to base 3 is 4.
=
100, 103
1000,
numbers
to base
1, 2, 3,...are
1000, 200.
so
10.
The the
same
that
N;
\ogaN.
From
these
we equations
deduce
an
which identity
is sometimes
the
useful.
32
Example.
Let
x
Find
logarithmof
to "/"!
base
2N/2.
be the
by definition,
.-.
(2x/2)"
=
32
4/4;
2
(2.2*)*
=
2s. 2* ;
2
3 .-.
2^
3
-
25^;
27
-r
hence, by equating
the
indices,
.'.
"
3-6.
176
201. Thus When
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that
particular system
base 10 is the
of
is logarithms
in use, in arithmetical
denotingthe
in which
is omitted.
base, we
write log2, log3, usually Any number might be to any such corresponding
2, logl0 3, log10 taken as the base of logarithms, and base a system of logarithms of all before found. But could be the numbers discussing logarithmic shall we generalpropositions prove some systems commonly used, of any particular which are true for all logarithms independently
base. 202. For TJie
instead of
of 1 logarithm
is 0. of
a
a"
; therefore
log1-0,
whatever
logarithm of the
; therefore
base
=
is 1. itself
a1
logaa
To
product;let a
a:
=
system, and
J/, log. M,
MN==ax
=
\ogaJ\T;
N.
ay
so
a*
a*
x
product
ax+y;
x
low N. 100^1/"+
and
so
on
for any
number
of factors.
=
Example.
log42
log (2x
7)
205. M Let
-zz
To
be the
\ogaMi
Mt
2/ ay
logaiT;
N.
so
that
ax
177
Thus
the fraction
"
y
-
log J/
Xos^N.
30
Example.
log(if) log
=
=
"
log30 -log 7
2 + log 3 + log5 log
=log(2x3xo)-log7
=
-
number
\ogaM,so
M
*
=
21
then
(aj
aT;
"
whence, by definition,\oga(JP)px\
that
is,
\oga(M")=p\o%aM.
I
1
=
-
Similarly,
207.
(J/r) loga
It follows from
the results
a
we
productis
fraction is
of the
of equalto the logarithm of the denominator diminished by the logarithm ; numerator times the of the p*** power of a number is^" (3)the logarithm the number
;
of logarithm
of (4)the logarithm
of the of logarithm
we see
number
is equal to -th
the number.
of the operations that by the use of logarithms and division may be replaced by those of addition multiplication of involution and evolution and subtraction ; and the operations and division. by those of multiplication
Also
H. II. A.
12
178
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
ra3
Example
log c.
1.
"^
terms
of
loga, log b
and
Ja*
a2
3
=
-log"-(logc5 + logfc2)
3
log a
logc
log ".
Example
2.
Find
a;
from
the
equation ax c~2*="3a!+1.
.
have
=
loga
x
2x
-
logc
logc
2
(Sx+ 1)log6
-
.-.
a (log
logb) logb
=
'
-
loga
lo2 6 log c
logb
EXAMPLES.
Find the 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
of logarithms
XVI.
a.
16 to base 125
J2, and
1728 to base 2
v'3.
to base
5v/5,and
and x/2,
*25 to base 4.
256
stt.
to base 2
'3 to base 9.
'0625 to base
-0001 to base
2, and 1000
and i '001,
3
9^/3.
6.
kI gp
4/~*r i
"
r~-^
a
2
*/
to base
a.
a?
7.
Find
the value of
l0g8128,l0g6^,log-frgj, log34349'
seven Expressthe following logo.
in logarithms
terms
of
8.
log(N^)fi.
9.
log{Va2xybs).
10.
logflcFW).
180
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Again,
.*.
-06
"
10~2 and
=
-
"
log *06
The
209. the
Definition.
part of integral
characteristic of the
can
base
10 210.
be written To
down
the
shall
now
shew.
determine
of any logarithm
number
greaterthan
unity.
101
-
Since
10,
102=100,
103-1000,
that
number
two
in digits three
10' and
102; a
102
with
its
number 10".
Let then
number
whose
integral part
fraction
.
digits;
J\T" in(tt-l)+a
.*.
logiV= (n
"
1)+
"
fraction.
the characteristic is n
the characteristicof 1 \ that is, greater than unity is less by one than is positive.
determine
the characteristic
of
the
logarithmof
decimal
fraction.
10"= 1,
Since
1(rs=iJcr01' =i='001"
10-8
LOGARITHMS.
181
after the cipherimmediately -01 and
decimal
as
with
one
less than -1,lies between 10~2 and 10-1; with two ciphers a number after the decimal pointlies between 10_:i and 10""; and so on. decimal fraction with n ciphers Hence a after the immediately decimal
point,such
pointlies between
be
a
10~(" +
1)
and
10~".
n
Let D
decimal
/)
.-.
with beginning
_
ciphers ; thou
+ l) + 1 f)~(w
"
fraction.
n
logJ)
"
(n+ l)+
-
fraction.
Hence
of the
number
(n+ 1); that is,the characteristic is greater by unitytitan the of a decimal fraction logarithm and is of ciphers immediately afterthe decimal point,
The
the characteristic is
negative.
212. 200000
to logarithms
base
10 of all
j in
and
tabulated
givento
use, and
of places
decimals.
This is the
system in practical
that the that
: great advantages
(1)
characteristics
results
only
of all logarithms which numbers have the same that it is so significant digits; of sufficient to tabulate the mantissse the logarithms of integers. This proposition to prove. we proceed
(2)
The
mantissse
the
same
for the
213.
Let
be
numbers Now
sequence and N 10''. 107,where p and q whose significant the same are digits
those of N.
log(N
logJ\r+p logN
-
(1 ). log10 (2).
in
or
Again, log(AT
-
1 09)
=
logiV-7
to
In
(1) an
integeris
added
and logiV^,
(2)
an
integeris
subtracted from
logN
; that
is,the mantissa
decimal
portion
unaltered.
182
In been this and the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
three
articles preceding
the
mantissse
have
the advantagesof In order to secure supposed positive. work so as our always to keep the system, we Briggs' arrange of any logarithm the mantissa that when mantissa so positive, is prefixed characteristic the the Tables has been taken from to the rules already with its appropriate given. signaccording 214. written In
over
the the
case
of
minus
signis
that
and characteristic,
before
to it,
indicate
expression.
+
the
and integer
are
negative
logarithms
-
arithmetical
to make
the mantissa
3*69897, in
transformed
negative,may
characteristic
-
be and
For instance, positive. which is the whole expression by subtracting1 from the mantissa.
=
adding
-
1 to the
+
Thus
3-69897
(1
Other
cases
Example
1.
In the Tables we find that 3859636 is the mantissa of log2432 decimal point as well as the characteristic being omitted) ; and, by Art. the characteristic of the logarithm of the givennumber is 4;
-
.-.
log -0002432
4-3859636.
Example
2.
Find
the value of
=
given ^-00000165,
log 165
Let
x
denote
the value
loga-
l"g(-00000165)5
log (-00000165)
i
=
; (6-2174839)
of
same
as
that
of
log 165,
and
the
Now
2-8434968
LOGARITHMS.
and -8434908 is the mantissa but with of these same digits Thus of
one
183
consisting [Art.211. J
log007424; hence
a:
-0097424.
215. found
The
method
of
in the next
and chapter,
that
and base,
be
to investigate for method a necessary a a system of logarithmshaving given base to a transforming different with base. a new system
It will therefore
be
216.
are
known b. N
of all numbers to base a Suppose that the logarithms it is required and tabulated, to find the logarithms
to base
Let
be
any
number
whose
logarithm to
base
is
quired. re-
Let
so log6iV,
that by
"""
N ;
=
that
is,
ylog"
1/ J
"
log,JV;
X
loga6
N. log 0u
'
or
k"^wK*10^ 1UOa"
Now since N and b
are
C1)and
N given, los:
log b
are
known
from
the Hence
that
to
to transform
to base
have
only J
them multiply r J
by J
log b
; '
this is
as
constant
and quantity
is
given by
the
Tables; it is known
the
equation(1) of
i
.
the
for
N\
On
log/t log8/j1
x
=
184
This result may Let then
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
also be
x
=
as proveddirectly
follows
so log/?,
that a*
b;
to by taking logarithms
x
base
=
b,we
have
\ogba \ogbb
.-.
loga6xlog4a l.
=
examples will illustrate following arithmetical calculation in facilitating logarithms of Logarithmic Tables to the use as referred to works on Trigonometry.
218. The
the the
; but
formatio in-
Example
The
1.
Given
log 3
=
81
5
-
value required
logj=
log
-=
1Q
log 90
3(l"^3"-l)+|oog3*-2)-|(
KM)"*a-K+t)
=
^log3-5H
4-6280766-5-85 2-7780766.
The powers
student
can
should
the
logarithmof
and
its
always be obtained
log5
Example
2.
log
"
log10
of
log2.
log2
-3010300, log 7
-8450980.
16
7+ (log
log5)
16(log7 + 3-31og2)
16x2-9420080
=47-072128;
hence the number
of is 48. digits
210.] [Art.
LOGARITHMS.
3.
185
to two
Example
value of
x
from
log 3, find
have
=
(3 4a)logG
-
(x+ 5)log4
log 8
3
.-.
2 (log (3 4.r)
-
log 2
-
.-.
.r
log2
log3
log2)
10
=
log2
log 2
log 3
10
log 2
.r
4-4416639
_
~2-al054a2
=
1-77...
EXAMPLES.
1.
XVI.
b.
the
logarithmsof
-875. 21735,23-8,350, '035,% -87, 7623 is '8821259 log 762300,'000007623. 762-3,-U07623, 7-623,
2.
The mantissa
of
; write down
the
logarithms
of
3.
whose
the numbers
are logarithms
log2
-8450980,find the
log64. log-0125.
6. 9.
log84. log14-4.
7. 10.
log-128. log4^.
11. 14.
log^l2.
Find the seventh
12.
logW
\
"
13.
logN4/:0l05.
-i
root of
havinggiventhat -00324,
=
log44092388
15. Given
194*8445 log
=
7-6443036.
root
of
(39-2)2.
186
Find the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
16.
product
of
given
that
log 37-203
17.
Given
1-5705780, and
and
6:28231
20.
log 2
/(
//325**\
)
.
"y
18. 19.
Given
log 2 and
log 3,
find
Calculate
to six decimal
V
given log 2, log 3, log 7;
20. Calculate
to six
125\2
32
42
J
=
'
also
log 9076-226
decimals
places of
(330^-49)4^\/22x70;
given log 2, log 3, log 7 log 11
21.
Find
=
; also
1-0413927, and
number
/21\100 of
logl7814-1516
312
x
4-2507651.
the
digitsin
28.
22.
Shew
that
"
is
greater than
100.
23.
Determine
the first
how
many
ciphers
(
-
there
are
between
the
decimal
/1\1000
point
and
digitin significant
j
log 7.
+
the 3*~2
5.
25.
+
5*
10l 28.
30.
26.
2*. 6*-2=52*.
55~3*=2*
2.
2F
22*
1.53-.
71"*.
2x
"I
3l~x-y=4-y 22x~l
3*
=3
ij=
=33j/_a;J
31. 32.
Given
log102 -30103,
=
find
log25200.
=
Given
188
hence the seizes
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
(1)is the
xih power
of the series
(2);that is,
1 +
+
,"
rz
and
this
is true
however
we
great
have
may
be.
If therefore
be
increased indefinitely
x2 1+*
+
x3
xA
/-'ill
+
1 The
series
1
+
"
1
+
"
"
is
denoted usually
by
; hence
"5
x-
,=l+"+
Write
ex
for
x,
then
cV
6**
=
-
cV
+
CX
tjj-
-ry
Now obtain
let ee
",
so
that
we
a'
l+x\ogea +
"
Vo
+
,"
If
lr
This
is the
Theorem. Exponential
Cor.
When
is
e.
in the
be shewn
that
(, 1+n)=1+X+Y2 ]3+\i
-
x\n
X2
x3
x4
EXPONENTIAL
AND
LOGARITHM!*!
SERIES.
180
tli.ttis, when
is
x
the infinite, 1
limit of
(1
V
nj
"
cT.
l"yputting
"
= ,
we
have
H)--K)~={K)7
Now
m
is infinite when
is
infinite;
"
Hence
the limit of
J (x\n (1 ) ("-.')'
1
"
*.
e~\
221.
In
the
no
restriction is
placedupon
the value of x;
is less than
have used
But deserves
there
point in
assumed
the
foregoingproof which
when
n
notice. /
have
that
is infinite
1\7
nj \
2\
nj
,
:)"""(" J
\
n
.
r-V
xr
-r-
the
limit
or
is
\r
for
all values Let
us
\r
of r.
the value of
denote
iB(a!"3(a,~3 "{x-r-^r)
by
u
"
ur.
",
Then
H(*^)
z=
-lx
r
1 /
\
r"
1\
as
=
1
+
"
1
nr
)
J
Since
is
we infinite,
U
" "
have
X
.
x u
~ "
=
,
; that
is,
ur
r
r
a
is r^-; hence
x
the
limit of u3 is
,-x-;that of uA is ."
; and
that generally
of ut is
."
190
222. The series
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
ii111
E
which
we
~@
'
importantas it is the base first calculated. to which are Logarithms to this logarithms the Napierian base are known as system, so named after Napier from the their inventor. They are also called natural logarithms into which fact that they are the first logarithms come naturally consideration in algebraical investigations.
have denoted
by
e, is very
When
logarithms
that work the
are
used
e
in theoretical
is
work
it is to
as
be in
remembered
arithmetical From
to any
base
the base
10 is
be determined decimals it is
required degreeof
of places
found to be 2-7182818284.
Example
1.
Find
the
sum
-,
We
have
l + l+
--
"
-rg
and
x by putting
+ "1=1-1+i2-i3 n-
hence the
sum
of the series is
(e+ e~x).
Example
1
-
2.
Find
o
expansion of
ex
ax
"
x
=
(1
-
ax
e~x x2)
(l-a,-^)|l-, -^-n n
fi
""
"*
(-l)rxr ...+L_L_ +
j.
EXPONENTIAL
AND
LOGARITHMIC
SERIES.
101
The
coefficient required
"
r-1
r-2
-l)r
{l+ar-r(r-l)},
223. From
of \.
220,
1
+
y 1" "ger6
"
/r
^ +
L2
+
x
|c
for a;
thus
(1 +x)'J
=
+ y
(1 + *)+ log,
the Binomial
{log, (1 f2
Also
by
Theorem, when
"
we
have
(2). (i+"y-i+"+g^*+yfr-1"fr-8)rf+
Now
in
,+
(2)the
coefficient of y is
+
+
1.3*+1.2J
r**^ %K/
1.2.3.4
rp"
\K/ "C"
" -
'
""""*
that
is,
"
"
--
"
2i
"
Equate this
to the coefficient of y in
=
(1) ;
-+
thus
we
have
l0gt,(l +Ct')t7J--+
This is known
as
--
the
Series. Logarithmic
of
see
.t.
Example.
If
x "
we By equating the coefficients of y2 in the series (1)and (2), is the coefficient in of double requiredexpansion y'2
that the
____.x
?/(!/-!) r2
(y 1)(y 2)
-
1.2.8
,y(y-i)(y-2)(y-3) ^+
1.2.3.4
'
that is,double
the coefficientof y in
y-1
(y-l)(y-2)
+
*
1.2*
1.2.3
(y 1) (y 2)(y 3) "1.2.3.4
-
}. l)"*Thn8{log.(l+*)P=2{^-i(l+l)^
+
192
224.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is very small the series for calculations. We for numerical is of little use can, aid of which Tables deduce from it other series by the
Except
when
+ x) loge(l
however,
of
ithms Logar-
may
be constructed.
By writing
"
for
we
obtain
log.
1 1
hence
"
loS.(n+1)-lo"w S"2?+3^"
=
(1)-
1
;
By writing
on signs
for
we
obtain
loge
hence,by changing
both
sides of the
equation,
-
log8n loge(n
-
1)
s"
#7"
(2).
From
+ l)-log,(n-l) log.("
2(=
+_+__+
...J (3).
we
this formula
obtain
we
4 loge
"
2, loge
the
find that
known.
we
Again by puttingn
=
we
obtain
findloge102-30258509....
To
we
convert
base
10 the
multiply by
, =-j=
which
is the
modulus 1
[Art. 216]of
,
common
system,and
its value
is
^' oOJjOoDk) J
"
or
'43429448...;
we
this modulus
by
/x.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. xxvn. has given the values of e, /x, page 88, Professor J. 0. Adams of decimals. 5 than 260 to more 3, loge 2, loge loge places
225. obtain If
we
formulae
series throughoutby /x, we the above multiply logarithms. adapted to the calculation of common
-
Thus
from
+ 1) (1), /x loge(ra
/* loge?i
=
"
_
JL
-.
" ...
EXPONENTIAL that
AND
LOGARITHMIC
SERIES.
193
is,
n + 1) log, logI0(M
-
"
-
-t- + Jt.
l^-log]"-l)^+^+^+
From either of the above results
of two one the other may
ot
we
(2).
logarithm
be
see
be
a
known,
of logarithm
table of
can logarithms
constructed.
that the above formula "*""*"* onlyneeded Sl;0"ld+^e J2 of prime numbers, for the logarithm calculate the logarithms
are a
to to
ot
logarithms
may
be obtained
component factors.
In order to calculate the logarithm of any one of the smaller in either substitute the number prime numbers,we do not usually value some which be division that and such by easily performed, may either 7^+ 1 or n-l factor. We contains the givennumber a as then find log(n+l)or log(w-l)and deduce the logarithm of "
we
of the
n
formula
endeavour
to find
ot
and
10 in
=
have we (2),
log10- log9;
thus
log3
-477121256.
M Putting
80 in
-
we (1),
=
obtain
-
log3
log2
-005428681
-000000003
log2
log2
-908485024
-005395032,
-301029997.
we
series for shall give another is often useful in the construction of + l)-\0gen which iog9{7i For Tables. further information on the subjectthe Logarithmic In the
next
article
reader
is
referred to Mr
Glaisher's article
on
Logarithmsin the
I ""
Britannica. hncyclopcvdia
H. H. A.
194
226. In Art. 223
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
we
have
proved that
2 3
loge(l x)
+
x~2+
2
3"-~-"'
changingx
into
cc, we
have
3
~
log.(l -")=-"*" 2
By subtraction,
1
.
J"
"
{
+
x
a
x3
x5
Put
"
"-
=
,
so
that
"
-x
l-x
Zn
; we
thus obtain
los* (n
oeV
\) ;
"
n log. "e
2"
(2w +
777^
va
j-t=
^-r.
...}-.
J
always
so
This series converges Note. very convenient the series in Art. 224. as
227.
The
following examples
If a, 8
+
illustrate the
subjectof
the
chapter.
Example
that
1.
are
the
roots
of the a2
equation ax2
,02
+ bx +
0, shew
\og(a-bx
+ 8
cx'1)loga+(a.+ p)x
=
-J"x2
-
a3
+
o
ffi
"^-
x3-...
Since
"
a/3
=
-
we
have
bx + cx2=a
=
.-.
log (a
-
bx +
ex2) log a
=
a-x'2
=
a3x3
_-...
B3x3.
loga +
ax-
Bx-'^-+^--...
x3...
\oga + {a +
2.
"
B)x-a^^a*+^
x2 + the coefficient
as n
Example
log (1 +
x
Prove that 1 2
or n
-
of is not
xn
a
in
the
expansion
3.
of
x2) is
according
is
or
multipleof
1-x3
log (1 +
x2) log-=
"
"
X6
Q
X9
X3r
X2
X3
xr
19G
3.
Shew that
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
.+_+ hge(n+a)-logt(n-a)=2l+ ^
*\*" /""o %A/
-
a?
a?
""/
O"** *t/
4.
if
y=*'-2 +-3
2 x
4
3
+""""
shew
that
=y
+^-+ ^
5.
Shew
that +
a
(-
V~^" /
:)+^P +
3
'
) +...
"
logea-logeZ".
correct
6.
Find the
Napierianlogarithmof
"
to sixteen
places
of decimals.
7.
8.
Prove
that
e"1
/ 1
.-
.-="
nr
+....)
.
Prove
that
iog,d+xr"(i -"")'-'="
9. Find the value of
''-2 f
-
("
+
o+o
+"""")
" " " " "
H
10. Find
j2 (-'4#4)
-
^ |i
+ -//,m
the numerical
=
values
=
of the
common
of 7, 1 1 logarithms
given ^
Shew
-43429448,log2
"
'30103000.
are
each less
unity
12.
Prove
that
=
+ 3a-+2^2) logc(l
3.r-
"
"
"
...
and
find the
term general
of the series.
13.
Prove
that
,
1 + 3.?
5x2
"
S5X3
65.iT4
term general
of the series.
14.
Expand
"
^"
in
series of
ascendingpowers
of
x.
EXPONENTIAL
AND
LOGARITHMIC
SERIES.
197
15.
Express
Shew
1.
25
16.
that
17.
If
and
/3 be the
roots
of x2 -jtxr +
tf
0, shew
n3
4-
that
a2 4- ft2
ft3
18.
If
Bum
of the series
2
,
4
.
19.
i
Shew
that
i
-,
i\n A log, (1 + -) =1 nj
20.
If
2(" + l)
De
2.3("4-l)2
3.4("t+ l)3
a
""
log, .,
expanded
in
series
1
of
ascending odd, or
of
powers
of #, shew
4m
that
3
the
coefficient of o:n is
"
if
be
the form
+ 2. and
if n
be of the form
4m.
21.
Shew
that 23
1+ +,
33
+
43
]2 J3 (4+-=5e+
22.
Prove
2
that
n log,
"
23.
Shew
that
"
1
"
"
ft
+ 1
2(?i+l)2
1
n
+'
"
3(7i+I)3
1
1_
2?i2
3n3
81
")
24
=
-
24.
If
log, Yq
7a
-
",
loge
25
=
1()S" ?;'
go
-
C' sheW
that
1 6a
2 log, and
26 + 3c, log, 3
1 1a
36
5 5c, log,
Ah + Vc ;
calculate
to 8
of places
decimals.
CHAPTER
XVIII.
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
we chapter
shall
explainhow
the may
solution of
by
the "We
use
be
simplified
Value in
the
shall
the
terms
Interest, Discount,Present
sense on
their
; but
on
instead
one
of
we
takingas
year.
,"100 for
the interest
"1
shall find it
230.
To
at
given time
amount
of a givensum
in
in pounds, r principal
the number
one
year is
years
is,
/ =Pnr
(1).
+
Also that
I;
is,
and (2) we (1)
M=P(l+nr)
see
(2).
P, quantities
n, r,
From
or
that
if of the
7,
P,
?i, r,
M,
To
any
three be
giventhe
fourth may
be found.
231. due in
a
find the presentvalue and discount of a given sum given time, allowing simpleinterest. givensum,
for
one
Let P be the
r
V the year,
n
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
199
at
Since
is the
u
sum
which
time will in
years amount
the
present
P=
V(\+nr);
1
+
nr
P And D
=
1 Pnr
'
'
nr
nr
The value of D given by this equation is called the true discount. Note. when a sum is paid before it is due, it is customary in practice of money the interest on the debt instead of the true discount, and the to deduct deducted is called the banker's discount; so that so money But
Banker's Discount
True Discount
Pnr.
Pnr
1 + nr'
The difference between the true discount and the banker's "1900 paid 4 months before it is due is 6s. 8d.; find the rate interest being allowed. cent., simple per
Example.
on
discount
Let
"1
year;
"
1900''
" "
^~
,
is
and
".
a-
"
is
"
i*
1900r 1900r
"""
~3~
~3~
7~T~3; l+ir
1900r2=3
+ "-;
whence
1
*'" r~
"Jl +
3800
,
22800
_ ~
1"151
'
3800 152
1
=
t,
"
"
nave
f"aSui
=
o?
"
100r
4.
To
at
amount
of
given sum
in
in
Let P denote
n
7? the principal,
amount M
of "1
one
year,
the number
the amount.
200
The
amount
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of the firstyear is PR ; and,since at the end of for the second year, the amount this is the principal PR2. the amount at the the second year is PR x R or Similarly end
n
of P
at the end
of the
third
years is PR"
PR3,
and
so
on
; hence
the amount
in
M=PR";
.'.
I=P(Rn-l).
on
Note.
If
denote
the interest
R
=
"1
for
one
year,
we
have
l+r.
233. fraction
In
a
business
transactions
to
when allow
amount
the
time
contains
fraction of of 1
+
the
reckoned
interest
; and
the
amount
of P
in
4f years
amount
at
compound
of P in
is PR*
(1
^
"
Similarlythe
.
"
years
is PR"
(In
\
)
m/
payablemore
the nominal
called the true annual rate ; thus a year, and if r is the nominal
r
amount
of "1
in half
year is 1
+-^
and
therefore r2
year
true
the amount
of ""1 is (1
-J,
is
or
1 r2
r +
"
so
that
the
annual
rate
of
interest
234.
If the
interest is
payableq
of P in
n
times
on
the nominal
r
-
annual
rate,the interest
and
,
years,
qn
is intervals,
In this (ftimes
a
case
into
principal"
year.
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
201
If the
interest is convertible
into To
then q becomes 1 r
infinitely great.
that q
-
put
"
so
rx
thus
the amount
(l+-Y
since
is infinite when
q is infinite.
235. due in
a
find the present value and discount of a givenstun comjwund interest. giventime,allowing
To
givensum,
for
sum
one
V the year,
of "1
the number
of years.
V is the
n
time,will in
years
interest at the
present
it
and
P(l-R-).
Example. The present value of "672 due in a certain time is "126; if compound interest at 4" per cent, be allowed,find the time; having given
log2
Here Let be the number
-30103, log3
=
-47712.
Hol)iI' *"**=!'
n
of years ; then
672=126
25
=
y
672 16
"'"?ll0g24 1"gi26-'
.
100 96
or
?ilog
.-. n
=logy;
=
-
100 (log
log96) log 16
4
n
=
log3,
-
"72700
"
=
-01773
'
Veiy
nea
'
202
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
When
XVIII.
a.
the following logarithms required may be used, log2 -3010300, log 3 '4771 213, log7 -8450980, log11 1-0413927.
=
1.
compound
interest; givenlog114-674
2-0594650.
sum
2. At simple interest the interest on a certain for the same and the discount on the same sum ,"90, rate is "80 ; find the sum. same 3.
cent,
time
In how
many
compound interest
4.
years will ?
to
a
sum
of money
Find, correct
8 years hence
at 5 per cent,
log67683-94
In how many compound interest ?
4-8304856.
5.
become
"2500
at 10 per cent,
mean
simpleinterest
due and
will increase more that money century at 5 per cent, compound interest.
hundredfold
in
8.
amount
What
sum
to "1000
cent,
compound
4-6963292.
interest will
106 log
2-0253059, log49697
borrows "600 from a money-lender, and the bill is 9. A man at an increase of 1 8 per cent. : what time will renewed every half-year 1 18 before it reaches "6000 1 Given log 2-071882. elapse
=
10.
"What
is the
amount
of
a
=
in farthing
200
compound
interest? Given
log106
2-0611800.
Annuities.
*
236.
An
at
annuity is
more
fixed
sum
payment may
year stated An
or we
frequent intervals.
the
an
shall suppose
payments annual.
of
an
annuitypayablefor a fixed term contingency ; a life annuity is years independentof any annuitywhich is payableduring the lifetime of a person, or
the survivor of
a
annuity certain is
of
number
of persons.
204
239. In
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the present value of annuities it is always finding the results obtained customary to reckon compound interest; and unwhen trustworthy. simple interest is reckoned being contradictory the On this pointand for further information on
subjectof
annuities
the reader
may
consult
Jones
on
the
Value
find t/iepresent value of an annuity to continue for (jiven number compound interest. of years, allowing
Let A of ""\ in be the annuity, R the amount V the of years, required present value. of A due in 1 year is AR~l in 2 years in 3 years
;
one
year,
presentvalue
present value
of A of A
due due
is AR~'J ; is AR~3
;
present value
so on.
235.] [Art.
V
;
.-.
Now
is the
sum
of the
present values
AK-3+
tow
of the
different
payments
V=AR-1+AR-3
1
=
-
terms
R~"
AR~l
l-R-1 1-R-"
A R-l
also be obtained This result may in Art. Rn. 238, by [Art.232.] given
Note.
by dividingthe
value
of M,
Cor. of
a
If
we
make
infinite
we
obtain
for the
present value
perpetuity
R-V
241. If mA is the
m
'
presentvalue
of
an
annuityA,
; hence
the
annuity
years'purchase.
of
annuitymA perpetual
1
m
=
-
"
"
100
=
rate
per cent.
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
205
of
years' purchase of
annuities
perpetualannuityis
perpetual
investments
from arising
Railway
is furnished
good test
of
at
of the credit of
Government
by
the number
at at
2| p.
4 p.
c.
c.
Consols
Stock Stock
96
years' purchaseof its Stocks ; thus the 96} are worth 35 years'purchase; Egyptian is worth 24 years' purchase; while Austrian
5 p.
c.
80 is
only worth
16
years' purchase.
the present value of a deferredannuity to at the end of p years and to continue for n years, allowing commence compound interest. 242. To
find
Let A be the
R annuity,
the amount
of "1
in
one
year,
V the
present value.
The first
payment
is made
at
the
end
of
+ l) (;"
years.
[Art. 236.]
Hence
are
the
respectively AR-{*+l\AR-(p+2\AR-(p+3\
...
.'.
V=AR-(p+l)
AR~
(p+1)
AR-{p+"+AR-(1,+3"+
7?~"
" "
ton
terms
1
=
-
AR~V
AR-p-"
Cor.
The
present value of
to deferred perpetuity
commence
after p years is
givenby
the formula
V~R-V
243. A freehold
estate
is
an
estate
which
annuitycalled
the rent ; and thus the value of to the present value of a perpetuity equalto the rent. It follows from Art. 241 that if we know
the number
of
we
years'
obtain
that a tenant purchase pays in order to buy his interest is reckoned the rate per cent, at which
farm,
100 by dividing
by
the number
of
years' purchase.
206 Example.
The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
after 6 years of a freehold estate is bought for "20000; what rent ought the purchaser to receive, reckoning compound interest at 5 per cent. ? Given log 1-05 = -0211893, -1271358. log 1-340096
=
reversion
The
rent
value "20000.
of the
'
deferred perpetuity,
for 6
annuity; then
since .R =
l-05,we
have
20000^* ^"5'-6;
"0o
.-.
log A logA
.-.
-6
=
log 1-05
3,
=
3-1271358
log1340-09G.
rent
is "1340.
Is. lid.
244.
Suppose that
a
a an
by paying down
for p
to must
+ renew
certain
sum
lease of
estate
have
elapsedhe
sum
wishes he
years ; the
that
pay
is called the
fine for
renewingn
Let
tenant
A has
paid for
to the
present
annuityA,
is,
AR-p~n
.
after
p years and
to continue
n the fine
-=
"
"
"
[Art.242.1
EXAMPLES.
The interest is 1.
A
XVIII.
b.
supposedcompound
unless the
is stated. contrary
stalment person borrows ,"672 to be repaidin 5 years by annual inof ,"120; find the rate of interest, interest. reckoning simple of
an
2.
annuity of ,"100 in
Given
=
20 years,
allowing
compound
3.
be let
so
4|
=
per cent.
log1-045
A freehold estate is bought for "2750 ; at what rent should it that the owner may receive 4 per cent, on the purchasemoney ? A
4.
"120
rate of interest.
INTEREST
AND
ANNUITIES.
207
5.
How interest If of
many
estate,
6.
amount
should
per
be
given
for
freehold
cent.?
25
a
an
perpetual annuity
annuity
of "625
to
the
for 2 years.
20
7.
If
to
perpetual annuity
for 3 years rate
a
annuity
8.
be
continue the
to
be
the
When
of
interest
receive
=
freehold
2-0170333,
will every amount
is 4 per cent., find what sum of "400 10 a year years -8296670. log 675565estate
must
hence;
sum
to "500
in 50 e_1
=
being payable
If and
rate 25
moment;
be
an
given
years '3678.
at
2 per
cent.,
10.
n
years,
30
an
annuity
continue
to
continue
2?i
to
years,
per
man
borrows interest of
1-04
principal
and
amount
interest ; if the compound annual are repaid by 10 equal instalments, each instalment having given ;
"5000
to
at
per
cent,
be
log
12.
at 5
=-01
70333
and
log 675565
5-829667.
receives that he interest will be
man
has
ruined
per before
cent.
; if he the end
=
for which he capital of "20000 shew spends "1800 every year, of the 17th year; having given
log 2
13.
of 20 have The
'3010300,
rent
log 3
an
'4771213, log 7
is "500
to
cent.
renew
'8450980.
annual calculate
of
estate
on
lease
years,
the
fine to be
at 6
=
paid
per
when
7 years
elapsed allowing
=
interest
logl06
14.
n,
2-0253059,
If
a,
log4-688385
'6710233,
be
'4938820.
paid for
annuity
to
tinue con-
that
=
ab + b2
worth year, and so per
ac.
15.
What
at
is the end
the
present
of the
at
of
perpetual
at
annuity
of the each
of
"10
payable
"30
at
end of
the
first
"20
on,
annum
the
end
second,
year;
the
third,
5 per
increasing "10
?
interest
being
taken
cent,
CHAPTER
XIX.
INEQUALITIES.
245.
Any when
quantity a
a
is said
to
be
greater than
another
quantity b
-
thus 2 is greater than -3, positive; is b Also said to be less 2 because (-3),or 5 is positive. is thus less -5 than is ba than a when -2, because negative; 3 is negative. 5" (" 2),or -b is
"
In
accordance
any
greater than
with
this
must
be regarded
as
shall suppose the (unless that the letters alwaysdenote real and is directly stated)
In the present
chapterwe
contrary positive
quantities.
246.
If
a
"
b, then
it is evident
a
that
c
"
b b
; ;
"
"
"
ac
"
be ; b
that
will still hold after each is,an inequality divided by the or multiplied, increased, diminished,
side has
same
been
positive
quantity.
247.
If
to each
a-ob,
side,
a"b+
c; term
by adding c
which
shews
one
a
"
that
in
an
inequality any
"
may
be
transposed
from
that
If
b,
then
INEQUALITIES.
If
a
"
209
b-a is
"
is,
"
negative;that
"
"
b; be changed, inequality
the
Again,if a
"
b, then
"a
b,and
"
"
therefore
"
ac
be ;
same
be multiplied inequality by the the signofinequality be reversed. must negative quantity, 248. that al + a2 and If
+
that
If
a."b,,
a.
"
boi a^"b.,,
"b
it is clear
a3+...+
am
"
+ b^+ba+ 6,
...
bm;
a:a2a,--'a,n"hAK-'-b,"r
249.
11
a"b,
and
if p, q
V
are
V
or
a1
"
b9 ; and
therefore
a'1"
b' ; that
b'\where
is any
positive quantity.
Further,
250. The
"
"
=-
; that is a~n
"
b~".
of
zero.
"
a2
" .
"
2ab
+
b2 "
2ab.
a2
b2 "
Similarly
that
^
-"
"
Jxy ;
is,the
arithmetic
mean
The
becomes inequality
an
when equality
the
are quantities
equal.
article will be preceding in which in the of case useful, especially inequalities involved symmetrically. are
H.
H.
251.
found
A.
li
210 Example
1.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
If a, b, c denote
that
ab;
ab
b3 +
(a + b).
(1);
whence
by addition
be noticed
a2 + b2 + c2 " be +
ca
+ a".
It may
real values of a, b, c.
c2"bc
(2);
b3 +
c3"bc(b+c)
obtain
(3).
By writingdown
2
the two b3 +
similar
be
+ (a3
" c3)
(b+ c)+
[c+ a) + ab{a+b).
the (2)by introducing inequality (3)will no
It should be observed that (3)is obtained from factor b + c, and that if this factor be negative the hold. longer
Example
.r3+l
or
2.
x.
If
may
have
any
real value
find which
is the greater,
x2 +
x3+l-
+ x)=x3(x2
=
x2
(x 1)
-
(x2-l)(x-l)
+ l). (.r-l)2(*
Now
x3 + 1
as according x
"
or
"
x2 +
1 is positive or
"
or
"
1.
If
x"
equality.
sum
252. and P
Let
and
b be
two
their
product ;
(a+ bf
(a b)\
-
we
have iP
=
S2
is
and (a b)2,
-
S2
"P+(a- b)2.
a
"
P given,
is
greatest when
b\
and
if P
is
when
a=
b;
if the is,
sum
is given, their product of two positive quantities and the if productof two positive equal ; is least when sum theyare equal.
212
254. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is constant; Since be
"
c +
...
...
m,
n, p,...
are
greatest when
"
\mj
) (-)
( ) \nj \pj
-
...
is greatest. " p b
+ +
...
But
this last
sum
factors whose
.
is
con-
"
\mj
stant.
)+
(") +
\nj
( )+
"
..
.,
or
c +
and
.
\pj
.,
therefore
Hence
ambncp... will be
a ni
greatestwhen
o n c
the factors
are
all
b
n
c +
m+n+p
Thus
the
greatestvalue is mmnnpp. (
.
.
/a + b + c+
...\M4*4*+"
Example.
of
x
Find
the
The the
"
"
J
3
(
"
j"
j is greatest;
"
but
sum
is expression
( "^- J+ 4 I
,
^"
.
or
2a;
hence {a + Thus
"
^"
"
^"
or
x=
a7.
The
determination
more
of maximum the
and
minimum
a
values
often be
simply effected by
the
equationthan
solution of
ratic quad-
Example.
is
a
Divide
an
odd
into integer
integralparts whose
and
2n + 1
product
and
maximum. Denote
the
integer by
;
the
product by y
then
(2n+ 1)x
2x
=
I)2-^
INEQUALITIES.
but the
213
and therefore positive, since y is
y cannot
must
+
x
-
be
;
or + l)2, (2/t
n'2 +
and
n+
+ n\
in which
case
1, or
parts are
256.
Sometimes
Find
;
we
may
use
the
of
method. following
'
" "
' '
.
Example.
Put c+x=y the expression
..
.
the
minimum
value
then
(a-c
=
+ y) y){b-c ^-^
-
y
_
(a c)(b c) +y+a-c+b-c
-
2j(a-c)(b-c). ( a~CJyb~C)-^yy
+
a-c
+ b-c
Hence
is when Thus
the
minimum
when
the square
term
is
zero
that
value is
a-c
+ b-c
+ 2
*J(a c)(b
-
c);
and
the
value corresponding
of
is
EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
Prove Prove that that
XIX.
a.
Shew is reciprocal
real
its
4.
5.
If a2 + b2
l, and x2+y2
l, shew
z2
"
=
by"\.
If "2 + 62 +
c2=l,
and
ax
x2+y2+ by+ cz
l, shew that
1.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10.
If
"
b, shew
that which that that
that
loe
"
losr = 2. D.'-'-V
-
Shew
Find Prove Prove Shew
is the a36
+
greater 3"62
"
or
aP+263.
ab3
"
"4
64. ab
6abc
be
(a+ b).
11.
abc
(a+ b + c).
214
12. 13. 14. Which
Shew is the that the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
greaterx3
"
or
x2+x
+ 2 for
"
values positive
a.
of x%
x3 + lSa2x
hax* +
x
9a3,if x
in order
Find
greatestvalue of
value
that
7x2 + 11
may
be
greaterthan
15.
Find
-
x^ + Hx.
the minimum 9x2. 8
-
of x2-
maximum
value of 24?
Shew
(\nf
"
"" +
and
6.
(w+ l)n.
Shew
Shew If
?i
(x+y
n*
"
.(2n
-
1 ).
be
that
2ft"l+?iV2,7_1.
21.
Shew
that 27
(y +
+
z-
+ x)(z
y)(x+y
z).
(2) xyz"(y+z-x)(z
22. 7 and
no
Find
-
the maximum
value of
liesbetween
2.
T7v xu Find the
" "
23.
minimum
1 value
f of
(5+ x)(2+ x)
=-*-*
.
1+*
*257. am+bm
"
To
/a +
"
prove b\m
that
if
"
and
.
b
a
are
and positive
unequal,
action.
(
"
"
exceptwhen
xs
positive proper jr
We
have
a1" + 6m
-y" "
-^-J
+
we
-^
g-J;
each of
and
since
"
~"
is less than
,
-
may
expand
.
these
of
"
"
[Art. 184.]
fa
-
6m
/a
b\m
+
(m
1.2
"'""~2~ =v~2-J
m
1)(a +
b\""-
b\*
bV"-4
\~r)
\~r)
J
fa
-
(m
b\4
12 j+'"
INEQUALITIES.
215
(1)
If
m on
is
the
a"
+
=
b'n
"
fa fa
bs V" 6
'
\2~)
the
(2) If m rightafter
is the
1, all the
therefore
terms
on
+
-"
bm
"
fa fa
fr b\m
(3)
If
on
"
1 and
positive, put
i
i
where
"
1 ; then
76
{-"2) (-2-)
=
fam
bm\m bm\m
fd" fan
b7l\H bn\n
;
'am
"
bm\m
"
(a*)m (b")H
+
o
i
o"
]jy(2)
/ox
i
"
b'"\"1
"
a
"
+
"
.*.
"
"
"
fi-7
If
m
=
Hence
the
proposition is
an
established.
0,
or
1, the
becomes inequality
equality.
n
*25".
If there
am+bm
are
'positive quantities a,
+
...
b,
then c, ...k,
cm +
n
km
"
/a \
c+...+k
n
)"
0 and
unless
"
rt
Suppose on
Consider that
a
have
any
value
am
not
lyingbetween
+
1.
the b
are
expression
bm
c"1 +
a
...
k"\ and
and
a
"
....
+
"
b
,
i
unequal ; if a + b
..
"
we
replace
"
and
+
by
quantities
the
,
, value
or
c+...+fc
-j
but altered,
the value
of a"1 + bm
cm
...
k'" is
diminished, since
216
Hence
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
long as
...
km
can
be and
...+k;
of a"1 + b'n+ cm
a,
are b,c,...k
km
will be
case
quantities
equal.
In this
a
is equal quantities
c + n
k
;
to
and
the value of am
bm
cm
+km
...
then
+
becomes
n{
Hence when am
+
fa
c +
k\m
"
"
a,
are b,c,...k
unequal,
"
bm
cn+...+lem
n
/a + fa
c+ c +
...+fc + k\m
...
If
?n
lies between
signof
manner
prove be reversed.
:
proposition may
arithmetic
mean
be stated
as verbally
follows
quantities of the mth powers of n positive in all cases of their arithmetic mean power
1.
the series
of consisting
1 terms
; and
('^""""("-^"("-{)("
the series of b + consisting the second 1 terms.
term
After
is
term, each
of
of in
the
term corresponding
(2) ;
moreover
the number
(1)
greaterthan
the number
of terms
(2) ; hence
proposition
is established.
INEQUALITIES.
X
217
*2G0.
To prove
that
+ /I 'I"^"
/lhV
v
i-y5
x
"
i-x'
if'xand
are
proper
y.
For
.71"f"flr"//g*|
1 1
.
x/l+x
,.
a
"
1
or
"
-
1 log
according
as
-lo"?-n l-x
"l-2/'
+
But
and
2/
'
1
.
-
4- a;
"
-
1
.
\+y
" -
log *
l-x
log "
, '
-
and
thus the
is proved. proposition
"261.
777
To
prove
that
and
to
i' "
luce that
/a
"
+
_
b\a+b
J
then
Denote
(1 +jb)1+* (1-a)1-*by P;
=
logP
+ x)+ (l-aj)log(l-a;) (l+a)log(l + log (1+ x)+ log(l"x) (1+x)- log(1 x)) {log
-
2x^+3 ^+...)-2^ 1
r\
_
**s
JO
*C
i//
SI/
-6
...)
--.
"*/
JC
Jit
Hence that
log P
is
and positive,
+
therefore P"
1;
is,
(1+*)1 r(l-*)'-'"!.
218
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
f9
In this result
put
"
where
, Z
"
; then
Z
sY+w/,
+
{1 u) ^-i)
'u +
z\l~u
%1;
z\
\
.'.
y-^Y-"r"rl. J \
u
(u+ z)u+*(u-z)u-z"u2u.
a,
u
"
Now
put
+ z
b,so
that
"
"
"
(TJ
*
EXAMPLES.
+ (a4
XIX.
b+
b.
1. 2. 3.
Shew
that 27 that
n
"4 +
" (a + c4)
c)\
...
Shew
Shew
+ (l3
23 + 33+
n3).
even
of the firstn
bers num-
4.
and /3are
"
"-SM-jr(
Hence shew that if
n
"
1 the
value
of
(1 +
lies between
and
2-718... 5.
If a,
b,c
are
in
of
magnitude,shew
that
\a-c)
6. Shew that 'a + (a
'
~v
+ c\b fb \b-cj
b
+ c +
--
'
c+...+k\a +
v~
+ ,i "
aabb"*..""*.
.
7.
8.
Prove
that
log(1+ an),if m
x
"
"
n.
lib
Ih
If
ii
is
1,shew
that
#n
1
"
A.n
n
?"
+ 1
CHAPTER
XX.
LIMITING
VALUES
AND
VANISHING
FRACTIONS.
262. be made
If
as
be
constant
we
finite
the quantity,
fraction
--
can
small make
-
as
a
; that
is, we
can
approximate to
this is
-
zero
as
nearly as
we
please
by takingx largeenough ;
"
by saying,
when
Again, the
x as
fraction
increases
as
small
as
we
pleasewe
zero
-
can
make
x
"
as
largeas
this is
we
please ;
thus
when
is
has
no
finite
limit;
usuallyex-
JO
pressed by saying,
263.
or
"
when
is
zero
the limit of
is infinite."
When
we
is
mean we infinite,
any
quantitywe
we we
can
Similarlywhen
mean
say
can
that
that any
than
quantitywe
can
symbol go is used to denote the value of any quantity is indefinitely increased,and the symbol 0 is used to of value nished. dimithe quantity which is indefinitely any
LIMITING
VALUES.
221
may
now
204.
The
two
statements
:
of Art. 2G2
be written
as symbolically
follows if
x
is
co
then
is 0
if
is 0
then
x
is
co
But
must
in
making
use
of such
concise
modes
of
it expression, abbreviations
be remembered
that
they are
only convenient
The
student
will have
had
no we
of the word
a
clear
of conception
ideas
conveyed by
the
words of and
limit and
Mathematics
limitingvalue
we
is necessary
in the
meaning.
266. value
we
Definition.
If y
=f(x),and
if when
to
be made a, the function f(x) can from a fixed quantity b, then please
x
"
differ
a approaches little as as by
b is called the
limit
of
y when For
a.
if S instance,
+
the
sum
of
terms
of the
series
1+2
22 S
2~J
is
a
'";
2~2^and that
^"
,
tArt 56*1
can
Here
as
n
function
of n,
be
made
as
small
we
n ; pleaseby increasing
the is,
limit of S is 2 when
is infinite.
267.
some common
We
a
have
occasion
of consisting
series of terms
as
deal with
axx
aax"+ a3x3 +
...
where
the
coefficients
x, and
are
finite may
quantities
or
independentof
unlimited.
of terms
be limited
to discuss
some
propositions
of such
under expressions
222
268. The limit a0 when
x
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of the
+
series
+ + a3x3 + a2x2
axx
is
diminished indefinitely
is a0.
an
Suppose that
Let let
us
number infinite
alf asi o3,
of terms.
...
b be
the the
; and
denote
given series by
S"bx
+
a0
S ; then
+
...
bx2 + bx3
bx
"
and
if Thus
"
we
have
x
-=
.
"
x as
when
we
small
as
diminished,S can be made indefinitely please ; hence the limit of the givenseries is a0.
is of have number finite hence considered,
a
If the than
series consists
case we
in the
a,x
a2x
,3
a3x
small enough ive may make term x as by taking largeas we any all that it and pleasecompared with the sum by taking of follow ; x large enough we may make any term as largeas we please it. compared with the sum of all that precede The it is
a
ratio
of
the
term
a
n
xn
to
the
sum
of all that
follow
xn
'"
a or
an+1xn+l+an+2x"+'2+
...
an+1x
au+2x*+..
can
When
as as
x as we
is
small
we
be made
as
made
large
please.
ratio of the
term
anxn to
the
sum
of all that
xn
or
n
"
l+a ,ccn
2+...' "xn 2
a
n
"
+ ,y lts
n"2"J
ay2+...'
where
y u
LIMITING
VALUES.
223
as we
small ; hence, largo, y is indefinitely indefinitely be made in the previous case, the fraction can large as please. When
x
is
as
270.
The is very
of
the
foregoing proposition
In
the
expression
H-i
a
ii
a
H
"
,x
1
a.x
1
a
, 0 "
of terms in descending powers of a finite number of x, consisting be made as large by taking x small enough the last term a0 can all of the with the that terms as we sum please compared precede and first the be made ax* term can it, by taking x largeenough of all that follow it. as largeas we pleasecompared with the sum
Example
n4
-
1.
By taking n large as we
may
error an
make the first term of can large enough we of all the other please compared with the sum ?i4as the equivalent of the whole take the first term small as we as please provided n be taken large
3.t3
"
2x'2
:
"
4
"
Example
zero.
2.
Find
the limit of
=-=
"
when
(1) x is infinite
(2) x is
(1)
In
the
numerator
and
^-s
OXr
denominator
3
,
we
may
disregardall
terms
but
3a;3
the limit is
or
-4
1
,
(2)
When
is
small indefinitely
the limit is
"--
or
Example
Let have
P
3.
Find
the limit of
/
V
/1
"
+
"
x
-
when
is
zero.
denote
the value
of the
we
[Art. 226.]
value of the limit
Hence
the
limit
of
log P
is 2, and
therefore
the
required is e'2.
224
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
VANISHING
FRACTIONS.
271.
to Supposeit is required
x2
ax
"
x2 when If
x
=
a2
a.
we
put
h, then
a.
h will
approachthe
value
zero
as
h for x,
ax"
x2 +
2a2
=
3ah 2ah
+ +
h2
=
3a
x2-a2 and
.
h2
2a~+h'
this
when 3
-. a
h is
small indefinitely
the
limit of
expression
is
There
is however x2
+
ax
"
another
-
way
-
of
2a2
x2 and
^r
-j
a2
+
+
2a
'
if
as
we
now
put
the
value
of
the
expressionis
before.
2 fi 2
If in the
given expression
x
^
"
"
we
pat
before
0
-
be
found
that
it
assumes
the form
see
0
; also
Ave x -a
is indeterminate of the
that divide
a
it has
numerator
factor Now
we
appearingin by
a
cannot
zero
but factor,
x
-
long as
the
is not and
we
absolutely equal to
then
nearer
the factor
nearer
x
may
be
to
removed,
value 3
^
the
approaches
fraction
Art.
", the
,
value
of
the
to approximate
or
in accordance
with
the definitionof
266,
when
i
a, the limit of
x~
ax
^
"
Jia
"
o
-
is
-^a"
VANISHING
FRACTIONS.
225
(x)are two functions of x, each of which f(x) and "f" value a of x, the particular equal to zero for some
If
^~
"f) (a)
takes
the
form
Ki
v
and
is
called
Vanishing
Example 1. If x
'6
x-
"
ox"
When
^; but by
numerator
and
denominator,the fraction
-
~2x+1
,
When
S this reduces to
x2 + 2x + 1 limit. required
which
is therefore the
Example
To
2.
The
fractionJ'^-a-Jx
x-a
becomeg
0
when
%_a
find its
to
and denominator
by the surd
jugate con-
Jx + J'dx-a-
(Sx-a)-(x+ a)
or
whence
x by putting
we
"j=
21x
Example
3.
The
fraction
becomes 1_%x
l + h and
when
x=l.
expand by
the Binomial
Theorem.
(1+ fe)*
_
l-(l
/0i
l-(l+J*-^"F+-.)
1
+
3 1
+
9;"-2
1,
-5
Now
h
=
25/l5
-
0 when
273.
between
Sometimes
the
roots
of
an
assume equation
an
determi in-
relation
subsisting
lo
H. H. A.
226
For
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
example,if
ax
ex
d, b,
(a c)x
"
"
d-b
x
=
"
But
a
if
a, then
becomes
"
"
j-
or
go
; that the
the is,
root
x
of is
coefficient of
equations
a'x +
+ b'y
c
=
by +
0,
-
0,
be' ab'
If ab'
" "
b'e ab1
y
are
ca'
"
c'a
'
"
ab'-a'b both
a'b
0, then
;
and
infinite.
In
this
case
"
suppose
for by substituting
c
a', b\
the
second
becomes equation
ax
by +
"
0.
cIf
"
is not
equal to
0
c, the two
ax equations
by +
0 and
c'
ax ii H + bJ
=
their
absolute
terms, and
x
being
y.
Ml
inconsistent cannot
by
any
finite values of
and
If
are now
"
is equal to ^
m
c. we
have
-=-=-,
a
and
b
c
the two
equations
identical.
be
Here, since
each
assume
"
b'e
-
0 and and
,
ca'
the
"
c'a
"
0 the values of
and
y In
fact,in by
an
two involving
have such
an
unlimited number
reader who is
of values.
138.] [Art.
with Analytical acquainted Geometry will in interpreting these results in connection with have no difficulty line. the geometry of the straight The
228
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES. Find
the limits of the when #=oo,
XX.
followingexpressions, (2)
when
x
=
(1)
-
0.
(2s-3) (3-5*)
(3r?- I)*
#4 + 9
'
y^-r^^
j \f-
"j
(a?-3)(2-5.v)(3a7+l)
(2a? -I)3
_^_^:L^r
'
2^-1
'
2#2
'
'
Find
the limits of
7.
'-a
"
when
,
x"
"
1.
8.
#
when
,
0.
#2-l
gjc
_
g
/n
ginx
Qtna
9.
-"
when
,.
0.
10.
.r-"
when
,
#=a.
log(l+#)
v/#-\/2a+ V^-2a
11.
V #2
.
when
,
a?=2a.
4a2
log(l+#2+#4)
12-
l^(i-sto)-'whena,=ft
\/2x
,
"
l-a?+loga?
13.
1
-
when
a?=l.
x2
3
,. 14.
(a2-x2)2+ (a-xf ^, ^
"
when
x=a,
(a?-afi)*+(a-xf
\fa2 +
15.
ax
+ x2
x
"
*Ja2
" . "
ax+x2
.
when
,
0.
\Ja +
16.
\j
"
-{
when
,
00
17.
log
i_1
when
,
cc
18.
A'
/
a
"
when
,
0.
CHAPTER
XXI.
NVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
076
^ by some some
^ t^m assigiMgl
reguJ"
is the
Ax ! lrlaw
in expression is w
lt: lb
which
a
are
formed
at
called
^e
series ; if the
a
series
terminate ^
ca'iea
an
number
q{
terms
unfimitfd,it
is called
we
infinite shall
B^J. series.
a
In
an
preset chapter
"ue
usually denote
series
by
expression c-
form
+
ux
n2
+ i/-3
Suppose
that
we
have
series consisting of
terms.
of n; if n of the series will be a function The sum either tends to become the sum equal to indetinitely, finite An of the
or fcmi*,
increases
a
certain
else it becomes
infinitely great.
to
be
convergent
when
some
the
sum
terms
cannot may
numerically
be.
to
exceed
finite
however quantity An
greatn
be
divergent
when
the
sum
of
finite
the first
terms
can
be made
numericallygreater than
any
by taking n quantity
978
sufficiently great.
find the
the
sum
If
we
we
can
of the first
it is
terms
or
of
given
finite, in-
series
W
may
ascertain
whether is made
whether series
convergent
finite,or
divergent
examining
when For
n
remains
becomes
indefinitely great.
sum
example, the
1
+
of the first
terms
of the series
1-*"
x
x2
x*
...
is
".
"
_a.
230
If
x
HIGHER is
ALGEBRA.
sum
appro.
; -,0 the
finite limit If
n
j"
and
converge,
thus ""
*"""
is is
terms
"
of t" first greater than 1, the sum numerically n and by taking great,tk can sufficiently y
,
""*
"Y
"n*e
l""*^
is
**
"
"" *"d
**"*"
If
x=
of terms is I and thiw +\L of terms is 1 odd number of an Ac between the values 0 and 1. Thi
The
sum
of
an
even
number
,;L the
""
T
^1
sum
"
which may
be called o-iBo^
are 0ases
or
A^c^
in
X ^ t,fe
5
"
^
,".
which
of
a
we'haic
series.
can we
terms
test
S:
280.
4n
"f
"*"
-*Hout
hod
series tra/mfe
w*
are
alternately
by
u, +
u
-
M,
where
%
*
w1"^"^a"w,"M
o
....
for,"6
be
Written
in each
of the
following
^
+(".-",) K-",)+(",-"0
+
".-K-"J-("4-",)-K-"r)a
(2).
(1) we
of terms
is
of terms is of any number (2)that the sum of any nnmber less than ", ; hence the series is convergent.
see sum
CONVEltGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCE
OF
SERIES.
231
281.
For
series
1
f-
2
is
sum
4
-"
convergent. By puttingx
is 2. loge the series
1 in Art.
223,
we
see
that
its
Again,in
23
4
+
_5
6
+
T~2
each
term
3"4
_7 ~6+
the
'
is
less numerically
than
series is therefore
the of
1-2+3-4
and Now 1-1+1-1
5"6+
1-1
+
(1)'
(2).
1
or
according'
number
of
odd 282.
number An
is taken.
are
seizes in which all the terms infinite is divergent \feach term is greaterthan some sign however For the
sum
small.
if each of the
term
is
n
greater than
is be
some
finite
na
first
terms
greater than
made
to
exceed
tests of
con-
which principles,
a
important
series is
convergentit
will remain
we
convergent, and
add
or remove
when divergent,
; for the
sum
of these
terms
is
If
all the is
terms
are some
is positive
or
vergent, con-
then
are
convergent
when
the terms We
terms
unless positive,
the
232
284. An
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is convergent iffrom and aftersome term is numerically fixedterm the ratio of each term to the preceding less than unity. zuhich is itself numerically less than some quantity series infinite Let the series from beginning
u,12 +
be denoted
by
+ uc" + u^3 + u^ 4
and
let
r
"
U0
"
U1
"
r,
"
"
r,
UA -*
"
U: where
1.
U2
Us
Then
+
4
u9
u.
ua
^
r
"fa ux
+
u3
u2
Ul
"
(1+ it,
r
"
r2 + r3 +
);
u.
tliat
is,"
~1
-
since
,
1.
the
givenseries
is
convergent.
of the article preceding words
"
of significance
the
from
fixed term."
and
to
largewe can make this ratio apby taking n sufiiciently proxima of each and ratio term the to x as nearly as we please, if x 1 the the preceding be x. Hence term will ultimately
"
series is But
convergent.
the ratio
"
"
will not
,
be less than
1, until
=-
"
1:
u
n"1
n"\
that
is,until
Here
we
"
"
x case a
have up
of
may For
increase
to
certain then
pointand
1
=
then
99
example, if
x^^-r", 100
100, and
"
beginto
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
'2Xi
286.
An
infiniteseries in which
and
some after
are
of the
same
fixedterm
t*
the ratio
is greater than
unify,or equalto
.
of ea"-li unify.
sum
be denoted
by
If the ratio is
,
equal to
terms
is equal to u and the terms succeeding is equalto nul ; hence the series is divergent.
of the
If the ratio is
fixed term
than
each of the terms after the greater than unity, is greater than ux, and the sum of n terms is greater
287.
having to
greater or
when
is
increased;let indefinitely
this limit
n"\
by
A.
284.] [Art.
divergent,
that
n
X=l,
1 but
convergent
1
or
further
happen
"
"
to continually approaching
m
is
case
we
cannot
than
1 and
yet
"
fails. its
If,however,
"
I
1 but
con-
u
H
"
to tinually approaching
Art. 286.
We
"the
shall
use
"
Liin
"
"
"
as
, 1
an
abbreviation
of the
words
u
n
"
limit of
"
"
when
.
is infinite."
u
n
"
Example 1
or
1.
Find
whether
the
series whose
nlh term
is
"
"
is
.,
con-
vergent di-
divergent.
?/n ('"_!
"
(n+ l)a:n
n2
ru^1
(n +
l)(n-l)n*
{h 1)2
-
him
"
"
"x\
I
"n
234
hence if x if x
u
"
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
"
divergent.
If
l, then Lim
"
"
=1, and
Example
2.
convergent
_
or
divergent?
T Lim
.
Here Hence
un
"
n2 xn~l
7jL=Lim-.
un-i if x if x" If
x
=
(n-l)-xn2
"
".0
9=x.
"
1 the series is
convergent ;
1 the series is
divergent.
. . .
l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 +
and
is
divergent. obviously
Example
3.
In the series
+
a+(a
d)r+{a
, Lim
.
"
+ (a + 2d)r2+...
a
.
"
n-1
+ d)rn~1
...,
wn
"=Lim T
-t(n
".
"*-i
thus if r"
1)d (n-2)d
-
-^--.r
sum
r;
series in each of which all the infinite in and if the ratio of the corresponding terms terms are ])Ositive, both convergent, the two series are the two series is alwaysfinite, 288.
If
there
are
two
or
both
divergent.
infinite series be denoted ux
+
by
,
ua
ua + w4
v.
4
+
+
and The
+ v, + v, + v, 3 12
u,
ua^
+nn
lies between
the
\
and is therefore
a,
-*,
-",
say ;
14.1 [Art.
L finite quantity,
Hence
if
one
series is finite in
one
series is infinite in
value, so
is the
other; which
proves
the
proposition.
236 Example.
Prove
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
n+1
is
with
1 +
"
"
"
"^
"
""""""
of the
the
un_n
i'n
7/
l
.
'
1
_
+ 1
?i
n2
two
re
hence
Zi-m,
"
series
are
both convergent
or
both
therefore also the given series is divergent, divergent. But the auxiliary is series divergent. This the solution completes of
Example
1.
Art. 287.
291. limit of
"
In the should
of application be
Art.
288
it is necessary the
case
that find
the
our
if
we
in the
following way
of the Denote
v
given series
by
may
and
retain
onlythe
of
highestpowers
u
-
the result
vn) then
as
the limit of
is finite by Art.
270, and
be taken
the 7ithterm
the
series. auxiliary
3/2n2
-
1
=
Example r
1.
Shew
that
the
series whose
nth term
is
is
Z/S?vi + 2n+5
,,
divergent.
As
n
l/w
Hence, if
1 v"=-r,we
~
'
or
4/3
u
n12
3/2
=
have
Lim
"
^r,
v/3
1
"
which
is
finite
quantity;
vn is
may
be taken
as
the
auxiliary
series. But
the
given series is
divergent.
CONVERGENCY
2.
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
237
Example
Find
whether
vn=
is
convergent
Here
or
divergent.
""="
\\/
//
* +
tf
*J
(1"-"+-;"1)
+
+
~3n2
If
we
9""5
take vn=
we
have
vMN
9n'J
Luti
"
=x.
v"n
But
the
series auxiliary
JL + JL + Jl
P 22 is convergent, therefore the
32+
'"
n1+"-
given series
is convergent.
292.
To
shew
that the
expansionof (1 + x)n by
x
"
the Binomial
1.
terms (?-+l)th
of the
pansion ex-
n-r+1
.
When
r"?6+l,
negative;that is, from this and are negative when x alternately positive always of the same sign when x is negative.
this ratio is
7/
"
when
x
"
Lim is infinite,
"
numerically ; therefore
of the
some
1 the
the
if all the terms series is convergent are therefore a fortiori it is convergent when
some
of
that the
of ax expansio?i
ascendingpowers
of
of
"
x.
Here
^ 1"#"
"
"
; and
therefore Lim
7-
"
"
=-
11
"
1 whatever
be
""_,
n-1
"*__,
tlie series is convergent.
238
294. To shew
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
powers
of x
Here is
the numerical
x
value of
"
"
x. n
which
x
u
,
equalto
If
a5
=
\ hence
77-t+--" 4 3
con"
vergent.
If
x~
[Art. 280.]
"
1,
the
series becomes
"
"
-"
q_t" 4:
an(^
""""
*s
of zero is [Art. 290.] This shews that the logarithm divergent. is otherwise evident from the equation infinite and negative, as e-""=0.
295.
and
Example 1.
Put
x
=
is infinite.
ev; then
logs
~
y eV
y*
yi
i y also when
x
y'2
^
\2
n
3+"
the value of the fraction is
=
zero.
Example
Let
x=if
Shew
that
that when
0, when
x"l.
y"l; n\ogy
fu^="
=
so
that
logz;
=
then
=
"
i ^^
logz.
z
"
yn
Now therefore when
n
z'logy logy'
and infinite,
nxn
=
is infinite z is Lim
s_ z
0;
also
logy
is
finite;
0.
296.
It is sometimes
an
productof
the
by
uMAia
then
if
as
be
order that
mately u ""1, the productwill ultiindefinitely in hence will be infinite ; zero, and if un " 1 the product tend to the limit 1 the product must umay be finite,
n
increases
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
239
Writing 1
productbecomes
productby
P and
take
logarithms j then
+ vJ log(l
logP
(1),
be
and in order
that
tlie
productmay
be
convergent.
Choose
as an
series auxiliary
v,+v2
v3+
/
+vn
(2).
.
Now
r. Lim-2-l
log(l+ t;) ^
v
n
r-
_1 2**+"
v
n
Lim\
_.
\
u
/==1,
v
n
is 0 when
the limit of
is 1
n
the
given
is
of infinite, 2n + l
2n-l
2' 2 '4*1*6' 6
is finite. The
~JT~'~2ir
productby P,
P
=
we
have
u
n"
uxv2u3
2"+l
"
**n= "
"
"
2m
-5
"
, 1
2n
1 t-?; 4"-
logP
(1),
Now
log"n log
=
(l -^)=- ^
~
32/i-1
'"'
therefore is finite.
as
297.
In
mathematical
infinite investigations
series
occur
so or
of determining their convergency that the necessity frequently is and unless take care that we divergency very important ; series
we use are
the
convergent,we
may
be led to absurd
conclusions.
240
For
we
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
if we example,
Binomial
Theorem,
find
(1
But if
we
a;)-2 1
the
2x
3ar
n
4a3
obtain
sum
of that
n-l
terms
of this series
as
plained ex-
in Art.
in
60, it appears
+
...
9 O 2.*; + 3ar
*"
=
t=
-
^ ra
"
^^
"=
nx
:
-
(1 x)
whence
I +'2x+
(l-x)2
By J making "
-'"'""
3x~
...
nx
-
4-
7z
(1-a?)9
i -a
1-*
we infinite,
see
that
-z
can
only be
re-
(l-x)2
of equivalent 1
+
gardedas
the true
2x
3x2
ix3
nx
ri
when
-rz
="
vanishes.
(1 -x)~
If
or
n
is
x=l,
aj"l,
and
that
it is only when
assert
Ta
=*
3x2
4#3
and the
true
we
should
be led to
-
erroneous
conclusions
if
we
were as
to
use
Theorem
can
if it
were
of 2x
+
x.
In
+
...
words, we
our
introduce when
the
error
3x2
without reasoning do
so
convergent,but
cannot
the series
divergent.
of divergent The difficulties series have compelled a distinction between its algebraical For to be made a series and equivalent. we can example, if we divide 1 by (1 x)2, always obtain as
-
many
terms
as
we
of the please l
+
series
+
2a;+3"2+4a;3
so
may
be, and
in
certain
we
sense
-p. seen,
niay be
have the
the
valence equicon-
does
exist really
except
when
series is
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
241
vergent. It is therefore
as
more
to speak appropriate
of
"
"
(l
the
"
X)
series
being that
developed by ordinaryalgebraical question. The use of the term generating will be more function fully the in Series. chapteron Recurring explained
EXAMPLES.
Find
.
XXI.
a.
whether
Ill
the
1
1#
x x x
4.
x-^-2a
.v
+ 3a
and
beingpositive quantities.
1 1 + 1 + 1 +
1.2
273
371
475
6x
_1_
xy
1
'
(*+3)(y+3)+ (*+i)(y+i)4"+a)(y+*)
x2
1 1
and y
4
x3
1
x*
h
.
1.2^2.3^3.4^4.5
/"" tf
/)"2
\Mj
o"o
\Mj
%A/
o***
T72
n 6,
3T4
32
576
42
778+
22
1+I+I+I+
78.
y*
\/l+\/i+\/f+\/1+
1 + toe+ bx2 +
la? + 9af* +
"i^ 2/'
1 +
1 2__ +
i.+ A
3p
4p+
ia
2+5+Ib+-+,^TT+
3
-
11.
H.
x2 +
.,
-x* , +
10
15
"
n2-\ xA +
.
. .
5
H. A.
17
-.,"-..
xn +
nl + 1
16
242
2
-.n
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
6
,
14
,
".
2'l-2
12.
-,
l +
+ g*+5*"+I^P
"
*p-i+
1
" " "
14.
2.r+"
8
--
+ 2 7
..+
-,"
?t3
/44
1C
15'
/22
2\-!
/33
3\-2
4\-3
33
+
-
44
+
-
16.
1 +
--
17.
generalterms (2)
are
(1)
18.
Jn*+l-n.
jtF+l-Jnt-^i.
.r
A+l
r-+"
a+2
1
x+3
1
^
(2)
x
/on
11 -+
A#
1
a
-1
A+l
"-+
5+" -2
+ 2
T5+
1+I+I+E+
is convergent for all values of p.
20.
Shew
ux + 2i2+ u3
is
+ u" +
or
"1.
21.
Shew
that the
2
*
product
4
'
6 5
2ti-2
2tt-2
2n
"
1
n
3' 3' 5
271-3'
2"-l"S^Ti
is infinite.
that when
n
x=\,
is
no
term
and negative
in the
244
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that is,
"
"
+ (vl v2 + v3
...).
Hence, if the
^-series is
divergentthe
a
*300.
or
We
have
seen
as
series is
convergent
In
to
to the
divergentaccording is less than 1, or greater than 1. term 'preceding convenient remainder of the chapterwe shall find it more
:
series is
the limit of
to the
term succeeding
"
is
"
greaterthan
"
1,
less than
that
is,according as Lim
of the
"
1, or
1. may be
Similarlythe
enunciated
The
:
theorem
preceding article
the v-series is the
convergent
di-
"
Lim
"
"
; and
it-series will be
^^
Lim
^.
is un is
*301.
The
term general
" "
vergent or diconvergent
as according
\n (
1 \ ""
1, or
the
"
1.
Let whose
us
compare
given series
"
with
auxiliaryseries
general term
p
"
is
"When
case
the
series auxiliary if
or
is
convergent, and
in this
(n+iy
n?
,
(l
iy.
thatis,if
JSB."l+g+-J"CP-lV+"
un+i
/
u
2n~
,\
(p-l)
nKCrlrp+
that
if is,
^+
J)
Lim
\n (
"
I Wh
1 )1"")".
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
245
series is convergent if y; is greater than 1 auxiliary by a Unite quantityhowever small ; hence the first part of the is established. proposition 1 the auxiliary When series is divergent, and by proceedp" ing before the second as we part of the proposition. may prove But the
Example.
Find whether
a;
the series L3
+
1
+
x=
5
1.3.5
2* 3
2.4*
+2~i.d'T+'"
x[
or
it
"
divergent.
"
1 =-;
x"
hence
if x"l
if x"l
divergent.
u
" "
x=
1, Lim
1.
In this
case
un+l
1-3-5
M" wn
_ ~
4
. .
......
'
and
un+1
'"
'
"Urn
J" (2n-l)2'
hence
when
a;
*302.
T/ie serieswhose
as according
term general
"
is un is
"
convergentor
vergent di-
Lim the
(n log
j 1, or
"
1.
Let
term
us
compare
.
givenseries
with
general
is When
"
nl p
"
the
series auxiliary is
u
-sn+
I
is
convergent, and
in
this
case
the
givenseries
convergent if
"
/" 1
ij
;
h
lv
[Art. 300.]
):
that is,if
log
!
"
"
"
log (1
'
** or
if
log
P
"
"
"
"
^-5 +
2n2
7J
'u
., 1 71+
"3
246
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that
if is,
Lim
In log
"
"
)"p.
Hence When
proceedin a divergent.
; in this
case
the
Example.
Find whether
22z2
is
convergentor divergent.
"
Here
un *"
nnxn
'-
n+l (n + l) v
.
/pW+1
l
7^
"
'
wn+l
|n_
.-.
+ [n
(n+l)** A
lyV H)'
[Art.220
Cor.l.
Lim
3l
wn+1
-1
.
"?*
Hence
if a?"-
#"-
the series is
divergent.
If:r=-,then
e
^St"
un+l
".log
-n"
loge-wlog( 1 +
_1 J_
~2n
.
3n8+"
'
un
".
Lim
[n
log
"
"
hence
when
the series is
divergent.
*303.
tests
If Lim
-^=
1, and
are
also
not
wn+1
1, the
givenin
Arts.
a
300, 301
applicable.
use
To
discover
further
term
test
we
shall make
-
of the
to
auxiliary
establish
series whose
general
is
"
r-
In
we
order need
(log n)p
the theorem
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
247
values of n If $ (n)is positive integral for all positive diminishes a nd be ive as n increases, if a continually any posit then the series two infinite integer, *304. and
+ + "/"(3) + ""(2) "/"(l) + + a3"/" + a2""(a2) (a3) a"" (a)
...
+ +
+ "/"(n)
...,
and
are
+ an"" (an)
both
+ S), + 2),"f"(ak "/"("*+ "M"i+1) 1),"f"(ak with the term which follows "/"("*). beginning
0)
The of them
number is
of these terms
is ak+l
each
is
greater than
ak+lcf" (ak+1).
have
we 0, 1, 2, 3,...
+ + 4"(3)-f"M4) 4"(2)
++W"^x"*W;
Co
""("*)"
a2"f"(a2) ;
therefore, by addition,
where first.
$!
"
" ""(1)
S2,
ct
", S2 denote
,
the
sums
of the firstand
therefore
if the second
second
Again,each
sum
term
of the series
to By giving
and therefore (1)is less than ""("*), is less than (a" 1) x ak"j"(ak). the values
"
of
the
k in succession
+
0, 1, 2, 3...
we
have
therefore, by
addition
4-+(l)"("-l){4 + *(l)};
hence if the second
To
so
Note.
generalterm
obtain the generalterm of the second series we take "/"(") the of the firstseries, write an instead of n and multiply by an.
248
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
*305.
The serieswhose
term is general
=
"
n(logn)p
r"
is convergent u
if p
"
if p 1, and divergent
the
same
1, or p
the of p 1
"
1.
By
term
precedingarticle
values
series will be
as
convergent
or
divergentfor the
is
ft"
\l
general
1
c\y
np'
term
; there-
factor
7=
r_
is
common
to every
givenseries
p
as
will be convergent or
for divergent is
" -
the
same
of
general term
Hence
the
[Art. 290.]
term general
is un is
as according
\\\(
"
"
"
"
logn
1, or
"
1.
Let
term
us
compare
-.
the
givenseries
with
general
is
"
(log ny
in this
When
case
series is convergent, and j) " 1 the auxiliary the givenseries is convergent by Art. 299, if un
M,+i
Now when
n
"(!)"
is very
log(n + l) logn
=
log(1 +
J logn
=
nearly;
Hence
the condition
(1)becomes
V
u
n
, + l
.
nj V
' N
log n
O
,
'
thatis,
uH+l
u
^"(l \
i
-
nj \
1
+ +
l)(l+P log n)
nlog
n
'
that
is,
"
"
u
., n + l
?i
wlogw
o
CONVERGENCY
AND
DIVERGENCY
OF
SERIES.
240
)" 1
P
+
.
l0g?4
or
"n
CSr1)-1}10*"^
is established. The part of the proposition
Hence second
the
first be
part may
proved in
the
manner
indicated
in Art. 301.
Example.
^32^32.52^32.52.72
convergent
Here
ti .-. or
divergent?
A.
*"
*"*
1 +
I+
(1).
Lt"i
=1, and
we
proceedto
the next
test.
Fromfl),
.-.
"fe-l)=l+5
and -1)1=1,
we
"2"-
Lim
In ( -1-
test.
*-"
ffe-1)-1}108^'^
^"
"
"""^"[ffe-1)-1}108"]30'
since Lt/u
=
is
divergent.
*307.
But
even
We when
have
shewn
in Art.
183
use
of
divergent
results.
to
reasoning may
are
erroneous
convergent it is necessary
in
usingthem.
instance,the series
-
JC
%)C
Ou
Jb
'""
4/2~J/3 474~^5+
x=l.
is
convergent when
if
we
multiplythe
1
+
series 1
by
productis
250
Denote this
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
by
a2n ; then 1
since 1
J^
is infinite.
a"2"
"
"
"
and
, '
Jn
If
x=l,
the
productbecomes
+a3-
%-ax
and
no
aBf
...
...,
...
are
meaning.
us
to
enquireunder
the two
+
what
conditions the
product
of two
infinite Let
convergent
us
series is also
convergent.
*308.
denote
infinite series
+
. . .
a0
axx
4-
a2x
a3x
+ +
a2x
.,
+ b2nx2n
.
by
A and If
we
respectively. multiplythese
series
we together
obtain
result of
the form
a"A + (a A
denote
a(A)x
to
...
be
let
us
have the
under
conditions the
true
arithmetical
of equivalent
in A and
are
positive.
A"
, 2/1 "
B" 2"
of
1 terms
we
A, B, C respectively.
If
of each
the two series A2ai the coefficient multiply together B2ni of in their is coefficient of the to x product equal power x2" ; but the term of x higherthan in
of x in C as far as the like power there are terms containing powers x2n is the
A2nB,n
x2n,whilst
highest power
of
in
2/i
C0n;hence
"
^o B* 2/1
If
we
C2
2/1
form
the
product A B
in the C. "A
%n
C2nincludes
the
besides ; hence
.
ii
252
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
XXI.
are
b.
the
series following #*
convergent or divergent
.r2
1.3.5
1.3.5.7.9
1.
1+2*4+2.4.6'8+2.4.6.8.10' 12+
3
""
3.6
3.6.9
2 ^
3.6.9.12
2.
1 +
22
o 3.
22.42
a G
22
.
42
^+374^+3.4.5.6^+3.4.5.6.7.8*"+
2#
62
o
"
32.?2
^1 ^1
43^
1
54^
h
4 *'
|2
|3
12
|4
13
,5 14
l2
*
12.32
+
12.32.52
2
22
+* + 22.42'r 22.42.62^
7 '"
"T
g(l-a)
~
12
, "*"
(l+ a)"(l-g)(2-g)
l2 22
.
(2+ q)(l+a)q(l-a)(2-,a)(3-q)
I2 22
. .
32
beinga
8*
proper
fraction.
a+x
IT*"
12~
+"13""
9.
1+^+^MM, (y+1)
1
.
1.2.3.y(y+l)(y + 2)
10.
x1
+ + a?4 + a?3 (log (log (log 4)* 2)* 3)i
"*"
11.
i+a+__^+"
If
=
_-^
12-
^; '^r^w^S^'
that the series
+ w1 + ?^2
-
"
where is
* is
positive
integer,shew
^
_
"3+
-
convergent if
zero
and i js positive,
if A divergent
1 is
or negative
CHAPTER
XXII.
Undetermined
Coefficients.
309. that
In Art.
230
of the
it Elementary Algebra, of
x
Avas
proved
x
=
function integral
a.
vanishes
when
a,
[Seealso Art.
"
514.
Cor.]
+pn
Let be
a
+ pxxn p0xn
'
pjf
"
rational when
vanishes
of
of
dimensions, which
of the
unequalquantities
""" since
Denote
the
we
hy f(x);
tlien
f(x)
is divisible
by
the
al ,
have
f(x)=:(x-al)(p0x"-i+ ),
quotient being of
n
"
1 dimensions. divisible
=
by
-a,7,
we
have
2Wn~X+
the
(x-aj-(pjf-+
dimensions; and
)"
beingof quotient
"
Proceeding in
this way,
we
shall
obtain finally
after
visions di-
f(x)=p0 (x a) (x-a}(x-aa)
-
(x- aH).
310.
If a
than
rational
n
for more
of
Let
values be
the variable
must
the function
be denoted
hyf(x),where
+pn
;
f(x)
254
and
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is
equal to
each
of the
(x a,)~
be
=
another
value
of
which
makes
f(x) vanish
=
; then
since f(c)
0, we
Po
~
have
~ ~
(c-"J
to
0;
of the other
and
therefore
factors is
equalto
Hence
f (x)reduces
+Pnfor
more
than
values
therefore px
similar
manner
0.
we
may
shew
zero.
Vn must
be
equalto
also be enunciated
as
follows
If
more
rational
n
than
dimensions vanish
vanishes
for
for
every value
of the variable.
Cor. of x, the Hence
roots it is
an
than function f(x) vanishes for more than n roots. f (x) 0 has more equation
"
If the
values
also,if an
Prove
of equation identity.
that
-
dimensions
has
more
than
Example.
(x
(x c)(x a) {b-c) (6 a)
-
satisfiedby each This equation is of tivo dimensions,and it is evidently of the three values a, 6, c ; hence it is an identity.
311.
If two
more
rational
than
n
for equal
every value
integral functions of n dimensions are values of the variable, they are equal for
functions
of the variable.
the two
Supposethat
2)0xn+p1xn-1+2"2x"-2+
+ q^"-1+ q2x-2+ qoxn are
+pH,
+
qmt
equalfor
-
more
than
-
values of
-
; then the
+
expression
+
(p* ?.)
-
UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS.
255
vanishes
for
more
than
values
of x;
and
therefore, by
the
article, preceding
that
is,
*
2\ Hence the
%"
Pi=9li" Pi^Vv
are expressions
l"n
"ln" therefore
are
two
and identical,
equalfor every value of the variable. Thus are we functions identically equal, if two rational integral the like the variable. of equate the coefficients powers of
This Art. 227. Cor. of lower This still holds proposition than
l
may
is the
we principle
assumed
in the
ElementaryAlgebra,
of the functions is
if For
one
dimensions
the other.
+
if instance,
p0x"+ pff~
=
+ pjf~2 + pjf~*
+pn
+ q3xn~3 + q2xn~2
+qn,
we
have
=
only to
then
0, and
in the above
investigation 0, qo
=
Ps=q3"
p,,
q"-
to
of
article is usually referred preceding The application the Principle as of Undetermined Coefficients. this principle is illustrated in the following examples.
Example,1.
Find the
sum
of the series
+
1.2 + 2.3
3.4+
+n(n+l).
Assume
that
...
1.2 + 2. 3 + 3. 4 + where
to be determined.
A, B, C, D, E,...are
into
+ Dn3 + Eni+..., n(n + l)=A + Bn+Cn2 quantities independentof n, whose values have
Change
1. 2 +
+ 1 ; then
A+B(n
{2n+ l)+
+ E(n l)3
iy+....
l)+
+ 6ri+ {"-n*
"n +
..
This equationbeing true for all integral values of n, the coefficients of the each side of be thus and must E on n all respective equal ; powers succeeding must be equal to zero, and coefficients 3D
=
1;
1) =
3D + 2C
1
"
3;
B
D + C + B 2
=
2;
whence
(7=1,
256
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Hence
the
sum
=A
"
+
o
n2 +
n3.
to its first term, and
To find A,
put
l;
A +
2,
+
or
0.
Hence
1 .2 + 2
3 + 3. 4 +
...
+ l) n(;i
is a the nlh term It will be seen from this example that when the for sum a function of n, it is sufficient to assume integral of n which is of one dimension higher than the wth term of the
Example
2.
may
be divisibleby
b.
ax
Assume
x3
+px2 +
qx +
+ r=(x + k)(x2
+
we
6).
have
Equating the
of x,
=
ak + b
q, kb
r.
From
the last
equation k
r
r
hence by substitution
and n and
ar
"
we
obtain
b
,
a=p,
+b
=
q;
that which
is,
are
(p-a),
ar
(q-b);
the conditions
required.
EXAMPLES.
Find 1. 2.
3.
XXII.
a.
by the
method
of Undetermined
n
Coefficients the
,sum
of
l2+3* + 5*+7*+...to
terms.
..
1.2. 3 + 2. 3. 4 + 3. 4. 5 +
.ton
n
terms.
terms.
4. 5.
I3 + 33 + 53 + V3 + l4 + 2* + 34
+
.to
terms.
44 + ...to?i terms.
x3-3px + 2q
may
be
divisible by
be
cube. perfect
may be
a
conditions that
a2AA + bx3+cx2 +
dx+f2
a
perfect square.
9. Prove if b'1 ac, d=
=
that e2 a/,
ax2 +
is
perfect square,
cf.
UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS.
257
that "id
=
10. 11.
cx
+ d is divisible
by x2 + h2, prove
"
bc.
that
g*=r*,
12.
Trove
( }
/0n
a2(x-b)(x"c)
(a-6)("-c)
a)
~Jc^aJ(c-b) ~(b-c){b-a)~
c2 (x
a)(x b)
_
2
"
(x a)(x b)(x c)
-
{c-d){c-a)(c-b)
13. Find the condition that ax2 + may be the
\d-a){d-b)\d-c)*
'
productof two
14.
same
If
"
lx
+ my
+ nz, r)
nx
ly+
mz,
"=mx
z
+ n// +
equations
are 2
true
with xt y,
when
l2+2mn
15. Shew
that the
l, m2
sum
+ 2ln
0, n2 + 2lm=0.
-
of the
products-//
/"
of together
the
series a0 + a2x + a.,x2 is equal + a3x3 + If the infinite value of x for which the series is convergent, to zero for every finite be equalto zero identically. tit each, coefficient must en 313.
pression S\ stand for the exthen S and therefore, al + a2x + a:ix2 ; a0 + xSt, for 0 all finite values of But since S + x. xSt l"y hypothesis, a0 is convergent,#, cannot exceed some finite limit; tlierefore by
by S,
and
let
takingx
In this aQ must
small be
case
enough xSx may be made as small as we please. the limit of " is a0 ; but S is alwayszero, therefore
zero
equalto
+
identically.
a0,
+
we
Removing the
x; that
term
+
have
xSx
is, ax
a2x
ajc2
prove
is
vanishes in
we Similarly,
may
succession
zero
each
of
the
coefficients an
H. ir.A.
a.,, a0
equalto
identically.
17
258
314.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
are
equal to
one
another
are
value finite
of the variable
the two a0
+
for which
series
both series
every convergent,the
for
series are
equal.
denoted
by
axx A xx
+
A0 + expression
"
a0x2+
"o
vanishes
Ao + ("i
"
A
i
)x
x
within
the
limits assigned
; therefore
by
a0-A0
that which
Ot a.-A^Q,
=
aB-Aa
a2
=
0, a3-Aa
=
0,
;
is,
"0
^0" "i-^n
proves the
proposition.
2 + x2
-=
Example
as
1.
Expand
in
"
series of
ascending powers
of
as
far
the term
x5. involving
2 + X2
'-
Let
r"
"
"
a0 + ax
+ a.jx? + a2x'2
...,
where
constants
x
-
whose
values
are
to be
determined; then
.
2 + x2
"
(1+
+ Oj a; + x2)(aQ
+ a2 ar + oa re3
)
.
of x on In this equation we may equate the coefficients of like powers is coefficient of side the xn the On each side. right-hand an + au_1 an_2 , of x on the left, for all values of since x2 is the highest and therefore, power ?t"2 we have
-
been
this will suffice to find the successive coefficients after the first three obtained. To determine these we have the equations
a0
=
have
2, a1 + a0
a0
=
+ a1-a0 0, a.2
l;
whence
Also
2, ^=-2,
=
a2=5.
a3= a4 a5
=
a3 + a2-a1
-7;
12 ;
-
a4 + a3
~~
a2 =
=
and
2 +
a5 + a"-a3
X~
=
19 ; 19a5 +
thus
l + ic-a;2
2x + 5x2
7.t3 + 12x4
"
260
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
XXII.
b.
of
x as
Expand
the
far
1+2^; 1_^_^.23 +
*
l+x
"*
i_#_6#2l-
2+.r + .r2'
5
"
'
x2
1 +
ax
"
ax2
"
.r3
a
-4-b
v
--,
6 may
Find
"
and
so
in the expansion of
(l-.r)-
7-
be 7.
(Sn-2)xn~1.
Find
"
a,
J
b, c
,
so
0
,
xn
in the
expansion of
a
"
+ bx + cx2
(l-.r)3
8.
may
be
n-
+ l.
If y2+
%
ax
=#
one
value of y is
+
9.
If cxz +
-y
0, shew that
y
a
one
value of
i"
e?/3 3c2;/512c3;/7
a4 a7
an
"'"
is -00999999 0. To how
of the is the
10.
number
.
I
(l-a)(l-a2)(l-"3)
When
a
"
\
(l-O
xn
1S
nhr(r-l)
in the
11.
expansionof
'
to inf.
12.
If
is
that
(1)
nn+1-n(n-l)n+1+n^~1' (n-2)*+1K
=jn\n+.l;
=1;
(2) nn-(n+l)(n-l)n
the series in each
case
^"
"
(n-2)"to
n
beingextended
terms
; and
(3)
(4) (n+p)n-n(n+p-l)n+
the series in the last two
cases
'
"
(n+p-2)nto
n
\n;
'"
l"
beingextended
+ 1 terms.
CHAPTER
XXIII.
Partial
Fractions.
Algebra,a group elementary by the signsof addition and subtraction simple form by being collected into one
315. denominator fractions.
a
In
whose
lowest
common
denominator
given
group
converse a fraction into process of separating of simpler, or jwtial,fractions is often required. For
3 if example,
we
"
5a;
^--
wish
we
to
expand
1
"
in
"
series of ascend-
iX
-r
OXT
ing powers
so
of x,
as
might use
the method
of Art. if we
obtain
simplerto
1
1I
can
"
express
"
the
given
fraction
in
2 Each
.
of the
x now
"
ox
be
expanded by
the Binomial
Theorem, and
the
general
term
present chapterwe
a a
shall the
give some
of decomposition
rational fraction of
into
examples partial
subjectthe reader is to treatises on referred to Serret's Cours d'Algebre or Superieure, In these works it is proved that any Calculus. the Integral of partial resolved series rational fraction may be into a fractions;
fuller discussion and that to any
a
linear factor
"
there any
responds cor-
fraction partial
of the
; to
linear
"
cc
factor
two
there
x
"
correspond
occurs
partial fractions,
x
"
and l-j
b
*__
.
"
If
three
(x
by
times, there is
an
additional
fraction
.
(x-b)"
hnl
aud
so
on-
To
262
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
any
there
a corresponds
partial
q
occurs
Q
: +
"
if the
factor x2
P
x +
vx
x'
+])x
r
twice, there is
'
second
fraction partial
Q L"
s
+ q) (x-+2)x
y"~
; and
so
on.
Here
the
P, Q, Pv Qx
the
are
all
of independent We follow.
shall make
of
these
results in
examples that
5x
"
11
^
Example
1.
Separate=-^
2.r2+
x
-
into
fractions. partial
assume
A
+ + 2
2.c-3'
x
quantities independentof
whose
values
have
to be
Clearingof fractions,
5x-ll Since this equation is of x ; thus powers
=
(2x-S) + B(x
2).
equate coefficients of like
identically true, we
=
may
2A+B whence
'"'
5,
3,
~SA
2B=-U;
B=
3
x
-1. 1
5.r-ll 2x2 +
x-6~
+ 2
2x-B'
Example
2.
Resolve
.
";
r~.
-
(x a)(x+ b)
mx
r,
into
fractions. partial
B
h
x
+
z-.
n
=-r
A
=
Assume
-.
(x-a)(x+ b)
.'
.
x-a
=
b'
mx
{x + b)+B
(x-a)
of A and
(1).
B, but it
is
Since A and B
In
are
=
of independent
x,
we
may
to give
any value
we
please.
(1)put
x-a
0,
ov
a;
then
ma
n r-
+ b
nib-n
putting x
+ b
0,
or
x"
b,
+
n
-r, B"
"
CI
"T*
mx
-
1
~
/ma
mb-ii\
x
(x a) (x+ b)
+ b
x-a
+ b
PARTIAL
FRACTIONS.
11 r'2
" "
203
23
Example
3.
Resolve
7^7"
-.-rrx"
y"x
I) (J
^
j
mto
fractions. partial
23x-ll.r2
Assume
=
ABC
r
=
n
^-^
rm
2.c-l
-
r+
3 +
-
H
x
3-x
i1) 5 w
-
23x
lLc2
.1
in By putting
succession
0,
=
3 +
x"
0,
-1.
0, we
1,
i,
1
C=
lis2
4
+
"'"
1_
3 -a:'
(2.c-l)(9-x2)~2x-l
3.t2+
'
3+x
x
'
"
"
2
^"
:
Example
4.
Resolve
-.
"
into
,
"
fractions. partial
B
G
"
[x
")" (J.
"
"x\
^
s-7
"
(x
."
.
"z-^-n
-
"
2)-(1 2x)
-
~k
k~
-
+
-
2x "
-
x-2
(x 2)2
-
'
%x- + x-2
+ (x 2)2
-
(1 2x){x
-
2)+
(1 2x).
-
Let
2x
0, then
let a; -2 To
0, then
C=-4.
2B ; whence
^
o
3.r- +
' '
2
-
3(1- 2x)
19a;
-r
3 {x
2)
(x 2)2
-
'
Example 1
5.
Resolve
"
"
-r-,
[x2+l)(x-4]
42-19.C
-7-3
"
into L partialfractions.
Ax
r;
=
+ B
"
C
+
Assume
+ 1)^-4) (.^
-
tt,
"3
x-+l
r-
.i--4'
C
+ l). (x*
.-.
42
19.r =
Let
4, then
A +
-
C, and .4=2;
B
=
-
terms,
42
42
-
11,
19a
"'"
p+l)(x-4)"^TT employed in
the
*-4*
317. sometimes
The
artifice
be found
useful.
2G4
9x*
"
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
24rc2+ 48#
7^t~.
=rr-
Example. r
Resolve
-;
into
(a:-2)4(a:+l)
A
"
"
fractions. partial
9z3-24;r2+48;c
Assume where A is some he determined.
"
f(x)
+
".
(x-2)*(x+
^tx~?
rrv
l)
n x+1
{x-2)4'
of
x
whose
value
remains
to
.-.
9x3-24"2
48x
A
,l
=
-
(x-2)*+(x + l)f{x).
1.
Let
x=
1, then
^4
=
for Substituting
and
-
transposing,
-
24s3 + 48x
=
x4 + x* + 16* + 16 ;
.'./(*)
To
determine
the
\x"2)
put x-2
2;
.r3+16
then
23 + 6^2+122 z*
+ 24
(x-2)4
1
Z* 6
+ 12
24
~z
+ z^+~z^ ~z4~
1
~
6
+
/. nva
12 +'
/_ n\n
24
+
9x-3-24j;2+ 48*
"
6
"
12
Svi
24
^-J
+ l) (x-2)4(x
+ 1
-i
-\
x-2
(x-2)"
+,
TZ
(x-2f
(x-2)4*
318. of lower
we
by
has been numerator if this is not the case, ; until a remainder is the denominator than the denominator.
obtained which
Example.
*
is of lower
dimensions
into
=-
fractions. partial
ox-
2x
By division,
3a:2 2.x
-
v-
2x + 3 +
Sx2
,
2x
8a; -4 and
^-=
"
5
^
=
1
="
3x2-2x-l
pr
3.c + l
x-1'
5
1
-
6^
'*
5^-7
=
0 0 2.r + 3 +
-
3x2-2x-l
3.T+1
*-l'
319. fractions
We
shall
now
explain how
resolution
into
a
partial
rational
expansionof
PARTIAL
FRACTIONS.
265
_
;;,"'-|- ;"
2
"
.
Example 1.
series of
Find
the
generalterm
of
x.
of
"
"
"
"
when
in expanded l
By
Ex.
have 15 4
(*-2)2(l-2*)
3(1-2*)
15
+
3(*-2)
(*-2)2
4
3(1-2*)
3(2-*)
(2-a?)a
Hence
the
generalterm
/
of the
expansionis
6 1
"
r
+
r+l\
sr
V
Example
the 2.
2r
y
of
*
7+
Expand
(1 + *) (I
r-^r" +
in
.
ascending powers
and
find
*~)
.4
generalterm.
Assume
.
7+
H
-"
*
-
JB* + C
+
-
"
(1+ *) (1+*J)
.\
1+x
1 + *2
7 +
J(l
*2)+ (E*+C)(l
=
*).
Lctl
*=:0,
absolute
then A
3;
whence whence
C
=
the equating
terms,
7
0
A + A +
C,
B,
i ;
-
B"
3.
4-3*
(1+ *)(1+*2)_1 +
=
*^
1+*2
-
+ (4 3(1 + .r)-1
3*)(1+
+
x2)~l
+
3{l-*
*2-
(_l)P;CP+...j
(-1)p*'^+...}.
r
+ (4-3*) {l-.r2
:
*-"-
To
(1)
is even,
series is
r
4(-l)2;
( 1)2.
-
r-l
(2)
and the
If
second
series is
( 1) '-
requiredcoefficientis
( 1) 2
-
3.
XXIII.
fractions : partial
46+13.r
l+3.r
+ 2.r2
l-bj;
+ 6jf-
'
12.t2-lU--15'
(1-2.r)(1-.//-')'
266
.y2- 10a; +13
'
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
2x*+x2-x-3
(x-l)(x2-5x+6)'
9
"
x(x-l)(2x
x*7*
3)'
+ 10
3x* -3a;2
6*
+ 2)2' (a;-l)(^
(#+l)2(#-3)
2^2-lLr
Q + (^--3) (^2
26^2 + 208o;
+ l)(^+ 5)' (a;2
+ 5 2^-
5)
3^-8x2+10
*
5^
,,
6.r2+ 5.r
(07-1)*
Find in the
term general
(^2-l)(^+l)3'
of the when following expressions
expanded
ascending powers
l + 3# 12#
of
x.
5a; + 6
'
#2 + 7;f+ 3
u
(2+a?)(l-#)'
."
tf2 + 7a-+ uy
4 +
-
3^+2a'2
x
-
15.
t^
(1 x2)(1 2.r)
-
5tt^
"
" *
16.
(1 x) (1 +
no
2x2)
3 + 2x-x2
17.
"
7,
(l+a?)(l-4a?)2*
.
w,
ttx*
"
18.
4 + 7x
*"* 19.
(^-1)(^2+1)"
1
"
*
-
"-""" 22.
'
21.
(2
-
3.r +
a2)2
'
23. (l) [ }
Find the
sum
of
+
terms
of the series
I
(i+^)(i+^2)
x
-
(i+^2)(n-^)
+
"
(i+^)(i+^4)
ax
-
^
24.
(1 ax)
'
1, find
+
the
sum
x2
+
xA
+
(l-x) (l-x3)
25.
Sum to
n
terms
pthterm
+
is
2)'
of n dimen26. Prove that the sum of the homogeneous products sions which can be formed of the letters a, b,c and their powers is
an
+
268
terms however
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
are
known. many
terms
As
the
method
of
procedureis
may
the
same
the
consist
of, the
px
qx2
-
rx3
a"x
+ ajc3 + aax2
we
have
+ rx3 + "lx" an-2x'l~2 an-3x'l~3i anx*=px an-ix"~1
"
or
am =pan_,
any coefficient
can are
"".-" + m"-3 5
when the coefficients of the
thus three
be
found
terms preceding
323. series be
of
of relation may
be found.
series recurring
Example.
then qx*-,
-
to obtain p and
we
have
equations
p
=
13
q=
5p
-
2q
0, and 35
13p
5q
0 ;
whence
5, and
6, thus
5x + 6a;2.
2
at
it involves If the scale of relation consists of 3 terms termine have 2 equations to demust constants, p and q ; and we 324.
p
and
least 3 have
know must To obtain the first of these we q. and second of obtain the the to we terms series,
one more
must
term
given.
we
Thus
must
to
obtain
at
scale of
constants
have
least 4 terms
the
scale
we
of
must
relation have 3
be
3 constants
we
px
"
must
know
at least 4 terms
of the
and series,
to obtain to find
terms have two more must the other two we given; hence 3 constants, at least G terms scale of relation involving a series must be given.
of the
to Generally,
we
find
m constants, involving
must
know
at least 2m
terms.
are we given,
if 2m Conversely,
consecutive
may
assume
l\x
l\x* lhx*
~ ~
-PJ**
RECURRING
SERIES.
2G9
325.
To
find the
sum
ofn
terms
series. of a recurring
of findingthe sum is the same The method whatever be the shall scale of relation ; for simplicity it we to contain suppose
onlytwo
constants.
axx +
+ aj" + a2x2
let the
sum
be
"
px
"
(1) qx*;
Now
"
S"ait+
0
a.x
1
a,x2+
2
...+
a
/""
,x"~\ 1
'
px
S=
"
pa0x
"
paxx*
"
"
...
2^"ciH_2xn~ pa
"
x*t
+
qa?S=
_
qajt?
-
...
\ -qaH_3x*-1 -qaH_ixn-qaH_lxu
-
...
(i-px
S qtf)
a0
x -pa0) {ax
xn + qan_a) {pan_x
qa^x**1,
of
is
zero
in consequence
Thus
the
an-Pan-l-"2a"-2=0' x" + qan_}xH+l + qan-3) -P"-Qx (Pa,t-, % + (", 1 px 1 -px" qx2 qx2 of a recurring series is a fraction whose sum
"
nominato de-
is the scale of relation. 32G. decreases If the second fraction in the increases reduces
to
as n indefinitely
infinite number If
we
of terms
"
"
!
"
"
^
qx"
"
"
px
"
develop this fraction in ascendingpowers of x explainedin Art. 314, we shall obtain as many terms of for this reason series as we please; the expression original
1 "px is called the 327.
an +
"
as
the
qx2
the series.
From
325, we
o
obtain
+a
"-1
-",
""%"
qx'
1 -px
+ alt "
a.x
'
ax2
xn
.xi + l
...
"
px"
qx
270
from which
we see
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that
"
px
"
qx2
of the series
as we
terms
please,
alx
only if the
remainder
+ (2an-^"+l (I**,.-, +qan-2)xn 1 qx2 poj increased ; in other is indefinitely
" "
vanishes when
when
words
only
functioncan be expressedas a generating of a recurring fractions the general term series group of partial found. function be easily Thus, suppose the generating may fractions be decomposedinto the partial can
ABC
h h
ax
bx
(I" ex)2'
x\ (r+ 1)Ccr} may be found without
is
+
the
sum
of
terms
using
the method
of Art. 325.
the Find the generatingfunction, of the recurring series 1
-
Example.
to
n
sum
terms
Ix
x2
-
43.-C3
-
then "/.r2;
-43
+ 2"+
7j"-"z 0,
=
7"/ 0;
=
l, 5
6.r2.
Let S denote
the
sum
l-lx-
x2-4Sxs+
7x2+
x*+
-6x2 + 42.r3+
=
.-.
(l-x-6x2)S
l-8x,
J"8*
-
s-
which
is the
generatingfunction.
RECURRING
SERIES.
271
2
8.r
^-"
1
-
If whence
we
separate
the
into
we partial fractions,
"
obtain
"
1-x-U.r-
1 + 2a;
1-305'
]."""".
Putting
the
sum
=
0, 1, 2,...n-1,
to
?i
terms
-...
{2
2 +
22x + 2%2
-
2" (- I)""1
3* 1__
a;'1"1 }
(1+ 3a
3%*
3"-1 xn~
l)
xn
xn
'
3x~
of n terms of the sum series have find to + the + we a_,+ recurring ai only a0 , and sum of the series a0 + alx + a2x2 term and put + general , 1 in the results. x
"
329.
To
find the
generalterm
and
Example.
Find
the
generalterm
and
sum
of
terms
of the series
1 + 6 + 24 + 84+ The and the This scale of relation of the series 1 + 6.r+ 24x2 + 84x3 + function generating is
1 +
" -
is 1
. . .
ox
Ooj2,
x
*" "
"
"
OX
OX"
is equivalent to expression 4
1
-
the
fractions partial
3
'
-
Sx
2a;
of
the general
(4
2
3r
xr. 2r)
.
the generalterm is
of the
-
given series is 4
-
3r-3.
sum
(3'1 1)
the
(2'1 1).
-
We
may
remind
student
cannot
that
in
the
as
preceding
the
sum
article the
be taken
of
24:x2+8"x3+
as
except when
Hence the But when
x x
=
has such
value
to make
the series
convergent.
the series is
a
true
of 1
+
24
84
+
x
is
whatever value
Gx
may
have it will
always
24*2
as
+
a
84a3
treat
this
find its
term general
and
put x
1.
272
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
Find series
:
XXIV.
and the
the
function generating
general term
2-.v
+
+
of the
following
1. 3. 5.
Find
l + 5.r +
9.r2+13.r3 +
2.
4.
5.r2-7.r3 +
9x2 + 27x4 +
7 -6x
and
the
sum
to
terms
of the
series following
+ 30.v3 +
6. 8.
9.
7.
-l+6.v2
10. 11.
-^
+
2 + 0 +
8+
Shew
that
the series 12
+
22 + 32 + 42 +
n2,
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 +
are
+n3,
deduce
of the
first
terms
of the
curring re-
+ a2x2+ a^v3
to
infinity.
sum
13.
Find
the
of 2n + 1 terms
3-1 + 13-9
of the series
+ 41-53+
14.
The
scales of the
recurringseries
+ a3.r3+ a^x2
,
a0+ avv+
b0+ b1x+b^c2-{-b3.v3+
are
+px+qx2,
is
l +
l +
rx
that
the
series whose
generalterm
("xn+6n)^"is
recurringseries whose
s
scale is
+
(p + r)x + (q+
+pr)
x2
(qr+ps) x3
qsx*.
of
a n
15.
of
a
terms
recurring
than that
scale
of relation
will consist
term
given series.
CHAPTER
XXV.
CONTINUED
FllACTIONS.
331.
All
expression
of
the
form
+
a
is called
c +
-
e +
...
fraction ; here the letters a, b, c, whatever,but for the present we quantities continued the form simpler
ax +
2
where
an
positive
a3+
1
...
This integers.
will be
written usually 1
+
in the
more
compact form
a, +
a2+ a3
332. continued When the number of
fraction is
is unlimited quotients
quotients a0 a0, "3,... is finite the said to be terminating of ; if the number the fraction is called an contirmed infinite
fraction.
to reduce every terminating continued fraction possible fraction by simplifying the fractions in succession to an ordinary from the lowest. beginning
It is
333.
tn
To convert be the
continued
fraction.
a
Let
"
tnven
in
by
n,
let
be
the
and quotient
1
=a,
+
"
a.
+n
P
si. H. A
18
274
divide
n
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
by ^", ^
"" be the
n
-
and quotient
q
q the remainder 1
; thus
a
.
+
'
a
s
'
P 9.
and quotient
the remainder
; and
.so
1
=
1
=
1 a3
+
a.
i
a.
1
"o +
a2+
a3+.
If
m
is less than
we
put
1
ti
"m
and
proceedas
before. that as process is the same of m and n ; hence if m shall at lengtharrive at a stage the Thus process terminates. and denominator are positive
It will be observed that the above the greatest of finding common measure
and
where every
are
commensurable
division whose
we
the
is exact into
and
fraction
numerator
a
can integers
be converted
251 Reduce
continued terminating
fraction.
Example. Finding
process,
we
^^
to
continued fraction.
the have
greatestcommon
measure
of
251
and
802
by the
usual
3, 5, 8, G; hence
1 3+ 1
1 1
802
5+
8+
6'
334.
The
fractions obtained
a
at by stopping
the
third,
of quotients
continued
fraction
are
in convergents, because, as will be shewn second, third, Art. 339, each successive convergent is a nearer approximation
to
the
true
value
of
the
continued
fraction than
any
of
the
convergents. preceding
27g
The
the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA. the
ft*
quotient an
"
in the
placeof aj
hence
the
vergent
^n-n ^"+^"-i
?
"n+1 ?"
?"_!'
put
by supposition.
If therefore we
we
co. ^
^ftttVs
hence
of the (" + l)th conthe of hold in to case was supposed of the third conhold vergent, case therefore * it holds for the fourth, and so on;
denominator
inPthe
partial quotient;
a"+1+ ""+24 at'any denote the complete shall usually quotient stage by ft.
We have
seen
at quotient complete
that
; then
differs from
of the
partial
quotient a"
X~kqn_x qn-2'
+
338
// Eb 6e
Q
tfl6nth
to convergent
Let the
aQ+
a3+
a4
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
277
then
similarly, ^-2)1
p2 qx -]\ q,
("h %
1)
-
"x
"
a,
(- l)2 J
result will
(- 1)".
this unity, that the first convergent
stillhold if
suppose
0, and
When
we
are
value
of the
successive of the
Cor.
1.
Each
terms
"
; for
iipnand
unity;
divide pn qnl
pn_l qni or
2.
The
difference between
numerator
two
successive
convergentsis
fraction whose
is
unity;
qnqn^
for
q"
?"_i
q,,qn-i'
XXV.
a.
to convergents ' l 2
1.
2 +
6+
1111111
1+
1+
11+
2. 2+ 3.
3 +
2+
111111
3+
1+
44-
2+
3+
1+
2+
2+
1+
9"
continued fractions and find the
fourth
convergentto each.
729
7. 11.
2318'
4-310.
278
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
shew by the theoryof continued 12. A metre is 39*37079 inches, is metres fractions that 32 equalto 35 yards. nearly the to "24226, 13. Find a series of fractions converging 365 days. days of the true tropical year over
excess
in
14.
A,
.
A
..
kilometre
5
-,
is very
23
,
==
equalto nearly
64
.
"62138
miles; shew
that
18
^
^z
are
successive
kilometre to scales of
mile.
divided into 162 and 209 equal if their zero pointsbe coincident shew that the parts respectively; with the 40th division of the other. coincides 31 st division of one nearly Two
equallengthare
16.
that the
If
"
n3 +
is converted
+
n
into
continued
nu
+ l
n
"
1 and
n+l
and alternately,
17.
Shew
that Pn 2n
+
(!) (2)
If
\~Pn
1
_
Pn 9.n X
+ 1
9.n
-
(^-O^-fH-vr-2-1
\ Pn
/ \
g"-l
Pn
cJn
18.
"
is the nth
convergent to
that
continued
and fraction,
an the
to the continued
than fraction
denote
the
continued
and fraction,
*" ",
^-*"J
?" +
*-a"l
!
""-"2
9*
three consecutive
^+2
convergents;then
+Pn ?n+l
only in
; denote
by k: thus
and
Pn+1 ^^
"
+ 1
Pn^l^n-Pn^l
~
a;
?"+
+ 7.) (%"+l
y.+ ,
(%"
"
+ ,
?")
CONTINUED
270
q
;
Now
k is
greater than
unity,and qm
lience
on
botli accounts
and
is less than
the
difference between
to
"
"
and
x:
that
is, every
next
convergent
is
nearer
the
precedingconvergent,
it .""3.",
and
than fortiori
preceding convergent.
Combining
follows that
tli^ convergent
of an
odd
order
are
fraction ;
order hut decrease, continually
are
fraction.
made in
findlimits
p p
to the
error
for
fraction.
r_n"2
Y-^1
,
convorgents, and
let
k denote then
the
^^t
k
1
"ln
"ln(k"ln+"+nJ
+9i) '.(*""
x
Now
.
"
k is
and
greater than
..
Again, since
1 less than
"
error
in
taking
-"
instead
of
is
1
5
and
greater than
the
77-0"
?. 341.
From
"
v.+,
that
the
error
in
1
,
taking
or
"
instead
of the continued
qm
a
?.?.+,
;
(a
(I
3:
"
hence
larger
., II +1
7 ill
+q 2
Ft"
,) 1/ does "2
/"
.7 I ili
nearer
approximateto
the continued
fraction;
280
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
therefore, any
is a quotient
near
convergent which
Again,since
to find
a
the
error
is less than
"
convergent which
a
the continued
fraction
by
less than
givenquantity
a
we
have
only to
calculate the
successive
convergents up
The
to
"
where
is greaterthan qn2
a.
of continued fractions enable us to find properties to that of small integers whose ratio closely two approximates incommensurable two to that of two or quantities quantities, whose exact ratio can integers. by large onlybe expressed
342.
Example.
Find
of 14159 In the process of finding the greatest common measure are 7, 15, 1, 25, 1, 7, 4. Thus 100000,the successive quotients 3-14159
=
and
3+1
7+
22
'
111
15+
1+
25+
1+
7+
333
'
355
'
106
113
'
this last
convergent which
error
is
very
near
the approximation,
"
and
25TP5)343. any
""00004-
is
nearer
to the continued
denominator
is less than
of
the
convergent.
Let
x
the
continued
fraction,
"
V
,
P '-*=*"
two
consecutive
"n
?.-,
s
convergents,
"
fraction whose
r
denominator
is less than
r
,
8
v
"
If
let possible,
to
be
"
nearer
to
than
"
then
must
P
--
be
?"
nearer
than
7) -Ji^1
339] ; [Art.
-
and
since
lies between
and
In
"-5=?
I"
it follows that
must
lie between
"
and
'
"
9.-X
?"-!
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
281
Hence
r
P"-*P.
Pn-i
l
fWi"5^
"
.'.
rqn_x
spn_x"
a
";
is
r
that
is, an
p
"
less integer
must
than
fraction ; which
impossible.
-
Therefore
be
nearer
to the continued
fraction than
"
P
-
344.
If
P'
"
be two
consecutive
conver
gents to
continued
is
fractionx, then
greater
Let
"
"
is greater or
less than
x2,accordingas
or
less than
"
q k be the
to complete quotientcorresponding
"
the
vergent con-
q"
then
"
-f". '
"
+ lcq
q
+
'
''
"
WW^YY
+ qY "' w {hq'
"
pY]
The lience
factor pp'
"
,
ky'q'
"
pq is
and k"
I;
"
or
that
is, according as
"
or
"
"
Cor.
that the expressions investigation have the same q'2x2"p'2 ]iq'"2)/qi p2 q2M2, VP ~cLcL^-" It follows from the above
-
sign.
EXAMPLES.
XXV.
b.
222
1.
a
error
in
taking
"
to yardsas equivalent
metre, giventhat
metre
is equal to 1-0936
yards.
282
2. Find
an
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
to approximation +
JL J_ J- JL
3+ 5+
JL
11+
-0001. 99
7+
9+
the true
value
by
less than
Shew
by
the
theoryof continued
than
.
fractions that
=-
differs from
by
"
less quantity
a3 + 6a2 + 13a+10
4.
Express 1
a4+6a3+
,
,A
1K 14a--+15a
,
"
+ 7
rs
as
,.
convergent.
the firstand nth
5.
Shew
convergent
1
+
1
...+
(-l)n
9n-l2n
p
Mi
Ms
Wh
6.
Shew
that if an is the
'
Pn-1~
qn-1
a"
'"
"n-l+ "u-2+
0"-3+
"3+
a2+
'
"1
,
(2)
7.
_i-=an+_L_ ^2
an-l+ ""-2+
1111
"
L_
...
J_
"3+
1.
"2 shew that
,
ttn-3+
"+
a+
1+
"
+
2"
"
(1 ) Pn +P\ (2)
8.
If
"
+ 1
=Pn
lPn +
"""""" +
Pn
qn-lfraction
b+
a+
b+
a+
6+
a
shew
that
q2n =p2n
+ u
q2n
=
-
#".. br-n"
9.
6+
"+
6+
'
shew
that Pn
+
2~
(ah+ 2)Pn+Pn-2
"i 9n +
(ab+ 2)?u +
"?"*2
"-
CHAPTER
XXVI.
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
DEGREE.
345.
In
Chap. X.
shall
now
we
have
shewn
how
to obtain
the
positive
solutions integral
we
of indeterminate
apply the
to obtain
the
with numerical efficients; coequations of fractions continued properties of any indeterminate equationof
346.
x
Any
and y
equationof
can
the
first
knowns un-
be
reduced
to the form
ax"by
of
"
c, where
a,
6,c
and
are
admits equation
an
unlimited
number
x
of solutions ; but if the conditions of the problem require of solutions may be the number integers, y to be positive
limited.
It is clear solution integral
to
ax
that
the
by
If
"
ax
"
"
"
c
=
has
"
no
positive equations
is equivalent
the
"by
a
c.
and
b have
a
=
factor
which
does not
the and
is not.
If a, b,c have a common factor it can that we shall suppose so a, b, c to have that a and b are prime to each other.
be removed
no
common
347.
To
find
the
equation
Let
-
solution general ax by c.
"
"
in
integers positive of
the
be converted
into
continued
"
denote q
6 the
; then
aq"bp
[Art. 338.]
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
DEGREE.
285
I.
If aq
"
l"e written
ax
"
by
"
(aq b]j) ;
"
.-.
a(x
"
-b (y c/"). cq)
"
Now divisible
since
and
b have
x
"
no
=
common
by
b ; hence
cq
x-
where bt,
cq
be
"
cP.
a
b that from
is,
which
bt + cq, y
"
at + cj) \
to t any
solutions may be obtained by giving positive integral value value,or any negative integral positive integral than the less of the two
smaller numerically
also t may
quantities -j,
en
cd
"
of solutions is unlimited.
II.
If aq
"
bp
"
"
1, we
ax
"
have
"
"
by
(aq bji) ;
"
.'.
a(x + cq)
=
(y+ cj))
',
"
x
" "
+
="
cq
-
y + cp
= =
t, an
cp;
integer;
bt
"
cq, y
"
at
"
to t any two
CD
quantities -=-,";
o
a
III.
If either into
a
or
b is
fraction unit
j-
cannot
be
verted con-
continued
fraction
numerators, and
the
fails. In these cases, however, the solutions may be investigation becomes thus if 6 written down 1, the equation by inspection; and the solutions may be found by ax c; whence ax"c, y y
=
"
to x ascribing
Note.
two
any
It should be observed that the series of values for x and y form in which the common differences are b and a arithmetical progressions
respectively.
286 Example.
In is Find the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
in
of integers positive
29.r
42*/ 5.
=
"
converting
"
into
justbefore
13 -jr ; we
have
therefore
29xl3-42x9
.-.
-l;
-
29x65-42x45
5;
obtain
+
65)=42(#
65
=
45);
=
45
-"j-
29"
*"an
mte8er
hence
the
solution general
is
a:
=
42"-65,
ij=
20t~4o.
348.
ax
"
Given
=
one
solution in
of positive integers
c; then
-
the
equation
by
Let
c, to jind the
solution. general
h, k
be
solution of
.'.
.'. a ax
ax-by
"
ah
"
bk
c.
by
"
ah
bk ;
"
(x
"
h) b(y k);
"
x"h
.'.
z
"
y"k
=
=
t.
an
b
.'.
x
=
integer ;
bt, y
"
at ;
which
is the To
solution. general
349.
equation
a
in
Let
be converted
into
continued
be the
b ; then
aq
"
justpreceding convergent j
I. If aq
"
bp
"
1.
bp=l,
we
have
.'.
+by
"
"
cq
.'
.
"
x
"
y
=
"
+
"
cp
"
-=-=
an
b
x
=
'
cq
"
bt,y
' "
at
cp ;
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
FIRST
DEGREE.
287
from
to t
which
may
be
CI)
"
obtained and
by giving
CO
less than
j-
Thus
integer
these fulfilling
there is have
=
"
solution.
II.
If aq
"
bp
1, we
ax
by
(aq bp);
"
.-.
x
"
"
+
"
co
=
en
" "
y
=
t.
'
an
JL
integer 0
at ;
"
x=bt
"
cq, y
cj)
"
from to t As
no
which
may
be
co
-~
obtained and
by giving
c
and limited,
be
If either
or
b is
solution
may
be
found
as by inspection
in Art. 317.
350.
ax
Given
=
one
solution in
of positive integers
Ike
equation
by
c, to find the
solution. general
ax -f
Let
A, k
be
solution of
'
by
"
"
; then
ah
bk
c.
ax
by
ah b
bk ;
-
.'.
(x h)
"
"
(k y);
"
"hk"y
7
o
"
.'.
"
=-
-"
t,an
"
integer;
.'.
bt, y
at ;
which
is the To
351.
of solutions
+
in
equation
Let
T
by
c.
be converted
into
continued
b
; then aq
"
be the
bp
at
1.
288
I.
Let aq
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
-bp
l ; then
x
=
the
y
generalsolution
=
is
cq-bt,
at-
ep. obtained
[Art. 349.]
by givingto
,
Positive
solutions integral
not
will be
greater than
"f
o
and
not
less
"
a c
c
and
are
not
integers. "
"
m+f. J
-"
a. y'
where
m,
are
and J\ g proper fractions ; then positive integers is have t can m+ 1, and the greatestvalue is n; of solutions is
-"-
cq
cp
"
b Now this is
an
+fg=-"+f-g. J J J
ab
may
j.
and integer,
be written
"
or fraction,
ab
"r-
less than g.
to
Thus
the
number
of solutions is the
or
nearest integer
"
greater or
less
as/ according
g is the
greater.
an
(ii) Supposethat
In this
case
z-
is
integer.
value of
c x
0, and
one
is
zero.
If
must
we
include
an
of solutions
is
-r+f,
ao
which
be
in-
the number
as according
^7+1
include
or
exclude
the
zero
solution.
Supposethat (iii)
In this
is
an
integer.
value
m
cc
case/=0, and
of solutions
one
this,the
the number
least value
of t is is
71
"
l.
or
"r
ab
q +
1.
Thus
the
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
TJIE
FIRST
DEGREE.
289
c
number
of solutions is the
we
greatest integerin
the
zero
ab
-7
or
"=".
ae-
ab
as cording
include
or
exclude
c
solution.
(iv) Supposethat
In this
case
and
are
both
integers.
zero
0 and y 0, and both x and y have a If we include these, the least value t can have is m, value. of solutions is 11-111+ the greatestis n ; hence the number
f"
and
1, or
ab
-y
1.
If
we
exclude
the
zero
of solutions is
4-i.
ab
II.
If aq
-bp=
bt
"
cq} y"
cp
"
at,
352.
ax
To
by +
d, we
may
=
the equation
+ by ax By transposition
cz
; from
which
obtain
353.
If
we
have
ax
two
simultaneous
ax
by + cz=d,
of the
=
equations + cz d\ b'y
=
say, we obtain an of the form Ax + By C. Supposethat x "f, y g is a solution can be written then the general
one by eliminating
unknowns, z
equation
solution,
"
x=f+Bs,
where
s
g-As,
of the + Gz
=
is
an
integer.
given
II, of
these values of x and y in either Substituting obtain an we equations, equationof the form Fs which the general solution is h + Gt, z k Ft say. 8
= =
-
obtain
+
z
BGt,
are
g-Ah-AGt;
by givingto
t
obtained
suitable
values. integral
H. H. A.
19
290
354. If
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
one
solution in
ax
of integers positive
=
the
equations
by +
cz
d,
ax
b'y+
c'z
d',
as
can
be
be obtained ; then
=
follows.
Lety, g,
af+ bg + By subtraction,
+ ch d, a'f+ b'g
d'.
a(x-f) + b(y-g)+c(z- h) 0,
=
a'(x-/)
whence
b'(y-g) + c'(z-h) 0;
=
x-f
=
y-g
_
z-h
_
be where be
"
"
b'c
ca
"
c'a
ab'
"
a'b
'
is
"
an
ca b'c,
H.C.F.
of the
denominators is
solution general
z
,
=
"
(ca' c'a)
"
="
fc
(ab' a'b) ?. fc
-
XXVI.
solution, of the least positive integral
j
3.
solution general
=
and
775.r-711y
In how
l.
2.
can
455#-519y=l.
,"1. 19s. 6d. be
436#-393y
florins and
5.
many
ways
paid in
half-
? 5.
Find the number
of solutions in
of positive integers
lLe+15y=1031.
6.
such Find two fractions having 7 and that their sum is 1 "-"-. Find
two 9 for their
and denominators,
7.
and
proper
fractions and
in their lowest
terms
having 12
"
24
8.
of y
certain
x
sum
consists of
the
sum.
it is half
Solve in 9.
: integers positive
6#+ty
lhr +
21 4s=122\ 6^=145
10.
1 \y + 4z 1 2x 4^=22221 12.r-lly
-
8y-
5J
'
-4.v+
5y+
z=ll)
CHAPTER
XXVII.
RECURRING
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
that a terminating tinued conChap. XXV. rational quotients be reduced fraction with to an can and denominator,and numerator ordinaryfraction with integral shall prove that a be equalto a surd ; but we therefore cannot continued fraction be expressed surd can as an infinite quadratic numerical We shall first consider a whose quotientsrecur. example. 355. We have
seen
in
Example.
fractions
Express ^19
as
continued
fraction, and
find
series of
to approximating
its value.
4 +
x/19
(v/19-4)
=
4+Tl93-+-;
v
v/19+ 4_
3
2,x/19z_2_
+
5
,
V19
2
, =
"
2'
1 +
.
5 + ,/19 2
\/19
5
3'
^"9-8
2
\/19 +
3
+,
3'
N/
1
0i
~
/L9
+ 2
2 +
iN/19-4
3
\/19 +
=
4'
+ N/19
8 +
(N/19-4)
recur;
8 +
quotients2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8
1 1
hence
1
V19-4
Jl_"
3+
1+
2.
""""
2+
1+
2+8+
soon as we come
as It will be noticed that the quotients recur In 361 first. Art. we the of quotientwhich is double
to
shall prove
that this is
always the
case.
RECURRING
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS,
same
293
series of
the
[Explanation.In each of the lines above we perform the operations.For example, consider the second line : we
in integer greatest is ^" We
"
first find
"
"
; this is
is
2, that
the surd
^ o
"
then
multiply numerator
that after
denominator 5
by
,
to ^19-2, conjugate
new
so
the inverting
result
we
begin
rational
denominator.]
as
first seven
convergents formed
4
1
'
explainedin
170
'
Art. 336
are
9
2
'
13 3
'
48
11
'
61
14
1421
'
'
39
326
'
The
eiTor
in
taking the
or
,
and
,
less than
.
"
and
fortioriless
than
-00001.
seventh
to at least four
placesof decimals.
one
356.
roots
of the
Let and
denote that
the continued
and fraction,
periodic part,
suppose
and
"
+
n
y'
where
a,
b, c,...h, k, m,
p
-
n,...u,
are
positive integers.
to
x
Let
p
,
-,
be
the
convergents
to corresponding
the
since y is the
-V qx-p
"
quotient, complete
we
have
x"
wlience
p-qx ""
,
.
qy+q
r r
"
Let
be
tlie
convergents
y=
to
r
y
i/ +
r
to corresponding
the
quotients u,
respectively ; then
y in terms
-~
of
and
we simplifying
obtain
rational.
294
The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
"
0, which
real and in
x
=
of of
v'y +
be substituted
" "
p
,
-,
on
is of the form
~-
"
A, B, C
are
integers,
since beingpositive
Example.
Let whence The
x
Express
,1111
l + s
" "
~"
^-"
surd. 1 1
" "
fraction ; then
1=
"
""
+ \X
"
1)
7 = 0. fraction is
^"
"
equal to
.
the
root positive
of this
and equation,
is therefore
equalto
XXVII.
continued
a.
and fractions,
hnd
the
convergent to each
1.
v/3.
2.
6.
^5.
x/13. 4v/2. V33error
3. 7. 11. 15268
4. 8. 12. 16-
s/8.
V22.
4
5.
9.
v/11. 2^3.
10. 14-
N/10.
13-
j"-
\/n-
17.
when
"
"
N/17.
65
916
18.
error
wThen
'"-
v/23.
N/101that VI 5
that is correct
to five
places
of the
fraction the
root positive
of each
0.
22.
a8 -4*?-
3=0.
=
23.
a
la?- 8x-
3=0.
Expresseach
Find
root of x2
5^ + 3
as
continued fraction.
Ill
the value of 3 +
5"
x"
x-
6+
6+
6 +
26.
"
"
1+
3+
1+
3 +
RECURRING
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
295
111111
27.
Find
the value of 3+ 1+
2 +
3+
1+
2 +
3 +
1111
28.
29.
Find Shew
+
,
1+
1+
1+
10 +
*+i+6+
30.
Find 111111
i+
e+""~*\1+a+
2+
3+
2+
"
fractions
1+
3+
5+
1+
3+
5+
""'
3+
1+
5+
3+
1+
5+
""
*357.
Let and
To convert
surd quadratic
into
continued
fraction.
square,
be
let ax be the
exact
j then
N/iV
=
", +
(Jff-a,)
=
", +
-j""
,
if r,
W-
",\
'
Let b be the
contained greatestinteger
in
"
; then
ri
JM+al
=
JN-bxrx
|
ax^h
and
JN-a2^h +
=
where
"2
bir1 ax
"
rx r2
"
a"2.
Similarly
2
r2 where and
so on
"*2
=
JN
N
"
a./
"3
; and
bf2
"
as and
r2r3
"
a32;
generally
.
JN+a -s=i
"
, =
b
M-l
,
JN-a v
"
"
b
"-'
,
+
"
"
H"
'
jy
-
'
a
it
(1-1
where
an
?""_,*"" N
=
a/.
*JN= a, + JN
shall
can
be
as expressed
an
infinite continued
fraction.
any
curring presently prove that this fraction consists of reever periods ; it is evident that the periodwill beginwhenis firstrepeated. complete quotient
296
We
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
quotients
+
JAT.
the
JAr+
rx
a,
JN
a2
a JJST+
3 )
r2
r3
completequotients.
that the tities quanshall now prove also
*358.
av
that the
article it appears preceding are we positive integers; b3 rv bv b0, are quantities a2, a3, a4, r8,r3,r4, the
,
. . .
From
integers. positive
Let
p
"
p
,
"..
p
"r.
be three
consecutive
convergents "
to
q let
and JN. x
P"
"
be the
The
at quotient complete
this
stage is
p
"
; hence
"
v^=
r,t
=P JW+a"P+rvp
Clearingof
parts,we
whence But the
same
fractions
and
equatingrational
ck"l + rnq =p ;
=
and
irrational
have
"y
an
rnP
~
^Y"
(pq
pq) =pp*
ATq'2 "p'2.
"
"qq'N, Nq2 p2 have pq "pq-, pp' hence an and rn are positive integers.
-
Since this
two
greaterthan 1.
*359.
that the
In Art. 357
rn_l
are
have
N"a2.
have any greater than av and therefore it cannot values of that is, the number values except 1,2, 3,...ax'} ofdifferent
an cannot an cannot
exceed ax.
=
that is rnbn an + Again, an+1=rvbu-ah, rnbn cannot be greater than 2al ; also bn is hence values
rn cannot
an+v
a
and
therefore
integer positive ;
be
greater than
2av Thus rn cannot have any values the number is, ofdifferent
ofi\cannot
2ar
RECURRING
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
297
Thus 2a*
the
completequotient
"
"
cannot
have
more
than
rn
is,some
must
recur.
one
and completequotient,
"
"
; hence
the
partial
r
n
quotientsmust
each
the number
2
in of partial quotients
cannot cycle
*3G0. We
au
rn
have
an
+
; bH_1rn_l
or
""_i
a"=
"?,t,-i5
since
But
N"-a;=rnrn_l-i
ai an
"
rn ,
which
proves
the
proposition.
that the
To shew
terminates ivith a
we
have
seen
in Art.
must
take
at
let us place,
that the
r,
and
,
b. b
=
shall prove
that
a, 4
.
"
=a
n
"
, 1'
rm ""
=
,
r
ii
"
, 1'
,
b,
*"
b
ii
"
, 1
We
have
r.
*
"
r
, i
=
*
-a,2
"
'
"
iV
v
2
"
a
it
r
H
"
,r i
"r
ii H
"
r, ; *
'
Again,
.-.
"
, '
a*
~
-b
7
"
7
,
om
=
.
zero,
or
an
integer.
n-1
298
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
al-as_l"rs_i;
-^
"
that
is
a. -a.
"
a
,
aa
"
,
; hence
is less
n-
than
must
be
=
zero.
also
6#_1 6fl_i.
plete comcompletequotient recurs, the ?^th (n+ l)th therefore the complete (n- l)th quotientmust also recur;
if the
must quotient
also recur;
and
so
on.
This hence
358], proof holds as long as n is not less than 2 [Art. second with the the completequotients recur, beginning
" -
quotient 1
It
follows
therefore
that
the shall
recurrence
beginswith
rx the
now
shew
second
completequotient
-
it
recurs
; then
a
"
"
ancj
l are
two
consecutive
completequotients ; therefore
"",
but N-
a*
r, ; hence
"
rn
1.
"
Again, ay
aH
"
1 ; hence
ax
an
0, that
is
","
Also
an +
rn bn
"
bn;hence
bn
2ai; which
establishes
the
proposition.
*362. To shew that in any the beginning and
distant equiquotients periodthe partial the last end are partial equal,
be completequotient
denoted
by
*
"
; then
r.
rn=l,
We shall prove that
cin
ax,
bn=2ar
^-2=^2)
"h-2="3"
^.-2="2^
300
and is therefore
HIGHER
ALGEBRA,
equalto
ax +
J 'N
; hence
Clearing of
parts,we
obtain
fractions
and
equatingrational
+
and
irrational
*iP.+JV-i
(!)"
Again
"
can
be obtained
and
-^
quotient
1 1 1
2*1+
which is
V?V^
Thus
equalto
+ rtj
"
in
"
**
1
=
U+%)qnq^
+
.
2^
?2"
"
,
from
(1);
P"
%.qn
(2)"
is the
l(A *")
+
In
like
manner
we
may
prove
that if
"
penultimate
icn
Nqmi
and
we by usingthese equations,
may
obtain
""
"
suc,
cessively.
It should of
n
be noticed
that
equation (2)holds
for all
multiples
; thus
Ol
the
proofbeingsimilar
*365.
In
can
to that
given. already
seen
Art. be
356,
we
have the
that of
a
fraction with
expressedas
root
rational coefficients.
RECURRING
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
301
of Art. 357
are
we Conversely,
might prove by
the form
"
the method
"
that
an
of expression B
tt~~
where
can case
-"4" B, C
be the
positive
into
a
and integers,
not
not
perfect square,
In this second the
converted
fraction. with
periodic part
will will
nor partialquotient,
double
on
the
to
fractions
and rieure,
as
Continued
pamphlet on Fraction, by
^EXAMPLES.
The
Thomas
F.R.S.E.
as
continued
N/a2 + l.
2.
J a*
-a.
3.
N/"--l.
4. 7.
V/T7T.
Prove that
5.
y""^f
.
6.
^l
J9a*+
and
3a+
-i
" "
2a +
6a +
2a +
6a +
8.
Shew
that
2 1111
i""
"
r-
p 9.
V
i+
p+
i+
Shew
that
\
=Pa\
/111 a\-\
\
111 +
"
"
P9Cl2 + If
+ tt3
P9Ct4 +
as expressed
OCl\+ that
10.
1 Ja'2+
be
2(a*+l)qn=pn_1+pn
1111
11
2pn
l.
11.
Tf If
.%'=
"
ax +
"2+
ai+ a2 +
...,
1111
"?/~2a1+ 2"2+
1111
2ax+ 2a2+
+
""'
~3tf1+~3a2+ 3^
shew
that
x
-
3"2+
-
'"'
0.
302
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
12.
Prove
that
(
13.
U
JL J_
b
+
Jl J_
b +
a+
1
a+
V"""" '")\b+ a+
J_
b+
b+
a+
^ '")"b
=
-
J_
a+
J_
a+
""'
X~a+
b+
y-b
shew that
J_
+ a+
J_
a+
J_
i+
a
J_
b+
"""'
(ab2 +
"
b)x-
(a2b+
to
b)y
+
a2-b2.
14.
If
be
the
nth convergent
Ja2
l. shew
that
P22+P32+'"+P2n
l
=
Pn
lPn
2-PlP2
15.
Shew
that
1
"
("
\a+ va+
16.
If b +
'
1
a+
1 c+
\
/
l +
bc
c+
"/
^+
l+ctb'
"
denote qr
the
rih convergent
"
to
^"
" "
shew
,
that
Pi+Pi"+
17.
Prove
"~+P".n-l=P2n-p"L,
that the difference
?3 + of the
i
"'
?5 +
"
""
=
-
?8"
ft.
infinite
i a+ i
continued
fractions
_i_j_2_
a+
b+
c+
b+
'""'
c+
is
equal
to 1 +
ao
="
18.
number
If of
into
fraction, and
if
is the
period,
19. denoted
into a continued \/^ De converted fraction, and if the penultimate convergents in the first,second, ...kth recurring periods be that by nlt n2i...nk respectively, shew If
*CHAPTER
XXVIII.
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
SECOND
DEGREE.
integersof indeterminate positive of a degreehigherthan the first, though not of much equations because of its connection with is interesting importance, practical shall confine In the present chapter we the Theory of Numbers. second of the two attention to equations degree involving our
*366. The solution
in
variables. *367.
x
To
shew
Iww
to
obtain
the
arid y which
0,
a,
b, c, f,g, h beingintegers.
Solvingthis equationas
have
ax
in quadratic
x,
as
in Art.
127, we
hy+g
"J(h2-ab) y2+
that the be values the
(hg af)y+(g2-ac)...(l).
-
Now kv
in order
of
and
may
we
be may
positive
denote
the integers,
expressionunder
r, must
a
which radical,
py2 + 2gy +
perfect square
r
=
; that is
py2 + 2qy +
this equation as Solving
a
z2, suppose.
y,
we
in quadratic
have
py
"
Jq2-jjr+pz2;
the radical must be
a
perfect
square ; suppose
that it is
t2 where
t and
z are
pz2 q2
=
-
pr^
r are
and variables,
j\ q,
constants.
304
Unless this
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the integers, equationcan be solved in positive solution. does not admit of a positive integral equation original 374. shall return to this pointin Art. We If of the
a,
b, h
are
all
it positive, for
be
is clear that of
x
the and
number
y the
of
solutions is
largevalues
zero
sign
on expression
dependsupon
for
that of ax2 +
2hxy + by2
thus
y.
"
and
ab is
coefficient of
see
y2 in (1)is
of
solutions is limited.
Solve in the equation integers positive a;2
-
4xy + "y* 2x
-
20*/
=
29.
Solving as
in quadratic
x
=
x,
we
have
"
2y +
-
^30 +
24// 2y\
-
102 2 (y G)2 than cannot be greater = 30 + 24?/ 2j/2 (y 6)2 ; hence under radical the the becomes that find a 51. expression By trial we values of y integral (y-6)8=l or 49; thus the positive perfect square when are 5, 7, 13.
But
When
x
=
?/=
5,
21
or
1; when
7,
25
or
5; when
13,
29
or
25.
*3G8. of the
We
have
seen
that
the solution
in
positive integers
0 of equation the
equation
ax2
+
can
be made
to
depend
the solution of
an
form
"
Ny2
"
a,
where The
iV*and
are
integers. positive
=
"
has
no
real of
roots, whilst
our
the
limited
number
shall therefore
-
confine
Ny2
"
a.
can
always be
let that
JN
'"
be be
any
converted three
hito
continued
and fraction,
2_
q
lq
consecutive
convergents; suppose
INDETERMINATE
t 17"a,/
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
SECOND
DEGREE.
,n
305
is the
"
; then
*. (/"/
~
V'q) W
JVq
-P"2
"
[Art. 358].
But r"
]"
"
]}(1
"
])(2) any
recurring period.
-,
i.s an
even
and v/iV,
case
"
therefore
=
P ;
thus
=
pq
"pq
1.
Jn
this
p'* N"q'aJ,
"
x=]"\y
is the
q is a solution of the
xr equation
Ny*
1.
convergent penultimate
of any
recurring
number
of solutions is unlimited.
in the period is odd,the penultima If the number of quotients 11 is odd but the an tirst in the period convergent, convergent is second the in period an even convergent. convergent penultimate solutions will be obtained by putting Thus integral x=p', y q\
"
where
"
is the
convergent in penultimate
the
second, fourth,
case
sixth,
periods.Hence recurring
To obtain
also in this
the number
As
in the
we article, preceding
f"
have
'
I
-Jq
~KT
'2
=pq-pq" the
of
in quotients
if
"1
penultimate convergentin
'
any
"pq
"
" "
1.
-
p'2 Nq2
y1
=
"
-\, and
solutions integral
x =p\ by putting
of the y
"
1 will be obtained
',
where
"
is the
periods. recurring
we can
discover
"
11. n.
,,
"
,irv
A.
1:0
2fc U
306 Example.
We
can
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Solve in
that
integersx2 positive
13y2 "1.
=
shew
11111
^13-3
Here the number of
1+
18
1+ITl+
6+
;
a
the
penultimatecon-
hence
a; =
18, y
is
solution of
x2-13y2=-l.
convergent in the second recurring periodis By Art. 364, the penultimate
1
2U
hence
#
=
/18
+
18Xl3J'thatlS'180'
13y2=l.
the
io\
,u
"
649
649, y
By
penultimate convei'gents of
of solutions of the x2
-
recurring
we periods
obtain any x2
-
number
equations
1.
"
13?/2= 1, and
solution in may obtain
lSy2
=
*371.
lias been
When
one we
found,
th
method. following h and k beingpositive h, y k is a solution, Suppose that x is any positive then (A2 Nk2)n 1 where n integer. integers;
=
=
"
Thus
.
x2
".
-
Put
yJN
(h+ kJX)'1,x-y
2x
=
JN
+
(h kJN)" ;
-
.-.
(h+ kJN)n
=
(h-kJJYy;
(h kjNy.
-
2Usin
Tlie values
to ascribing
can
n
(h+ kjiry
y
so
of
and
the values
found
be obtained.
x2
"
hi
x*
if n
k is y is any odd
=
-
solution
of
the
equation
positive integer,
-
Ntf
and y
(h2 Nk2)\
are
Thus
n
the values of
the
same
as
found,but already
"
1, 3, 5,
=
become solve.
of2
"
ay
we
the have
a3
to
308
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of the
x2 equations
=
"
Ny2
=*=
a, when
we
mentioned
denominators 53 is satisfied
; thus
easily
=
find that
one
equation#2-7?/2
9. of
the next
Supposethat
=
=f, y
-
g is
Ny2 a JSfy21
=
and
let
h, y
k be any
equation equation
; then
x*
Ny2
(fh"Ngk)2-N{fk"gh)\
"
By putting
and
we
-fh
Kgk,
-fk
"
gh,
in explained
Art.
to h, k ascribing
may
obtain any
371,
*377.
square ; form x2
Hitherto
it has been N is
however, if,
n2y2
=
a, which
a
=
that N is not a perfect supposed takes the a perfect square the equation solved as follows. may be readily b and
c are
Supposethat
of which b is the
be,where
two
positive integers,
ny)
be. of
x
Put from
ny
b, x
ny
; if the
values
and
one
have obtained we are integers equations be of the equation ; the remaining solutions may values. to b and c all their possible ascribing these
y found solution
obtained
by
is
Find
two
difference of whose
squares
integers ; then
,xr
y2 60
=
that
1,60;
and
4,15; 5,12;
from the
6,10;
equations
#
+ y
30, 2;
+ y
10, 6;
x-y=
x-y=
x
and y.
16, 14;
or
8, 2.
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
manner
we
OF
THE
SECOND
DEGREE.
309
Cor.
In like
may
obtain
the solution in
positive
of integers
ax'
k,
rational linear
be
resolved
into
two
generalequationa, or b, or both, are explainedin Art. 3G7 employing the method in the following to proceed as example. simpler
*378. instead of
If in the
zero,
it is
Example.
Solve in
4a-2+ V2x
we
5y
11
.
Expressing y
in terms
of x,
have 6
4a;2- 12* + 11 V=
" "
^r-r 2x
-
=2tf-l+; 2x
n =
"
"
be
"
an
integer
2iX
"
must
be
an
integer ;
hence
2.r
O "
be The
equal to
cases
"
1, or
2, or
3, or
"2, "6
from
of
are
may 2x
.x- are
whence
of
3, 2, 4, 1.
we
Taking
x
S, y = ll; s=2,
-3;
4, ?/
9; ar=l, y=
-1;
and
solutions
are x
=
3, y
11;
4, y
9.
enable us to discover principles already explained values of the variables given linear or for what quadratic of this Problems functions of x and y become perfect squares. Problems because called DiopJiantine kind are sometimes they mathematician first investigated were Diophantus by the Greek
*379.
The
about
the middle
1.
of the fourth
century.
integerswhich positive
of their squares
for two Find the general expressions from the sum such that if their product is taken are difference is a perfect square.
Example
the
Denote
the
integers by
and
x-
y ; then
+
-xy
y'2 z'2suppose
=
=
.-.
x(x-y)
by
the
z2-y-.
This
equation is
satisfied
mx= n
suppositions
n
{z+ y),
(x-y)
(z
y),
where
and
are
integers. positive
310
Hence From these
mx
-
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
ny
nz
0,
nx
(m-n)y-
mz
0.
we equations
obtain by
V
_
cross
multiplication
2
.
2mn
ri2
m2
n2
m2
mn
+ ri1
we
'
may
-vin
general
2mn-n2,
any two
x
m2-n2,
m2
n2.
Here
?n
=
m
=
and
are
7,
4,
we
have
"0, y
SS,
37.
Example
arithmetic
square. Denote
the general expression for three positive integersin of is two a the such that and sum perfect every progression,
2.
Find
the
by integers
x-y,
x,
+ y;
=
and
let
+ y
=
2x-y=p2,
then
or
2x
q2,2x 2q2,
r2;
p2 +
r2 =
i*-q*=q*-p".
This
(r q)
-
n (r + q) (q j"),
-
(q+p),
where
and
are
integers. positive
obtain
From
these
we equations
by
"l
cross
multiplication
r
V
=
w2 + 2mn-m2 Hence
we
m2 + n2
m2 + 2mn-
n2'
may
solution general
q
=
p=n*
whence
2mn-m*,
x
=
m2 +
n2, r
inin
)u2+ 2mn-u2;
{m2 + w2)2, y
be found.
(m2 w2)
-
and
the three
integerscan
From the value of x it is clear that m be such that odd ; also their values must
both
(m2+ n2)2"8mn{m2-n2),
or
mz(m
Sn)+
2inn2 + 8m n* + n4
"
0 ;
which
If
9, w=l, then
sums
a-
the numbers
are
482, 33G2,
are
6242.
The squares of
of these taken
pairsare
the
INDETERMINATE
EQUATIONS
OF
THE
SECOND
DEGREE.
311
*EXAMPLES.
XXVIII.
Solve
in
: positiveintegers
1. 3. 5.
Find
2. 4.
7^-2^+3y2=27.
xy
-
y2-4.ry +
3.y +
5.r2-10.i=
4.
6.
2.v
S.
3.ry-4j/
14.
4^2-y2=315.
the smallest
solution
in
positiveintegersof
9.
=
7. 10.
Find
.r2-14y2=l.
x2the
8.
0.
^-19^=1.
11.
.t-2
=
4iy2-l.
61/
+ 5
x2-7y2-9
0.
general solution
13.
in
integersof positive
12.
Find
.r2-3/=l.
the
x2-5y2=l.
x
14.
make
.v2-
17y2
1.
and
y which
each of the
following
x2-3xy
Find
two
3y2.
other
16.
afi+2xy+ 2f.
that
17.
the square
5^+y2.
of
one
positiveintegerssuch
exceeds
the square
of the
a
by
105.
19.
to
Find
represent the
20.
Find that
a
of
taken
express
are
such
the
obtained
by adding
their
the
sum
of their squares
is
perfectsquare.
three Dutchmen of my wives
21.
"
There
came
acquaintance
with
to
see
me,
; they brought Geertruij, Hendriek, Claas, and Cornelius; the women's man's wife. and Anna of each name They : but I forgot the Catriin, told me had each as market to been at bought buy hogs ; they person Hendriek 23 for one bought hogs hogs as they gave shillings hog; many than Geertruij than Catriin; and Claas bought 11 more more ; likewise, I desire to know the laid out 3 guineas more his wife. each man than of each man's Mathematical wife." (Miscellany Problems, 1743.) name of
being
latelymarried
were
their
them.
The
men's
names
22.
Shew
that
the
sum or
of the
k'2even
first
natural
k is the
numbers
numerator
is
1, where
of
perfect an odd,
convergent to N^2.
CHAPTER
XXIX.
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
of certain series have occurred Examples of summation here to give a in previous chapters ; it will be convenient been which have already of summation of the methods synopsis explained. Chap. IV. (i) Arithmetical Progression, Chap. Y. (ii) Geometrical Progression, are Series which metrical, partlyarithmetical and partly geo(iii) 380. Art. 60. of the powers 68 to 75. of the Natural Numbers and allied
(iv) Sums
Arts. Series,
(v)
Art. 312.
Summation
by
means
of Undetermined
Coefficients,
proceedto
course
discuss
methods
of
; greater generality
seen
in the
that
some
methods of the foregoing 381. that If the rth term of two the other found. For is of
stillbe series
employed. usefully
can
be
as expressed same
one quantities
of which
sum
is the
function be
1 , the
readily
by
and
its
sum
by
S
,
and then
suppose
that
any
term
ur
can
be
put in
the form
vr-vr_1;
^.=("i-0+(w.-"i)+(*.-"f)+"-+(w.-i-0!+(
=
vn.
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
313
Example.
Sum
1
to
terms
the series
1 1
.
+ s)(l+2s) (l If
we
""v"
"
denote
the series
by
*-"("-"\ 1 2x
-
a;\l+
3*/'
1
_!/
Ws
a;\l+ 3#
1 +
4*,/
'
"
x\l
I^
nx
i+n+i.x/
"
b}' addition,
SL=-
ar\l +
a;
l+w
n
l.a?/
(1+ x)(1+
382. Sometimes into
a
+ l
..r)
may be obtained the methods explained
suitable transformation
fractions by partial
Example.
1
Find
the
sum
of
a
a2
z~r
(l+ ax)(l+a*x)
"n_1
"
.
n,
x~n
t-,
.,
"
,,
5"
to
. . .
terms.
"
"
w,
l + a"-1^ B
l + anx
suppose: **
.'.
an~x -A
aux
(1+ a**)+
equal to
an-l
B= 1 -a'
,
(1+ a7'-1*).
in
nn
By putting1
1 + ""_1.r,
zero
we succession,
obtain
A=-
"
1 -a'
a
1/1
Hence
u, 1
=
"
\1 +
/
,
a:
1 +
ax
J
\
5
.
1
....
a
"
a2
-5
"
similarly,
t**=;
a"-1
aw
Wn~l-a Vl+a*"1*l +
'""
anj/
*~l-o\l
l +
anx)'
314
383. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
jind the sum of\\terms of a series each term of which in arithmetical progression, the first is composed of r factors factors arithmetical progression. of the several terms beingin the same
Let the series be denoted where u"
-
by
ux + u2 + us +
un
(a + nb)(a+
b)(a +
have
b)
...
(a+
"
1
.
b).
n Replacing by
n"
1, we
"" k"-i !
(a+
.'.
"
1
"
")(a+ nb)(a+
.
1
"
6)
.
.
..
(a+
=
"
b) ;
("+
?i
b)un
+
(a+
/"
b)?."."_!
vn, say.
n by Replacing
we
have
+ r.
(a+
6)tf" "Il+1j
=
therefore, by subtraction,
un
vn+i-vn.
=
wB_,
r/(
/""_,,
1 "
(a 4=
"A un
(r+l)i
where C is
a n
+6'S'ly;
n, which
to ascribing
may
be found
by
The
above
givesus
the
convenient following
rule
Write down
by
the nth term, affix the next factor at the end,divide thus increased and by the common offactors ence, differa
add
constant.
be
noticed
that
"
(r+l)b
but quote this result,
-,
\
"
"
-,
(r+l)b
C
5t-t
m,lf ;
as
it is
however
better not to
to obtain
above
indicated.
316
386. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of\\terms of a series each term of which metical in arithis composedof the reciprocal of the productof r factors the first of the several terms being in factors progression, arithmetical progression. tliesame
find the
sum
by
ux +
it, +
u:i+
un
"
nb)(a +
(a+ b)
b)
(a+
r-l
.b).
4i
Un
n by Replacing n
-
1,
n
"
(a +
b)(a+ nb)(a+
.
+ n b)...(a
r"2
b);
M"_i ln-l
.'.
(a+
r-l
n
b)un
1, we
(a+
b)un_x
vni
say.
n Replacing by
have
=
(a+nb)un
therefore, by subtraction,
vn+1;
un
vn-vn+1,
vll_l
-
un_x
vn
(r l)b
"
u.2
Wj
v.2
"
vSt
"
vx
vx
v.2
.
(r 1)b Sn
.
"
vn+1 ;
tnatis
^i
?W
'
where
C is
a n
to ascribing
n, which
may
be found
by
Thus
Sn
C-,
sum
r-l.
:
b)
Hence
the
by
the
rule following
Write doivn the nth term, strike off a factor from the beginning, diminished and by the common divide by the number so offactors
add
constant.
value of C=
-,
Vv~7
"
(r
to determine
1) (r to C by ascribing
o
"
tti
1) 6
ui
n
'""
but ** is advisable
some
in
value. particular
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
317
Example
1.
Find
the
sum
of
re
terms
of the series
1.2.3.4
2.3.4.5
1
3.4.5.6
The
re'1' term
is
have
+ 3) 3(n+l)(w+ 2)("
rut
"=1,
then
^=0-3^;
X
"
whence
*
(7=1;
5
"
18
By making Example
indefinitely great,we
Find the
3 to
obtain
fi^
"
2.
sum
terms
of the series
5
4
+
a"
1.2.42.3.5
T7"
3.4.6
rt
"
r"
because although 1,2,3, Here the rule is not directly applicable, , the firstfactors of the several denominators, are in arithmetical progression, not. In this example we the factors of any denominator are one may proceed as follows :
n
"
+ 2
+ 3) re(re+l)(re
re
3
+ l)(re + 2)(re + 3) (re + 2)(re + 3)' w(re+l)(n
Each to which
now
be taken
as
the ?ithterm
of
series
3
+ 2)(re + 3) 2(re
4
3
+ 2) (re + 3) (re+1)(re
'
-c
n
+ S
put re=l,
then 3-13
4 C
"
17271=
0
n
"
"4
1
re +
27174
3 3 2
372.3
Whence .4' 4
3
29
C
=
36;
_29
36
+ 2) (re + 3) (re
318
387. In
cases
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the methods of Arts. 383,386 are directly the rules we instead of quoting may always effect the applicable, called ' the in the following summation way, which is sometimes where
Method
of Subtraction.'
Find the
sum
Example.
of
terms
+ 8.11
of the series
+
2.5 The
+ 5.8
11.14+ is
arithmetical
in progression
this
case
2, 5,8, 11,14,
factor the next term of the given series introduce as a new In each term and the given series this series denote "", by ; of the arithmetical progression by S; then S'
.-.
=
2. 5. 8 + 5. 8. 11 + 8. 11.
14+ 14.17+...
+(3w-l)(3n+2)(3"+5);
to
"'-2.5.8
5.8.11
+ 8. 11.14
+ 11.
(u-1) terms.
By subtraction,
_2.5.8=9[5.8
-
+ 8.11 + 2 5
.
.
11.14+...to("-l)terms]-(3n-l)(3n+2)(3n+5)
9
[S
-
5] (3/i 1)(3n+2)(3n+5),
-
9S
5. 8 + 2, 5.0,
fif=n(3n3+6n+l).
388. When the nth term of
a
series is
rational
integral
us
in a form which be expressed function of n it can to apply the method givenin Art. 383. readily suppose dimensions,and For
will enable
"j" (n) is
assume
rational
function integral
of
of p
cf)(n)A
=
+Bn+
where number.
A, JB, C, D,
undetermined
constants
l in
This
equate
simple
is
Example.
Assume
Find
the
sum
of
term general
n*+6n3
7i4 + 6/i3+ 5/t2 A + Bn+
=
Gn [n +
1)+
=
=
Dn
En
it is at
2, n
"4 + 6"3
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
310
Hence
Sn
sn
o
\n(n+l)(n+2){n'i 2).
+ 7n +
o
Polygonal
389. of and
we
n
and
Figurate
Numbers.
"
If in the
terms
common
n+ expression \n(n" l)b, which is the sum of an arithmetical whose first term is progression difference b,we give to b the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
1
""
get
u,
\n
"
1)
n
which
are
of the Polygonal Numbers first order called numbers polygonal sometimes of the
of the
second,
beingthat in which
second,third,
unity.
)
fifth, fourth,
square, 390.
orders
linear, triangular
pentagonal
To
find the
sum
n of the first
terms
of the
rth order
of
numbers. j"olygonal
The
nih term
.-.
\n (n
1)(r 2);
"
$i=$n
=
l(r-2)%(n-l)u
1
\n (n+ 1)+
(r-2)(n-l)
(n + 1) [Art. 383]
391.
If the
sum
of
terms
of the series
,
1, 1, 1, 1,1,
be taken
as
of
new
we series,
obtain
1,2,3,4,5,
n
in
-j
1) which
,
If again last
we
take
"
is the
sum
of
terms
of the
of
new
we series,
obtain
1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
this way, we obtain a succession of series of the such that in any one, the nih term of n terms is the sum known series. The successive series thus formed are preceding in By proceeding
as
Figurate Numbers
of the
second,third, first,
...
orders.
320
392. order To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
term
and
the
sum
of n
terms
of ilierth
The
second
of the first order is 1; the nth term of the third order is Hn, that is the nth term of the fourth order is 2
.
\n
-"
(n
1); the
"
ntYlterm
..
"V
1
.
"
tnat
is
n(n+l)(n+2) 'L"
1.2.3
xl
is
2,
"
that
w(w+l)(n
"
+
"
is
^-n
2)(M + 3)
"
4
see
; and
so
on.
Tims
it is easy to
|rc+r-2
01
i
"
1 Ir
"
of
terms
(n+ 1)(n + 2)
of tlie (r+
rule
(w +
1)
which
order. l)th
to
applyingthe
of Art. 383
terms
of
is
always
393.
The
on
are
interesting
his Traite du The
of the
use
made
of them
historically by Pascal in
its
1665. in Triangle
...
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES. in the
321
the ing follow-
constructed
the numbers
triangle by
number
is the
sum
of
28
=
that
it and
that
to the immediately
left of it;
5
+
15
10,
21, 126
vertical
. . .
of
it construction,
rows,
or
in
the successive
horizontal
columns, are
the
hgurate
first, second,third,
so
as
orders.
line drawn
row
to cut
off
an
equal number
is called
a
top
are
and 6th
the
left-hand
column
numbered base
the
left-hand numbers
corner.
1, 5, 10,
bers, numpansion ex-
10, 5, 1 ; and it will be observed that there are and that they are the coefficients of the
of The
six of these
terms
in the
(1+ x)5.
of these numbers discussed were properties by Pascal skill in Arithmetical used his he : great Trianyle particular to develop the theory of Combinations, and to establish some in Probability.The interesting propositions subjectis fully treated in Todhunter's Historyof Probability, Chapter n. with
ambiguityexists as to the number of terms have used the symbol % to indicate summation in a series, we ; modified notation, which indicates the following but in some cases
304.
"Where
no
which
the summation
is to be
will effected,
be
Let
(x)be cf"
'a1
any
of x, then from
2
x=l
"f" (x)denotes
x
the all
sum
tive posi-
integral values
For
terms
inclusive.
instance,suppose
it is
to required
find the
sum
of all the
from
the
expression
(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r)
by givingto
H.H. A.
p all
values integral
from
r +
1 to j" inclusive. 21
322
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Writing the
.
in
-
order, ascending
+
the
required sum
(p r)(p
"
"-
1)
...
(p 1)
"
i{1.2.3.. ..r+2.SA....(r+l)+...+(p-r)(p-r+l)...(p-l)
l(p-r)(p-r
+
r
l) "(p-l)p
+
\r
[Art. 383.] J L
y~(-l)(y-2)...(^-r)
=
jr+1
i
Since the
r
we inclusive,
1 to
%p (p-l)(p-2) """(p-r)
v-\
p(p-l) (ff-2)...(p-r)
_
\r
r |
EXAMPLES. Sum
1. the series following + 2.3.4
to
n
XXIX.
terms
+
:
a.
1.2.3 1.2.3.4
+ 3.4.5
2.
3. 4.
+ 3.4.5.6 +
1.4.7 1.4.7
1.5.9
+ 7.10.13
+ 3.6.9 + 3.7.11 to
n
+ + terms
5.
Sum
2.6.10
the
I
series following
1 1
and to
: infinity
1.2^2.3
II 7'
3.4^
1
174
1
+ 4.
7+77l0+
1 +
+ 1.3.5
1
3.5.7
5.7.9+
1
1_
1.4.7+4.7.10 7.10.13
4 5
1
1-
1_
10
1.2.3^2.3.4
.3.4.5^
4-
11
*
J_
3.4.5 1
_1_
4.5.6
3
5.6.7+
5
"
_JL
*""'
7
i u
io
\9,
"
"
"
-l
1.2.3
2.3.4
3.4.5
4.5.6
324
From this series
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
proceedto form the series of the general terms of differences, series beingA3ur, AAur, A5?tr)... respectively.
we
the of
From
the law
Ujt
of formation
u3,
of the series
u",
u.2,
u5,
u6,
Aw4,
,
Au5,
,
A2w2
A.m3
A2ui A3u3,
A3Wj,
A3u,,
it appears
that
any
term
in
any
series is
equal to
it
.
the
term
to the term
=
below
+
on
the left.
"j
4-
A.m^
since By addition,
u.2 +
we
have
+
= t^ + ii.j
2Au"
A.2ux
.
In fourth
similar manner by using the second,third,and exactly series in place of the first, obtain we second,and third,
an
Au3
since By addition,
?f4
-
Aux
+
+ A^. 2A.2u1
u3
Au3
u4i
+
we
have
+
ux
ZAux
SA^
A^
So far the
same
as
we as
have those
the proceeded,
numerical theorem.
coefficients follow We
case.
law
of the Binomial
shall For
now
prove
by
that
induction
always be
the
pose sup-
un+i then
"i +
mAmj
v 9
X
"
A,ul+
...
"CVA^j
AnWj i
the
-J
first to the
in the
of place
Aun+1
A%!
it (11
"
+ BCfr_1A^w1
.
An^uY
since By addition,
M"+a
=
un+l
+
.
Aun+1
.
un+2i
we
obtain
...+
Mj
fa + 1)Awj
A"+1",
.
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
32.",
But
*Cr + HJr-i
(" ^
l) "Cr_x
x
?i"i
=
"C,,.,
(n + l)w(w-l)
1.2. Hence if tlie law it is true of formation
case
f"n+8, hut
therefore
in the
for un+l it also holds for of w4, therefore it holds for urn and
universally.Hence
=
""
Ui +
, (n
1X
-
1) A?^
A2?^
...
An.iWi.
39G.
To
find the
sum
of
terms
of the series
in terms
of the differences
Suppose
of the series
v.2)
v3,
...
v4,...,
+
(v2 vx)+
-
vx
identically ;
"
^"+l
ua + un-l
"""
u2 +
u\ + vl
"
Hence
in the series
0,
1 )
va1
2 )
v3i
3
v4,
J
v5
4
J
Aw1?
the law of formation is the
Aw2,
same
Aw3
as
in the
precedingarticle;
+
.
"'"
""+i
+
"Wi
-4
"
s"
Awx
A"?^
that
is,Wj
nux
w3
n
uz
...
un
(n"\)
y"r
"
n(n"l)(n-2)"
"
AWj
of this
-"
-^
the
A2M!
A"?f ,
The
formula) in
a
and
preceding article
:
term
of
different form, as follows slightly (Ix, d2, d3,...the first given series, of the nth differences,
term
if
terms
of the
given
series is
the formula
326
and the
sum
HIGHER
ALGEBRA,
of
terras
is
^i"^"1)^
2
n("-l)(tt-a)(n-3) ,"("-l)("-2)f/
j3
4
Example.
and the
sum
of
?*
terms
of the series
are
", 12 + 28
,c
(re 1)+
-
,x
~P
l"
II
terms
be
found
by writing down
of the
Or
we
may
+
the formula
+
22"'"-1)("-2" S^ia^28"'"-1'
+ 26re + ^(3re2
"M"-D
("-2) (-8)
69re +
46),
It will be when
we
seen
of summation
will
only
of
the This
series is such
come
in
equal.
a
to
series in which
case
the
of
n.
will consider a function of three dimensions; we simplicity of proof, method however, is perfectly general. the series be
u.
1
Let
ua2 + ua+ 3
u
"
=
u
ii
+u
n
.,+u
+ \
n+2
+
"
u
u
+
+ 3
, "
An3 the
Bn2
Cn
D.
denote
?ith term
of the
n'
, ii*
orders of
differences;
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
+ 1)+C: l)+ 2?(2" + +
327
then
vh- mm+1" un
A(3n*+
+ v
=w
H
3n+
that
is,
vn
w
3Au2
=
(3A + 2B) n
=
11
C ;
+
Similarly
and
"
3A
(2n
iv
ii
I) + 3A
211
." "ti
=6-4.
of differences
are
Thus
and the terms
the
terms
order
equal;
pthorder
the terms
of the series is
are
of
of p dimensions.
Example.
The
6, 6, 0,
Thus
assume
the terms
equal;
hence
we
may
A+Bn+Cn2
Dn3,
where
A, B, G,
have
4
to be determined.
for
7i
in
we
obtain A =3, B
-
succession, we -3, C
=
have
=
-
four
D
"
simultaneous
2,
\ ;
generalterm
of the series is 3
3n
2n2 + n9.
If
rational
integral function of
ajx2+
...
dimensions
+ a, 0
ax
12
a
"i
xn is
is
scale
ofrelation
(I
"
x)p+1.
sum
(1 x)
-
--
ao a0
"a
..
(a,
-
,_""
in
ax"
btx+ bjc2+
, , ' 1
...
bx"
x
ax"+\
say;
n.
here b
n
=a
h
so
that
6n is of
""
1 dimensions
x,
we
it
"
Multiplyingthis
last series
by
have
S(i-xy
+ ai:c,+% + cix^...+cX-{ai+biy,^ say; c^+{b-a0)x+c^2
=s+(^-a")*+(^-^K+..-+(6n-6"-iK-("J,+6""+l
=
here cn
-bn-bu
so
that
cn is of p
2 dimensions
in
n.
328
Hence
1
are
"
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
it follows that after the successive multiplications by the of in xn coefficients first, the second, third, products x, orders of differences the in third, terms second, first, general
. . . . . .
of the coefficients.
By hypothesis an
dimensions arrive at
terms
a a
is
rational of
function integral
-
; therefore
after p
terms
series the
of p 1 shall we x exceptionof p of
n
form and p terms at the end of the series, beginning, each of whose coefficients is the same. progression, geometrical
at the
397.] [Art.
Thus where the k is
a
(1 xf
-
k(xp+
x"'+1+
...+
+/(a?), x")
for the p
terms at
constant, and
p terms
f (x) stands
of the
and beginning
at the end
product.
r.Sil-xyJ^l^K/ix);
kx"(l-x"-^) + (l-x)f(x)^
that
is,
(1 -x)p+l
series is
a
'
thus
the
series recurring
whose
scale of relation is
generalterm
by
Find
is not
found readily
the method
the
of an
are
Example.
function generating
3 + 5a;+
have we Forming the successive orders of differences of the coefficients, the series
2, 4, G, 8, 10, 2, 2, 2, 2,
;
are
in the second order of differences thus the terms function of n of two dimensions rational integral We have of relation is (1 a;)3.
-
equal; hence
; and
S
-
3 + 5x +
-
SxS
9.r
27.x-3 45a;4
-
69^
Sx2S
-xsS=
3^=
5a;4-
9a;5
-
By addition,
(1
S a;)3
b~
4a;+ 3a;2;
+
3-4.r
"*"
3a;2
*
(1-a;)3
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES.
329
that the
399. function
We of
a
have
seen
in
Chap,
a
xxiv.
generating
nator denomi-
series is recurring
is the scale of relation. Supposethat this denominator can be resolved into the factors (1 ax)(1 bx) (1 ex) ; then the into fractions be function can of the separated partial generating
" " "
ABC
-
to rm
1,
ax
1
can
"
bx be
ex
Each
of these fractions of
a can
in the form
series
expandedby the Binomial Theorem hence in this case the recurring series; geometrical of a number of be expressedas the sum
scale of relation contains
series. geometrical
ax any factor 1 factor there will be than once, corresponding to this repeated more A A : which partial fractions of the form -^ r=, -7,
If however
the
"
"
...
(1 -axy
(1
ax)
when the
expandedby
sum
the Binomial
case
Theorem
do not form
hence series;
as
in this
a
the of
be
geometrical expressed
of
number
series. geometrical
400.
The
successive
geometrical
progression
a,
are
ar,
ar2,ar3,ar\ arn,
which
common
are
same
the
401.
us
of p dimensions, and from this series let us form the successive orders of differences. Each term in any of these orders is the sum of two parts,one from of the form arn~\ and the other from terms of terms arising
n
where
of
the
is of ;; series. Now since "f"(n) original the part arising from "f"(n) will be zero in the (p+ l)th dimensions, and succeeding orders of differences, and therefore these series will be whose geometrical progressions
common
form
in ""(?i)
the
ratio is
r.
400.] [Art.
330
Hence
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
pth order
of a series are if the first few terms form of differences of these terms
whose
common
ratio is r, then we may assume is ar""1 term of the given series +f(n),where general 1 dimensions. function of n of p rational integral
-
f(n)
is
Example.
Find
of the series
are
un"a
To then whence Thus un
=
Sn-^ + bn +
determine
a
the constants
+ b+
a,
b, c, make
=
equal to 1, 2, 3 successively;
+
c=10,
3a + 2b+c
a
=
23, 9a
c
=
3b +
60;
6, 6=1,
n
S.
3'1"1+
+ 3
3" +
n +
3.
series that we examples on recurring on have justgiven, forming the successive orders of differences have obtained a series the law of which is obvious on inspecwe tion, have thus been enabled to find a general and we expression of the original series. term for the ?4th 402. In each series is equal to the sum of a recurring whose of geometrical ratios are number common progressions of form Aa"'1 Bbn~l is the term its + + Ccn~\ general ", b, c, therefore the and generalterm in the successive orders of
of the
If, however,
...,
the
same
form
as
; that
all is,
must
the have
orders
of differences
case
law
to
to the
generalmethod
are
Chap.
xxiv.
But found
when
the
largethe
down
a
without
considerable arithmetical
write
we
shall arrive at
series the
law
of whose
terms
is
We
add
some
examples
in
further
illustration of the
principles. preceding
3.32
Hence
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
""=("
=
+ 2) {2m(m+3)+ 1} 1)(a
+ 1)(m + 2); + 2)("+ 3)+ (n [n+ 1)(?i
2m
"'"
S"=ln("+l)("+2)(n+3)(n+4)+|(n
Find
2.2
Example 4.
the
+ 6.4
sum
of
??. terms
of the series
+ 30.32+
+ 12.8
+ 20.16
is n2 +
Bn+
C)2n-
{A (n-l)2+
+
(n 1)+ C\ 2"-1
-
out by dividing
2'1_1 and 2
=
coefficientsof equating
like powers
of n,
we
have
At 2
2A+B,
B=
-
0=C-A
B;
whence
.-.
A=2,
wn
=
-2, 0=4.
(2?i22n
-
4) 2n
+
{2 (n l)2
-
2
n
(n
1)+
-
} 2"-1
and
Sn
(2m2 2m
-
4) 2n
(na
-
2)2*"
4.
EXAMPLES.
Find the nth term and the
sum
XXIX.
of
n
b.
of the series
terms
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Find
8, 26, 54, 92, 140, 198, 2, 12, 36, 80, 150, 252,
8, 16, 0, -64,
-200, -432,
functions generating
+
of the series
6. 7. 8.
9. 10. Find
1 + 3x + 7x2 +13.^
21a4 + 31a6 +
37a-5+
+
3a + 5a2
7Xs + 9a4
11a6
11.
+ 3
32
33
g4
12 1Z"
53
5"
5*+"
SUMMATION
OF
SERIES. of
terms of the series
333
:
Find the
13. 14.
term general
and
the
sum
Find the
of
terms
of the series
18. 19.
+ 6x2 1+ 3.i-
+ 1 5.r* + + lO.f'5 4
onJLi
1
+
1
+
+ 24.31+35.44+
16.21+25.31
+ 5.81
+
+ 3.31+4.53
3
4
k
"
25
'
4-
1.3^1.3.5
1.2
1.3.5.7 3.23
+
1.3.5.7.9
2.2-' +
4.24
nn
26'
^-
14-+-T5- -T6-+
+ 7.8 + 11.16+16.32 + 3" +
27. 28.
rtr.
'
2.2 + 4.4
1
.
3 + 3
32 + 5
1.3
33 + 7
34+9.
...
1.3.5 6. 82.
1.3.5.7
4. 6. 8. 10
2. 42.
4. 62.4.
30 ^
-"
1.2
+" +
_4_
1.2.3*3
32
_5_
2.3.4'
(J
32
3.4.
5" 33
"+A + H ^ (3^ |4 |5 |6
+
19
33
'
'
I+
4
2
.
28
"
1
+
.
_39_
*
J_ +
16
4
.
52
'
1
+ 32
.
4
.
334
404. There under of the Avill be
no are
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
many
of which
a
can
be
brought
cases
methods foregoing
that
found
summation
certain known
such expansions,
those obtained
by the Binomial,
Example
1.
Find the
2
sum
28
50
78
is 3n- +
-2; hence
3h2+j"-2
a
3h(h-1)+4"-2
""
]n
2
+
|n
n-1
;i-2
In"
then
3 +
Put
we
have
4
-
4 "2
=
4--;
3 +
ri-r2; "3=ji ^
i
-gj
and
so
on.
Whence
,Sf"
=
Se + 4e
{e 1)
-
5e + 2.
Example
2.
If
(1+ a;)nc0 +
=
crr +
+ c2.r2
cnxn,find
the value of
As
in Art. 398
we
may
shew easily
that n-xn~l +
=
. . .
Also
cn + cn_xx +
Multiplytogetherthese
the coefficient of x11
x
in
two results; then the given series is equal (l+ .r)n+1 (2 1 x)n+1
-
to
(1 x)A
-
,.,
."
that
is,in
"
(1 x)3
-
7-
J=
"
The
only terms
2"+!
-
containingjcn-1 in
-
this
\!l"Jll %*-i
(i
^-l.
.-.
the
given series
2"+i fL^+3
"
("+ 1)gn
l) ?ii"": 2h-i
-n(w+l)2"-!.
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
OF
SUMMATION.
335
the value of
Example
IP
_ _
3.
If b
-
l, and
)i
is
(n 1)",,.
"-""("-""
+
rfj.
C-3)("-4)("-5)
\6
|2
By the Binomial
Theorem,
we
see
that
(n-8)(n-2)
(n-5)(n-4)("-3)
expansionsof (1 x) ',
sum
are
(1-.t)-2,(1-x)-*, (l-.r)-4, respectively.Hence the the coefficient in the to x* of e"pial expansion of the scries
1
required is
ax*
+'
a-x4
a*x6
'
-
1-bx
and although the given expressionconsists only of a finite number this series may be considered to extend to infinity. But
the
sum
of terms,
of the series=
,
""
1-bx
"
(1 +
\
i
1-bx
J
,
"
1-bx
+ ax"
since b
"
a+1.
(a + l)x
ax-
Hence
the
given series
coefficient of xn
in
(l-x)(l-ax)
=
coefficient of xn in
a H+l
_
-
\1
-ax
1"x)
1
"
a-1
Example
1+
,
4.
If the series
x3
+
xe
+
'
X*
"r
X7
'
x'2
X5
+
X8
J3 JG
by
a,
are
denoted If
w
shew b, c respectively,
root b +
is
an
imaginarycube
-
unity,
wb + w'-c) (a + w-b +
a3 + b3 + c3 Now
Sabc
{a +
1+x
c)(a+
.t2
ojc)
.
xz
.t4
Xs
'lA~h +
+ ~\9+\3
Tl
~\5
w-.r-
ur\r+
-r^-
w4.c4
+
"T-
w'.r'
-r=~
and
"/
+ lob +
OJ-C-1+
I
C0X+
"
\
=
similarly
0)=X
a
".
,
+ io'-b +
,
.,
,
wc
,
c
o ,
bc
X
=
uX
co2X
(l+u" + w!)x
1, since
l +
ur
0.
336
405. numbers. Let the To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
find
the
sum
of the
rth powers
n of the first
natural
sum
be denoted
by Sn; then
+
SH=V+2r
Assume that
+
1
3r
...
nr.
S
n
=Annr+i+Anr
0
A0nr-1+Anr~2+ 2
3
...
+An
...
+
r
A
r + + 1 1
(1), / \
'
where
A0,A^ A2,A3,
n
are
whose quantities
values
have
to
be
determined. Write
=
1 in the
placeof
-
and
thus subtract;
-
+ Ax {{n + l)r+1 nr+1] + 1)' nr] (n+ l)r A0 {(n + iy~2-nr-2} + + A3{(n + A2{(n+ l)-1 -n'-1}
...
+Ar...(2).
efficients (n+l)r_1, and equate the coExpand (?i+l)r+\ (n+ l)r, of of like powers the coefficients of nr, n. By equating
...
we
have 1 l=A.
(r+ 1), so
that
Aa
we !,
the By equating A
r
"
=
coefficients of nr
have 1
(r+ l)r
" "
Axr;
whence
Ax
for
A0
and
AJfand
\P {r-2)+ 1) r(r-l)(r-2)
...
we
thus obtain
i~p
In
+ +
A'r
w
"
^ A'r(r-l)
+
r(r 1)(r-2)
-
"^
(1)write
1 in the
placeof
and
thus subtract;
...
+ + A2{nr'1-(n-iy-1} nr=A0{nr+l-(n-iy+i}+Al{?ir-(n-l)r}
Equate the
o p
+
coefficients of nr~p,and
substitute for
A0,A1; thus
MISCELLANEOUS
METHODS
OF
SUMMATION.
337
From
(3)and (4), by
"r
*
.addition .and
subtraction,
p + 1
r(r-l)(r-2)
"
and
r
from
}" in succession the values 2, 4, 6, , we of the coefficients A.^ A5" A.,... is (5)we obtain
. . .
see
equal
6"
1^
the By equating
in
we (2),
obtain
\=A^AX
and
n= by putting
A% + AZ+
+Ar-
1
thus
1 in
Ar+l;
Ar+1
=
0.
406.
The
article preceding
is most
conveniently
expressed by
nr+x
"
"
formula,
r
"
r_x
_
1
2
r(r-l)(r-2)
3
r_3
r+1
l2
r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)
'6
w}lprp
7?
i
"-
7?-1
7?
7?
7?
5
"
quantities Bx,B3,2?5, are known as Bernoulli's Numbers; of other series to the summation examples of their application advanced student may consult Boole's Finite Differences.
...
Example.
ttt We , have
-f
+ n5.
n5 +
S" ^-+ ^
=
^ -^n*
5?i4 n2
^,5
_5
. -
.
"
3 n* + C,
"
_
Ba
j"
_?t6
the constant
n5
~6+"2+l2~r2'
being zero.
22
II. ii. A.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
Find the
sum
XXIX.
c.
^ A
5.
l +
^+-\T'T
pr-i
q
|1
ii
-3
6.
pr *rz
""
X +
_
"
f^l.2+
r/3
to
1 terms.
7- TX^" 1+tm;
(1+ .r)
"' _
"^"2)
12
""(1+^)"
1+3a? ?i(?i-l)("-2)
-
2^
to
terms.
2n + l
,
+ xY /2/i
...
to
terms.
9.
W2 (7l2
_
to
+ 1 terms.
1 + 23
1L
r2T3+3^T5+5T677
+
12.
ji
]|+[3+|4 |5
2a8 ^
+
3^6
11 +
18
+
23s5
121s6
_
is.
1+-J2-|3 "[7-'|r 16
Without
14
fuming
the
sum
of the series:
+
"-
!"+*+*+
+"""
"
17 + 2; + 3? +
340
24.
If Ar is the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
coefficient of
2/
xr
in the
*A2
/
expansion
^.\2
+
;
of
(i+,f(i+|)2(i+|)2(i 2~3J
'
2s,,
prove that
1072
^lr
=
2^
(^4 r-i
^r-2)"
andj
^4
"3^5
"
25.
If
is
multipleof 6, shew
"
that each
of the series
n-^~\i
w(w-l)(w-2)
11
-3+
-3
"
[5
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)(n-4)
+
,
[3
zero.
*3
|5
""'32
"-
is
equal to
26. If
is
that
pti
is
1
_
qn
1
.
equal
to
27.
If
Pr=(w-r)("-r+l)(n-r+2)
"=r(r+l)(r+2)
(r+^-1),
(n-r+^-1),
shew
that ho k
\n-l+p
g+l|n-2
+ q
P"
28. "-3
,
P2Q2
is
P3Q3+
P"-i^-i=
that
|" +
If
?i
multipleof 3, shew
(m-4)(w-5)
+
"~
(w-5)(w-6)(w-7)
1"^"
|3
^
H
(n-r-l)(w-r-2)...(tt-2r+ l)
u.
(-!)
"'""""'
1
or
"
is equal u
to
according
as
is odd
or
even.
29.
x
If
is
proper
shew fraction,
x5
1
that
x
xz
x3
'
Xs
1_^2
l_#6Tl_a?io
+.v2^1+^
l+.r10
CHAPTER
XXX.
Theory
407. In this
of
Numbers.
the word number
chapter we
to
shall
use
as
valent equi-
in A
number and
common
meaning
positive integer.
number
number which
which
prime;
unity is called
35 24
thus
besides itself and by other numbers n umber thus 53 is a prime number, a composite \ Two numbers is a compositenumber. which have no factor except unityare said to be prime to each other ; is prime to 77. We shall make
is divisible
of the following use frequent elementary of which arise of definition the o ut some so propositions, naturally be regarded axioms. of a prime that they may as 408.
(i) If
factor For since
a
number
divides
productbe
c.
a
and
is
prime to
in
one
b,it must
since is
a
is found in
be; but
all
prime
a a
b, no
found
is found
a is, a
b;
c.
therefore
the factors of
; that
divides
(ii)If
divide
one
prime
of the
a
number
divides
factors
of that
prime
must
number
divides
b", where
divide b.
b and c, it is prime If a is prime to each of the numbers (iii) divide b or c ; therefore factor of a can to the productbe. For no the productbe is not divisible by any factor of a, that is,a is prime to be. Conversely if a is prime to be,it is prime to eacli of the numbers Also if
a
b and is
c.
it is b, c, d, prime to each of the numbers is to if a prime any prime to the productbed... ; and conversely number. it factor of that is number, prime to every
...,
342
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
and of
a
prime to each other, every positive is prime to every positive integral power of b.
b
are
once
from
to
(iii).
b, the
fractions
=-
(v) If
is
prime
and
m
and
bo
j-
are
in their
ft
lowest terms,
two
if
and
are
any
terms, then
and
respectively.
The number
ofprimesis infinite.
if not, let p be the greatest prime number; then the ber, product2 3 5 7 11 .p, in which each factor is a prime numis divisible by each of the factors 2, 3, 5, .p ; and therefore
.
.
the
number
formed
by adding unity to
their
divisible number
p
:
by
in either
case
number,
rational
formula algebraical
+
can
represent prime
only.
bx
+
let the formula a possible, and suppose prime numbers only, is ]), so that the expression
p
"
ex2 + dx3
x
=
+
m
...
represent
of
that when
the value
bm
cm2
dm3
when
+
a
np the b (m bm
+ +
becomes expression
+ +
np)
+ +
+ {m + np)2
+
.
(m
+ np)3
...,
that
or
is,
cm2
p
dm3
a
of p, multiple
prime
A number
can
be resolved into
N
...
denote
the
number;
suppose
abed..., where
=
are b,c, d, Suppose also that JV prime numbers. Then other prime numbers. where a, /3, are y, 8,
...
a/3yS...,
abed...
a/3yS... ;
THEORY
OF
NUMHEHS.
hence But
must
a
is
prime,therefore
both
. .
must
divide
one
a
are a a prime ; therefore Hence bed. =/3yS.; and as before, must /? factors of bed... J and so on. Hence the
and
must
equal to
a.
be
of the
factors in
can
are a/3y"$...
and equal to those in abed..., into prime factors in one way. 412. Let
a,
therefore
iV
resolved
To N
find the
number
denote
are
b,c,
...
different
integers.Then
where N"=apbg"f..., suppose and p, q, r, are positive of the product it is clear that each term
the
number,
prime numbers
...
...
(l+a
is
a
a' +
+ b2 + ...+a'')(l+b
V) (I+
that
no
c2 +
...+cr)...
divisor of the
givennumber,
the
divisor ; hence the number that is, product, This includes 413.
can
and
+ l) (f"+l)fe+l)(r
as
itself.
To
find the
of ways factors.
number, and
in which
number composite
N" denote
are
the
a,
b, c...
different each
...
integers.Then
a'tyc'
. . .
where
r...
are
positive
.
(I+
is
a
a2
(1+ of)
b2 +
(1+ b'1)
c +
c2 +
cr)
.
divisor of
iV;
is
each way
in which
divisors corresponding but there are to two iV can be resolved into two factors ; hence the
number required
}(!"+l)" l)(r l)
+
+
This supposes
not
...
perfect square,
number.
one
so
that
one
at least of the
of resolution into factors way is x/iVxJNj and to this way there corresponds only one divisor of ways of resolution is the number JX. If we exclude this,
and
to this
we
must
add
the
one
way
JN
thus N/iV;
we
obtain
for the
number required
344
414. number other. As
one a can
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
To
find
the
number
which
are
composite
to each
prime
the
two
the
number
avbqcr
....
Of
factors
must
there would
a
in
one
factor and in
the two
must
factors would
one
power not be
of
occur
of the is be
factors the
other.
so on.
equal to -(1
+
of ways
can
resolved
factors;that is,the
where 2""1,
n
is
is
in N.
find the
of the
divisors
of a
the number
be denoted
before. as by apbqcr...,
of the
+
product ...+ar)(l+b+
b2 +
sum
...
(1 +a
is
a
a2+
(1 + b'1)
c +
c2 +
...+cr)...
equal to
this
of the divisors is
i ""+'_!
*
cr+1-l
"
the
sum
required
=
-1
b-l
c-1
Example
Since
1.
21600.
.
63
102
23
33
22
52 = 23
33
=
52,
the number
..
of divisors
,.
.
72 ;
the
sum
of the divisors
...
53-l
" "
"
"
2
=
5
o
"
"
Also 21600
or
can
prime
to each
other
in
23_1,
4 ways.
Example
We have
n
2.
If
is odd
shew
that
=
(n2-1) is divisibleby
24.
n(n2- l)
-
7i
{n- 1) (n+1).
even
Since
one
of them
-
is odd, n 1 and n+1 two consecutive are is divisible by 2 and the other by 4.
numbers
hence
Again n 1, n, n + 1 are three consecutive numbers ; hence is divisible by 3. Thus the given expressionis divisible by the 3, and 4, that is, by 24.
of them product of 2,
one
THEORY
OF
NUMBERS.
of 3 which is contained
34".
in
100. J
Example
3.
Find
the
highest power
of divisible by 3 as the number Of the first 100 integers, are as many 99. are times that 3 is contained in 100, that is,33 ; and the integers 3, G,9,... contain the factor 3 again,namely 9, 18, 27,... Of these, some 99, and their number is the quotient of 100 divided by 9. Some again of these last of integerscontain the factor 3 a third time, namely 27, 54, 81, the number the contains One number of 100 27. the them only,81, by quotient being factor 3 four times. the highest Hence power This article.
= required
33 + 11 + 3 + 1
48.
the next
example
is
case particular
of the theorem
in investigated
416.
To
of a prime
n iii
"
number
which
is
contained in In.
n
"
Let
the
contained greatestinteger
in
-,
Cv
2,
tJ
...
respectively
the numbers
Ct
CL
be denoted
by /
n.
--
among
3, 1,2,
the
...
there
are
( jwhich
-
contain
at least once,
namely
numbers
a,
...
there Similarly I
are
I[-A which
at least once;
contain and
so
a2 at least once,
on.
"
Hence
the
highest power
contained
in \n is
'""'")*'6)+~
417.
In the remainder
a
of this
n
chapter we
the
shall find it
venient con-
to express
by
symbol Jl(n).
r
To
prove
prodicctof
consecutive
is integers
by |r.
Pn
stand is
n
for the
; then
=
product of
...
consecutive
the integers,
least of which
and
"
Pn n(n+l)(n + 2) (u + r-l), Pn+l (n+l)(n + 2)(n+3) ...(n+r); nPn + rPH ; nPm+i (n+ r)P
=
.-.
1"
-P
=lsxr
=
times the
product of
"
1 consecul ive
integer-.
346
Hence \r
"
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
if the have
product of
"
1 consecutive
is divisible by integers
1, we
Pm+1-Pm
rM(\r-l)
M(\r).
P,
P
,
and |?',
. .
are
is divisible by \r 1,the productof r" 1 consecutive integers ; but the product of r consecutive integersis divisible by \r 2 ; is divisible by 1 product of every two consecutive integers of every three consecutive integers is divisible therefore the product 3 ; and so on generally. by 1 This
proposition may
means
also be
can
proved thus
shew
as
By
of Art.
in \n leave
+
as
416, we
as
an
that
to the student.
the
of every term If p is a prime number, the coefficient and last, is divisible by + b)p, exceptthe first q/*(a expansion
"With the of exception the first and
in p.
efficient co-
last, every
+
term
has
of the form
p(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r
'where this is
a
l)
may
have
any
is an expression divisor of
Now of
r \
it,and
since p
is
"
greater than
"
r
-
it cannot
r +
divide be
factor of \r ; that any divisible by |r. Hence the last is divisible 420.
-is, (p
1)(p
2)... (p
1) must
every
coefficient
by p. prime number,
d
.
If
p is
to prove
+
that dp
+
. . .
(a+
Write
+ c + + c +
a5 ...)p=
.
b1'+ cp the
M(p).
ft for b
; then
=
by
a*
. .
article preceding
(a+ py
Again
J3p (b+
= =
p' + M(p).
=
+ +
d+
)p (b+ y)psuppose
establish the
bp +
M{p).
we
in By proceeding
this way
may
result. required
348
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the least of multipliers
XXX.
a.
the numbers
2.
Find
the least
of multipliers
7623, 109350,
which respectively, 3. will make the
cubes. productsperfect
is even, shew that
Shew
any
number
and
its square
5.
If
2y2is divisible
by
9.
6.
Find
two
7. In how factors ? 8. 9.
10. Prove Prove Shew
the
number
7056
be resolved into
by
15. 6.
that
that every
divided
by
6 leave
the
same
remainder. If
n
is even, that is
n
shew
-
that
48.
Shew If
n
greaterthan 2, shew
a
n5
"
14. 15.
a
Prove If
n
of multiple
8.
prime number
n
greater than
3, shew
that ?i2 1 is
-
of multiple
16.
240
if n
by
17. Shew that the difference of the squares numbers greaterthan 6 is divisible by 24. 18. 19.
Shew Shew that
no
of any
two
prime
square
number
3?i
"
1.
or
9?i
9n"L
THEORY
OF
NUMBERS.
349
20.
is 0, 1
or
Shew
6.
that
if
cube
number
is divided
by 7, the
remainder
is both
square
and
cube,shew
that it is of the
number triangular
can
be of the form
that
3u
1.
23. If 2" 4- 1 is a prime number, shew divided by 2"i+l leave differentremainders. 24. Shew may be. 25. Prove form 8r + l. 26. Prove 13ft+l. 27.
or
when l2,22,32,...n2
that ax
+ a
and
a*
are
always even,
of every
odd
whatever
and
that every
even
power
number
is of the
of any
number
is of the form
I3)i
or
Prove
that
the
8th power
of any
number
is of the form
I7n
I7n"l.
a
prime
number
greaterthan
5, shew
that
n4
"
1 is
is any
prime
number
that
1 is divisible by 168.
by 33744
if
is
prime to 2, 3, 19
31. "**
"
2p+h
32. If p is divisible by pr. 33.
prove If that
m a
prime,and
prime
to p, shew
xp1~pV
1 is
is
a, b two
numbers
less than
m,
am-2 is
a
am~3b + am-4b'i+
+ bm~2
of multiple
m.
is any number, then any other number N may expressed in the form N q is the integral aq + r, where when N is divided quotient by a, and r is a remainder less than a. The number to which the other is referred, is sometimes called a, the modulus to any given modulus there are a different a ; and
a
423.
If
be
350
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
forms
value
of of
number Thus
iV, each
to modulus
more
form
to corresponding
we
different
r.
3,
have
numbers
3q +
2 is
In like
to modulus
numbe^
will be
one
2.
If
same
6,
two
when
to
divided
by
a.
In this
case
"
is
notation b
of Gauss
we
follows
:
=
(mod.a),or
(mod.a).
Either
of these formulae
is called
congruence.
425.
If b, c
pc
are
are
congruent with
respect to modulus
a, then
pb
and
?za, where
is
some
integer ;
])b
"
pc
"
pna
; which
proves
the
proposition.
426.
If
is
prime
a,
to
b, and
the
quantities
"
2a, 3a,
are
(b
1 )a
are
divided For if
by b,
all
different.
ma quantities
ma
when
two
same
of the
and
remainder
=
r,
so
that
qb +
-
m'a
+ q'b
(m
b divides
a
a 7/1') (q-q')b ;
(m
"
m')a
; hence
it must
divide
m
"
m', since
are
prime to
b. the
; but
this is
since impossible
and
m'
each
remainders
are
all
1, 2, 3,
of and since none different, by b, the remainders must be in b 1, but not necessarily
"
If
p.
is
prime
c +
to
b, and
2a,
is any
c
number, the b
"
terms
c,
a,
c +
(b
1)a,
THEORY
OP
NUMBERS.
351
remainders
as
when
divided
by
same
the
terms
of the series
c, c+
1, c+
2,
(b- 1),
therefore
the
mainders re-
though
not
in necessarily
will be 0,
427. wn7A
(o-tf
1, 2,
...
b.jb3, -(/"b.,
modulus
are
regard to
also For
a,
c", c},
...
^c.c.^
...
congruent.
by supposition,
b1-cl
where
nxa,
...
nlt n2, n3
.
are
...
".
...
which
proves We
a
the
proposition.
now
428.
can
giveanother proofof
number and N
Fermat's Theorem.
p, then N1'-1
"
If
a
p be
prime
are
prime
to
1 is
of p. multiple
Since JV and p
prime to
each
the other,
numbers
if, 2tf,3.V,
when divided
(p-l)iV (p-1)
(1), (2),
by p
1, 2, 3,
in this order. Therefore the product of though not necessarily in (1)is congruent to the product of all the terms all the terms in (2), p beingthe modulus. That
is, |^"1
N''~i and
\p
-
1 leave the
same
remainder
when
divided
by p
; hence
but
i^"l
is
prime
to
p ; therefore
it follows
that
JP"1
429. number
=
(j").
of less integers than
a
We
a
shall denote
the
number
and
""(13) 12;
(a) prime to it by the symbol "f" ; thus less than 18 and "/"(18)G; the integers
=
1 ; = "f"(2)
prime to
we
7, 11, 13,
17.
It will be
seen
that
here
352
430. each To shew that
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
if the numbers
=
.
.
a,
b,
.
c,
d,
. .
.
...
are
prime
to
other,
Consider written
the
product ab
line
; then
can
be
each in b lines,
a containing
1, a+l,
2a
a
2,
+ +
k,
a
a,
a
2, 2, 2,
+ +
k, k, k,
+ +
a, a,
+1,
2a
2a
2a
...
(b-l)a
...
(b 1)a
-
a.
which
prime to
of this column
no divisor,
number contains
prime
to
a
Now
the first
row
""(a)numbers
prime
of which is
""(a)vertical columns \ therefore there are is prime to a ; let us term suppose every
which
vertical column
an
beginswith
of which 426 [Art. b. when
k is
one
of these.
A.
divided
by
hence Cor.];
the
"/" (a)vertical columns in which every contain ""(b) integers prime to b ; hence in the which are prime to a and (a) cj" (b)integers "f"
of the
.
also to
by and therefore
to ab ; that is
.
"f"(a)."t"(b)."t"(c)."}"(d)....
less of positive integers than
a
denote
the
are
number, and
different the
suppose
that
JV
apbqcr
r
...
b, c,
...
...
prime numbers,
not
and
positive integers.Consider
1, 2, 3,
ap"
a,
p, q, natural
a are
...
bers num-
1, ap,the
...
only ones
-
prime to
2a, 3a,
THEORY
OF
NUMBERS.
353
4"(av) a"
=
a'-'
=a?(l- -^
.
Now
.
c\ ap,b'\
.
...
are
primeto
. . .
each
other ;
that
is,
^W
-H)-H)-H)^""K)H)H)iir(i-i)(i-J)(i
=
and
sum
of all the
which integers
are
less than
is any integer less than N and less than N and integer prime to it. Denote the S
=
prime to it,then
and their
sum
N-x
is also
an
integers by 1,p,
l+p
+ q + r+... +
q, r,
...
by S; then
+
{N-l),
of 0 the seriesconsisting
(N) terms.
the
reverse
Writingthe seriesin
S
.-.
=
order,
+
{N-l)
(N-p)
=
(N-q) + (N-r)+...+r
...
q+p
l;
by addition,
2S
N + N + N+
.-.
to "p(N) terms;
$N"p(N).
the not primeto it is that number of
432.
From
the
are
which integers
less than
'-'(".4"("-i)(":3("i)
tli at
is,
N
a
N
b
N
c
N
ao
N
ac
N
. . .
N
+
+
....
_++_+..._
be
abc
givesthe
a,
number
of the
integers
la, da,
" ...
.a
(t
N which
H.
contain
II. A.
as
factor;the
term
"
givesthe number
23
of
ao
354
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
N
the and
...
-j ao
ab, which
ab
contain reckoned
ab
as
factor,
once
Further, every
each
is integer
once,
and
multipleof
will appear once of b,and once the multiples and is thus reckoned the
"
among
the
N
"
among
jo
which "
"
are
of a, multiples which
are
b, c respectively; among
the
JV
"
iV
, =-
terms
ab'
and
ac'
be the -jabc
among
1,
each
cases
of multiple may
once,
and
once
be discussed.
433.
"
Theorem.] If [Wilson's
have
-p
be
prime number, 1
\p
is divisibleby p.
By
=
we
'
^z^ipD(p
tlie 1
$y-"
Jp-l)(p
and
2)(p-3){p_irl+ top_lterms.
each of is of the form
...
by
Fermat's
Theorem
(p-2)p~\ (p-2"y~\
p-l
=
M(p)
(P~l)(P~2) +fl-(p-l)
+ +
-...top-
terms!
=M(p)
=
{(i-iy-"-(-iy-"}
1, since p
+
"
M(p)
"
1 is
even.
Therefore
I p
(p).
This has 1
+
a
theorem is only true when p is prime. For suppose p factor q; then q is less than p and must divide \p 1 ; hence of q, and therefore not a multiple of p. \p 1 is not a multiple
" "
Wilson's result
Theorem Art.
may
also be in the
proved
without
using
the
from quoted
314, as
article. following
356
435.
can
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
be
the
of properties
numbers
Example
Let
xp
-
If p is
prime number,
by f(x); then
=
-
xp
is divisible
by p.
be denoted
{xP
x)
. . .
=pxp~l
=
*p"2 +P"f~01)
+
J.
"
+px
of p, multiple
a
ifp is
prime [Art.419.]
.-.
f(x
1)=f(x) +
of p. multiple also
+ l); but is/(.r
If
is divisibleby^i, so therefore/^)
/(2)
2*5~ 2
(1+ 1)^-2,
is divisible 419]; therefore / (3) [Art. is true so on; thus the proposition
of p when p is prime and this is a multiple divisible by^, and is therefore /(4) by p,
universally.
This furnishes another 1 is a it follows that xp~J
-
proof of
Fermat's
theorem,for by
if
is
prime to
p,
multipleof p.
-
Example
Let 52n+2 then
-
2.
Prove
-
that 52,l+2
24/i
25 is divisible
576.
24?i
25 be denoted
=
by f(n);
52.52w+2-24n-49;
(24n+ 25)
-
.-.
f(n+l)
24u
49
see
if f(n) is divisible by 576, so also is /(u + 1); but by trial we Therefore is true when fore that the theorem n = l, therefore it is true when n=2, thereit is true when ?i 3, and so on; thus it is true universally.
=
The
above
result may
also be
-
provedas
25M+1 25
-
follows
-
52n+2
2in
25
24;i
25
-24rc-25 + 24)" (1
.
25 + 25
24 + M
(242) 24n
-
25
576n +
iW(576)
i)/(576).
EXAMPLES.
1. 2. 3. Shew Shew Shew Shew that 10n + 3 that 2 that 4 that 8
. .
XXX.
+ 5 is divisible
5 is a
b.
4"
.
+ 2
by
9. 24. 9.
7n+ 3
6n + 5n
5H
+
of multiple
when
divided
by
24
20 leaves remainder
4.
7n + 4"
+ 2
is of the form
(2r 1).
-
THEORY
OF
NUMBERS.
357
a
5. 6.
If p is prime,shew
that 2
\p-3+
l is
of p. multiple
Shew Shew
7.
2''-;--l.
highest power
+* is a + 52'1
contained
in
2r
is
8. 9.
Shew Shew
+ that 34'1
of multiple
243
14.
that 3**+6+160"a
56n-
of the coefficients of the odd powers of x 10. Prove that the sum when is a prime number in the expansionof (l+"r+#2 + #3 + .r4)n""1, n than is other 5, divisible by n.
prime
number
greater than
7, shew
that
n"-l
is
is
an
odd
number,
prove
that
is
prime number,
shew
(H-a?)*-*
of p.
that the coefficients of the terms less by unity than some tiple mul-
of the (p-l)th powers If p is a prime,shew that the sum of wherein the numbers arithmetical in ence differcommon progression, any p of p. is not divisible by p, is less by 1 than a multiple
14.
15.
to 91.
Shew
and b
are
both
prime
16.
If p is
prime,shew that
-2r 2r 1 \p
1 is divisible by p.
17. If n" 1, n + 1 are both prime numbers greater than 5, shew that n(?i2-4) is divisible by 120, and ?i2("i2 Also shew + 16)by 720. that n must be of the form 30" or 30^ + 12. 18.
,
Shew
.
that the
highestpower
nr"
nr
n-
of
r-
which
is contained
in
\nr~1
1
.
is
equal
19.
to 1
number
l(p-D a2
-
a
"
prime
a
by p.
of the congruence
20.
Find
the
solution general
98a;1=0
(mod. 139).
358
21.
a
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
given
sum
of the
squares
less than
prime
to it is
?(i--30-J)0-9-+?ci-."a-.)
and the
sum
of the
cubes
is
?(i-3(x-])(t-9-+?a-^ci-"a
a,b,c...being the different prime
22. divisible
If jt? and q
are
factors
of iV. that
any
two
positiveintegers,shew
\pq is
23.
the square
of the
given by
squares
r-
are
also
triangularare
of
x
powers
in the
are
pansion ex-
of
L
"
an"^ ^hat
2"
numbers
x
which
also
\)X -f"X
pentagonalby
the
in the
expansion of
1_
24.
less than
Shew
N
that
the
sum
of the
fourth
powers
of all the
numbers
and
prime
to it is
-"*)..., -gg(l-"*)(l-i")(l
a,
different
prime
factors
of A".
prime
of integerswhich (iV)is the number (f" and if x is prime to JV,shew that it,
are
less than
JV and
^^26. If
(mod. JV).
of
...
dv d2,ds,
denote
the
divisors
...
number
=iV.
JV,then
Shew
also that
(!)r-; "t"
"
9~0(3) r1;
"
fi
0(5)T^
"
"----
odinf.
=
"
-?~l
kJ.
CHAPTER
XXXI.
The
General
Theory
of
Continued
Fractions.
*-436.
Continued
are
In
Chap. xxv.
we
have
We
where a a 2' 3' ",+ %+ and a^ is either a positive positive integers, integeror zero. shall now consider continued fractions of a more general
a, +
. . .
Fractions
of the form
type.
*-i37.
~'
The
most
general form
where
of
continued
fraction
is
a1
=*=
"2
"
"i rZl
*
'
""""
*,"K
"""
represent
a3
=*=
any
"
"
"
are
components
to
of
the
a,
continued fraction. in which in which To the
a2
We
attention
two
cases;
(i)that
that (ii)
the
each
component
is
positive ;
*438.
convergents to
the successive
bi
The first three
b2
b3
6,
AVe formed a3, and
manner.
see
a2bx
a3.a2bi+b3.bl
convergent may be of the second convergent by numerator the first by b3 and adding the results
denominator may be formed in like of the third
together ;
360
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Suppose that
the
successive
numerators
convergents
be
...
are
formed
in
let the similar way; denominators and the Assume that the
denoted
by
law
formation
holds
nth
vergent con-
; that
In
is, suppose
-a
nl
p
n
"
+
, \
b p n-l
"
", 2"
q J- n
=a
n-Ln
+
"
, 1
bq h-Ih"2
_.
The
a
(n+l)thconvergent
" "
differs from
; hence
the
wth
only
in
having
in the
+ \
place of
a
n
the
If therefore
?" ^,=a
we see
we
put
+b
,,p
,,
nP
= +,
+,q
+b
,,q
,,
and denominator of the (u+ l)th that the numerator convergent of the follow the law which was to hold in case supposed of the third convergent ; ?tth. But the law does hold in the case fourth and holds the it for hence on so ; ; therefore it holds
universally.
*-439.
In the
case
of the continued
fraction
b,
"1
we
-
b2
a2
~
b3
CC3
~
may
prove Vn
that
=
anPn-l
kPn-*
Qn
""?"-!
k"ln-2
',
result which
by
from
that of the
article preceding
fraction
h
a1
we
K
a2
+
K
"3
+
have
seen
that
J-
=a
n
nl
ii
"
,+bp
n-L
"
", 2'
q J-n
^a
n-ln
"
,+bq n-J-n"2 1
a.
GENERAL
THEOHY
OF
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
Ml
?"+
but
\9n
Qn-J'
and is therefore
less than
proper
fraction:
hence
"
1
"
"
is numerically ft
".+1
"
"
"
"
and
,
is of
sign. opposite
335, we
In
In-}
as By reasoning
in Art. order
of and
an
odd
shew that every convergent may is greater than the continued fraction,
order is less than the continued every convergentof an even fraction ; hence every convergentof an odd order is greaterthan order. every convergent of an even Thus
2--'^ ^
-
is
and positive
1
less than
"ss=l ^2"
-
; hence
32/1+] 9 an
2 2/1 + 1 2/1
"
2ft*-J 2*2/1
1
2/1 +
2 2/1-1
Also
?*=i
-
2---1 is
22/1
and positive
less than
^=*
-
"=s
1 22/1-2
"
hence
22/1
"
22/1
"
2/1
2/1
"
2/1
2 2/1
"
the
convergents of
fraction
even
an
odd
order
are
all
greater than
the
vergents con-
continued
an
but
are
order
fraction
increase. continually
Supposenow
the
of
convergents of an odd order must tend and the convergents of an order must even
finite limit,
to
some
also tend
finite limit ; if these limits are equalthe continued fraction tends definite limit ; if they are not equal, the odd convergents to one tend this
two to
one
and limit,
the
even
convergentstend
be said to be
to
different
fraction may
fraction is the
the continued
that
limit of the
odd,and
the other
362
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
*441.
To shew
fraction
ax
+
a2 is
a3 +
has
value if definite
zero.
the limit
when of rf""n+I
is infinite
greaterthan
The
continued
when
is
is equal to
zero.
9n+l
Now
fPn n+lffn-l
?"
Pn-1
_
?"+!
whence
we
W"
""-!"
obtain
Pjt+X ""
_
(_ 1 )-l
"2n+l
But
k.-i?
k.-M? n+lin-1
+ li+1 !7u
^B+lS'n-l an+l Qn
k^g
an+lqn
an(
a.
"i
K?-i
""""-*)"*""+!
_
^n+A^-2
.
"n+lSn-l
^n+lSn-l
can
^n+1
b^xqK
if the limit of
"+
be
hence negative;
n+1
is
greater than
zero
so
; in which
case
the limit of
-J**^
Qn+i
is less than
m
and
therefore
of proper and
^"i_ -^ "a
q"+i
qn
productof
an
infinite number
zero :
fractions,
-"-
therefore be equal to
limit ; which proves
that
is,-^
?"+:
tend
to
qn
the
proposition.
fraction
n~
" "
.For
in example, V
3+5
a. a
2n+l
"
Lim
-f-^-1 Lim*"+i
=
7\,2 (n+iy
.
-' =
and
fraction tends to
definite limit.
364
Cor. order of tend
to
a
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
If the number
an
vergents form
magnitude;
fraction must
cannot
unity.
*443.
the formula
+ "*nPn-i
hPn-t*
in
9n
a"n-,
"."_""
many of the
a vergent^ con-
we
may
always
as we can
determine
succession
as
please. In
be found
certain
cases,
however,
general
expression
Example.
"
5-
5-
the numerators
are
connected
by
Pn
Let
"
+ "Pn-2' 5p"-!
"
"
"
+pnxn~1+
we
have
S=
Pl +
1
-
(P2~5Pl)X
5x + 6a;2 =-^ ;
are
18 l-3x 2'1"1= 6
1
-
12
2x
'
hx + Qx-
whence
if Similarly
we
pn
18
3"-1
12
(3" 2").
-
S'
qx + q" +
+...+ q3x*
=
+ qnxn~x
find
^=___ gn= 9
3*-1 4
i___r_;J
2*-1
=
whence
S'^1
2'l+]
.
"""
yw_
~
6(3"-2w)
3n+1
-
ffn
2?l+1
'
This
method of
will
n.
only succeed
Thus in the shew the
7-2
when
case
a"
and
bn
are
constant
of the the
continued
numerators
fraction
of the of
are x
...
we
may
that
a+
a+
are convergents
successive the
powers
in the
expansionof
the
denominators
ft
-I- ti/Y*
of
in the
of expansion
^ 1
7-2
~ ~
OjX
"
ox
GENERAL
THEORY
OF
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
305
*444.
the student in
For the is
cases special
of the general values of pn and qn investigation Finite works to referred on Differences ; it is only be found by Algebra. The that these values can will sometimes
12
following method
Example.
The
same
be found
3
="
useful.
Find
the value
of
-"
1 +
z +
5"
o
law of formation
; then
holds un
=
for pn and
+ nun_2,
-
qn;
let
us
either of them
or
nun_x
=
-
un
(n+ 1)""_!
i^j
-
(uB_, ?wn_2).
-ra("u_2
Similarly,
RUtt_s=
"n_3).
whence
obtain we by multiplication,
un-(n
The first two
l)un_1 (-iy^(u2-3ui).
=
2
,
convergents
+
are
T ;
hence
-A
pn-(n
Tims ^n
7i
l)Pn^=(-l)n-\
Pn-1
m
(" !)?l-l
lra+1
0n
gn-1
_
(~
+ l
iw+l
ffn-1
to
I)""2 j"+ l
'
At!
_
Art
=
(~ l)"-8
In
9"-2
n
-
In
|n-l
In
In
Ps_Pi
13
?3
_
"h
2
|2'
1
2
[3'
3i
'2 2
2'
|2'
whence, by addition
|n + l
12
1
, =
|3+|4
1
i"77
Lit1.
jn+1
'
7a
1
+
,
n+1
1-7^+1
(- l)n~a
n
|2 |3 |1
+ 1
By making
we infinite,
obtain
2n which
is therefore the value
e)
e-V
of the
given expression
366
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
*445.
If every component of
"
"
"
"
"
"
...
is
+ 3jj and
ao+
a3 +
proper
denominator,the
continued
For
if
possible, suppose
and
continued
are
fraction
is
com-
mensurable
then
equalto
-^
XL
A and B
positive integers ;
fraction
-7
*"m , where
; hence
*
"
^...
f
is
,
*""
"
suppose.
Now
a
A, B, "x, 6X
are
and f integers
therefore positive,
where
C is
the
positive integer.
b
=
"
Similarly J
fraction
"
-=
*-=
B
"*"
a2+f
*. . .
fa denotes
infinite continued
; hence
"
S^
0
*
=
a3+
7*
suppose
so
on.
; and
as
C
,
"=
D
, ,
5
,
...
Again, -7
than
"
jy
a
are
proper
tractions
..
, ; tor
-j
-*
is
less
which
,
is
proper
fraction
"=
is less than
ax less than
"
as
-^ O
is
; and
so
on.
Thus in
A, B, C, D,
...
series of positive integers infinite Hence the absurd. magnitude; which is form
an
commensurable. if
some
above
of the
components
a
providedthat from and proper fractions, all the others are proper fractions.
For
after
fixed
suppose
that
"
and
n
succeeding components
are
we
beginningwith
the
k is ^
it
by k, then
to completequotient corresponding
n
"
in
and
"~2
.
hn-2
GENERAL
THEORY
OF
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
3G7
This
cannot
be
commensurable
unless
V
"
n_1
=
P l-^^
"
and
this
tfn-l condition
P
?"-"
=
cannot
hold
unless
P^*t
9n-4
;ultl
?n-a
H= finally P
"
?n-3
Qn-z
; that must
is
""60 0, which
=
is impossible ; hence
the
%
.
?,
be incommensurable.
1
1
"
givenfraction
*446.
//*eirary component of
"
"~
"
*...
""
?'s
proper
with integral numerator fraction denominator,and if the the continued fraction value of with any component infinite beginning the fraction is less than unity, is incommensurable. The demonstration is similar to that of the article. preceding
ai and
""
aa
a3
EXAMPLES.
XXXI.
a.
1.
Shew
\
axPn
=
_h
a22J
h_
'
a3Qn
=
anPn
~ -
^nPn
into
an9.n-\~
"?i?n
-
"
2.
Convert "
m
|
'^-
continued
fraction with
unit
rators. nume-
3.
Shew
that
"
(2)
V*+6="+^ ^
"r. V^="-2|_
fraction
" " " "
.......
4.
In the continued
"
"
....
a%~
the numerator
5.
in harmonical
1 1
shew progression,
1
that
"2
^"2^
2^
2~="
2^
SJ'
368
6.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Shew
that
+
V
and
cc+
"
"
...
2a+
:
" "
2a +
J
-
[a V
1
2a1
2a-
...
2a2,
(
7.
\/
+
s
2"+
2a+"7\
...
) (a
"7T2a-
o^--)=a~ 2a"7
2a2-
2a'2
In the continued
fraction
b
a+
b
a+
,
b
a+
shew
that
pn
b that number
+ x
6an
b
-
bqn
1-
apn
+ 1
%n
8P
b
=
ax
"
8.
.v
Shew
"
a+
a+
a+
6.-^7 ax
"
"
px
^n
beingthe
of
components, and
k2
"
a,
/3the
roots
of the
equation
ak
"
0.
9.
Prove
that the
productof
the continued ,7
fractions
J_
6+
is
L
c+
"
_L
d+
A_
a+
'"'
_1_
-c
J_
-6+
J_
-a+
_x_
-0?+
'"'
equalto
Shew
1
.
that
1
4 5-
9 13-
64
25-
10.
1-
(?i2-l)2
"2+("+l)2
^2~1
2" + l~
11.
-L JL
15-
_"_
7-
_?*fo+3)
'
12.
+ l"
?i
+ 2
I"
!
"
L_
!" 13.
14 36
"*
48 5-
-2=1
w+l2/i + 2 n+
=.-1.
14.
1+
3.3
2(e2-l)
e2+l
2+
3.4
3+
3.5
15.
1+
3(n + 2)
n+
_'6(2e3+l)
"
2+
3+
5e3-2
16.
If
u,
1
v,
Ucy a
Uo
"*
e"
+ 26
"f
bein" formed by takingthe denominator of the numerator and the sum and denominator of the preceding and denomifraction for its numerator nator shew respectively, that
u
"=**"=
"
CONVERSION
OF
SERIES
INTO
CONTINUED
FRACTIONS.
309
17.
y'H+1
y.
'
is
r+lr+l-
r+l-
"*+1-l
18.
"
%
a.,+ l-
%
a3+l-
+ lcij
'
19.
the (2m v
Shew
to convergent
"
is
equal to
"
to 1 )lh convergent ; 6
"
"
"
"
1+2+1+
2 +
20.
Shew
convergentto
n
is
5-
2-
1-
5-
2-
1-
5-
3"i + l
3-d e-2
'
21.
Shew
that 2+ that
e
3+
4+
hence shew
lies between
Conversion
*417.
of
Series
into
Continued
Fractions.
Put
+ lb) + xr) (ur (ur+
=
then
uur+
x ,
u u
r
r+
24
370
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Similarly,
11111
"
1
+
"="
uy
" " -
"
"
ux
u2
u3
ux
us
x2
ux
uxUQ
ux
2
u2
xa
12
ux and
so on
-
'
ux
u2"
u2
u3
; hence
generally
Example
1.
1
Express
x
as
x2
+
(-!)n
a0a1a2...an
1 an + Vn
,._
a0 Put
a0ax
a^a.^
1 an
x
anan+l
-
then
+ yn)(an+l x) (an
anan+1 ;
a"x *
"'"
Un= an+1
1
"
"
-
Hence a0
1
.
aux
a0ax X2 1
=
a0 + y0
X
a0+
1
X
a^-x
1
=
-
X
"
Again,
a0
a^
fl0"V2
a0
a0 \aj a0x
axaj
a0
+ Vi) a0(a1-
"o+
a0+
X
ax
a2-x'
^'^
X2
1
"
and
generally
a0
...+(- l)n
a0a1a.2...an a0x ao
+
o,q(Ii a^a-^ac,
a^
+
an-\x
x
"h
a2
an~x
Example
We
The fraction have
2.
continued fraction.
/""3
" "
.T---
/y"2 +
"j*4 +
simply deduced
xx
+
from
the
continued
x2
+
xs a3
"!
"2
a4
372
HIGHER
ALGEBBA..
^EXAMPLES.
Shew
1111
XXXI.
b.
that
1 + + u2 +
1.
UQ Wj
(-l)Jl
"
,.
m3
1
un
ic02
Mj
-
ut2
+ U.2 ?""!
-
u2n_ n-1
Un n
~
"0 +
1 -+"n
UQ +
lvn-l
X
"
X2
+ + +
a?
-iCt-v "JI CIqCC
"
" "
2.
ClfiCCt
Cl^Qz-tCto
J.
Ctry.0
iX-xJu
^n
*^
r"\
r
~~
r+1
r
?' + r
3.
?"
-
"~
+ 1-
+ 2...
.2^ 4.
1111
" " " "
^"^
-.
-.
"
to
quotients.
9
n+l
5.
r
,
1-4-1"41114
+
11 l+ s + + 3 2
"
n2
?i+l 1114
+
1-
3-
5-
7-
2n+l
?i4
11
6.
l2
ex
i"+oa+ ' 22
x
=
(n+ 1)2
x
1-
l2 + 223x
n*+(n+Yf'
2x 2x
7.
l+
1x
+ S-
x+4la
1111
8.
a
ab
abc
-i
abed
5",
...=
"
a+
b-l+
1
r
c"
1+
d"l
7-3
1
-
1 ...=i+
r
r5
"
9.
l+r
-i
?**
"
"
rn r3 + 1
"
,5 , , r5 + 1
yr-r 1 r +
"""
"
' '
'
ax+
u.
shew if that
a2+
a3
an
1+
"x +
"2-f "3+
"("_ H-l
p=4 a+
b+
,44c+
P
" '
q
c
=
b+
a
c+
d+
'
(a+
1
1 +
o
Q)
Q.
\...
12.
tinued
Shew
fraction
that
9i
9*
" "
is equal to the
q",
a*. are
con-
M2
/""
Ms
/""
Mt where
....
#.,
the
...
denominators
of the successive
convergents.
CHAPTER
XXXII.
PROBABILITY.
449.
b ways,
or
If
an
event
can
of these
ways
"
is
the
and
,
that
of its failing is G
'
a +
b For
instance,if in
that
a
there lottery
are
and prizes
a
25
blanks,
7
"
the
chance
person
holding1
"
is prize
of not
winning is
for clear the
Oa reason
mathematical the
a
definition of
:
bability pro-
be made
can
by
in
event
happen
happen
in b
assert that the we can likely, ways, and all these ways are equally of its happening is to the chance of its failing chance as a to b.
Thus k is
if the
an
chance
of its
undetermined
happening is represented by ka, where then the chance of its failing constant,
=
represented by kb. chance of happening + chance of failing k (a + b) .-. Now is certain to happen or to fail ; therefore the sum the event of the chances of happening and failing must represent certainty. If therefore we take to a s our unit, we have certainty agree
will be 1
=
+ b), (a v '
or
"
.-.
the chance
will
happen
is
a
b b
and
the chance If p
will not
happen
is
a
+
an
Cor.
the
event,
374
451.
an
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Instead is
a
T
of
,
that saying
the chance
of the
happeningof
are
a
event
it is sometimes
event
,
to b
in
favour of the
452. The
a
or
b to
againstthe
definition of
in probability
in
which
to occur, and of likely beingequally that the event, then the probability
will
happen
.
is
and
,
the
that probability
it will not
happen
with
is 1
Example 1.
an
is the chance of throwing a number from 1 to 6? whose faces are numbered die ordinary
What
greaterthan 4
of these two
are
the die
can
and fall,
Example 2.
draws
3 at random
From
;
what
the odds
man
be drawn is 9"73, 3 balls can of ways in which and The total number is 3 black balls therefore the chance of of ways the number drawing 5C3; of drawing 3 black balls
~*C%~9.8.7
Thus the odds
=
'
42
againstthe
event
are
37 to 5.
Example 3.
throw with two
Find dice.
the chance
of
throwing at
x
least
one
ace
in
single
The
number possible
of
cases
is 6
6, or 36.
die may be associated with any of the 6 numbers An ace on one the on each other die,and the remaining 5 numbers die the first be on ciated assomay with the ace on the second die ; thus the number of favourable cases is 11. Therefore the
requiredchance is
" .
3b
Or
we
may
reason
as
follows
There are 5 ways in which each die can be thrown not to givean as so throws of the dice will That the chance hence exclude 25 two ace ; aces. is, 25 is ^ ; so that the chance of throwing one of not throwing one or more aces 36
ace
at least
is
do
or
^, oo
PROBABILITY.
375
than 15 in
one
Example
3 dice.
4.
Find
the chance
of
throwing more
throw
with
A throw amounting to 18 must be made up of 6, G, G, and this can occur in 3 ways; occur 16 may in 1 way; 17 can be made up of G, G, 5 which can in be made up of G, G, 4 and 6, 5, 5, each of which arrangements can occur
3 ways.
Thereforo
the number
of favourable
cases or
is 10.
is 63,or
21G;
=
108
in which there are 3 Example 5. A has 3 shares in a lottery in which there is 1 prizeand 6 blanks ; B has 1 share in a lottery is to ZJ's as 1G to 7. shew that A's chance of success
A
and prizes
2 blanks
:
may
draw draw
in prizes
2
1 way
2
x
m
he may
and prizes
1 blank
in
"^" JL "
6 ways 5
draw
prizeand
2 blanks
in 3
-r-^r ways
JL
"
of these numbers
prize. Also
he
can
of ways
or
in which
;
can
84 ways
success
"
84
r=
"
21
Z""schance
of
1 C
success
is
clearly
-
B's
chancer"
"
:
L
16
Or
we
thus: 20
or
20 ways J
;
'
"-.
84
or
"
21
of
success
-"
=
"
-".
ZL
453. of which
a, to
Suppose that
one are
there
are
number
can,
occur
of events
A, B, C,...,
that these
must, and
the numbers
onlyone
; also suppose
b,c,
occur
...
events
in which of ways respectively is of that each these ways likely can equally of eacli find event. t o it is the chance required ;
happen, and
The and
total number
of
is
+ c+
...,
is a;
hence
the chance
376
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
that A
will happen rr is
a
is
a
+ c+
:
...
-.
and
so
on.
c +
...
given it will be seen that in Probability the solution of the easier kinds of questions requires than a knowledgeof the definition of Probability, nothing more tions. of the laws of Permutations and Combinaand the application
From the
exampleswe
have
EXAMPLES.
1.
In
a
XXXII.
two
a.
throw single
with
of
throwing
; find the
six. five, (2) (1) 2. Prom are a pack of 52 cards two chance that one is a knave and the other drawn
a
at random
queen.
3. A bag contains 5 white, 7 black,and 4 red balls: find the all white. chance that three balls drawn at random are
two
should
be
one
is two-thirds
events must happen : giventhat the chance of the that of the other, find the odds in favour of the other.
are
If from a pack four cards will be the four honours of the same
6.
that
they
that
7.
Thirteen persons
one
take their
it is five to
two against
are
8.
one
There
can,
the odds
9.
and dice,
throwing 4
with
one
8 die,
with two
10.
In
are
the chance
missingcards
should
be
from
each suit.
9 blanks ;
:
has 3 shares in a lottery and 3 prizes containing B has 2 shares in a lottery blanks 2 and 6 containing prizes their chances of success.
A
11.
compare
12.
Shew
of
throwing six
with
4, 3,
or
2 dice
are respectively
1 ; 6 ; 18,
PROBABILITY.
377
There are three works,one of 3 volumes, of 4, one consisting the other of 1 volume. They are placed on a shelf at random ; works are all together prove that the chance that volumes of the same
13.
and
3
18
140
'
14.
of
-1 and B
throwinga
15.
The what In
a a
dice ; if A
throws
row
are Clifton
vowels
come
in
16.
held
hand
at whist
what
is the chance
that
kings are
by
] specified player
17.
a
line
There are 4 shillings and 3 half-crowns placed at random in of the extreme shew that the chance coins being both halfis
-
crowns
case
of
and shillings
half-crowns.
We
have
in the
or
languageof
more
considered
in connection
event.
with
each
other,
jointoccurrence
For
Confound
have
a
and made of
5 white bag containing 8 black balls, and two each of three balls,are drawings, from it successively. If we wish to estimate the chance
we
example, suppose
chawing
In such
first 3 white
a
and
event.
then
3 black
w^e balls,
should
be
with dealing
compound
case
the
result of the
second
drawing might
or
the result of the first. If the balls on might not be dependent after not are replaced beingdrawn, then if the first drawinggives the ratio of the black to the white balls remaining 3 white balls, is greater than if the first drawing had not given three white; of drawing 3 black balls at the second trial thus the chance is affected by the result of the first. But if the balls are placed reafter beingdrawn, it is clear that the result of the second drawingis not in any way affected by the result of the first. We
are
definition following
Events the
occurrence
said to be dependent or independent according as of one does or does not affect the occurrence of the
are
others.
Dependent events
sometimes
said to be
contingent.
378
456.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
If there of which
are are
the respective events independent babilitie prothat both will known, to find the probability
two
happen in a ways and fail in b ways, all these cases beingequallylikely ; and suppose that a' in and fail in b' ways, the second event happen ways may all these ways beingequally likely. Each of the a + b cases may be associated with each of the a + b' cases, to form (a + b) (a! + b') to occur. compound cases all equally likely In aa' of these both events happen,in bb' of them both fail, and in a'b in ab' of them the first happens and the second fails, of them the first fails and the second happens. Thus
the may
aa
first event
is the chance
that both
events
(a+ b){a'+b')
bb'
is the chance that both
events
happen
fail ;
(a+ b)(a+b')
ab'
is the chance
(a b)(a'+b')
+
the second
fails ; a'b is the chance that the first fails and the second
(a b)(a'+b')
+
happens.
Thus p and if the chances respective that the both
case
of two will
of any that if plf p2, p3, to see are of independent events number
...
the will is
separately happen,
pxp2p3
...
the that
chance
that
they
will
all
happen
; the chance
fail is 2\Po
case.
(1
"
the two first will happen and the rest for any other ticular P3)(1 "pj'- " and similarly par-
457.
one
If p is the chance will happen in that an event in t he chance it will that cession trial, happen any assignedsucof r trials is pr ; this follows from the preceding article
'
by supposing
P1=P2=P3
To is of find the chance
we
=
=Pone
that
some
at
least of the
events
events
some
will fail
one
happen
proceed thus : the chance that all the and except in this case (1-px)(1-]).,) (1 -p3) the events must chance happen ; hence the required
-.-j
is
380
events
concurrence
can
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the
of probability
their
-.
("+ o) (a +
Thus if p is the
tr o
"
of the first event, and p' the probability the probability that the second will follow, probability contingent of the
concurrence
of the two
events
is pp
Example 1. In a hand at whist find the chance holds both the king and queen of trumps.
Denote
13
that
specified player
king is clearly
fall
is
the
playerby A
;
can
then
the chance
that A
has the
^;
13 of which
to A.
that,when
can
he has the
king,he
can
then
m
ol
*
be dealt in 51 ways,
13 12
x
12 of which
1
Therefore
, the chance
required u
"
52
ol
---
17
Or
The
we
might reason
as
follows
of ways in which the king and the queen can be dealt to A is 12. number of permutations of 13 things 2 at a time, or 13 equal be of ways in which the king and queen And similarly the total number can is dealt 52 51. number
to the
. .
13
Therefore
the chance
* .
12
=
"
52.51
"
""
17
as
before.
made from a bag conTwo are taining drawings,each of 3 balls, 5 white and 8 black balls,the balls not being replacedbeforethe second that the first drawing will give 3 white and trial: find the chance the second 3 black balls.
Example 2.
be drawn in
in
13C3 ways
5.4 13
5C3ways;
12
. .
11
5
143
1.2"
When
2 white 3
1.2.3
and
been
drawn
and
be drawn
;
10C3 ways
8C3ways
trial
m
8.7.6
.
10.9.8_ 1_
~
"1.2.3
therefore the chance
of the
'
1.2.3 event
15
'
compound
5
x
=-=
7
=
7 429
.
143
15
The
student should
compare
1, Art. 457.
PROBABILITY.
381
ttvo
or
459.
which
the
sum
are
more different ways that it wilt happen is of the chances of its happeningin these different ways. an
If
event
can
happen in
the mutuallyexclusive,
chance
This is sometimes
out immediately
as regarded
self-evident
proposition arising
may, ever, how-
of the
follows
definition of
:
It probability.
be
provedas
Suppose the
concur
event
can
happen
in
two
Avays
which
cannot
; and
let
"=* be
,
the chances
of the
happening of
the
event
in these
are
there
Then of bfi2 out two cases respectively. ways the in which in the event first way, happen axb2 may in which the
event
concur.
and
and there
a0bJways
are
may Therefore
to
happen
in the
or
in the
second;
the
two
favourable
hence of the
chance
will
happen
in
one
other
ways is
+ a2bx axb2 a_x
a,
bh
12
6,
bf
the number of
clusive ex-
if an
happen in
exclusive,and
---Pn are different ways the prorespectively, bability of these that it will happen in some is one ways
Pi+Pl+Pa*
Example
with two
9
can
+Pnthrowing 9
at
1.
Find
the chance
of
least in
throw single 4
dice.
be made up in 4 ways, and thus the chance of
throwing 9 is throwing
10 is
10
can
be made
up
in 3 ways, and
of
^ 2
11
can
be made
up in 2 ways,
of
throwing 11 is-12 is
12 Now
can
up in 1 way, of
and
of
throwing
9 is the
-^
throwinga
number
less than
sum
of these
separate chances
.*.
= "V/.
.
ou
lb
382 Example
and
1 2.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA. 1
out
One
purse
contains
sovereignand
a
and 4 shillings, and purse contains 2 sovereigns coin is taken a that it is a chance find the random,
shilling. If
of
one
sovereign.
be
Since each
the firstis chance
-
purse
is
to equallylikely
of
selecting
the
; and
the chance
a
of then far
is drawing a sovereign
as
; hence
of
,
drawing
.
sovereignso
it
depends upon
a
j 4
or
=^
12
of
drawing
1
-
sovereign so
the
it
the
depends
chance
on
the second
purse
6
x
or
; and
from
9 1
or
-
third purse
13 of
drawing
is sovereign
.-.
the
requiredchance
"
+
x*5
-. tc
460.
the
In of
an
the
we
have
seen
that
as
the
sum
event
be
considered
the
probability of
separate events
; but
important to
a
of
of one or probability of the probabilities of the separate is the sum that is, when the events are mutuallyexclusive, of any with the occurrence is incompatible one that the
it is very other of
of the others.
Example.
drawn The
From
:
at random
with the first 20 numerals, 20 tickets marked find the chance that it is a multipleof 3 or of 7. is
a
one
is
chance
of multiple
3 is
"
that
it is
of multiple
, ,
7 is
"
; and
these events 6
2
+ -^
,
are
the
2
or
-
requiredchance
But if the
or
is
"
multiple of 3
Because
that
reason
the
as
number
is
:
follows
"
the chance
number
is
multiple of
4
"
3 is
and
the that
chance
is
multiple of
6
4
+ ^
,
5 is
1
or
-
it is
multipleof
be
or
5 is
For
the number
on
the ticket
might
are
not
3 and
of 5,
so
events
considered
461.
It
should
be
observed
that
the
distinction
a
between
simpleand
compound
events
is in many
cases
purelyartificial
PROBABILITY.
383
than
a
one
to
between
different modes
of
distinction
occurrence.
Example.
drawn what
one
5 white and 7 black balls; if two is white and the other black?
as
a
balls
arc
(i) Regardingthe
simpleevent,the
chance
(5*7H.=C2=6-6.
the
of the two
happening of
one
or
other
of which
is
12
11
a
132
(2) drawing a
black and
then 7
of which
is
i2Xir0r132'
And since these events
are
-132
j$5+ ^5__35
132~66'
two
that the chance of drawing It will be noticed that we have here assumed drawn taneously. simulif they were is the same balls successively as specified be the case. A littleconsideration will shew that this must
EXAMPLES.
XXXII.
ace
Three cards are drawn at random from an ordinary pack : find the chance that they will consist of a knave,a queen, and a king.
2.
3. The odds againsta certain event are 5 to 2, and the odds in of the former are 6 to 5 ; find the favour of another event independent
chance that
one
will
happen.
4 to 3, and A solving a certain problem are 4. The odds against 5 : what is the odds in favour of B solving the same to 7 are problem the chance that the problem will be solved if they both try 1
from a purse is the chance of drawing a sovereign and and 2 sovereigns, compartment of which contains 3 shillings ? other 2 sovereigns and 1 shilling
5.
What
one
the
with the numbers 1 to 17. 17 counters marked drawn is A counter and replaced;a second drawing is then made: and the second what is the chance that the first number drawn is even 6.
A
bag contains
odd?
384
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
7. Four persons draw each a card from an the chance (1)that a card is of each suit, (2)that equalvalue. 8. Find the chance
of
two
cards
are
of
throwingsix
with
die single
at least
once
in five trials. will be favourablyreviewed by three is ; what independentcritics are 5 to 2, 4 to 3, and 3 to 4 respectively will be favourable ? that of the three reviews a majority the probability
9.
The
odds that
book
and 4 are successively 10. A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls, the chance that what is not and drawn out they are alternately replaced ; of different colours % 11. In three throws doublets at least once.
with
a
the chance of
throwing
taken at random are 12. If 4 whole numbers together multiplied in the productis 1,3, 7,or 9 shew that the chance that the last digit
.
16
1S
625' 13.
In
all shillings 10 coins, a except one which is a purse are Nine coins are taken all in coins another ten are shillings. sovereign ; and the from the former purse and put into latter, then nine coins are taken from the latter and put into the former : find the chance that is stillin the first purse. the sovereign
If two 5 heads
coins
are
tossed 5
what times,
is the chance
that there
and 5 tails \
what tossed, is the chance that
one
and
only
16.
A, B, C in order
cut
after each
: find prize
cut,on
their
spadeshall win
chances. respective A
and and B draw from a purse containing3 sovereigns their find of first chances a : shillings drawing sovereign, respective the coins when drawn not beingreplaced. 17.
4
18.
two
party of n
^persons sit at
round
to each
odds
against
next sitting
A is one of 6 horses entered for a race, and is to be ridden by of two jockeysB and C. It is 2 to 1 that B rides A, in which one all the horses are equallylikely to win ; if C rides A, his chance case is trebled : what are the odds against his winning? find the chance 20. If on an average 1 vessel in every 10 is wrecked, that out of 5 vessels expected 4 at least will arrive safely.
PROBABILITY.
385
462. trial
The
of probability
...
the
beingknown,
p be the
requiredthe
in exactly
n
of probability
=
and let q 1 -p\ trial, single will happenexactly event r times in the expansion of (q+ p)*. For if number these
a
happeningof the event in then the probability that the in n trials is the (r+ l)th term
select any particular set of r trials out of the total will happen in every one of n, the chance that the event trials and fail in all the rest is prq"~ [Art. and as 456],
we r
set
of
trials
can
be
selected in
case
in
are
Crp q
If
we
the Binomial
Theorem, we
...
have
+
2f +
thus the
qn;
this series will represent respectively the of the happening of the event exactly 1 n n probabilities times, 2 inn trials. n times, times,
terms
" " ...
of
463.
If
the
event
happens
happens r
times,
times
n
or more
fails
only
once,
twice,
chance
...
(n
"
it r) times,
or
Pn + "Cy-*q
or
"CaPn-Y+
n
"
...
tv^r.
of the
the
sum
of
the
first
r +
terms
expansion of
is the chanco
of
i
,
is
-^
or
do
^ o
of
to failing
are
event required
follows if doublets
thrown
sum
is the
of the
expansionof
19
h+d
5\4
.
Thus H.
the chance
"
(1+ 4.5
6.5-)=
-^
H. A.
25
386 Example
2.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of balls, of which are some A bag contains a certain number and is then drawn another replaced; white; a ball is drawn and replaced, find of drawing a white ball in a singletrial, and so on : if p is the chance in have been drawn trials. is to n most likely of white balls that the number
The
chance
and of drawing exactly r white balls is nCrprqn-r, is greatest. value of r this expression
we
have
to
nCrprqn-r"nCr-lpr-lqn-(r~l\
(n-r + l)p"rq,
(n + l)p"(p
+
long as
or
q)r.
r
But
p + 5
1; hence
the
required value of
is the
greatest integerin
p[n + l).
If
successes
n
is such and
is that pn qn failures.
an
integer,the
most
likelycase
is that
of pn
464. of
a
Suppose that
there
are
tickets in
prize
"x;
then
person who
tickets
must
each pay
in other words
a
fair
to
hence ticket;
TX
person
expect reasonably
any "n x one
"
"
as
the
priceto
be
paid for
is,he
his tickets
by
who
wished
to
buy them;
that
would
estimate
to
as
of his chance.
:
It is convenient
then
in-
troduce
definition following
If p represents a person's in any venture chance of success and M the sum of money of success, which he will receive in case the
sum
of money
denoted
by pM
that
is called his
expectation.
465.
to
a
In
the
we
same
person,
may
to applied
things.
1.
One purse
and 1 sovereign 5 shillings contains : a second first and placed in purse contains 6 shillings.Two coins are taken from the the second ; then 2 are taken from the second and placedin the first: find the probable value of the contents of each purse.
Example
The
chance
that the
sum
of
388
466. and We shall
now
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
givetwo
problemswhich
lead to useful
results. interesting
want
A and B Example 1. Two players their chances of set winning a ; games the of where sum p and respectively, his set : who firstmakes the player up
and n points of m respectively of winning a single are game p and q is is the stake to unity; belong to q determine the probabilities in favour
of each
player.
win the to do this he must Suppose that A wins in exactlym + r games; The chance of and m-1 out of the preceding m + r-1 last game games. this is "+^-10m_1p"-1 qr2h or m^~1Cm-1pmqr.
1 games, be decided in m + n and A may the set will necessarily Now 1 games, 1 games; or m+ or m + n win his m games in exactly m games, , that A wins the set by givingto r the shall obtain the chance therefore we 1 in the expression values 0, 1, 2, n m+r-1Cm_1pmqr. Thus AJs chance is
-
...
...
B's similarly
chance
is
n(nA-l\ 1.2
*
\m +
jm-1
n-2
ii
This
is known question
as
the
"
Problem
of
and Points,"
has
engagedthe
of the most eminent mathematicians attention of many It was to Pascal by since the time of Pascal. originally proposed discussed by Pascal and the Chevalier de Mere in 1654, and was
to the
case
in which
were
to be of supposed
exhibited of his
in
different form.
as
have
given are
a
to Montmort, assigned
they appear
The treated
same
in published
1714.
afterwards
problem
2.
was
by
fications. modi-
Example
There
are
from dice with / faces marked that the sum is the chance what
n
Since any
the number
exposed on
fall is
any
one
of the
dice,
p for
/n.
thrown will have the numbers of ways in which Also the number is equal to the coefficient of xp in the expansion of their sum
+ {xl
x* + x3 +
...
xf)n\
n
1, 2, 3,.../can be taken
so
as
of the
indices
PROBABILITY. x2 +
3-S!)
+ xf
Now
the above
expression
x11
(l+
...
')"
-("?)""
We
have therefore
to find the coefficient of xp~n
in the
expansion
of
(I x')n(I x)~n.
-
n(n-l)
.,.
n(n-l)(n-2)
.,,
and
"
",
=
1+
nx
"
x3+...
in the
these Multiply
series obtain
product ;
we
thus
n(n+l)...{p-l)
it
n(n+l)...(p-f-l)
\P -n
\p
-
-f
n
+ l)...(j"-2/-l) (n 1) M(;t
-
1.2
""
\p-n-2f
appear. The
where
the
is requiredprobability
This
problem is due
a
to De
Moivre of
in 1730 j it illustrates
method obtained ; he
and
him
Laplaceafterwards
more
the
formula,but
an
in
much the
laborious the
manner
existence
of
attempt
has
strate to demonmade
which
to planets
direction may
in orbits close to the ecliptic, and in the same move On this point the reader the earth round the sun. as Todhunter's Art. Historyof Probability, 987.
consult
EXAMPLES.
XXXII.
c.
3 to 2
2, 3 is thrown
5 times
what
it is 2 to 1 in favour of the winner 3. In each of a set of games of the previous what chance is the that the player who wins : game the first game shall win three at least of the next four ? There 9 coins in a bag, 5 of which are are the rest are unknown coins of equal value ; find what value of a draw is 12 shillings. the probable
4.
390
5.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
what is the chance A coin is tossed n times, odd number times ? itself of an present
6.
From
a shillings
person
pectation. ex-
is allowed
to draw
coins
which is to be 7. Six persons throw for a stake, who first throws head with a penny ; if they throw in the chance of the fourth person.
won
1, 2, 3 are placedin a bag,and The replaced. operation being repeatedthree is the chance of obtaining a total of 6 ?
and faces the odds against the sum
8.
Counters
marked
9.
A coin whose
are
are
marked 3 and 5 is tossed 4 times : what of the numbers thrown beingless than 15?
10.
3 dice.
Find
the
chance
of
throwing10 exactlyin
one
throw
with
A and B, are playersof equal skill, playing a set leave off playingwhen A wants 3 pointsand B wants games ; they If the stake is "16, what share ought each to take \
11.
Two
of 2.
12.
of
A and B throw
throwinga
13.
with highernumber
3 dice
if A throws
8, what is Z?'schance
A had in his pocket and four shillings out a sovereign ; taking coins at random he promises to give them to B and C. What two is the worth of (7'sexpectation ?
14.
In five throws
aces
with
die single
aces
what
is the chance
of
throwing
(1)three
two
exactly, (2)three
at least.
throw with 15. A makes a bet with B of 5s. to 2s. that in a single dice he .will throw seven before B throws four. Each has a pair of dice and they throw simultaneously until one of them wins : find B's
expectation.
the common cube,and the other the lowest face beingtaken in the the number on a regular tetrahedron, that the sum of the tetrahedron;what of the is the chance case numbers thrown is not less than 5 ?
16.
person
throws two
one dice,
17.
whose
bag contains
:
coin of value
J/,and
draws
number
one
aggregate value is
expectation.
1
are
18. If 6n tickets numbered 6n0, 1, 2, and three are drawn out, shew that the chance numbers on them is equalto 6?i is
3?"
placedin
sum
bag,
that the
of the
(6n-l)(6n-2)'
PROBABILITY.
3Dl
*Inverse
In allthe
our
Probability.
have hitherto considered it lias been
the
us causes
*467.
cases
we
knowledgeof
as
which
is sucli
to enable
to
determine
happeningof the event. We have now to consider For example, if it is known of a different character. of of some in one has happened event consequence
of causes,
certain
to estimate the probability it may be required number of each cause bability beingthe true one, and thence to deduce the proof the the operation under of future events occurring
same causes.
*468. numerical
Before
we
shall
give a
illustration.
and and
5 sovereigns Suppose there are two purses, one containing and 1 shilling, 3 sovereigns the other containing 3 shillings, lias been drawn : it is requiredto suppose that a sovereign that it
came
from
the first or
second
purse.
iV of trials ; then, since before number very large to be taken,we eacli of the purses is equally likely may be chosen in
^
iV of the
trials,
and
sovereign would
1
x
be drawn
thus
sovereign "
~iV,or "N
1
lb
The 3
j
second
purse would
be chosen
in
of the
and trials,
in
of these
be drawn
; thus
would sovereign
be drawn Now
3 -JV
the second
purse.
number is otherwise an arbitrary ; 5 n times be drawn would let us put iV-16n; thus a sovereign from the first purse, and Qn times from the second purse; that is, it comes is drawn of the lln times in which a out sovereign JV is very
largebut
from
the
first purse
bn
times,and
from
the
second
purse
0?i
392
times. Hence 5 first purse
second A'
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the
"
the
came sovereign
from from
the the
is 6
that probability
it
came
is
rr.
It is
to the
that important
nature
the student's
attention
should made
be in
of the
instance, preceding article. Thus, to take a particular die with it may throws in 60 a perfectly symmetrical although not exactly10 times, yet it will happen that ace is thrown
doubtless number
"
be at
once
that
of throws of
aces
is the
increased continually
of throws is
no
ratio of
more
to
and
to nearly
the limit
There
reason
6 another
; hence
why
one
face should
appear
oftener than of
in the
the six faces will have The which above is due instance
to James
long run the number of times that each appearedwill be approximately equal.
is
a case particular
of
after
as
the
author's
:
death.
be enunciated
follows
that an event happensin a single trial, If p is the probability i t becomes is trials a then ifthe number increased, indefinitely of to the that the limit of the ratio of the number of successes certainty the number other number words, if of of trials is equal to p ; in be be taken number the to trials is N, pN. of successes may A proof Chaptervn. ofProbability, History in the is given in the article Probability of Bernoulli's theorem Britannica. Encyclopaedia See Todhunter's
*470.
number
An
observed
event
has
some through, Jiappened to find causes : required the being true one.
one
.
of a
the probability
causes,
and
the before
event
took
placesuppose
'
that when the pr denote the probability the event has occurred exists the event will follow : after the it is required that the rth cause to find the probability was
...
existence of these
causes
was
estimated
r*1* cause
true
one.
PROBABILITY.
393
cry greatnumber JV of trials ; then the first cause and out of this number the event follows exists in PXN of these, there are p^^N trials in which the event in pxPxN j similarly
Consider
follows from
causes.
cause;
and
so
on
for each
Hence
of trials in which
;md
the number
',
in which is
was
due
to
the rth
cause
cause
is
the true
one
pJPjr+NUpP);
tli at the probability that is,
is
the event
was
produced by
the r"'
PrK
cause
Mvn
*471. It is necessary to distinguish between the proclearly bability of the existence of the several causes estimated before the
the event has happenedof any after probability The former are usually called cause assigned beingthe true one. and are a prioriprobabilities Pn \ represented by Px, P0, P and denote the latter are called a posteriori if we probabilities, have them by Qt1 Q", Q3, that we QHf proved the event, and
.
...
...
Qr
(PP)
'
of the event where pr denotes the probability of the existence of the rth cause. From of the We this result it appears that S (Q) evident as the event has happened from
=
on
the
hypothesis
is otherwise
lj which
one
and
onlyone
causes.
shall
happenedthroughsome one of a to find the proof mutually exclusive causes : required bability the true one. cause of any assigned being
An
observed
event
has
causes, and
that
at
of probability
...
the existence
causes
estimated
that when Pn. Let pr denote the probability exists the event will follow ; then the antecedent probability that the event would follow from the rth cause is prPr.
the
394
Let
true
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Qr be
the
was
the
the true one that the rth cause was probability if this cause in existence, to the probability is proportional that, would producethe event ;
one;
then
the
. "
A._JL=
'"
_
"?"
.
pA
pA
"?,=
p.p,
Prpr
2
(pP)
"
it appears that in the present class of problems the estimated as a first step; productPrpr, will have to be correctly are in many cases, however, it will be found that Plt P2, P3, Hence
...
all
and equal,
the work
is
therebymuch
simplified.
Example. There are 3 bags each containing 5 white balls and 2 black and 2 bags each containing1 white ball and 4 black balls : a black ball balls, from the first group. having been drawn, find the chance that it came
Of the five
If
the chance
4
-
of
=
drawing a black
2
4
,
ball is
if from
the chance is
thus px
p.2=
o
lh
^
lh
1_3o'
2~~25'
from
one
Hence
came
is
JL^/A
'
8\15
43*
35
\35"h25/
has
to
true
*473.
the the method
When of
cause
an
event
been
observed,we
the
we
are
able
by
Art.
472
estimate
one
of probability then
being particular may ; of the event happening in a probability of the occurrence find the probability we may
the
event.
second
of
some
or trial,
For from
cause
example,pr
rth
cause one
is the is
chance
that
the
event
will
happen
the
if in
and existence,
that the
causes
Qr; hence on a is prQr. Therefore the event will happen from the rth cause of the chance will happen from that the event some one
is the true
on a
second trial is 2
(2}Q)'
396
*474. be We shall
now
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
shew the
how
the
to applied
estimate
whose
be
known.
We
shall
what he believes to be the truth, suppose that each witness states is the result of observation, or his statement whether deduction, be or experiment; so that any mistake or falsehood must wilful deceit. and to not of attributed to errors judgment shall problems we the and although intellectual exercise, it will of any practical importance, as The class of the verdict of *475.
common
sense.
discuss be found
furnishes be that
useful
results cannot
When truth
speaksthe
made
by
him
been
are
to the whole
of
making
statement
bilities independentwitnesses,A and B, whose probaand truth the are p' respectively, agree in p speaking that the is the probability certain statement : what
is true %
the the observed event is the fact that A and B make Before the event there are four hypotheses statement. ; for same B falsely; A and B may both speaktruly speak truly, ; or A may both and B A B truly speak A may ; or may or speak falsely, four these of are The probabilities hypotheses falsely. Here
PP\ p(l~P\
Hence
same
and
make
the is to that
statement, the
that probability
the statement pp
to
-
is true is
the
(1 p) (1-p');
is true
statement joint
pp'
pp'+ (l-p)(l-p')'
of speaking the if a third person, whose probability Similarly that the the same truth is p", makes statement, the probability
statement
is true
is
./"//
ppp
ppY
and
so on
{1-p){i-p')(i-p")}
of persons.
for any
number
PROBABILITY.
397
it lias been other
*477.
have and taken
no
In the
supposed that
made
as
we
knowledge
we
except
from
the statement
sources
by
to
B ; if
have
the be
of probability
the truth in
into account
must
various
hypotheses.
For the
a
instance,if A
and
agree then
in
we
a fact,of stating
which
should
estimate
the
bability pro-
Ppp* and
Example. A, B, C, whose
There is
raffle with 12 tickets and two prizes of "9 and "3. the truth of are ^, ", f respectively, probabilities speaking report the result to D, who holds one ticket. A and B assert that he has the "3 prize;what is D's the "9 prize, and C asserts that he has won won
a
expectation?
Three
C may
cases
all have
have
won
"9, "3,
the
or
nothing,for A, B,
Now
of Art.
472, we
have
prioriprobabilities
P-i
12
also
P-A
P-".
'
1
*
Pi~2X3X5-30"
"
**~~2X 3
4 4 3 3
30
A_2
2_ 2 X5~3();
20
27'
="1. 13s. id.
hence
D's
expectation
With
="
of "9 +
"
of "3
47G, it
can
be noticed
assumed
be
in two ways only, that if all the witnesses so falsehood. the same they agree in telling If this is not that the the
two
tell falsehoods
witnesses
falsehood
; then
that c is the chance suppose will agree in telling the same that the statement is true is to the probability the
case,
let
us
and
that it is false as pp' to c (1"p) (1 p'). probability As a general rule, it is extremelyimprobable that two that c is so falsehood, independentwitnesses will tell the same c becomes usually very small; also it is obvious that the quantity
"
smaller
two
as
of witnesses the
becomes
greater. These
asserted
siderations con-
or
more
by
the
though
of each credibility
398
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Example. A speakstruth 3 times out of 4, and B 7 times out of 10; they from a bag containing 6 balls both assert that a white ball has been drawn of the truth of the assertion. all of different colours : find the probability
There
are
two
coincident
false. Here
Px
"1
=
6'
~
P-5P2
2~6'
^1-4X10'
"P2~25X4X10;
will
for in estimatingp.2 we must take into account the chance that A and B it has not been drawn ; this chance is both select the white ball when 11
X "r
1
*
5
two
25
of the probabilities 35 to
hypothesesare
as
P^
to
P2po, and
35
"
statement
is true is
*479.
of the
The
cases
we
have
considered
relate to the
probability
a case
truth
of concurrent
the testimony;
is following
of
traditionary testimony.
If A
account states that
a
certain event
or
took
place, havingreceived
from
an
of its
occurrence
non-occurrence
B,
what
is the
did take
1 place
happened (1) if they both spoke the truth, (2)if did not happen if only ; and the event they both spoke falsely of them spokethe truth. one
Let
p, p
denote the
truth ; then
and take
speak the
placeis
pp'+ (l-p)(l-p)}
and the that probability it did not take
is place
p(l-2))+p'(l-p).
*480. The solution of the article preceding is that which has
but it is" been given in text-books; tions, usually open to serious objecfor the assertion that the given event happened if both A that is not correct except on the supposition and B spokefalsely be made the statement can Moreover, only in two ways. from his account stated A receives that it is expressly although for granted as it rests on be taken generally B, this cannot A'" testimony.
PROBABILITY. A
399
the interpreting
full discussion
of the different ways of of the different solutions to which Times Yols. Reprint,
they lead,will
and
XXXII.
be
in the Educational
XXVII.
^EXAMPLES.
XXXII.
d.
four balls in a 1. There are ball is drawn colours they are ; one chance that all the balls are white.
bag,but
and
it is not
found
known to be white
2.
In
bag
there
are
to be
six balls of unknown colours;three balls find the that no black ball chance black;
to have come either from London Clifton ; or the consecutive letters two ON are postmark only legible ; what from London is the chance that it came ?
on
3. the
letter is known
the chances of three runners, Before a race A, B, C, were to 5, 3, 2 ; but during the race estimated to be proportional A meets with an accident which reduces his chance to one-third. What are now the respective chances of B and C ?
4.
random
value ; a coin drawn A purse contains n coins of unknown at what is the chance that it is the is found to be a sovereign; in the bag ? only sovereign
5.
has 10 shillings and one of them is fcnown to have two 6. A man and tosses it 5 times and it always at random He takes one heads. the chance that it is the shilling what is with two heads ? fallshead :
and
are
colour; a ball is drawn bag contains 5 balls of unknown found to be red : if two balls is and in each case replacedtwice, find the chance that both are red. drawn simultaneously now
7.
A
8.
or a
purse
sixpence ; two
value of the
be a shilling contains five coins, each of which may drawn and found to be shillings are : find the probable
remaining coins.
of the three numbers a four. was
9.
thrown
and the sum A die is thrown three times, is 15 : find the chance that the first throw
A speaks the truth 3 out of 4 times,and B 5 out of 6 times : that they will contradict each other in .stating what is the probability the same fact ?
10.
400
11.
A
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of 3 times,and B 4 times out of 5 ; from 6 balls of different a bag containing they agree in the assertion that that the statement colours a red ball has been drawn : find the probability is true.
speaks the
truth
2 out
12.
of the chance
One
of
two
pack of
are
52
cards
cards has been lost ; from the remainder and are found to be spades; find the
a
spade.
tickets and two prizes of value "5 ticket and is informed by B that C that he has the asserts while he has won the "b prize, won ,"1 prize : of B is denoted by ", and what is A's expectation, if the credibility that of C by f ? and
13. "1
There
is
10
one
four coins ; two coins having been drawn sovereigns find the chance (1) that all the coins another drawing will sovereigns, (2)that if the coins are replaced
14.
purse
contains
are are
found
to
be
give
sovereign.
15.
P makes a bet with Q of ,"8 to "120 that three races will be the three horses by A, B, C, againstwhich the bettingis 3 to 2, 4 to 1, and 2 to 1 respectively. The first race having been won by A, and it being known that the second race either by B, or by was won a horse D againstwhich the bettingwas 2 to 1, find the value of P's
won
expectation.
all either white or black,all From n a bag containing balls, ball is drawn which turns out numbers of each being equallylikely, a ball is drawn, which also and another to be white; this is replaced, If this ball is replaced, turns out to be white. prove that the chance
16.
givinga
black ball is
(n
"
1)(2n+ l)~l
.
coins have been distributed into m purses, n into each, find (1) the chance that two specified coins will be found in the same when and what the chance becomes r (2) purses have been purse; coins. examined and found not to contain either of the specified
17.
If
mn
A, B are two inaccurate arithmeticians whose chance of solving are respectively givenquestion correctly -"and y1^ ; if they obtain the their to 1 and if it is 1000 same making the same result, against find the chance that the result is correct. mistake,
18.
a
makes but one false statement in Ten witnesses, each of whom event in that certain took a six, asserting place ; shew that the agree odds are five to one in favour of the truth of their statement, even
19.
althoughthe
is
as
small
as
^9
"
"
PRoUAl'.ILITY.
41 1 1
Local
*481. The
Probability.
Geometrical
Methods.
of Geometry to questions of Probability application aid of the the in Calculus; Integral requires, general, be which solved by can there are, however, many easy questions Elementary Geometry.
Example 1. From each of two off at random, and removed : what remainders is less than I?
Place the
portionis cut
sum
the
of
the
the lines parallel to one another, and suppose that after cutting, the questionis equivalent to Then right-handportionsare removed. is the chance of is what the the that sum right-handportions greater asking is than the sum of the left-hand portions. It is clear that the first sum the thus be than to less the or second; required equallylikely greater is probability Cor. chance Each
-
of two
sum
to be of Z is
-
that their
than greater
If three lines are chosen at random, prove that not to denote the sides of a possible triangle.
they are
three lines one be equal to or greater than each of the other must of the other two lines is that its lengthby I. Then all we know to the lengthof each lies between 0 and /. But if each of two lines is known that chance their is it 0 be of random and sum even between an 1, length is greaterthan /. [Ex.1, Cor.] Thus the result follows. required
to a given circle : at random Three tangents are drawn the circle being inscribed in the triangle shew that the odds are 3 to 1 against formed by them.
Example 3.
lines P, (),11,in the same Draw three random plane as to these lines. draw to the circle the six tangents parallel
H.
H.A.
2G
402
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
it is evident that the circle will be formed of the 8 triangles so Then in 2 and this is true whatever be the original as escribed to 6 and inscribed ; result follows. directions of P, Q, R, the required
*4:82.
Questions in
solved
Probability may
aid of co-ordinate
sometimes
be
veniently con-
by
a
the
of
Geometry.
b are
Example.
random: find
On the
rod
length a
b+c, lengths a,
measured
that probability
no
point
of the
measured
at lines will
coincide.
AP = x and the line,and suppose PQ = a; also let a be must be less than b + c. measured from P towards B, so that x Again let from P' towards B, then y must AP' = y, P'Q' b, and suppose P'Q'measured be less than a + c.
Let
AB
be
Now hence
in favourable
cases
we
must
+ x,
or
have
x"b must ""
"a
AP'"AQ,
+ y
or
else
AP"AQ\ (1).
Again
we possible,
have
+ c)
x"0,
and
2/"0, and
Take
a a
c)
OX
pair of rectangularaxes
+
c.
=
and
make
equal
to
b + c, and
OY
equal to
Draw
x
=
the line y
+ x,
by represented
TML
in the
figure;and
the line
b+ y
represented by
KB.
Q
"A Then P'
W
are
B
c,
-0."Q
are
b-
K
a.
YM, EX
each
equal to
031, OT
each
equalto
ItXR,
.*.
The conditions (1)are only satisfied by pointsin the triangles and MYL while the conditions (2)are satisfied by rectpoints within the angle any
OX, OY;
the requiredchance
c2
=
"
.
{a+ c)(b + c)
*483. We shall close this
chapterwith
some
Miscellaneous
Examples.
Example
balls
r
are
1. thrown each
box
at random
is divided into m equal compartments into which n ; find the probability that there will be p compartments
compartments
containinga balls, q compartments each containingb balls, each containing c balls, and so on, where Z"a+qb +
rc
=n.
404
In
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the
case particular
when
2,
S
the
chance required
=-
""
*-=
"
-4-
^ 3
(n+ 1)
~2(2n+l)'
If
n
is
chance
is
equal to
the
when limit,
is in-
V^2
'
'
"*+!
fc + 1.'
of finite,
n
k + 2
"+2*
not
r
(ii) If
the halls
are
replaced,
r
"
-
r
'
2
-
r
" '
A; + 1
"
"
"
"
k+ 1
'
and
Qr=i
it
p,
r=K
(r-k
r
l)(r-k + 2)
(r-l)r
y
r=0
+ 2) ("--"+l)(r-ifc
(r-l)r
+ 2) + l)(n-Jfe (u-ifc
(n-l)n (n+1)
white ball= 2
r=0
The
chance
drawing
will
give a
Qr
"
Ii
(;i A)(u
_
/c+
1) l)
?i
(n + 1) r=0
*
s"(r-fc)(r-fc+l) (r-l)r
+ l) n("i
fc + 1
(n-k)(n-k
n(n
+ l) (/i-A-)(n-/v k~+2~ l)
Jfc+1
~k
which is
+ 2'
of independent
the number
of balls in the
bag at
first.
Example 3. A person letters are placedin the every letter goes wrong ?
Let un denote
. . .
writes
letters and
envelopes at random,
let abed
the number of ways in which all the letters go wrong, and that in which all the letters are in their represent arrangement own envelopes. Now if a in any other arrangement occupiesthe place of an other. assignedletter b, this letter must either occupy a's place or some
of ways in which all the remaining n be displacedis un_2, and therefore the can numbers of ways in which a may be displaced with some one by interchange and the rest be all displaced 1 letters, of the other nis (n 1)""_2.
-
(i) Suppose
Then
the number
PROBABILITY.
405
b does not occupy a's. Then in t he in since is fixed "'s conditions, a place, arrangements satisfying required must be all displaced, which can be done in h__j ways; the letters b, c, d, of ways in which a occupiesthe place of another letter therefore the number with that letter is (n 1)un-l ; but not by interchange
(ii)Suppose
...
.-.
vn
from
of Art.
we
find un
nun_1
( l)n(ttj Uj).
-
Also
0, tig
=
1 ; thus
,
obtain finally
i i
f1
(-1)'1!
in which the the total number of ways the is is therefore chance In required places ; Now
11 1
things can
be
put in
(- 1)"
_
[2
Tlie
some
|"+ |4
'""+
in
'
is of considerable
a
modifications lias maintained of its many in works on It the Theory of Probability. and it was generalised by Montmort, by De
Laplace.
*484. The here impossible methods. An admirable collection of problems,illustrating algebraical process, will be found in "NVliitworth's every algebraical Choice and with the Chance; and the reader who is acquainted Calculus consult Professor bility Crofton's article ProbaIntegral may in the Encyclopcedia JJritannica. A completeaccount of of the subject and development the origin is givenin Todhunter's Historyof the Theory of Probability from the time of Pascal to that ofLaplace. The commercial of the theory of Probability to practical applications transactions are beyond the scope of an elementary and of Probability is so extensive that it is subject to give more than sketch of the principal a
refer to the articles Annuities treatise ; for these we may Insurance in the JEncyclopcedia Britannica.
^EXAMPLES. L
throw What the odds in favour are with two dice ?
XXXII.
of
e.
throwingat
lea.st7 in
single
and 4 shillings. If theyare 2. In a purse there are 5 sovereigns drawn out one what is the that chance out by one, theycome sovereigns und shillings with ;t sovereign? alternately, beginning
406
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
what 9 ships out of 10 return safe to port, 3. If on an average at least 3 will arrive 1 is the chance that out of 5 shipsexpected all the tickets are blanks but one; each person 4. In a lottery retains it : shew that each person has an equal and draws a ticket,
chance of
5.
contains
One
bag
4 white
A, B, C, B, E throw a die in the order named throws of winning, of them ace : find their relative chances an one till the throws continue to an ace supposing appears.
6. Five persons
until
7.
Three
is the chance
of
are
chess board being chosen at random, what of one colour and one of another 1
one dice,
8.
a
person
throws two
the regulartetrahedron,
case
the
compare
cube,and the other lowest face being taken in average value of the throw,and
the the
common as 3 : 2 ; and to Z)'s as 4 : 3 with each person, will succeed :
9. A's skillis to 2?'sas 1 find the chance that A in three twice at least. 10.
an ace
3 ; to Cs
one
trials,
chance
A certain stake is to be won by the first person who with an die : if there are 4 persons what octahedral of the last ? Two
throws is the
11.
players A,
of
set of games
; A
3 games:
compare
and two shillings : a purse contains 3 sovereigns person draws one coin in each hand and looks at one of them, which proves to be a sovereign to be a sovereign likely ; shew that the other is equally
12.
or
shilling.
13.
A and B play for a prize and is to a die first, ; A is to throw win if he throws 6. If he fails B is to throw, and to win if he throws If he fails, A is to throw 6 or 5. again and to win with 6 or 5 or 4, and so on : find the chance of each player.
14. Seven persons draw lots for the occupancy of the six seats in first class railway find the chance that two specified : compartment (1) obtain that obtain opposite they seats,(2) adjacentseats on persons the same side.
a
15.
number
consists of 7
whose digits
.4
"
sum
is 59 ; prove
that the
of
12 throwing
in
throw single
with 3 dice.
PROBABILITY.
407
with the numbers 0, 1, 2, ...G 7 tickets marked and replaced A ticket is drawn that respectively. ; find the chance of the numbers drawn is 8. after 4 drawingsthe sum 17.
A
bag contains
There are 10 tickets, 5 of wThich are blanks, and the others are marked with the numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 : what is the probability when tickets in three the at 10 are trials, (1) replaced every drawing ? trial, (2)if the tickets are not replaced
18.
19.
If
taken integers
at random
are
of digit
8 is + 4n
the
An
_
9 is
Kn
"
; .pi
of its
being 2, 4, 6, or
10H-8'l-5n 10*
"
="
; of its
being 5
is
and a metal two A purse contains two sovereigns, shillings form and size ; a person is allowed to draw out one dummy of the same at a time tillhe draws the dummy : find the value of his expectation.
20.
21.
to throw
persons A, B, C who
of money is to be given to the one of three first throws 10 with three dice;supposing them until the event happens,prove that their in the order named certain
sum
chances
are
respectively
/8\2
56
(ja)' W"
22.
2
-
and
[")'
truth
are
/7\2
Two
5
-
persons, whose
and
assert respectively,
out
of probability
the truth of
23.
two
are
bag
contains
"
of which counters,
one
is marked
1,
hand
marked 4, three are marked 9, and so on ; a person puts in his and draws out a counter at random, and is to receive as many marked it : find the value of his exthe number pectation. as shillings upon
24.
a
If 10
things are
distributed among
than
persons, is
_ ....
the chance
.
of
5 of them
rod is marked in n points and divided at at random those points, the chance that none of the parts shall be greaterthan
"
th of the rod is
"
408
26.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
and a three sovereigns two There containing are purses, one A and a t hree other and the sovereign. coin shillings containing shilling, and is not known droppedinto the other ; is taken from one (it which) and then on drawing a coin from each purse, they are found to be two this happeningagainif two more the odds against What are shillings.
are
drawn, one
27.
from
each purse 1
taken at random three points is formed by joining If a triangle odds the 3 to 1 against of a circle, are in the circumference prove that its beingacute-angled.
28. Three pointsare taken at random circle: what is the chance that the sum than the third ? determined is greater
what into three parts, 29. A line is divided at random ? that they form the sides of a possible triangle
is the chance
and the contained 25 sovereigns, originally purses one and 15 shillings. One purse is taken by chance other 10 sovereigns is the : what and 4 coins drawn out, which prove to be all sovereigns the is and what contains this that chance able probonly sovereigns, purse value of the next draw from it?
30.
Of
two
taken at random line of lengtha two points On a straight are find the chance that the distance between them is greaterthan b.
31.
line of lengtha is divided A straight random taken at points ; find the chance that
32.
no
33.
measured shall not
If
on
at
c2
exceed
is
"
ab
where
or
lengthb
a larger
"
(Jj
34.
measured
If
on
at
line of length a + b + c two lengthsa, b are a straight random, the chance of their having a common part which d is
+ a)(c+6)' (c
T
"
7.
where
d is less than
either
or
b.
to each other, are passengers, A, B, C, D, entire strangers train which contains I first-class, m railway second-class, and n third-class compartments. A and B are gentlemen whose spective rechances of travelling a priori first, second, or third class are in each instance by X, fi, v, C and D are ladies whose represented similar a priori chances each represented Prove are by I, m, n. for all values of in the particular when that, X, fi, v (except case X : p : v=l. : m : oi), A and B are more to be found both in the likely of the same lady than each with a different one. company
35.
Four
in travelling
CHAPTER
XXXIII.
Determinants.
485.
The
present chapteris
and their
more
devoted
to
brief discussion of
determinants
elementaryproperties.The slight given will enable a student to avail himself of the advantagesof determinant notation in Analytical other Geometry, and in some parts of Higher Mathematics ; this branch of Analysis may fuller information be obtained on from Dr Salmon's Lessons to the Modern Introductory Higher and Muir's Theoryof Determinants. Algebra,
sketch introductory here 48G. Consider the two
bly 0,
=
b2y 0;
=
second
by
6
,
tracting sub-
This
result is sometimes
written ax
a"
bx -0,
b"
a
and
the
on expression rows
determinant.
It consists form
each
be
of two
term
and
two
columns, and
in its
expanded
is the
product
of two
it quantities;
is therefore
said to
b0
aa,
b2 are
called
are
the
constituents
of
the
ab. ",/",,,
410 487.
Since
a. a.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
aA
of the
"A
a.
a"
into
columns,and
by changing
488.
that
a, a"
a2
K
b,
6"
two
a.
that
is,if we
ive
two interchange
a
rows
or
obtain
determinant
ivhich
489.
Let
us
now
consider
axx
+ + +
the
homogeneous
=
equations
bxy+
+ b2V + b3y
cxz
0,
a2X
a3x
c2z
o,
0.
c3z
as
By eliminating x,
a" (Kcs
-
y, z,
we
obtain
-
in Ex.
+
2, Art. 16,
-
+ bi Kc2) ("v*3vO
c,("A
aA)
=
""
or
a.
0.
This eliminant
is
written usually
o,
K h
c2 C3
determinant
a
and
the
on expression rows
the left
beinga
which
consists of the
of three
and
three
columns
is called
determinant
third order.
490.
the above
By
rearrangement of
may
terms
the
expanded form
of
determinant aX vV8
~
be written
" -
or
a.
412
492. The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
determinant
ax
bl
cx
"** %
=
h2 b3
-
C2 C3
"
", (KC3
~ "
"
hence
",
bx
ax
a
a2
b2
c.
(i
3
C3 the is
Thus
it appears
are
determinant
changed,but
ax
bt
cx
(l2
"3
then by (axb2c3), the result
we
h K
have
=
-
C2 "3
just obtained
may
be written
(VsO
we Similarly
("Acs)("AC3)of
tlie determinant
are
may
shew
=
-
that
(ci"A)
493.
(aAb3)
=
If
let D
two
two
rows
or
two
columns
be
rows
the
or
value
two
determinant,then
we
by
changing inter-
obtain is
determinant
value
is
"
D;
=
but 0.
a
1
determinant
we
unaltered; hence
D,
that is D
Thus
the
=
following equations,
A,1
"
aAn 2
aJLm 3
3
D.
If each constituent in any row, or in then the determinant by the same factor, multiplied by that factor.
494.
any
column, is
is
multiplied
DETERMINANTS.
413
For
tnax
ma2
ma
a
"
max
=
Ax
"
ma2
A2 +
maA
A3
+ a.iA,y, m(alAl-a2A2
which
proves
the
proposition.
of
one
Cor.
If each constituent
row,
or
column, is the
of another
same or
row,
constituent in any row, or column, consists of tivo he expressed the sum can as of tvio terms, then the determinant other determinants. 495.
If each
Thus
we
have
for the
on expression
the left
-
+ a^ A (ax
(V,
M*
M3)
("v*i M2
-
aA)
which
proves
the
proposition.
if each constituent in any
can one
In like consists of
sum
manner m
terms, the
determinant
he
of
we Similarly,
414
These
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
results may
if the
stituents con-
consist of m,
n, p
terms
sum
be
expressedas
Babe
the
Example 1.
Shew
that
b+
c
a
a-
"
-a3-
b3
"
c3.
b-c
c
"
b
a
+ b
The
given determinant
b
c
a
b
c
a
c a
b
c a
b
c
Of
these four determinants the first three vanish, Art. 493; thus the reduces to the last of the four determinants ; hence its value
=
_
pression ex-
"c
-
(a2 be)}
-
Babe
a3
b3
c3. 67 39 81 19 13 24
21 14
Example
2.
Find
the value of
26
We
67 39 81
have 10 + 57
0 + 39
19
13
21
57
39
19 13
21
14 26 19 13
24
2
14 26
9 + 72 10 0 9
=
24 10 0 9
72 19 + 2
13 + 1 10
24
19 13 24 13 24
1
21 14 26
+
19
13
2 1
0 9 -43.
24 + 2
=
24
10
19 13
20-63=
496.
as
we
can
shew
that it is
+
equalto
qct
C2
6*
9C3
c"
DETERMINANTS.
415
and
494 Cor.]. of these determinants vanish [Art. the last two whose to a new determinant is equal one Tims we see that the given from the constituents of is obtained by subtracting firstcolumn of the determinant the first column of the original equimultiples constituents corresponding and of the other
third columns
remain
unaltered.
Conversely,
a{
+ + qc} j)bx
b{
C2
a
a., +
PK
"7C2
^2
c"
c.
and is
what
has been
here
provedwith
true for any of the columns or equally that in reducing determinant a we may columns by a new column rows or or row
replace any
formed
one
of the
in the
following
way
Take and
the constituents
or
of of
one
the
row
or
increase
diminish
them
by
or
any
more
column
be
little
often be columns
it will be found that determinants practice two more or rows by replacing quickly simplified for it is : example, simultaneously easy to see
that
ai
+
2}b} b}
~
qcx
c, "2 c3
as
"ll
Ct2
a..
b2
b"
c.,
rule
or
above
enunciated, care
column
unaltered.
the identity
stituents con-
Thus,
c,
+
ra
if
on
the left-hand
replaced by
have the
cl+rali
c2 +
should
former
value
ax
2"bt bx
"
qcx
rax
ra"
"a +
i'K K
vci
ra..
416
and of the four
one
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
into which
this may
be
resolved
there is
which
vanish,namely
ra,
pbs
qc2
ra
.
"9
Example 1,
Find
the value of I 29
25 ! 63
26
31 54
22
27
46
The
given determinant
3 -6
26-4l
31 54 -4 -8 1 26
-3x4x
9
-12
=:
-12
I -3
1
132.
0
0
[Explanation. In the first step of the reduction keep the second column diminish each constituent of the first column unaltered;for the first new column by the correspondingconstituent of the second ; for the third new diminish each constituent of the third column column by the corresponding
constituent of the second. In the second step take out the factors 3 and 4. In the third step keep the first row unaltered ; for the second new row diminish the constituents of the second by the corresponding ones of the diminish the constituents of the third by twice first; for the third new row the corresponding constituents of the first. The remaining steps will be
-
easily seen.]
Example
2.
Shew
that
a-b-c
2b 2c
2a b-c-a 2c
2a 2b c-a-b
(a+
b+
cf.
The
a
given determinant
+ b +
c a
+ b +
a+b+c
2b
c-a"
(a+
b+
c)x
11 2b b-c-a 2c
1 2b c-a-b
2b 2c
b-c-a 2c
b 0
2c
(a+
b +
c)x
1 2b 2c
0 -b-c-a 0
0
-c-a-b
(a+
b+
c)x
I -b-c-a
0
-c" a-
I
b
(a+
b +
c)3.
DETERMINANTS.
417
In the firstnew determinant the first is the sum row of [Explanation. of the original the constituents of the three rows t he second determinant, and third rows being unaltered. In the third of the new determinants the remains first column unaltered, while the second and third columns are the constituents of the first column from those of obtained by subtracting The remaining transformations the second and third respectively. ciently are suffi-
obvious.]
497.
Before
as a
shewinghow
we determinant,
to
"i"i
"A
^7,
"A
+ + +
Vi
a3ai +
From
as expressed
KPt + c*y, %% hA + Wi %%
495, we
the
sum
hA hA bA
+
+
"3a3
bA hA "A
+
+
+
ri7-s
caya
c3y3
Art.
know
sufficient to
"3a3
respectively equalto
a.
"
"Ay,
a. "" a"
aAy2
C3
a2
a. ct"
"3
*,
it vanishes;similarly vanish.
of the 27 determinants
are
remain
equalto
ft a
Ay3 (a
that
Ay2
a2"yi
-
Ay3
aAy2
", "" ""
aAyd
a"" cc"
b.
is,
a. "x" a"
can
be
the
product of
of two product
linear
determinants
determinant.
Consider
the two
equations
= =
axXx+ bxXa 0)
+ b^9 agXx
o]
(1),
27
H.
H.
A.
418
where
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Xl
and
a^
a2x2\
we (1),
^=A*i+/W
for X, Substituting
.(2).
have
=
X2
in
0\
Oj
(3).
for
equations(3) may
than
+
hold simultaneously
must
of xx and
x2 other
zero,
we
have
=
a^
bfr
hold
axa2 +
bfi2
(4).
But
(3)will equations
case
if
this
will be the
either if
(5),
aa
or
b2 X2
=
if last condition
Xl
0 and
0;
which
that requires
a. a.
ft ft
.(6).
also
as
if
equations (5)and
the
(6)hold, equation(4)must
in
therefore
determinant in (5)and
(4) must
contain
determinants of the
dimensions
determinants
(4)must
be numerical
; hence
"iai + " A
"ia, +
hA
the
on
sides of the
a. "",
equations, beingseen
a*
aia2 of
+
+
to be
unity.
b*
a,a2 +
a'
+
bfi2
b:
holds
hh
above
method
value
as
of
altered
rows,
when
we
write the of
two
columns,
the columns
the
product
in
pansion. exon
several
determinant result
420
12.
Without
a x
HIGHER
ALGEBRA. that
z r
b
x
z a
1 P
r
P
a
13.
Solve the
equations
0.
^r
14.
15.
a"
1
1
b
c
b2
i
16.
1
a
1
c
b+
c).
a?
c3
y
6
=
17.
x x
"2
(y-z)(z-x) (x-y)(yz +
zx
xy).
y2
zx
*2
yz
xy
a
18.
-la
+ b
b+
c +
a a
-26
+ c
c+b
-2c
a-
19.
(b+cY
62
^2
2dbc{a+b+cf.
{c+ af
62
(a+bf
a
20.
Express as
determinant
f
c
b 21.
satisfied and shew
Find
the condition that the equation lx + be my + nz=0 may the three of values sets by b3,c3) (au blt c{) (a.2, 62,c2) (a3, ; that it is the same as the condition that the three equations
=
alx +
may
be
a3x +
b2y+
c3z
DETERMINANTS.
421
22.
23.
where
*j 1,can
"
following theorem,due
sums
productoftwo
each
offour squares
be
as expressed
the
offour squares.
Prove the 24. |1
1 1
identities: following bc + ad
ca
b2e2+ a2d2
c2a2 + b2d2
+ bd
ab + cd
a2b2 + c2d2
=
-
25.
"
be be +
"
a2
ca
ca
b2
+
ab be +
c2
-
ab
bc
"
ca
ab
ca
ab
+ a)(c + b) (c
ca
ab).
26.
(h-xf io-xf
(b-c)(e a)(a-b){y-z)(z-x)(x-y).
-
27.
Find
in the
form
of
determinant
2
the
condition
that the
expression
Ua? +
may
+ V@2+ Wy2+ 2u'Py two + 2 ic'aft c'ya
a,
be the
28.
of product
ft, y
Solve the
equation:
u
+ a2x
w' + abx
v
v'+
acx
0,
w' + abx
c
+ b2x
u' + bcx
w
acx
u' + bcx
means
+ c2x
the expressing
result
by
of determinants.
422
499. in The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
be usefully of determinants employed properties may linear simultaneous equations. solving be equations
Let the
+ + +
+ hxy + b2y bg +
cxz + c2z+
cji +
dx 0, d2 0, d^O;
=
and add the results, respectively by Alt -As, A.A A3 being minors of alt a2i aa in the determinant D
=
a, a"
*, ^3
"3
The
in Art.
proved
(Mi
M*
may
-
M3)
shew 6 A)
(M
M2
Mb)
"-
we Similarly
that 2/+
(6,5, 6 A
and
-
("*A "*A
-
"*A) 0,
= =
Now
"A
+ "A atA,
+ 6 A) (6,5, 6,5,
-
hence
be written
"y
z
or
more
symmetrically
x
-y
a.
C3
Supposewe : equations
500.
have
the
DETERMINANTS.
423
+ + + +
c,s +
c2z + c3z +
+ du cAz 4 4
From
these,we
"y
have
as
". %
"4
in Substituting
".
^2 ^ \ 4 64 "
This may
be
more
written concisely
in the form
=
a2
bx h2
b.
c,
C2
C3
a. c.
dx (h "*3 d,
0;
the
on expression
Also
we
see
their proper signsare contain and column which respectively 501. More if generally,
we
coefficients of "z,, bx,c,, dx taken with the minors obtained by omittingthe row these constituents.
n
have
homogeneous
=
linear
equations
axxx +
a2xx
+ + cxx3+ bxx2 + c2x3+ b2x2 + +
kxxn 0, k2xn 0,
=
a
"
x,1 +
b xa 2
"
+ ex, n 3
kx=
" n
0,
'
u involving
unknown and
a. a.
can
be eliminated
these quantities quantities xx, x2, x3, ...as,,, in form the the result expressed
0.
"
ii
c
n
424
The left-hand
n
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
member
of this
n
equationis
consists of
rows
and
columns,and
order. the IIthis of determinant here sufficient beyond the scope of the presentwork ; it will be which have been established in the that the properties to remark The discussion of this
more
generalform
case
of determinants
are
of the
second
and
third
to
orders
are
quite
of
1
determinants
example,the
of
the
nth order
is
equal to
or
the first column. it from the first row or we as develop according letters stand for the minors of the constituents Here the capital and are themselves small letters, denoted by the corresponding be exof these may Each of the (n-l)thorder. determinants pressed of the (n 2)th of determinants of a number the sum as minant form of the deterorder ; and so on ; and thus the expanded
"
may
be obtained. of a determinant by means alwaysdevelop method, above,it is not alwaysthe simplest of find value the is much not to so object determinant, as to find the signs of its several
may the process described when our especially the whole elements. 502. The
Although we
expanded form
of the determinant
+ aAGi afi2G3afi3C2
~
+ a*hic2%h2Gx a2KC3 ;
~
and
it appears that each element is the productof three factors, taken from each row, and one from each column; also the one of half the of and terms the other half The signs + are signs
-
of the several elements element is element suffixes. in which cixb2c^ may The
obtained
follows.
positive ; we
be obtained
sign +
is to
leadingelement ; every other the interchanging by suitably be prefixed acto any element
DETERMINANTS.
425
the
cordingas
even or
it
can
be of
deduced
from
leadingelement
suffixes ; for
odd
number
permutationsof two
by an instance,
the element
3, therefore
is obtained by interchanging the suffixes 1 and a3b2c1 is obtained its sign is negative ajb1c2 ; the element
by
1 and
the suffixes 1 and first interchanging its 2, hence signis positive. 503. The determinant whose
element leading
is
axb2c3dA
...
may
thus be
expressed by
the notation
,
%^aJ"aeBdA
the 2
*
element indicating the aggregate leading of all the elements which be obtained from it by suitable can of suffixes and adjustment of signs. interchanges the Sometimes is used the determinant of 5 is still more within
"
before placed
abbreviation
a,b"c"dA....
sign is
to be
Example.
the element From
In the determinant
(a^c^e^
prefixedto
a^c^e.,1
leadingelement by permuting the suffixes of a and d we get have a4b3c2d1e5 a4b2c3dxe5 ; from this by permuting the suffixes of b and c we ; by permuting the suffixes of c and d we have aib.ic1d2e5 ; finally by permuting the suffixes of d and e we obtain the required element rt4"3c1rf5?2 ; and since have made four permutations the signof the element is positive. we
504. If in Art. the the
the
501,
each
of the constituents
reduces
to
a
6
,
...
is
determinant
; in other
words
"
productof ay and a determinant of the (n infer the following theorem. easily general
the constituents
l)th
column row or of the first of a determinant is zero exceptthe first, and if this constituent is equal is equal times that determinant to m, the determinant to m of lower order ivhich is obtained by omittingthe first column and first
row,
If each of
Also
constituent
any
zero,
row
the
and columns of rows interchange any into the first it follows that if can brought place, column has all its constituents or except one equal to determinant be expressed minant detercan as a immediately
since
by
suitable
be
simplification
426
Example.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
each constituent of the firstcolumn Diminish by twice the corresponding constituent in the second column, and each constituent of the fourth column by three times the corresponding constituent in the second column, and obtain we
-3
5
4
505.
The
examples following
Prove
=
shew
artifices which
are
casionally oc-
useful.
Example
1.
that
b +
c
(a+
d)(a
-
b +
d)(a
-
d)(a+
d).
that a + b + c + d is a factor of the we see the and third rows first and subtracting determinant; by adding together from the result the sum and of the second fourth rows that we see a-b d is also factor i t shewn a-b-c be that a + c + d and ; similarly can d are factors ; the remaining factor is numerical, and, from a coma + b-cparison of the terms to be unity seen involvinga4 on each side, is easily ; hence we have the requiredresult.
rows
-
Example
2.
Prove
that
:
a*
b*
d*
"
vanishes when b a, for then the first and second b is a factor of the determinant identical ; hence a [Art.514]. each of the expressions d is a factor of a Similarly d, b c, b d, c c, a the determinant; the determinant being of six dimensions,the remaining factor must be numerical ; and, from a comparison of the terms involving bc2d3 on each side,it is easily to be unity seen obtain the required ; hence we result.
are
"
The columns
givendeterminant
428
Solve the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
: equations
12.
x+
ax
y+
+
+
0=1,
c2z l2.
13.
ax
by + cz=k,
b2y+
=
a2x + a?x +
a2x
14.
x ax
+
+
a2x + cfix+
bsy+
c3z+ d3u
P.
15.
Prove
that
b+c"a"d
be
ca
"
ad
"
be
(a+ d)-ad(b-t-c)
"
c+a"b"d
a+b-c-d
=
bd
"
ca(b-\-d) bd(e + a)
ab
ab
cd
(c+ d) -cd{a
b)
-
-2
16.
Prove a2 b2
that
a2-(b
"
c)2
be
ca
b2-(c-a)2
c2
-
c2
(a
b)2
=
ab
(b-c)(c-a){a-b)(a
+ b+
c)(a2+ b2 + c2).
17.
Shew
that
a
b
"
d
c
f
e
ABC CAB
B
f
e
b
a
d
c
f
e
b
cc
d
c
d
c
f
e
b
a
d
c
f
e
b
a
b
where
A=a2-d2
+ 2ce
-2bf,
B=e2-b2+2ac-2df,
C=e2
-f2
+ 2ae-2bd.
of its
is of the ?ithorder, and if the constituents of the first n figurate numbers ...nth rows are second,third, first, is shew that its value ...nth the first, unity,. orders, second,third,
18.
If
determinant
CHAPTER
XXXIV.
MISCELLANEOUS
THEOREMS
AND
EXAMPLES.
506.
We of
permanence
laws which
remarks the on begin this chapterwith some form, briefly reviewingthe fundamental algebraical shall been
have
established in the
course
of the work.
of algebraical we exposition principles proceed do the down and outset not at we new names : lay analytically our new ideas, but we begin from knowledge of abstract which Arithmetic are capable ; we prove certain laws of operation the general theory of of verification in every particular case, and constitutes the science of Algebra. these operations 507.
In the Hence it is usual
to
speak of
a a
Arithmetical
Algebra and
them.
to make
distinction
sense
between
arithmetically intelligible, in the latter operation ; of laws the Arithmetical assume we Algebra to be true in all of whatever the the nature symbols may be, and so find cases, out what meaning must be attached to the symbols in order that Thus transcend the we as gradually, they may obey these laws. limits of ordinaryArithmetic,new results spring up, new guage lanhas to be employed, and interpretations given to symbols in which not the definitions. At the were contemplated original from in the which the laws of time, same general Algebra way
our
define
symbols in
thence
deduce
fundamental
laws
of
are
we established, even
are
assured
of their
permanence
and
versality uni-
when
they are
cally arithmeti-
intelligible.
508. the
arithmetical
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Commutation, which
subtractions may b-c
=
we
enunciate in any
as
follows order.
(i)
Thus
Additions
and
a
be made b-c
+
a.
a-c
divisions may
be made
in any
order.
axb=bxa;
bxcxa
a
x
=
axcxb'}
and b
=
so
on.
-=-
(a-f- c)x
(b+ c)xa.
enunciate
over
as
of
we
follows additions
be distributed
subtractions.
Thus
{a
-
c)m
"
am
"bm
"
cm,
(a b)(c d)
"
ac
ad
"
bc
bd.
Arts. 33, 35.] [SeeElementary Algebra, And since division is the reverse law for division requires no The Laws of Indices.
amxan am
+
=
of
the multiplication,
butive distri-
separate discussion.
III.
(i)
am+n
3
aH
am-".
a
(n)
[a
[SeeElementary Algebra,Art.
These been laws
are
233
to
235.]
laid down
as
fundamental the
proved on the and and integral, positive above that the operations
If these conditions
they are
restricted in such
way
arithmetically intelligible.
Algebra
to be true
Algebra we
assume
this tion assumpassured that the laws of we are and that they include in self-consistent, of
Arithmetic. ordinary
we
509. Arts.
From
the and
law
of
commutation of brackets
deduce
we
the
rules
insertion
Algebra, [Elementary
establish the law
by
MISCELLANEOUS
THEOREMS
AND
EXAMPLES.
431
of distribution
as
in Art. 35.
"
For
"
(a-b)(c d)~ac
with the restriction that
c
bd,
a,
b, c,
greaterthan b, and
greater than d.
all restricresults like this when tions Algebrato interpret Symbolical 0 and c Hence removed. a 0, we obtain are by putting is ("b)x ("d) bd, or the product of two negativequantities and obtain 0 6 c= a x ("d) 0, we ="a"I, Again by putting positive. is the two or ofopposite signs negative. quantities productof
= =
thus led to the Rule of Signsas a direct consequence and henceforth the rule of signsis of the law of distribution, laws of operation. included in our fundamental "We
are
laws are applied the way in which the fundamental of algebraical the reader is to establish the properties fractions, of the Elementary referred to Chapters Algebra ; xix., xxi., and xxn. 510. For it will there
cannot
to make
be
seen a
that
to
give any
them
definition priori
conform
to which we symbols and operations are so as always interpreted the laws of Arithmetical Algebra.
The
laws of indices
are
discussed fully
m
Algebra. Elementary
"
When
and
are
in
n,
we
prove
=
from directly
am
-r
the definition of
am~n j
index
that
am xan
am+n ;
a'1=
(am)nam".
=
We
are
the indices the first of these to be true when free from all restriction, and in this way we determine meanings does definition not for symbolsto which our apply. original then
assume
p
The
are
a0,a~"
thus derived
from
and with
laws ; with the other two conformity and be applied indices can consistently
perfect generality.
In
512.
Chapter vill.
i2
=
"
we
defined 1
.
the
symbol
or
J"
as
by obeying the relation of enabled laws the i are we to Algebra general making subject of the form a + ib, in of expressions to discuss the properties Such forms combined. which real and imaginary are quantities
From
are
this
and definition,
sometimes
to
called Articles
complex numbers,
92 to 105 that if
and
we
it will be
seen a
by
perform
on
complex
operationsof
432
Also those since above every
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
rational is in
function follows
involves that
a
no
mentioned, it
rational
complex number
a general
complex number.
be
\og(x"iy) cannot Expressionsof the form ax+ly, treated without Trigonometry;but by the aid of De
theorem, it is easy to shew
that such A
+
fullyto
Moivre's
functions
can
be reduced
complex numbers
The form We but ax+i\ have
of the form
ex+iyis of expression
another
seen
course
general
mode 220
of
it is treating
worthy
of attention.
in Art.
that
) (x\n
1
H
"
when
nj
is
infinite,
be
being
any
real
defined
by
means
similarly
e*+iy Lini (1
=
\
x
when
,
is
infinite,
and
being any
real
quantities.
theory of complex Chapters x. and XI.
numbers of will be Schlomilch's
The found
development
of the
give some
will often
theorems be found
and
which in the
Theory of Equations.
ivhen any rational
of
is Let
integral function
fix) denote
until
a
f(x) hyx-a
x
function of x ; divide any rational integral remainder is obtained which does not involve
; then
; let
f(x)
Since value R
we
Q(x-a)
x
R. unaltered whatever
does
not
x
involve
;
it will remain
a, then
=
giveto
put
f(a)
now
QxO
R;
x, hence
.MISCELLANEOUS
THEOREMS
AND
EXAMPLES.
433
divisible by x exactly a, then function ofx f(a) 0 ; hence ifa rational integral a. x a, it is divisibleby x Cor.
=
If f{x)is
==
0, that
is
vanishes when
"
contained in the preceding article is so proposition giveanother proofof it which has the advantage the form of the quotient. exhibiting the function is of
n
and dimensions,
let it be
1 dimensions
...
; denote
it
by
then
...
+ R qa_x)
out Multiplying
we
and
the equating
of x,
have
9.2-aQi=P2"
q3 R thus each
-
or
qs
" R
a4i+Pa'"
""i2+ ih ;
n2
ihi
or
oqn-%=Pn,
or
aqn_l +pn;
successive
coefficient in the
quotientis
formed
by
by a the coefficient last multiplying The coefficient in the dividend. next and of the quotient successive terms
thus arranged
:
formed, and
adding the
Po
Pi
"?0
P2
P3
Pa-X
Pa
% Thus R
=
qx +pn
"
v,
?.-,
x
=
aq^
"""
same
method
can
be
used,only in
28
H. H. A.
434
Example. divided by
Here the Find
x
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
3a;7 a;6 + 31a:4+ 21a; + 5
the
is
2.
-
is multiplier
2, and
14
14
-
we
have 00 -6 -6
21 12 12 5
3-10
-6
3
31
-28 3
-24
-
6
3
-7
11 the
mainder re-
Thus
6a;2+12a;-3, and
516.
In the
work
abridged
zero
by writingdown
of
x
terms,
to powers corresponding
absent. used
be frequently
labour
the when processes, particularly is another The following rational and integral. are
of Detached
Example.
Divide 3a;5
1+ 2 +
8a;4
5a;3+ 26a;2
33a; + 26
+
4-8)3-8-
5 + 26-33
26(3-2
+ 3
3 + 6 + 12-24
-5+2
Thus the
is quotient
3a;2
-
2;r + 3 and
the remainder
is
5a;+ 2.
the signof every It should be noticed that in writingdown the divisor, this been enables has us to replace the process changed ; term except the first of subtraction by that of addition at each successive stage of the work.
517.
Division.
The work
arrangement,
following Synthetic
3-2+
3+
0-
5+
of figuresto the left of the vertical line [Explanation. The column consists of the coefficients of the divisor, the signof each after the first being changed; the second horizontal line is obtained by multiplying 2, 4, -8 by 3, the first term of the quotient. We then add the terms in the second column to the rightof the vertical line ; this gives 2, which is the coefficient of the second term of the quotient. With the coefficient thus obtained
-
436
Put
z
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
0, then A
pansion ex-
of Put B
=
(x+ y)3.
=
l, and
get 27
(3
6)+
B ; whence
6. Thus
=
(x+
x3 +
A
z)3
z3 +
+ + 3yz2 3x2y+ 3xy2+ 3y2z
y3+
3z3x
3zx2
6xyz.
with is said to be alternating when its signbut not its value is altered variables, Thus x of any pairof them. y and 520. function
"
respectto its
by
a2
are
(b-c)+
b2(c-a)+ c2(a
-
b)
be
no
linear
function alternating
and also that the product of than two variables, more involving function and an alternating function must be an a symmetrical function. alternating
521.
the
a
may and
be
cisely con-
prefixing
symbol %
sum
type, %ab stands for the sum ab is the type; and so on. For instance, if the function involves
four letters a,
is the
b,c, d}
^a-a
%ab
=
b
+
+ c +
+
d;
+
ab
ac
ad +bc
bd+ cd;
and
so
on.
if the Similarly
function
=
and
so
on.
It should be noticed that when there are three letters involved %a2b does not consist of three terms, but of six : thus
c2a + c2b.
The
symbol 2
two
or
may
also be
sets of
used
to
imply summation
xy
with
to regard
more
thus letters;
zx
%yz (b-c)
=
yz
(b~c)+
(c-a)+
(a b).
-
MISCELLANEOUS
THEOREMS
AND
EXAMPLES.
437
an
The
above
notation powers
=
enables
us
to express
in
abridged
and products
of symmetricalexpressions : thus
+
(a+b + c)3
(a+
b
+
c +
%a3 2"3
Gabc j
df
+
Gtabc;
6Sa"6fl + 1 2%a2bc;
(a+
%a Example 1.
Prove
b
x
c)4 %aA
=
2"2
that
-
2a3
(a+ b)5
a5
b* =
5ab
+ (a+ b)(a2
ab +
b2).
on Denote the expression 0 ; hence vanishes when a Again E vanishes when a"
; then E is a function of a which factor of E ; similarly 6 is a factor of E. = a a is is and therefore a factor of E; a + b b, that E contains ab(a + b) as a factor. The remaining factor must be of two dimensions,and, since it is symmetrical with respectto a and b, it must be of the form Act?+ Bab + Ab'z ; thus
the left by E
is
(a + b)5 a5
-
b5= ab
a
+ (a+ 6)(Aa*
Bab
+ A
b~),
where
and B
=
are
of independent
=
and b.
2A + B ;
=
a Putting
1, b 2, b
1, we
-
have 15
putting
whence
A
=
1, we
have 15
5A
2B ;
once
o, J5 =
follows.
Example 2.
the factors of
-
the expression Denote by E ; then E is a function of a which vanishes when a = b, and therefore contains a b as a factor [Art. it 514]. Similarly thus E contains (b c)(c a)(a b) as a contains the factors b-c and c-a; factor.
-
Also since E is of the fourth degree the remaining factor must be of the and since it is function of first degree; be of a sj^mmetrical a, b, c, it must the form M{a + b + c). [Art. 518];
.-.
(b-c)(c-a) (a-b)(a+
a,
=
b + c).
we
To
obtain M
we
1, c
venient; con-
the
Example 3.
Shew
-
that z?= 5
+ y2 + (y+ z)(z+ x) (x+ y)(x2
z~
(x+
and
y+
-yb zjt-x5
yz + zx+
xy).
the left by E ; then E vanishes when Denote the expression on y=-z, therefore y + z is a factor of E; similarly and x + y are factors; z + x therefore E contains (y+ z)(z+ x) [x+ (/)asa factor. Also since E is of the
438
fifth degree the
in symmetrical
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
remaining factor
A
x, y, z, it must
degree,and, since
it is
(yz+
zx
xy)
.
Put"=2/=z=l;
put
whence
and
we
thus 10=^1+5;
2
=
x=2,
y=l,
0; thus 35
5A + IB ;
=
5,
result. required
523.
are
We
for reference of
of these have
^bc (b
2a3
as + b3 + c3
This
-
c).
3abc
(a+
c2c)(a2+b2+ another
bc-ca-
ab).
identity may
=
be
givenin
+ +
form,
a3 + b3 + c3-3abc
l(ab
+ (c-a)3 + (a-b)3 3(b-c)(c-a)(a-b). (b-c)3 + a)(a + b). (a+ b + c)3-a3-b3-c3 3(b+ c)(c
= =
Hbc
+ c) + %a2{b
(a+
+ c) (be
+
ca
=(b
2b2c2 + 2c V
2a2b2 -tf-fr-c*
=
(a+
EXAMPLES.
1. Find the remainder when
3^
XXXIV.
+ 1 1^
a.
+ 90#2
19# + 53 is divided
by
+ 5.
2.
Find the
equation a connecting
2xi-7x3+ax
3.
and
+ b
b in order that
may
be divisibleby
MISCELLANEOUS Find
_
THEOREMS
AND
EXAMPLES.
439
3.
the
when
qxi
by x2
a
3v + 2.
4.
Find
be
factor of
a.
tf 5.
2xA
4^ + 19.V2 Six + 12 + ^
Expand
^.^^.g
descending powers
of
to four
a4 (62
-
+ c2)
64 (c2
-
+ a2)
c4 (a2
-
62).
+
6-c)3.
(6 cf +
-
"
(c af
-
+ (6c
ca
a363.
a4 + 64 + c4.
+
6-c)5.
-
the
+ (6
identities : following
c
-
15. 2
2a)3 3(6+
=
c-
2a)(c+
a-
26)(a+
6-
2c).
a(b-cf
i0,
He-*)*
(a-6)(6-cr
2c
c
(c-a)(a-6r
17'"
J^
a
_?L
6+
c
(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)_3
a
+ 6
+ a)(a+6) + c)(c (6
18.
"-c)-
iy*
(a-6)(a-c)^(6-c)(6-a)^(c-a)(c-6)
+ c-2a)2 92(6-c)(6 + c-a)2. 42(6-c)(6
=
ty+z)*(e+x)*(x+y)*=tx*(y+zY+2(^z)3-2^2z*'
^ ("6 c2) (ac- 62)
-
"6c
2a)
0 ; hence
deduce 2
y)("+
2a)3
=
"-
440
25.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
bf-Z(b
+ a)(a+ b) c)(c
=
+ c3-3abc). 2(a3-\-b3
26.
c +
a-b,
=
#3 +^3 + #
Prove substitute s-".
g^g
+ (a3
3a6c).
if
we
27.
that
s-
2(a + 6 + c).
Find
the value of
"
28.
,w
/1
"_w_
c2
"
"
a2
"
b2
ft7
"
c2
;+77
b2
"
cz
wt
"
a2
x
a2
Z"2
'
29.
(a-b)(a- c)
(b-c)(b a)
"
(c-a) (c-b)
+
30.
(a+P)(a+ "l)
(a-b)(a-c)(a+x)
(b+p)(b+ q)
(b-c)(b-a) (b+ x)
32. s
'
31.
3__w^w
If
x
33.
+ y +
s, and #yz
shew =""2,
that
'jp _y\(p__z\
,y"
p)\zs p)
fp__ A /".
_
#\
+
\zs
pj\xs p)
4
'
"8
Miscellaneous
524. of the
Many
identities
can
be
Example.
Shew
that
=
(x+ yf -x7-y7
The
+ + y) (x2 Ixy (x
xy +
y2)2.
x
=
E, expression,
contain xy
=
on
the
left vanishes
as a
when
0, y
0,
0;
hence it must
(x+
y)
factor.
Puttingx
coy, we E
=
have
+ ta)7 W7 {(1
-
1} y7= {(_w2)7 w7
_
!} yi
(_ w2-w-l)y7
as
0;
may
hence
E
x
-
contains
ury
as a
wy
shew
that it contains
y2.
MISCELLANEOUS
IDENTITIES.
441
Further,E being of seven, and xy(x+ y)(x2 + xy + y2) of five dimensions, the remaining factor must be of the form A (x2 + y'2) + Bxy ; thus
(x+ y)7
-
x7
=
y7
xy
+ xy {x+ y)(x2 21
=
Puttinga; putting
whence
x
l, y
l, we have 1, we
2^+5;
=
2, y=-
have 21
A
=
5^1 -2B;
=
7, B
=
7; xy +
.-.
(x+ y)7
-
x7
y2)2.
525.
We
know
-
from
=
aa + b3 + c3
also
we
3abc
b2 + c2 -be-
ca
"
ab);
have
seen
in Ex.
"
a* + b2 + c2
hence thus
be
"
"
ca
ab
(a+
ub
(a+ ore)
"a2b +
wc) ;
factors;
a3 + b3 + c3
3abc
can
be resolved
a3
b3 + c3
3abc
(a+
+c) (a +
mb
(a+ arc)
"D2b+
wc).
dabc
and
-
a;3 +
SABC.
y3+
z3
Sxyz
be The
A3 + B3 + C3
product
[a+ b + c) (a+ wb
+ (x
+ +
ore) (a+
w2" +
wc)
y+
z)(x+ uy
pairs(a+
and
c)(x+
y +
z);
u"b+
w2c) (x+
uz);
(a+
urb +
uc)(x+
wy +
urz),
products partial
A + B +
C, A
cz, B B +
+
"
+
cx
u)C,
+
where
ax
+
=
by +
ay + bz.
Thus
the
product (A +
=
C) [A +
u2C) (A +
orB +
"C)
A3 + B3+C3-SABC. to
526.
a,
a
In when
order these
we
find the
values
of
b, c
+
0,
connected
"
h the
k, b
ioh +
c (x"2k,
ufh
u"k.
If however method
exhibited
in the
442 Example.
If
a
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
+ b +
0, shew
=
that
+ (a3
6 We have
+ b5 + c5) (a5
63 +
+ (a2 c3)
62 +
c2).
identically
1 +px
ca
qx2+rx3,
r
"
where
"
+ b + c, q
bc +
ab,
abc.
l+
qx2+ rx3.
xn,
we
equating the
xn in the
coefficients of
have
(an+
bn +
cn) coefficientof
=
-
of xn in coefficient
rc By putting
2, 3, 5
we
obtain a3 + b3 + c3 a5 + b5+c5
=r'
a2 + b2 + c2
j"
whence
=*"
3"
T-=-"?r;
" '
"-
"
=
~
"
once
follows. is satisfied;hence
we
c If a=fi-y, 6 = 7 -a, a-/3, the given condition for all values of a, /3, have identically y
=
+ (7-")5+("-/3)5} 6{(iS-7)5
=
that
is,
+
72-/37-7a-a^;
Ex.
3, Art. 522.
EXAMPLES.
1.
If
XXXIV.
b.
when
n
(a + b + cf
(a+ b + integer
2.
Shew
cfn
that
+ 1
is
positive
c)(2b
-
a)(2c
-
b).
3.
n
is
an
xy(x2+ xy+y2), if
4.
a3
-
Shew
that b3 (ex
-
+ (bz cy)3
azf +
c3 (ay
bx)3
=
Sabc
444
If
a
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
b+
g? + b3+ (?+ d3
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 2
3"
c3+
-"
d3)2
=
(M
+ cda + da" +
=
25.
If 2s
+ b+
-
and
-
2o-2 a2 + 62 +
=
-
c2, prove
=
-
that
26.
Shew
that
xy
+y2)3.
a5
27.
Shew
that 2
(a b)(a c)(a d)
" " -
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2
ab +
ac
ad+bc
bd+cd.
28.
Resolve
into factors
+ (a3
2"262c2 +
b3 +
abc c3)
Elimination.
527.
a
In
system of
of
a
have
at
seen
that of
of
once
be written
in the
form
determinant.
General
methods
plicable ap-
of any degree will be found discussed in equations treatises on the Theory of Equations we ; in particular may refer and of Dr Salmon's Lessons ductory Introthe student to Chapters iv. VI. of to the Modern Higher Algebra, and to Chap. xm. Burnside and Panton's TheoryofEquations. These methods,thoughtheoretically not always are complete, We shall therefore onlygivea the most convenient in practice. brief explanation of the generaltheory, and shall then illustrate of elimination that are methods more by examples some cally practito
useful.
528. Let
us
first consider
two
the elimination
of
one
unknown
Q and
that,if necessary, the equationshave been reduced to a form in which f(x) and ""(x)represent rational integral functions of x.
Since
some
these
two
x
functions vanish
which
must
be
value of
satisfies both
givenequations ; hence
ELIMINATION.
445
the eliminant expresses the condition that must hold between the coefficients in order that the equations root. may have a common
Suppose that
then be
one
a,
at least of the
zero
the roots of f(x) 0, x J3, y,... are must quantities "f" "f" "f" (a), (/?), (y),
= =
equalto
The
; hence
the eliminant
methods
529.
:
the left is a symmetrical function of on expression and the equation its value found by be can fix) 0, in treatises on the TheoryofEquations. explained
=
We
shall be
now
tion of eliminaa
it will
sufficient for
example,but
The Euler.
it will be
that
purpose in each
to
case
take the
simple
is
process
of to equations applicable
any
degree.
in the
illustrated principle
following example
is due
to
Example.
Eliminate
between
cx
the
=
equations
gx + h
=
+ d
0, fx2+
0.
common
to corresponding
the root
to both equations,
ex
+ d
=
+ (x+ k)(ax2
lx +
,
m),
fx2+
n
gx + h
(x+ k)(fx+ n)
k, I,m,
From
beingunknown
these
quantities.
+ (axs
+ d)(fx+ n) (ax2
=
Ix +
we
+ m) (fx2
gx +
h).
of Equatingcoefficients
like powers
-an
of x,
+
obtain
fl
gl+fm
Jd + gm-
ag-bf=0, cf= 0,
-
-bn
en
+ ah-
df= 0,
=0. unknown
hm-dn
From
n,
we
these linear
I,in, quantities
/
g h
ag-bf ah-cf
-df
0
0.
f
g
b
c
446
530. be very The
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
eliminant of the
Method
before.
shall take
the
same
example
as
Example.
Eliminate
between
cx
the
=
equations
h
=
axs + bx2 +
the Multiply
+ d
0, fx2+gx +
0.
first equation by x, and the second have 5 equationsbetween which thus ; we as distinct variables. x x4,xz,x2, regarded quantities succession ax* + bx2+cx
+
equation by
we can
The
equationsare
d=0, =0,
=
axi + bx3+cx2
+ dx
gx + h hx
0, 0,
ltx2
=0.
b
c
0.
d 9 h
0
h 0
0 0
f
9 h
/
9
/
531. The
of the following method principle the result as advantageof expressing either of the determinants shall choose the same We of
is due to
a
Bezout;
of the preceding
determinant
obtained
by
as
example
before,
mode giveCauchy's
Eliminate
x
Example.
between
cx
equations
gx + h
=
d=0, fx2 +
0.
these
we equations,
have
a
_
bx2 +
ex
+ d
'
f
ax
gx2+hx
cx
+ b
+ d Jix
'
fx +g~
whence and
-
x1 (ag bf)
-
{ah~cf)x- df= 0,
eg
-
df)x
dg
0.
Combining these
two
equationswith
fx2+gx
+ h
0,
ELIMINATION.
447
obtain h
-
and
x'zand regarding
as
distinct variables, we
f
ag
a
-
=o.
bf
ah
-cf
eg
df dg
the form
cf
two
bh
-df
532.
If
we
have
"", (x, y)
"
0,
x.
in already explained; If
we
y may this
by
case
any will be
of the
a
methods
function of
have
three
=
of equations
02 (^ y" z) ""
the firstand obtain second
two
between
the firstand
third,we
=
then form
V) ("" "A,
If the
we
""
these
y) ^ (x"
eliminate
=
y from
we equations
result of
form/* (a:)0.
in By reasoning this
n manner
it follows that
we
can
eliminate
variables between
equations.
of elimination already methods general explained but with the eliminants be employed advantage, may occasionally obtained are rarely in a simple so form, and it will often happen that the equations themselves mode of suggest some special elimination. This will be illustrated in the following examples.
533.
The
Example 1.
Eliminate lx + my
Z,m
=
between
the
=
equations
a,
vix-ly
b, Z2+ m2=l.
By squaringthe
first two
equationsand adding,
7-.c2 + m-x2 +
""V
*V
a2 +
"2"
.t2 +
?/2
=
equation is
sin 6
cos
6 + y sin 6
cos
Z"
is
x2 +
y*
a" + b*.
448 Example
2.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the
Eliminate
x, y, z between
equations y*
y
= =
z2 + x2=bzx, y*+z*=zayz,
v
x2 +
x
cxy.
We
have
*" +
z
z
-
-=a,
-+"
c5
togetherthese by multiplying
w2 z2 hence
2 +
three z2 z2
obtain, we equations
z2 sa z2
y2
X'
t/2
-
a;2
2/2
abc ;
.-.
a2 + "2+c2-4
the
a"c.
Example
3.
Eliminate
#, ?/ between
=
equations
x2 +
x2-y2=px-qy, "xy
the Multiplying
qx+py,
y2=l.
by
y,
we
the second
obtain
x3 +
Sxy2.
Similarly
Thus
.:
q p +
Bx2y+ ys.
q={x+y)3" p-q={x-y)3\
=
-
yf
2(x2+ y2);
Example
4.
Eliminate
?--z
v
x, y,
z
=
between
x
=
the
x
equations
y
=
a,
x z
b,
--^
c.
We
have
x(y2-z2)+y(z2-x2)+z(x2-y2)
a
xyz
_{y-z){z-x)(x-y)
xyz If we change the sign of x, the signof a remains unaltered ; hence a-b-c"
signsof
b and
are
changed, while
the
(y-z){z+ x)(x+ y)
xyz
Similarly,
and
b-c-a
(y+ z){z-x)(x + y)
=
xyz c-a-b
+ x){x^y) (y+ z)(z
=
xyz
ELIMINATION.
441)
.-.
-{ul~Z")2^~fJ^ztl
\z
y)
\x
z) \y x)
0.
-a?b-2c2.
i4
-
."
26V
+ 2c2a2 +
2a262
a4
c4 + a262c2 =
EXAMPLES. 1.
Eliminate
m
XXXIV.
c.
from
the
equations
a=0}
my + x=Q.
m2x 2.
Eliminate m, my +
n n a
"
?ny +
from
=
the
equations
"
m\v 3.
"
0, n2x
ny +
0,
mn
0.
Eliminate m,
mx
"
between
"
the
nx
equations
=
ny
"
(m2 n2),
r
r
"
+ my
2amu,
m2 + n2
4.
Eliminate p
p, q,
+
from the
equations
=
q+
Of a(qr+rp+pq)
the
2a-x,
"
apqr=y,
qr=
1.
5.
Eliminate
from
-
equations
a2 + x2
-
ax2 6. Eliminate
m
3ax
0.
equations
??i), wy
the
xy
-
y +
mx=a
(1+
z
x"
(1 m).
-
7.
Eliminate a:, y, yz
=
from
a2, zx=b2,
+
z2
d2.
8.
equations
=
x(p
9.
Eliminate
x
q)=y,
y a,
p-q
k(l+pq),
xpq
a.
x, y from the
"
x2
"
c3.
10.
x+y
11.
a,
equations
+ cfo+ a#, +
=
by +
cfti +
z
cz a#
rfw} y=cz
fry,w
the
cu;
by+
cs.
12.
Eliminate x, y,
from
+
z
=
equations
= =
x+y
0, x2+y2+ z2 a2,
c5.
+ 25 aP+ff+sP^fc, ^,5+y5
n. h. a.
29
450
13. Eliminate
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
#, y,
from
the
equations
'
'
y 14.
z^x^y
#, y,
z
\y
zj\z
xj\x
y)
Eliminate
from
the
equations
=
+ x) ff2(y+z) y2(z
=
g2fo+ff) a^a!l(
c3
a3
b3 the
abc
15.
Eliminate
4
x, y from
=
equations
=
+ y 2) (.r2
ax
Z"y, 2(x2-y2)
the
ax
by,
xy
c2.
16.
Eliminate
=
#, y,
from
equations
=
+ (a;
)2 4c2#y.
=
17.
Eliminate
x, y,
from
+
=
the
equations
(x+y
z)(x-y
z) ayz,
"
(y+
x
x) (y
=
x)
6s#,
(z+x"y) (z
18. Eliminate a?,y from the
y)
cxy.
equations
=
x2y=a,
19.
Shew
x(x-{-y) b, 2x-\-y
=
c.
that
of
(a+6
is the eliminant
cm;2+
+ cz2 fry2
ax
by +
cz
=yz
zx
+ xy
0.
20.
Eliminate
#, y from
the
equations
=
" "
ax2-t-by2=ax+by
21.
Shew
that of
=
=c.
5a2b2c2
is the eliminant
ax+yz
22. Eliminate
bc, by +
x, y,
z
zx=cai
cz +
xy
ab, xyz=abc.
from
+ y +
x2+y2+z2=x
z=l,
^(x-p)=-(y-q)=C-{z-r).
23.
Employ
ax3 +
Bezout's method
=
to eliminate
x, y
from
=
a'x3 +
0.
452
538. Denote
HIGHER
ALGEBHA.
n
and roots,
no
more.
by/(a;)0, givenequation
=
=
where
+
+ +2"2xn~"' f(x)=pQ"?+PJXT1
P*' this be
The
real
or
imaginary;let
x-a},
so
that
where
Igain,
where
f(x) (x-ai)"f"l(x), function of n-1 "t" (x)is a rational integral 0 has a root real or *" the equation
=
dimensions
that
"""
is
divisible by x-a2,
"0^^**
so
fa^^ix-aj^x),
is a rational integral "f"a(x) (* O *b(*" /(a") (" ",) Thus
n
=
~ -
function of
2 dimensions.
Proceedingin
this way,
=
~
we
the
f(x)= equation
cannot equation
0 has
vanishes
has any
of the values ax, a2, a3,...an. than n roots; for if x has have more ..."",all axi a2, a any of the quantities different from zero, and therefore are
x.
Also the
any
f(x)
may
value different from the factors on the right cannot vanish for that value of In the above
be
some investigation
of the
quantities al,a2,a3,...an j
shall suppose
are
equal;in
that
the
not
all different.
539.
To
the investigate
and
the
denote
the
by equation
+
xn+p1xn-l+2"2xn~2+ +Pn-lX
and the roots
P"
0"
j
(x-k)'}
by
a,
b, c,
k;
then
we
have
identically
x"+p1xn-l+2)0xn~'+ +Pn-ix+P"
=
(x-a) (x-b)(x-c)
have
(" !)"","
THE011Y
OF
EQUATIONS.
of
x
453
Equatingcoefficients of
-
like powers
in this
identity,
%"x
"
Sl~ sum
S"
=
pa
sum
at
time;
"pB
"
Sa -sum
of the time ;
of products
three at
the roots.
on
each dividing
term
by
;-1 xn-l+]-^x"-2+
Po
Po
+P"=1X + P"=0
Pu have
Po
abc...k
(- 1)"^
.
Po
V,
Solve the equations
+ ay + a2z =
P0
Po
Example 1.
x
a31 x
+
see
by + b2z
that
b*, x ", e
=
cy + c2z = c*.
equations we equation
a,
are
the values
of t which
t3-zt2-yt-x
hence
z
=
0;
+
+ b + c, y=
-(bc+
ca
ab),x
abc.
Example
form the
equationx3+p1x3 +-PzC+pa=0,
The
or
equationis required
-
if y
x2 ; 0.
;
that
is,
{x + a)(x + b) (x + c) x3
=
pxx2 +p."
pv
equation is required
or or
(x3 +p")2
x6 + if we
-
(pxx2 +p3)2 0,
=
-
0;
and
replacex2 by y,
obtain
-
454
540. in the The student
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
might suppose
enable
a,
any proposed is relations to of the for the number equal the number equation; that is this not the A little reflection will shew of the roots. 1 of the quantities eliminate n we for suppose any case determine the remaining to and so obtain an equation b,c,...k article would preceding
"
-
in involved are symmetrically quantities shall always obtain an it is clear that we each of the equations, this equationis therefore coefficients; havingthe same equation stituted subof the roots a, b,c,...k with some one the original equation
one;
then
since these
for Let
us
x.
take for
p2x
p3
0;
and
let a,
b,c
be the
roots; then
a
+
ac
b
+
+ c
"]:"x" ps)
"
ab
bc=
abc=
a, I
-l\rf-l\u"-p3i
+
a
is,
is the
a3 +
+ p2a pxa?
p3
0,
in the is
placeof
x.
above
of elimination any
and quitegeneral,
is
degree.
roots
of the
to obtain
by
will sometimes
of
nected con-
539
Example 1.
that the roots
are
24a;2 + 23x + 18
0, having given
progression.
-
Denote of the roots is 3a ; the the roots by a b, a, a + b ; then the sum of the products of the roots two at a time is 3a2 62 ; and the product of the roots is a (a2 62) the hence have we equations ;
sum
-
3a
6, 3a2-Z"2
find
^, a(a2-62)=-|;
5
a
=
from
2, and
from
the
second
are
6="-,
a
and
consistent.
9
,
2,
"
THEORY
OF
EQUATIONS.
-
455
=
Example
Denote
2.
14.r2
(ftx + 45
0, one
root
being
2a, b\ then
we
have
From
we equations,
8a2-2a-3
3
.-. a
=
0;
5 25
-or--and"=--or-.
,
1 It will be found
on
25 6=
^
a=
--,
do not
satisfy
the third
2a26 equation
"
hence
3
a
=
-v
we
are
b=--.
Thus
the roots
are
"
"
542.
may
use
the values of
sum
functions symmetrical
of the squares and
of the roots.
of the
x3
-px2 +
;
qx-r
"
0.
Denote
by a, b, c
a
then
bc + b+
-
+ b + c=p,
ca
+ ab + (bc
q.
ca
Now
a2 + b2 + c2 =
(a+
-
c)2
ab)
2q.
in the and add; givenequation b+ thus
b, c for
a3 + b3 +
.-.
c)-Sr
+ Sr
0;
a3 + b3 +
c3=p(p2-2q)-pq
=p3
-
Spq 4- dr.
Example 2.
If a, 6, c, d
are
the roots of
xA +px* +
find the value of Ha2b.
qx2+
rx
0,
We
have
ab +
ac
+ b+
+ d
(1),
+ ad + bc + bd + cd
q
-r
(2), (3).
"
456
From these
we equations
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
have
-pq
Sa26 + 3
+ (dbc
Sa26-3r;
.-.
2a-b
3r-pq.
EXAMPLES.
Form the
XXXV.
are
a.
equationwhose
roots
1. 3.
|,"V" |,
2, 2, -2, -2, 0,
: equations
2.
5.
0, 0, 2, 2, -3,
a
-3.
4.
b, a-b,
-a
b, -a-b.
Solve the 5. 6. 7. 8.
a? -16x3+
-
86x2
-
1 76# + 105 36
=
0, two
roots
being1
and
7.
4r3 + 16.r2 9x
-
0, the
sum
of two
roots
of the roots
being zero.
0, two of the
=
being equal.
in
26x2 + 52.27 24
0, the
roots
being
roots
9.
3:
4.
2a?
"
x2
"
22#-
24
0, two 0, one
of the
being in the
another
10.
roots.
24x* + 46.2?2 + 9#
"
root
beingdouble
of the roots
of the
11.
"r4
2^
-27^,2 + 6# + 9
0,
two
in opposite
sign.
-39^2-26^7+
16
=
12.
54^
0, the
roots
13.
32^3-48^2+22^-3
6#*
14.
29^
+ 40a3
1x -12
of the roots
being2.
15.
#*
-
being
roots
in arithmetical
progression.
16. 27.274-195.273 + 494.r2- 520.27+ 192
=
0,
the
being in
the
metrical geo-
progression.
17. 18a3 other two,
+
8U2 + 121.37 + 60
0, one
root
being half
sum
of the
THEORY
OF
EQUATIONS.
457
-
18.
If a,
b,c
are
0, find
the value of
(1)
19.
^+1 + 162 c2 a2
'
'
+r
c2rt2 aaja
i,+
t
"
If a,
+
c are "",
(1) {h-cy
20.
(c-a)*+ (a-b)\
the
sum
Find
of the squares
#* + 21.
Find the
sum
+ qx2
0.
of the roots of
x3+qx+r=Q.
543.
occur
7?i
an
with equation
real
coefficients imaginary
roots
in
pairs.
=
0
an
is
to f(x) corresponding
a
"
these two
"
roots is
(x
Let
"
ib) (x
"
or (x ib),
+ a)2
b2. the
f(x) be
the
Q, and
divided
quotientby
',
Rx
E.
In this
-
put identity
b2
=
ib,then f(x)
"
by hypothesis ; also
+ (x a)2
0 ; hence
zero
+ (a+ ib)
0.
Equatingto
and b
imaginaryparts,
Rb
=
E=Q,
zero,
=
0;
is not by hypothesis
.-.
0 and
#
"
0.
Hence
(x
hence
x
=
"
(x ib)
"
ib) \
a-ib
is also
root.
544.
In the
=
f{x)
0 has
seen a
"
is a factor of the
f(x). expression
458
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the imaginaryroots are Suppose that a"ib, c"id, e"ig,... (x)is the product of the of the equation f(x) 0, and that cf" to these imaginary factors corresponding roots; then quadratic
-
Now hence
each
for every real positive for real values of x. is alwayspositive (x) "f"
of these factors is
value
of x;
545.
As
in Art.
543
we
may
root.
-
shew in
that in
an
with equation
+
roots
a
enter
Jb
is
root then
a-
Jb
-
is also
Example 1.
that
one
Solve the
equation6z4
13x3
35z2
+ 3
0, havinggiven
sponding corre-
root
is 2
^3.
a
Since
2-^/3
6z4
-
is
root, we
35a:2
2+^/3
Also hence
13z3
+ 3
{x2
-
4x +
+ 11* 1) (6a;2
3) ;
are
obtained from
=
6a;2 + 11a; + 3
1
0,
3
-
or
are
2 +
^/3, 2-^3.
of
-
Example
2.
the
equation
is
the 3.
fourth
degree with
rational
coefficients, one
Here
-
roots
+ sj ,J2
we
must
/J2+
-
/J-3,J2-Jpair.
as
one
pair
of roots, and
"/2+
^/
-
3,
J2
3 as another
and
factor x2 have the quadratic to the first pair we + 5, 2/v/2x Corresponding factor to the second pairwe have the quadratic corresponding
-
x2 + Thus the
2fJ2x+
5.
requiredequationis
+ 5) 0, + 5) (x2-2fJ2x + 2,J2x (x2
=
or
+ 5)2-8a2 0, (x2
=
or
a^ + 2x2 + 25
0.
Example
3.
Shew
A2
that the B2
+
equation
C2
7
H2
+
... '
+
x-c
"
x-a
x-b
x-h
,=",
has
no
imaginaryroots.
-
If possible let p + iq be a root ; then p iq is also a root. Substitute these values for x and subtract the first result from the second ; thus A2
+ q2 i)2 {(p-a
B2
C2
'
""
H*
'
(p-b)2+ q2^(p-c)2+ q2
=
(p-h)2+
460
Hence
we
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
see
an (i)
continuation
of
sign in
set
the
polynomial; original
the signsbefore (ii)
are
an
ambiguityor
at the end.
case
of
biguities am-
unlike;
unfavourable suppose that all from (ii) see we continuations; and
we
replaced by of whether of changes that the number signwill be the same let us take the upper; take the upper or the lower signs; of changes of signcannot be less than in the number
are ambiguities + + + same +
as
-
thus
-+,
and with
this series of
an
is the signs
in the
original polynomial
additional
we
change of
If then and
"
suppose
the factors
roots to be imaginary to a a x corresponding therefore of no can equation change sign; roots than it has changesof sign.
to the negative corresponding each factor multiplied already together, root introduces at least one positive
have
more
positive
equation f("x) 0 are equalto those in sign;therefore the negative of /(^) 0 but opposite to them the positive of f(x)-0 are of /*(-#) 0; but the roots roots of these positive exceed roots number the number cannot of roots changes of signin f{" x); that is,the number of negative exceed the number of f(x) 0 cannot of changes of sign in /(- ""
=
Again,the
=
roots of the
x* + Ix + 2
0.
are
two
at most
two
roots. positive
Again /(- x)= x9 + 5x8 + x3-7x + 2, and here there of sign, therefore the given equation has at most three therefore it must have at least four imaginaryroots.
"
EXAMPLES.
Solve the
: equations
XXXV.
b.
1. 2. 3.
3xA
"
"
0, one
=
root
being being2
-
^
N/3.
^1 ,J
6s4
35#2
+ 3
=
0, one
root
xA + 4-r3 + 5x2 + %x -2
0, one
root
being
1+
THEORY
OF
EQUATIONS.
root
4G L
4. 5.
0, one
being "/-l.
"
equation x5-xA
+ 8x2-9x
15
0,
one
root
being
^3
one
and
"2J-
1.
dimensions
with
rational
coefficients,
siZ+J^2. -J2-J^2.
Form the
7. 9.
roots roots
-J^l+J5.
N/5 + 2x/6.
are "
equationwhose equationwhose
5 a/3,
=l
*/
-
1.
-3.
Form
Fomi
one
the
the of
are
1"
"/- 2, 2" J
with
rational
efficients co-
13.
Find
the nature
equation
0.
-
+ bx-4
equation 2.v7 xA +
-
4.V3
0 has
at least four
roots. imaginary
15.
What
may
be inferred
the respecting
roots of the
equation
16.
"
of
imaginary
roots
of the
17.
Find
(1) (2)
may
have
18. If the roots of the equation xl+p.v3-\-qx2 + rx + arithmetical progression, shew that p3 4pq + 8r=0; and shew that p2s r2. in geometrical progression,
"
are
in
arc
if
they
19.
1 xn equation (l-a)(l-/3)(l-7)
-
are =n.
1,a, /3, y,
shew
.
that
.,
If a, value of
b,c
are
x3-px2 equation
21. 23.
+ qx
-r
0, find the
20. 22.
If a,
Za2b2.
(*!)"
+
are
$a2b.
qx- +
rx
b,c, d
the roots
of
xA+px3 +
25.
24.
%a*b"
$a\
462
548. To
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
f (x) is
rationed
+ +P2X"~2 +Pn-ix +Pn i then f(x)=pQxn+plxn~l + + h)"-* + h)n +2"2(x fix + h) p0(x +2\ (x+ h)H~} +2\-Ax + h)+Pn
=
Expanding powers of h, we
+
each have
term
and
arrangingthe
result in
ascending
+ +2^xn~2 Poxn-\-2\xn~l
...
+pn.lx+pn
...+
p^}
+
^{n(n-l)(n-2)...2.12"0}\nl
written usually in the form
This result is
...
called
the
first,
The
student
see
who that
knows the
the elements
expansion of f(x + h) is only a of Taylor's Theorem; the functions f (x), case f" (x), particular down written the therefore at be once by ordinary f'"{x) may rules for differentiation: thus to obtain f'(x) we "romf(x) multiply of x in that term and then in f(x) by the index each term diminish the index by unity.
will above
Similarlyby
J
successive
differentiations
we
obtain
fix),
\X),
....
By writing
"
h in the
placeof h, we
have
+ f(x-h)=f(x)-h/'(x)
The
to
x
function
f(x + h)
is
respect
and
h;
+
hence
,n
fix
+ h)=/(h)+ xf (h)
*r
"
(h)+
...
f/*(h).
\n
THEORY
OF
EQUATIONS.
463
denote the results Here the expressions f'(h)if"{Ji),f,"{1b)i h in the place of x in the successive derived obtained by writing
...
functions
Example.
Here
/ {x)
= =
2x*
xs
2xz + 5x
-
/ (x+ 3).
/ (x) 2x*
x*
2x* + 5x 4x +
1,
that
131 = / (3)
;
Sx"-
ii
Thus The
more
systematically by Horner's
549.
Let y
+
+ p2x"~2 + f{x)=p0xn+p1xn~1
...
+pn_lx
pn;
put x
"
h, and
suppose
that
then f [x)
becomes
Now
"
h;
hence
we
have
the
identity
+pn_1x
. .
pn
-
h)n qo(x+qx(x-h)-1+
qn_x(x h)+
qn ;
also the
therefore qn is the remainder found by dividing f(x) by f rom the division is quotient arising
x-h;
q0(x-h)*-l+ql{x-hy-'+...+qH_i.
found by dividing the last Similarly qn_l is the remainder and the from the division is xh, expression by quotient arising
+ QAx-hT~3 9o(x-hT'2 +
-+Qn-2'}
and
so
on.
Thus qn, qn_1, qn_a, plained may be found by the rule exin Art. 515. The last quotient is q0, and is obviously
"""
equalto
j)0-
464 Example.
Find
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the result of
changing x
into
+ 3
in the
expression
2a;4_^_2x2+5x-l.
Or
more
thus briefly
Hence It may
Compare
be remarked
that Horner's
process
is
useful chiefly
work.
550.
If
and
the variable
b the
h be any two
values of
between lying
and
b.
have
/("+*)-/(")=
and
+|/"(e); vw+"/"W+-
and enough the difference between/(c+ /i) hence to a small change f(c)can be made as small as we please; in the variable x there corresponds a small change in the function and therefore as x changesgradually tion/*^) from a to b,the funcf (x), from changesgradually /(a) to f(b).
by takingA
small
551.
to
It is
to important
notice that
we
have
not
/(a) to
fib),or
decreases
that it passes from one value to the other without it may be increasing and at other any sudden change;sometimes "times it may be decreasing. The student who has
a
knowledgeof
the elements
of Curvefollow y
one
will in any particular tracing example find it easy to of value gradual changes by drawing the curve oif(x) then If f (a)and f (b)are of contrary signs f (x) 0 must lie between a and b. equation
=
the
=f(x).
root
552.
of
the
As
to
therefore
pass
through all
THEORY
OF
EQUATIONS.
4G5
intermediate
values;but
a
f(a)and f(b)have contrarysigns lie between them; that is, f(x) 0 for some
since
=
and b.
a
It does not follow that f(x)= 0 has onlyone root between and b; neither does it follow that if f(a)and /(b) have the same signf(x)0 has no root between a and b.
=
553.
root whose
at
least
one
real
f(x) substitute
+ co,
for
the values
co
0, -co
If pn
"
oo
f(0)=pnJ /(-oo) -oo. then f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween is positive, 0 and and if pn is negative f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween 0
/(+oo)
=
and
co
which is of an even and has Every equation degree has least real at two and one roots, negative positive negative. 554. last term For in this
case
its
one
but and
/(+co) +co, f(0)=pn, f(-co) + co; hence f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween pn is negative; and between 0 and root + co a co lying
=
f (a)and f (b)have contrary signs, 555. If the expressions odd number of roots of f (x) 0 will lie between a and b; and an have the same eitherno root or an even number sign, andi(h) "/*f(a) ofroots will lie between a and b.
=
is greater than b, and that a, /3,y, a k all of roots the 0 and which lie between b. a represent f(x) be Let "f" the when divided is the quotient (x) by product f(x)
. .
Suppose that
(x
...
"
"
...
"
"
"
...
/(8)=(5-a)(6-J3)(6-r)...(ft-K)*(5).
for otherwise a and "f"(b) must be of the same "{"(a) sign, root of the equation 0, and therefore of f (x) 0, would "j""(.x') lie between and b [Art. which is contraryto the hypoa 552],
= =
Now
H. H. A.
30
466
thesis. Hence if
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
/(a)
-
and
/(b)
have
ex
pressions (a a)(a-fi)(a-y)
have all
...
(a k),
-
(b-a)(b-P)(b-y)...(b-K)
must
are
and positive,
all
negative;
of
hence
the number
...
of factors must
roots a,
the the
signthe
number
of
factors must if a,
not
.
even.
In this
case
givencondition
less than
a
all greater than a, or are /?, y, follow that y* (as)0 has necessarily
k
=
b ; thus
a
root between
556.
If a,
/ (x)
Here If
r
(x j?0
"
a)(x-b)(x c)
"
(x k).
"
the
of them
k are not necessarily unequal. quantities a, b, c, then t to to to s are b, equal a, c, (x b)s (x c)' /(x) p0 (x a)r
... . . .
"
"
In
this 0
as
case
it is convenient
still to
/{x)
"
havingn
roots,each of the
distinct root.
557.
f equation Let then
1/ the equation f(x) 0 has r roots equal to will 1 roots equal 0 have to a. r (x)
=
=
"
a, then
the
/(x) is
divided
by (x a)r ;
"
Write
h in the
placeof
+
=
x;
thus
+
/(x
h) (x-a
h)r 4"(x+h);
.
+ "'(x) + .-../(")
%/"(x)+..
+ +
.
In this
coefficients of
-
A, we
have
factor has
?"
-
x-a
1 roots
times;that
4fi8
560 We have
seen
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
f'\x) f"tx\
=
roots that if the equation/^)0 has r But to /(a) 0 has r 1 roots equal a. equalto a, the equation hence the equation of f (x); r(x) is the first derived function the equation roots equalto a; similarly 0 must have r-2 IheseL 3 roots equalto a; and so on. have r o must discover the equal considerations will sometimes enable us to the method ot Art. 559. roots of f(x) 0 with less trouble than
= =
-
If
a,
b, c, ...k
are
the roots
f(x) v
'
M+M
x-a
x-b
M+...+lWk.
x-c
x-k
We
have
+
...
(x-k);
writingx
h in the
=
-
of place
+
x,
4-
f (x+ h) (x
But
h)(x
-
h)(x-c
+ (x)
h)
...
(x-k
',
h)
...
(1).
f(x +
h )=/(").+ hf
r^
/" (")+...
in the
hence member
f(x)
of
coefficient of h in Art.
right-hand
...;
163,
...
f(x)= (x-b)(x-c)
, that is,
"
(x-k) + (x-a)(x- c)
(x-k)+ f(x)
-/^/
x
"
f'(x)
=
*,,
Ax) J^^x
"
+^-{
x-b
Ax)
+
Ax) ^-J
x
"
+...
562.
to find the
The
sum
result of the of
an
article enables us very easily preceding assigned power of the roots of an equation.
the
sum
'"
Example. equation
If Sk denote
of the
t=
fcthpowers
of the roots
of the
x5+px* + qx2+
S4, S6 and S_4.
0,
+ qx* + f(x)=x5+pxli
t',
4ps3+ 2qx.
a4 +
Now
and
Z^=rf+(a+P)x3+
so a
fix)
a?p+
aq-,
similar
/(*)
x-b'
fw
x-c'
/")
x-d'
/w
x-e'
THEUltY
OF
EQUATIONS.
409
Hence 5ar* +
by addition,
+ + 5p)x?+ (S2 (St +pSJ
+
x2
+
By equating coefficients,
."
S2=pz; S3
=
-
p%-Sq;
qSx 0, whence
=
S4=pi + 4j)q.
k, we proceed as follows.
+ to*-5 qx*~3
0.
results, we
Put k whence Put k whence
To find
=
=
obtain
5 ; thus
adding the
S5+pS4 S5
=
+
-
qS2+
-
5t =
0,
-p5 op2q
+
bt.
=
6 ; thus
S6+pS5
qS3+ tSx 0,
5_4,put
4, 3, 2, 1 in succession;then
+
Si+pS3
S_x 0;
=
2,/
S3+pS2
5q + tS_2 0, whence
= =
S_.2=
=
"
S_3 0; "_4
=
Ap
-
563.
as
When in the
the
coefficients
are
-
numerical
we
may
also proceed
following example.
the
sum
Example.
Find
of the roots of
x*-2x2
Here
+ x-l
+ +
0.
f(x)
= =
x*-2x2
x-l,
l.
f'(x) Sx2-"x
Also
*
f(x)
/ -.-'
=
+
xa
x"b
a
x-c
/l
=
a2
+
a3
"+...
+_+x-
\x
O
=
Xs
Oo o"
x*
i",
-+"
X X~
"
X3
X*
470
the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
hence which
#4
is
equal to
coefficientof
in the
is very
obtained by conveniently
1 2 -1 1
the method
division synthetic
as
follows :
3-4
+
1
+ 3
6-3
4-2
2 2 + 2
4-
10-5
3 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 10 + 3 2
+ -2 +
+ 5
Hence
the
is quotient
2 -3 +
5
-4 +
10
-g +
thus
S.
10.
EXAMPLES.
1. If If If If If
XXXV.
c.
f{x)
xA
10^
+ 39#2 + 76o;+ +
4).
2.
3.
f(x)=xi-
I2x3 + 11x2-9x
-
/(#)
=
2#4
+
13#2 16^
+
10a;
4. 5. 6.
between
f(x)=x*
=
12x2 + 64a;
ex
4).
Shew 0 and
the
17#2 +#+6=0
has
root
1.
-
70
0 has
root
2 and
-
3.
-
8. Shew that the equation x* l"2x2+ I2x between 4 and another between 2 and 3. 3 and
-
3 =0
has
root
9.
Shew
a
that x5
+
-
5x*
20x2
-
19a;
0 has
root between
2 and
3, and
root between
4 and
5.
:
a;4-9a;2 + 4a;+12
0.
11.
^-6^
108=0.
+ 12^_
1007 + 3
0.
0. + 2
-
14.
=
8^ + 4^3-18^+11^-2=0.
6x3-3x2-3x
-
0. 18a; + 18
=
2x*
0.
=
Q.
TRANSFORMATION
OF
EQUATIONS.
have
common
471
Find roots
:
2s*
2a-3 + x2 + 3x -6
-
0, 4#* 0, 6^4 +
2s3 + 3x -9
1 3a;3
-
0.
=
4#* + 1 2x*
#2 -15.*;
4a;2
-
1 bx
0.
+ x1l-px2
r=0
may three
have
equalroots.
0 cannot
a
have
equalroots.
=0
equations
0 and
xs-2x2 + 2x-l
common.
may
have 23.
(1)one, (2)two
that the
xn +
roots in
Shew
...
\n
=
cannot
have
equalroots.
=
x5- l0a3x2 + bix + c5 24. If the equation shew that ab* 9a5 + c5 0.
-
Q has
three
equal roots,
25.
If the
xA + equation
is
ax3 + bx2 +
" "
cx
+ d=0
.
has three
equalroots,
equalto
t
=
^r
0 has two
equal roots,prove
-
that
one
of
4qr
0.
27. 28.
and
In the
x3 equation
In the
equationxi
x3 -1x2 +
S6.
Transformation
of
Equations.
564.
The
discussion
of
an
it into another by transforming relation to those of the assigned useful in the are especially 565. To
equationis sometimes simplified whose roots bear some equation tions one proposed.Such transformasolution of cubic
equations.
roots
are
into another ivhose an transform equation those of the proposed with contrary signs. equation
Let
Put every
f(x)
-y
0 be the
proposed equation.
the
for x;
then
-
of
0 with
0.
472
If the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is proposed equation
then it is evident
that the
+
be
=
p0yn-py~l
which
p2f~2
from
(- irxA-,y + (- W.
o,
is obtained
the
signof every
566. To
alternate term
into another whose roots are an equation transform by a given equalto those of the proposedequationmultiplied quantity.
Let
f{x)
0 be
the y
and proposedequation,
"
the
qx,
so
that
"
then
required
0. is to clear of equation
The
chief
use
of this transformation
an
fractional coefficients.
Example.
Remove
the
equation
*"-"*-* .+1-0.
Put
x
=
-
and
each multiply
3
term
by q3;
13
thus
By puttingq
we
become
and integral,
on
by 2, dividing
obtain
ys-Sy2-y
567. To
0.
the
an equationinto another whose transform reciprocals of the roots of the proposed equation.
roots
are
Let
f(x)
be
the
proposedequation ; put
-
so
that
"
; then
the
0.
One
values
of the chief of
which expressions
of the roots.
negativepowers
TRANSFORMATION
OF
EQUATIONS. equation
473
Example 1.
If a, b,
are
Xs
-px2 +
-
qx
+
"
0,
a2
b-
r.,
-s
c-
Write
for x,
the
re-
equation suiting
has for its roots
-1
0,
111
''
a'
2a
b'
hence
^, S-=
r
=-:
ab 1
V
-
q2 2pr
r-
a2
Example 2.
If a,
b, c
are
the roots of
=
0,
Writing
-
equation is
=
y*+ Sy2-2y-l
and
0;
the
Here
is equal to givenexpression
the value of
Ss in
this
equation.
S1=-3; "2=(-3)2-2(-2)
=
13;
and
S3+ 3S.2-2S1-3 0;
=
whence
we
obtain
568. is called
a
If
an
by changingx
into
"
it
reciprocal equation.
is givenequation
If the
the
is
for x, and
of clearing
fractions
V"?
+ pn-X~2 + l\-pn~x
are equations
"
"
"
+l\n2 +PF
we
+1
0.
must
have
'
?'2
*
'
'""'
'
*-"-"
and thus
'
P"-p
we
"
1,
have
two
474
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
P*=P*-"
terms
Pb=P*-B"
from equidistant
'"
is,the coefficients of
end
are
the
beginning
equal.
=
~
If (ii)
2"n
1) then
p2=-pn-2, Ps=-pn-3,
=
"
p,=-ps_1,
hence if the
case
In this if the
equationis
are
and
end
equal in
an
is of equation
even
""TO=0. ning beginand in and magnitude opposite sign, degreethe middle term is wanting.
=
569. If
root
Supposethat f (x)
=
0 is
reciprocal equation.
f (x)
"1;
so
it has a 0 is of the first class and of an odd degree is the that f (x)is divisible by aj + 1. If "f"(x) =0 is "f"(x) degree.
a
of reciprocal equation
an
even
=
f(x)
root
0 is of the
+
=
second
class and
of
an
odd
it degree,
as
before
an
"j" (x)
1 ; in this case f(x) is divisible by as" 1, and 0 is a reciprocal of the first class and equation
of
even
degree.
If has x2
"
f(x)
root
0 is of the
+
second
-
class and
1,and
as
1; before "f"(x) Q is a
a
1 and
root
=
of
of
an
even
degree.
an
any be
even
degreewith
may
the
standard
of
reciprocal
equations.
570.
to
an
can
be
duced re-
Let the
ax2m
bx2m-] + cx2m~2 +
xm and
...
kxm
...
ex2
we
bx
0;
dividing by
a
have
xm
i)+6(^'+5L)+.(.r-'+;
476
Example.
Find the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
whose equation
roots exceed
=
by
2 the
roots
of the
equation
The
0.
-
2 for be obtained by substituting x proposed equation ; hence in Horner's process we employ x + 2 as and the calculation is performed as follows :
a;
in the
divisor,
573.
The
chief
use
of
the
substitution
in
an
remove
some
term assigned
from
preceding equation.
the
be givenequation
+ p2xn~2 + + p1x"~l 2?Qx"
...
+pn_xx+pn
0;
then
if y
"
h, we
obtain
the
new
equation
of y, becomes
^
A^+*)"+ip16r+*r,+A(y+*ri+-+p.=0i
which, when
(/w
(77,
*"
"2
=o. +i\yf~*+-"
If the term
so
to be removed
:
is the
second,we
put npji+
])l
we
0,
that
"
"
if the term
to be removed
is the third
put
np0
n(n-\)
-^2
"
"
Poh
(n l)l\h+P*
-
""
may
remove
and any
so
obtain
other
find h \ and
we similarly
TRANSFORMATION
OF
EQUATIONS
to
477
Sometimes
it will be
more
convenient
proceedas
in the
following example.
Example.
Remove the second
term
from
rx
the
=
equation
px? + qx2+
Let
a,
0. Then if increase
/9, 7
be the roots, so
that
p+
y=
--.
we
by "dp
+
-
equation the
sum
equal to
term
be
zero.
Hence
for
x
the
transformation required
will be effected
x--~ by substituting
6p
in the
givenequation.
From
are
574.
whose
some
the
equation f(x)
with
we
roots
connected
those
may of the
equation givenequationby
an
=
form
denote
equationand let cf"(x, y) 0 y be a root of the required the assigned then the transformed can relation; equation
either
=
function of y by means a; as a by expressing of the equation this value of x "" (x,y) 0 and substituting between the equations x f(x) "; or by eliminating f(x) and "f" 0. (x, y) be obtained
= =
in Q
form
+ equationx3+p"x2
qx +
r=0,
11
-
1
,
b
ca
be
"
ab
When
in the
givenequation,y
1
a-"
=
a-
=-
in the
a
transformed
equation j
a a
"
"
but
=a
be
abc
+ -;
r
and
will equation
x
be obtained
ry
;
r
by
the substitution
or
~-
1 +
thus the
0.
Example
2.
Form
the
equation
x3 + qx +
r
whose
roots
are
the
squares
of the
Q.
;
Let
a, b,
equation are
478
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
2a6c Now
(b-c)2
=
fc2 + c2-2fcc
a2 + "2 + c2-a2a
2abc
=
(a+
b +
c)2
-
+ (be
ca
ah)
a2
a
-25-a2
the
^;
a
=
also
when
in
given equation, y
2r
.*.
(b-c)2
in
the
transformed
equation ;
?/=
-
2o-
a;JH
x
Thus
we
have to eliminate
between
the
equations
xs + qx + r=0,
and .r3 +
+ y)x (2#
-
2r
0.
By subtraction
(#+?/)#
=
3r ; obtain
or
a:
+ 9^ ys+ 6(2^2
+ 27,-2 +
4^3
_ -
Hence
in
+ qx +
0 may
have be
(-)
+(f) must
one
negative.
therefore
equation has 4#3=0 the transformed has two roots. equal original equation
root zero,
the transformed If 27r2 + 4g3 is positive, equation has therefore the have two must original equation 553], [Art. since it is only such a pair of roots which can produce a the transformed equation.
negativeroot
imaginaryroots,
negativeroot in
EXAMPLES.
1. Transform
the
XXXV.
4#2 +
d.
0 into another
equationx3
"
with
the equation3xA 5x3 + x2 2. Transform whose first term is unity. the coefficient of
+ 1
0 into another
Solve the 3. 4. 5. 6.
: equations
2x4 + x3-6x2
+ 2
0.
=
^-10^
26^-10^+1
+
0.
=
5.^-1
0.
-
Idx3 + 57 x2
Mx
+ 4
0.
TRANSFORMATION
OF
EQUATIONS.
48.r
-
479
roots
are
equation3./,-322.r2+
-
32
0, the
of which
progression.
of x3
-
lLr2 + 36#-36
are
in harmonica!
gression pro-
; find them.
9.
x3 equation
mean
ax2 +x"b=0
are
in harmonica!
shew progression,
10.
which
Solve the
are
equation4(Xr4-22^-2Lr2
of
in harmonica!
progression.
from the
: equations
Remove
0.
=
1 7.v+ 300
0.
x
3
"
Transform
3
the
equationa^-j
7=0
mto
one
whose
roots
by
the
roots corresponding
of the
givenequation.
22
Diminish
by
equation
roots
=
17.
than
a
is
greater by unity
of the roots of
0.
18.
equationwhose
x* + x3
+
roots
are
the squares 1
=
2x2 + x+
roots
=
0. the cubes
19.
Form
the
whose equation
are
of the roots of
x3 + 3x2 + 2 If a,
roots
are
0.
b,c
are
the roots
of x3 + qx
r-0, form
the
equationwhose
20.
21.
+ b
,
a2b2. b2c\c2a2,
1
1 1
25.
"3,63,c3.
c
-
a T
b
+
--
+ r, b
-, c
Shew
the
givenby
28.
roots
are
of x3 + ax2+bx
0.
-
+ ab=0
are
Solve
bx*
bx3 + 2bx2 + 4a
20
0, whose
b,c.
r
=
29.
are
in harmonica]
gression, pro-
480
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Cubic
Equations.
a
575.
The
generaltype
of
cubic
is equation
x3+Px2
but
Qx
+ r
fi=0,
be reduced
to
can equation
=
the
x3 + qx
as
0,
form of
a
which
we
shall take To
cubic
equation.
576.
Let
x
=
solve the
+
z
qx
0.
; then
x3 and the
=y3 +
z3 +
3yz(y+ z) y3+
=
z3 +
3yzx,
becomes givenequation
y3+
At
z3 +
any
+ q)x+r (3yz
0. the
dition con-
present y,
that their
we
are
two
to quantities subject
one
sum
is
equalto
of the
roots
of the
equation ; if
3yz +
q
=
further
0, they are
that
the satisfy
given equation
We
thus obtain
y3+ z3=-r,
hence
y3z3
=
-^;
z3 are y3,
quadratic
yz=-\Jriit
+ + sr~
"
2
we
27
x
=
"
z; thus
fr2
+
-2+V4
The above it was
27}+H-V"
'
q3Y
11r2 +
q3^
97
solution is generally known as Cardan's Solution, in first him the Ars as published Magna, in 1545. Cardan by obtained the solution from Tartaglia; but the solution of the cubic
seems
to have
been
due
CU13IC
EQUATIONS.
note
481
on
1505. found
An
at the end
Panton's
the right-hand on By Art. 110, each of the quantities article lias three equations (1)and (2)of the preceding it would
case.
roots,hence
not
appear For
that
has nine
"
this,
are
however, is
to be taken
the
since yz
^,the
of each pairis rational. that the product of values if y, z denote the Hence any pairof cube roots which fulfil this condition, the only other admissible pairs will be the imaginary cube roots of a)Z, where co, or are wy, ta*zand ii"2y, in
so pairs
unity.
Hence
z,
wy
Example.
Put y +
z
equation x3
15.r=
126.
put
then also hence z:i are y's,
3f/2-15 0,
=
y^z3
126;
;
y*zs 125
=
equation
+ 125
=
i2-126"
.-.
=
0;
5,
1.
Thus
j/+
5+ l=
6;
u,y +
u~z
^"-3 +
-
5+
2^/^3;
-3-2
wz
3-2^/^3;
+
6,
-3
2*7-3,
-3.
578.
values for from the
To
x
reason
why
0, yz
=
we
obtain apparently
z are
576, we
z3 +
r
nine found be to
y3+ equations
\j
o
was
changedinto yJz3
=
q3
-
which
31
482
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
would
also hold
x are
if yz
"
or
yz
^;
hence
the other
six
values of
x3 + wqx 579.
We
"
0,
x3
+ r ou2"p;
0. of
proceedto
qx
+ +
3
consider
more
the fully
roots
the
x3 + equation
2
0.
(i) If
y
are
q
~
-r
z3
are
both
real;let
the roots
and
roots, then
z,
wy
oy2z,(o2y + wz.
a"
The
and
w2 the
other two
"73
is ^=-
zero,
then
y3 z3\ in
"
this
case
?/ =
"
z, and
become r2
?/.
"73
+
~
If (iii)
"
is
23
are
of pressions
the form
ib and
m
"
ib.
m
Suppose that
"
roots of these
are quantities
in and
in; then
in
+
o"
"
in,
"
or
"
2m ;
m
"
(m + m)
(m +
which
are
"
"m
+ n
^/3 ; ^3 ;
As however there is no quantities. general arithmetical or algebraical method of finding the exact value of the cube root of imaginaryquantities the [Compare Art. 89], solution obtained in Art. 576 is of little practical when the use roots of the cubic are all real and unequal. This solution.
case
all real
is sometimes
580.
be
justmentioned
follows.
1
-
as completed by Trigonometry
1
484
a and by eliminating
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
b from
-
these
we equations,
obtain
or
2k3 From
-qk2 +
2( pr
k s)
p2s
-
qs
r2
0.
this cubic
one equation
real value
of k
can
always be
found
Also 553];thus a and b are known. [Art. (ax+ W'" (x2 +px + W .'. x2 +px + k "(ax + b);
= =
and
the values of
are
to be obtained from
+ +
the two
quadratics
x2 and
(p a)x
"
(k b) 0t
"
x2
+ a)x+ (k + b) (2)
0.
Example.
Solve the
equation
-
xi
2.x3
5x- + Hh;
0.
assume
x
Add
and equation,
+ 62
-
2x* +
5)x2 + (a2-
{ab+ 5)x
(x2
-
k)2
"
then
6, ab
-k-5,
=
b2=k2
3;
+ 6)(fc2 + 3) (2fc
+ 5)2; (7c
7=
0.
we By trial,
find that k=
a2 =
4, "2
4,
ab=
4.
But
from
the
the Substituting
values of
k} a and b, we
-
have
-
the two
equations
x2
that
"
(2x 2);
x2 + x-3
=
is,
the roots
are
z2-3.r + l = 0,
and
Q;
whence
"
~"
, a
^
-
"
583.
The
was
givenby Descartes
in 1637. form
Supposethat
to the
qx2+
=
rx
0;
-
assume
x4
qx2+
rx
+ (x2
kx
1) (x2
kx
m) ;
BIQUADRATIC then
EQUATIONS.
485
k2
"
q,
(m
"
l)
=
r,
Im
s.
From
of these
v
we equations,
obtain
v
2m
AT +
2l=k2
,
-j;
hence
in the substituting
third
equation,
-
or
This
real positive solution in k2 wliich alwayshas one [Art.553];thus when k2 is known the values of I and m is
a
cubic
are
determined,and
two
the solution
of the
is biquadratic
obtained
the by solving
quadratics
+
x2
kx
0, and
x2
"
kx
m=0.
Example.
0.
Assume then
x4
2a;2+ 8#
+ (x2
kx +
(x2 kx 1)
-
m)
-2,
k(m-l)
-
8,
=
-
lm
-Z;
whence
or
we
obtain
{k3
-
2k +
8)(A;3 2k
8)
12"2,
0.
=
A;2 -4
of the values of k ;
7n-l
=
0, putting k
=
or
=
k"
"2.
It will be
2, we
m
=
have
m+l
Thus
2,
-
4] that is, l
3
= =
-l,
-
3.
+ 2x (.r2
1 ){x2 2x +
+ 3
=
3);
hence
and
0, and
1"
x--2x 1"
0 ;
J2,
J^2.
of
584.
The
solution generalalgebraical has not been of such a of the impossibility the fourth
equationsof
obtained,and
solution is
Abel's
generally
the coefficients of an the value of any real root may be found are numerical, equation of apto any requireddegreeof accuracy proxima by Horner's Method in treatises found on will be of full which a account
by Mathematicians. accepted
If,however,
the
Theoryof Equations.
486
585. We
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
shall conclude
with
the discussion of
some
neous miscella-
equations.
Example 1.
Solve the equations :
x
y +
0,
0, 0,
k.
from
ax
by +cz
+ du
a2x + a?x +
b2y+
+ b3y
the lowest, by 1, p, q,
are
spectively re-
p,
q,
being quantitieswhich
x
at
present undetermined.
u
Assume
that
they are
vanish
then
+pa2 + (a3
qa +
r) k,
=
whilst b, c, d
are
equation
r
=
+ qt + t3+pt2
0.
Hence and
a3
+pa2 +
qa +
(a-b){a-c){a-d);
=
therefore
Thus the value
x
(a-b)(a- c){a-d)x
is
h.
z,
u can
be written down
by symmetry.
Cor. If the
equationsare
x ax
+ y +
cz
l, I; k2,
by +
du
a2x + a3x +
as before,we by proceeding
x
b2y+
bsy+ c3z+
A;3,
have
qa +
(a3 +pa2 +
r) k3 +pk2 + qk +
=
r;
.'.
(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)
x
(k- b)(k-c)(k-d).
z,
u can
is
found, and
the values of y,
be written
use
of
Example 2.
Shew
equation
=
have
+ h*(x-c)-2fgh}=0. {x-a){(x-b)(x-c)-f*}-{g*{x-b)
quadratic
{x-b)(x-e)-f*=0,
BIQUADRATIC
and suppose
^ to be not
EQUATIONS.
the quadratic, we By solving have
487
less than
2x
=
q.
b+
+ tf:i c"J(b-c)*
(1);
that p is greater than
h
now or
the value of the surd is greater than c, and q is less than b or c. In the
c,
so
v,
q"
the results
+
""
are
respectively
-fajp^b-h Jp
c)2" +{"JJb-q=
-
Jc
q)~,
cc
since
{p -b)(p- c) =f*
(b q)(c q).
real roots, one
Thus the given equation has three between _p and q, and one less than q. If p In this
=
greater than
2',
one
q, then
from
(1)we
have (6-c)2+
4/2
=
0 and
therefore
c,f=0.
case
the
=0 lr}
all real.
fails ; for it root of the givenequation,the above investigation that there is one root between namely p. But as q and + oo before,there is a second real root less than q ; bence the third root must also
only shews
be real. the roots The
Similarlyif
are
q is a root
of the
given equation we
can
shew
that all
real.
equation here discussed is of considerable in Solid Geometry, and is there known frequently
Cubic.
586. branches
The of
of
equationsoccurs
in
many
Example.
y b+ \
c
+ \
x
+ \
z
y
c
b + /j, -\-fji.
x
"
+ fx
z
=
y
+
J"+
v
-, 1.
a+f
b+
c+v
y
+ +
z c
+ 0
b + d
+ 0
x,
y,
488
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
This equation when cleared of fractions is of the second degree in 6, and is satisfied by the three values 8 = \ 6 = p., d = v, in virtue of the given equations; hence it must be an identity.[Art.310.] To thus find the value of #,
..
+ 0
0;
(--X)(-^)(-"-'0 (b a) (c a)
.
-
that
is,
we
.=fe+"Lfe+i4!ttd.
(a- b) (a-c)
have
+ v) (b+ \){b + fx)(b
By symmetry,
y=
{b-c)(b-a)
+ v) {c+ \){c+ fi)(c (c-a) (c b)
-
and
EXAMPLES.
Solve the 1. 3. 5. 7. 8.
is
: equations following
=
XXXV.
e.
a3-18a
a3
+
35. 316
=
2.
0.
63a-
4. 6.
0.
28^-9^+1=0.
2a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1=0. Prove that the real root
"s-15#8-33ar+
847=0.
of
the
equation a3 +
12a -12
2^/2-^4.
Solve the 9. 11. 12. 13. 15.
16.
: following equations a
a4 -3a2 -42
-40
0.
=
10.
0. 0.
a4-
10a2- 20a-
16
0.
-10
7a2
8a + 1 2
**- 3^-6^-2=0.
4a4
-
14.
-
a*-23?-12afi+10x
+ 3=0.
20a-3+ 33^2
20a + 4
0.
=
a6-6a4-17a3
a4 + 9a3 + 1 2a2
+ 17a2 + 6a-1
-
0.
17.
80a
1 92
the relation between q and r in order that the be the form into a4 + "a+")2. (a2 put may
=
equation
solve the
equation
8a3 -36a
+ 27
=
0.
BIQUADRATIC
EQUATIONS.
and
489
19.
have
a
If
common
jfi+3pafl+3qx+r
shew factor, that
x*+2px+q
(pq-r)2
that
=
4(p2-q) (q2"pr)
If
0.
they
have
two
common
shew factors,
p2-q=0,
20.
shew If the each
q2-pr=0.
+ d=()
equation
of them
has
two
equal roots,
that
is equal 1
(etc b2)
-
rs?
21.
as a
Shew
that if
the
equation
x4
+PX3
qx2 +
rx
0 may
be solved
quadratic
Solve
r2=p2s.
equation
gfl
-
22.
the
1 SxA +
1 6.1*3 + 28x2
S2x
+ 8
0,
one
of whose
roots
is
J6
"
2.
23.
If
a,
/3,y, 5
are
the roots
xA +
of the
r.t-
equation
4s
=
qx2 +
are
0,
"c. (/3y")_1,
find
the
equation
In the
whose
roots
/3+y
+ d +
24.
of two and the that other
of the if
two
equation x4" px3 + qx2- rx + roots is equal to the sum of the of the roots the product of two
0, prove
two
that if the
sum
=
other is
p3
to
equal
0 ;
of
r2=p2s.
equation
them.
two roots
x"
-
25.
The
209." + 56
0 has
two
roots
whose
product
is
unity
determine
26. 27.
Find If a,
the
of ^
roots
"
409^
+ 285
0 whose
sum
is 5.
are b, c,...k
the
of
Xn
+p1Xn~1 +p2Xn~2 +
{l+k2)
of two
-
+Pn-l$
+Pn
""
shew
that
(l+a2)(l+b2)
28.
The
sum
(l-p,+p"of the
-
+ (Pl-p,+p,...)2
...)2.
roots
equation
20a- + 5
=
explain why
on
attempting
method
to
solve
the
equation
from
the
kuow-
fails.
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
1.
If sl, s2i *3
are
the
sums
arithmetical 2.
are
shew progression,
two
of an respectively
Find
one
numbers
as
such
that their
sum difference,
and
product,
to
another
1, 7, 24.
the digits? by reversing
3. 4.
In what
Solve the
equations:
0, y(z-2x) + 2l=Q,
which
a
z(2x-y)
b.
sum
A.
P., of
firstp terms
0, shew
is the first term, if the of the next q terms that the sum
of the
[R.M.
6.
A.
Woolwich.]
Solve the
(1 ) (a+
11
(2)
7.
x* +
an
(2x-Zf={l2(x-l)Y.
first term arithmetical progressionwhose form a terms such that the second,tenth and thirty-fourth series. Find
8.
If a,
fi are
the roots of x-+px+q 0, find the values of a2 + a/3 a3 + /33, a4 + a2/32 + 04. + /32,
=
9.
If 2x
"
+ a~1 and
2y
b+
find b~1,
the value of
xy + 10.
*J(x2-\)(y21).
3
Find
the value of
3
(4+
(6+
Vl5)"2 + (4-Vi5)'2
3
_
3"
V35)"2-(6-\/35)'
[R.M.
A.
Woolwich.]
that
11.
If
and
/3are
the
roots
of
unity,shew
0.
492
23.
Find
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
of the productsof the integers the sum 1,2,3, n taken of the sum of two at a time,and shew that it is equal to half the excess the sum of their squares. the cubes of the givenintegers over
...
20 loaves of bread in a week. and his familyconsume 24. A man of bread were raised raised 5 per cent.,and the price If his wages were But if his lowered week. would gain 6d. a wages were 2\ per cent.,he he would lose \\d. then bread fell and 10 cent., cent., per 7^ per and of the loaf. his a find week price a weekly wages :
in arithmetical progression is 48 and of four numbers sum of is the the to 27 to 35 : of the extremes means as the product product find the numbers.
25.
The
26.
Solve the
: equations
=
0.
r,r
(x-a)(x-b) l ^ b
"
"
"
x-a
"
x-c-d
[Math. Tripos.]
L J
..
27.
If
that
ca
(a+ b +
and if ^a +
=
c +
3x)(a+
b+
c-x) (a+
4(bc+
=
ab)-,
4/6+4/c 0, shew
that
b+
c)3 27abc.
hour after starting, meets with an accident which an 28. A train, detains it an hour,after which it proceedsat three-fifths of its former rate and arrives 3 hours after time : but had the accident happened 50 it would have arrived l" hrs. sooner miles farther on the line, : find the
lengthof
29.
the
journey.
: equations
=
Solve the
2x+y
+ z3=2l6.
[R. M.
30.
in how the two Six papers are set in different orders many
two examination,
can are
A.
Woolwich.]
the papers
not
of them
mathematical
papers
successive ?
In how many 60 "5. 4s. 2d. be paid in exactly can ways and fourpenny-pieces of half-crowns, ? shillings consisting
31.
coins,
32. Find a and b so that x3 + ax2 + llx + 6 and x3 factor of the form x2 -\-px + q. may have a common
bxi + l4x
[London University.]
In what time would A,B,C together do a work if A alone could do it in six hours more, B alone in one hour more, and C alone in twice the time 1
33.
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
1 have
493
34. prove
by \, ex2 + dy%
= =
a
-
b
,
"
-,
[Math. Tiuros.]
the firstfive terms in the expansion
",
35.
of
Find
by the
+
Binomial Theorem
(l-2x
2x2)~'2'
"
36.
shew
If one that p3
0 is the square
of the
other,
equation
xi-5x^-6x-b
=
0.
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
38. Find the value of x3
a
the fraction
a
"
Eeduce
y,
z are
[Math. Tripos.]
39.
b,c, x,
real
and quantities,
ca
+ ab-
x2-y2
0,
2
=
z2),
shew
that
c, and
0, y
0.
40.
What
in the
expansionof ( 1
when
the value of
is
41.
Find two
numbers such that their sum multiplied by the sum is 5500, and their difference multiplied the difference by is 352. Coll. Camb.] [Christ's
42.
\a, y
(k-l)b,
b2 + 3c2 1 _|_
'
(\-3)c,
of a,
X=
"
Qj
"z
"T"
0"
2
~p
express
x2+y2+
43.
in terms
b,c.
[SidneyColl. Camb.]
Solve the
: equations
+ 60.
z2 +
44.
If x, y,
are
in harmonical
shew progression,
+
that
+ log{x-2y log(x+ z)
z)
=
log(x z).
-
494
45.
Shew
1
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
/lV
,
4
._
/oN
,_
b(x+y
+ z) (5c
46
b+
c).
and 5 vowels,how With 17 consonants letters can be formed having 2 different vowels at each end? consonant or different) (repeated 47. 48.
lost on which was question voted having againon the same A
600 persons had voted ; the same it was carried by twice question, persons before and the to the former it lost as was new was as many majority by, as 8 to 7 : how changed their minds? [St John's Coll. Camb.] many
49.
Shew
that
l-x
(l+x)2
+ l+"?-^
5x*
+ 2.3
formed into a hollow 50. A body of men were t hat when it was with the addition of 25 observed, solid square might be formed, of which the number would be greaterby 22 than the square root of the the number each side of the hollow square : required
square, three deep, to their number a of men in each side in of men number of men.
51.
Solve the
: equations
V(a^02
-
\/a2^2.
-
(2) (x
52.
Prove
a)* (x
-
6)2 {x
that
3/, v/4 N
2
t
2-5
1
v
"
2.5.8
"
^6
6.12
6.12.18
$6(5a? + 6)-^5(6#-ll)=l.
[Queens'Coll. Camb.]
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
405
A vessel contains a gallons of wine, and another vessel contains b gallons of water: c gallons taken out of eaeh vessel and are transferred to the other; this operation is repeated any number of times : shew that if c(a + b) ab, the quantityof wine in each vessel will alwaysremain the same after the first operation.
54.
55.
mean
The
arithmetic
a
mean
between
and
-:
and
m
the and
n
geometric
in terms
between
a
and
are
each
equal to
m
find
of
and
b.
If x, y,
z
56.
are
sum
is constant, and
if
(z+x-2y)(x+y-2z)
varies
as
(y+ z)
-
varies
as
yz.
greaterthan 3,
+
(-l)'-(r+l)(/-+2)=2."-3Cr.
Coll. Camb.] [Christ's
: equations
*J~4x3 + *Jbx^~i.
-
(2) 4{(sa-16)*+8}=#8+16(#a-16)* [St John's Coll. Camb.] be equal to one 59. Prove that two of the quantities x, y, z must
another,if
., .j.
x
"
"
"
yn 2-
0.
l+yz
l+zx
l+xy
of p persons, a percent,can 60. In a certain community consisting and of the females alone read and write ; of the males alone b per cent., read and write : find the number of males and females in c per cent, can
the
community.
61. If
!"=?"'-"
[Emm.
Coll.
Camb.]
62.
Shew
of expansion
(1
"
+ x2
"
x3)'1is unity.
b
=
63.
Solve the
equation
x-a
x-b
+
a
+
x "a
x-b'
[London University.]
Find (1)the arithmetical series, (2) the harmonical series of of which a and b are the first and last terms ; and shew that n terms term of the productof the r* term of the firstseries and the {n r+ l)tb the second scries is ab.
64.
"
496
65.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
"
=0
are
shew equal,
p2 4q.
=
[R. M.
that
a (loS
A.
Woolwich.]
66.
If a2 + b2
lab,shew l"g
+
(" V) jg }
=
67.
If
is
root of the
x-
equation
x
(1 ac)
are
and
if
means
and c, shew that inserted between a the firstand last mean is equalto ac {a c).
"
the
[Wadham
68.
If
n
Coll.
Ox.]
208: W"2P4
=
57
16, find n.
in a 6rr per cent. Government 69. A person invests a certain sum had been "3 less he would have received \ per cent, loan : if the price interest on his money ; at what price the loan issued ? was more
70.
Solve the
+ ^ {(^2 +
71.
If
x by eliminating
between
0
an
the
equations
y)+
m
=
x2 +
a
ax
+ b
xy + 1 (x+
0,
as or
the roots are in y is formed whose quadratic in x, then either a =21, and 6 original quadratic
same
=
those
of the
m,
b + m=al. A.
[R.M.
72. Given
2 log
=
Woolwich.]
(1) 6*=y-6-".
73. Find two numbers their fourth powers 2417. such
(2)
V5M-V5-*=|q.
sum
that their
is 9, and
the
sum
of
[London University.]
74. A set out to walk at the rate of 4 miles an hour ; after he had been walking 2| hours,B set out to overtake him and went 4" miles and so gaining a quarter 5 the third, the firsthour,4| miles the second, hours would he overtake A l In how many of a mile every hour. 75. Prove factor.
that the next above (^3+ l)2mcontains integer
2m
+
as
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
407
The is
5, 6, 7, 8, 9
77.
Shew +
series of natural numbers is divided into groups 1 ; 2,3,4 ; that the sum of the numbers in the so on : prove ; and
that the
sum
of
terms
of the series
+
|2_W+
is
[3 \2/
,, to equal 1
, 1
|4
\2J (2n-l)
="
:
"
1.3.5.7
2'*\n
[R.M.
78.
Shew that the coefficient of xn in the
n
A.
Woolwich.]
1 + 2x
of expansion
w-2
j"2is
n-1
(-l)S 3(-l)3,
as according n
2(-l)3,
1, 3"i
+ 2.
is of the form
3m,
3m
79.
Solve the
: equations
yyz
x+y
v x
z
ii
z
x
z
y 80.
[Univ.Coll. Ox.]
the series a, x, y, z, The value of xyz is 7" or 3f according as b is arithmetic or harmonic : find the values of a and b assuming them to be positive [Merton Coll. Ox.] integers. If ay-bx=c the and y will satisfy
81.
shew \/(x -a)2+ (y- b)2, unless c2 " equation than greater
5x
-
that
no
real values of
a2
b2.
82.
7#-3,
find the
of 83. If P is the number characteristicp, and Q the number have reciprocals the characteristic
q, shew that
=
log10P-log10#p-2
84.
t lat
no
+ l. 5 persons
so
In how person
"
invested at the time of his death in 4 per of money of a certain sum the accumulated cent, stock at 88 ; and to the younger he bequeathed at the same invested less than the former by "3500 interest of a sum time in the 3 per cents, at 63. Supposingtheir ages at the time of invested the sum their father's death to have been 17 and 14, what was ? fortune each daughter's in each case, and what was
11. 11. A
wishing his two daughtersto receive equal portions to the elder the accumulated interest of age bequeathed
32
498
86.
A number
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
in scale 7 when of three digits reversed in order : find the number. has its digits
in scale 9 expressed
[St John's
If the sum of m of the next to the sum
Coll.
Camb.]
next
87.
terms
n
of
an
arithmetical
also to the
is equal progression
sum
terms, and
i=
of the
terms
; prove
that
(m +
n)(
+p)( (wi
"
[St John's
88.
Prove that
1
+
Coll.
Camb.]
(y-z?
If is
{z-xf
7"4
1 +
/
vi
=
1
7"
1 +
"
1
7
(x-y)2
7-".
\y-z
z-x
x-y)
A.
[R. M.
89.
m
Woolwich.]
that
(2n-l)m"nm
1. Coll.
[Emm.
90. If each
Camb.]
pairof
ql
=
the three
equations
x2-p1x +
have
a
0, aP-ptfC+q^Q, x2-p3x+q3=0,
common
root,prove that
4
+ (?i
ft +
ft)
=
(P2P2+P?,Pi +PiP"J-
[St John's
91.
A and
Coll.
Camb.]
road and at the same rate from B travelled on the same fioin 50th milestone the At took London, A overHuntingdon to London. at the rate of 3 miles in 2 of geese which were a drove proceeding which was hours ; and two hours afterwards met a waggon, moving at drove of geese at B overtook the same the rate of 9 miles in 4 hours. before he 40 minutes the 45th milestone,and met the waggon exactly B when ^4 reached London Where ? to the 31st milestone. was came John's Coll. [St Camb.]
92.
Ifa
+ 5+ c +
c?=0,prove
=
that
"
[R.M.
93.
terms
:
A.
Woolwich.]
An A. P., and an H. P. have a and b for their first two a G. P., shew that their (?i will be in G. P. if terms + 2)th
1
"
ba(b2n-a2n)
77-0
"tn
=
.
[Math. Tripos.] J
x
r-, rv
-
94.
in
Shew
(x
bn
" "
"
a) (x
0)
I
.
ascending 01 power
of expansion r
of
is
a-b
-,,
anbn
7-
'
in the
L (l-#)3
__
r,
r,
-.
500
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
105.
Shew
that the
expansionof V
2?4'
+
/l-Vl-a;2"
2~
a"
x 1S
+ 2
JL3 ^
6
1.3.5.7
2. 4. 6.8*
10+
106.
If
a,
/3are
roots
of the
+ q
=
equations
=
x2+px
where
n
+ qn 0, x2n+pnxn
0,
is
an
even
shew integer,
.r" + l +
that
"
are
a
roots of
(#+l)n
between
0.
the
infinite
b
-
b
^..
"
d
c
d
2c +
d
2c +
2a+
2a +
^",-
2a+
"' j
aD0-
2c+
108.
sum
109.
Solve the
: equations
'
b+
+ b
(2)
110.
If
a
~2+x*+f=l3i" ""+""=*""
are
and b
that
a*-bn"
(" b)(ab)2
-
[St Cath.
111.
values of
Coll.
Camb.]
Express ^r^
x
as
continued
fraction; hence
and y which
12.
take A alone would 112. To completea certain work, a workman would alone times as many B B C and as days working together ; take take n times as many days as A and C together ; C alone would numbers of that the : shew days as A and B together p times as many days in which each would do it alone are as m + 1 : "+l : jp+ 1.
m
Prove
also
+
n
-^"
2.
m+l
+ l
p + l
[R.M.
,,
A.
,_
Woolwich.]
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
501
of a hydropathic establishment are partly stant conwith the number of boarders. Each boarder "9 a head when there are are pays "65 a year, and the annual profits a nd when there 4d. "10. 13s. 50 boarders, 60: what is the profit are on each boarder when there are 80 ?
113.
The
expenses
and
partlyvary
114.
If
x2y
=
2x
"
y, and x2 is not
that
[Peterhouse,Camb.]
X
V
h
"
115.
are
If
o al-yunequal, (a2-c2)2-b2c20,
=
-s-
"
"sr
"
a2-x2
Ti
and
xv
"
"
c2.shew
that when
and
or
a2 + c2-b2
Q.
116.
and prove
If
(1+ (x
-
x2fr
=
-
1+
+ k\x+ l'2x2
~
.,
a*" 1 )3r =
c^'
=
c^s*
"
2
-
that
1,
!3r
=
hc.,
"
"
\r\2r
[R.M.
117.
Solve the
"
A.
Woolwich.]
: equations
ax+by,
xy + ab
+
bx + ay.
+
z
=
(2)x2-y2 +
118.
square that
z2
6, 2yz-zx
2xy
13, x-y
2.
positive quantities alt a2,... an, and if the products taken two togetherbe found,prove
n
""
"
"
Vaia2 + V"i"3+
hence prove that the
\
""
mean
+ "2+ ("i
+an);
square
mean
productstwo quantities.
119.
of the
roots
of the
the
arithmetic
of the A.
[R.M.
+
given Woolwich.]
If 6"
"V=a26'i, and
Wx6 +
=
d2 + V
x2+y2
\, prove that
120.
Find the
sum
rthterms
(1)
2
*iX + 0
.
121.
Find
the
value greatest
of
2iX"
o
~a
t~
502 122.
Solve the
HIGHER
: equations
ALGEBRA.
(1) l+^4
7(l+#)4.
(2) 3#y+20=ff0+6y=2^s+3d?=O.
If "x, a2y a3" ai are any expandedbinomial, prove that
123.
f"ur
consecutive
coefficients of
an
I
"
"
3
"
".
'
Separate
term general
\ /
,
"
=r
into
fractions ; partial
and
3x
"
when
2
is
125.
In the
series recurring
5
-
lx + 2
the unknown the scale of relation is a quadratic expression ; determine and give the and the scale of relation, coefficient of the fourth term M. A. the series. term of [R. Woolwich.] general
126.
If x, y,
are
and unequal,
if
2a-3v
2a-3z^^^ (-^2,and
y (v
-
*)2
,
then will
2a -3.?="
Ob
and x+y
a.
[Math. Tripos.]
127.
(1)
xy + 6
2x-x2, xy-9
=
2y-y2.
=
(2) {ax)^a
128.
Find the
{by)^h,bXo"x
of
alo%y.
values limiting
-
(1) (2)
,
.
\fx2 + "2
" " "
oc
when
rr
x"a.
[London University.]
tt
\/Za +
x-
2sjx
whose productis 192, and the quotient 129. There are two numbers of their greatest common of the arithmetical by the harmonical mean find the numbers. is and least common measure multiple 3f| : [R. M. A. Woolwich.]
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
503
130.
Solve the
: following equations
37+
J/l3.r-37= J/2.
=
c\/l-y2 ",
"
\/l
-
#2 +
Vl
22=
6,
_
+ b*Jl-x2=c. a*Jl-y2
131.
Prove
1
"
that the
1.3 +
sum
to
of the infinity
.23
*
* "
series
1.3.5
2
,n
~
2^3
24)4
~Wb
1S
24
[Math. Tripos.]
of three digits is doubled by reversing 132. A number consisting that will hold the digits; the for the number same formed prove by and also that such a number the firstand last digits, be found in can only one scale of notation out of every three. [Math. Tripos.]
133.
Find
xr in the
productof
1+x3
n_ 2ui_
\
an(* 1 -*+*""
[R-M.
A.
Woolwich.]
is to take a plot of land fronting a street ; the purchaser and three times its frontage added to twice plotis to be rectangular, its depth is to be 96 yards. What is the greatestnumber of square he take ? yards [London University.] may 134. 135.
Prove
c
that
+
-
(a+ b + (a+ b +
+
-
192 abed.
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
136.
square. Find the values of a, b, c which will make each of the expressions xt + aaP + bx'Z and xA + 2ax3 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 1 a perfect + cx+l
[London University.]
Solve the
: equations
137.
f
138. less per
(1)
4^S
-
3(
^=65.
V3
farmer head; the
A two
2 j--
sold 10
sum
sheep at
the
certain
by the
same
: find digits
price per
504
139.
Sum
to
n
HIGHER terms
ALGEBRA.
The The
squares
of the terms
of the series
1,3,6, 10, 15
/3, y
are
[StJohn's
141.
Solve the
: equations
Coll.
Camb.]
142.
b,c
are
x3 + qx2+r equation
c
"
0,form the
roots
b-c, b +
a,
+ a-b.
143.
Sum
the series
n
+
-
(n-l)x
x
-
2x2
28^4
..
.
676a5 +
n
...
to
6 + 9 + 14 + 23 + 40 +
to
terms.
Eliminate
a, y,
from
+
the
=
x-i+y-i
.v2 + and shew that if a, y, be equalto d.
z-1
+ z=b.
y2+
z
z2
+ c2, A3+3/3
c?3,
are
146. A traveller set out from a certain place, and went 1 mile the first day,3 the second,5 the next,and so on, goingevery day 2 miles than he had gone the preceding more day. After he had been gone three days, sets out,and travels 12 miles the first day,13 the a second and so on. In how many second, days will the second overtake the first? Explainthe double answer. 147. Find the value of
11111
1
""
3+
2+
1+
3+
2+
1+
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
505
148.
Solve the
equation
as + (a2 be)
-
x3 + 3ax2 + 3
a3 + b3 + c3
Zabc
0.
If
+ by prove of multiple
is that
prime
an~2b
"
will divide
"
neither
...+abn~2
b,nor exceeds by 1 a
",
n.
[StJohn's
"
Coll.
Camb.]
150.
sum
the ?tthterm and the sum to n terms is (1 abx2){\ ax)~2(l bx)~2. to infinity
"
Find
[Oxford Mods.]
151.
If a,
b,c
are
0, find the
whose equation 1
roots
"
(y+
z-
18
+ y2+ (x2
z2- yz
zx
xy)2.
[Clare Coll.
153.
Solve the
: equations
Camb.]
0, by Cardan's method.
=
(2) x5
4t4
a,
"b, c.
It is found that the quantity of work done by a man in an his hour varies directly and the square as as inversely pay per of hours he works per day. He can root of the number finish a piece of work in six days when working 9 hours a day at Is. per hour. How will he take finish to the work when same days pieceof working many 16 hours a day at Is. 6d. per hour ?
154.
hour
155.
If sn denote the
sum
to
terms
+
of the series
1.2 + 2.3
3.4+...,
and
o^-!
that to
"
1 terms 1 +
of the series
1 +
1
1.2.3.4
2.3.4.5
1 8sncrnx
_ -
3.4.5.6 sn + 2
=
-"'
shew
that
0.
(1) (12a?-l)("p-l)(4a?-l)("e-l)=5.
(2) ^ ;
I fo+^fo-S)
5
1
+
(x+ 2)(x 4)
-
(a?+5)(a?-7) 92 _2_
""
13
+ 6)(* {x
-
8)
585
[StJohn's
Coll.
Camb.]
506
157.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
worth "250, but it A cottage at the beginningof a year was end of each the at that found was by dilapidations year it lost ten per of each the it had at value beginning cent, of the year : after what be reduced below "25 ? number of years would the value of the cottage Given log103 -4771213. [R.M. A. Woolwich.]
=
158.
Shew
1.4
+
1.4.7
+
1.4.7.10
+
4.8
4.8.12
2.5.8
+
4.8.12.16
2.5.8. + 11 18
'"'
ll? i+?_l + +
6
are
12
12
18
12
24+
.
'""
'
equal.
159.
Prove the
x(x
a)(x /3)
-
a/3
~aPy~
r
X
x(x+ a)
[
\
_
|
a
a(5
\
J
"2R2
a2^2
"2/92"2
a2(32y
Coll. Camb.] [Trin.
160.
If
is a
is
of multiple
120.
[Wadham
Coll.
Ox.]
of persons were engaged to do a pieceof work at which occupiedthem 24 hours if they had commenced at equal the same time; but instead of doing so, they commenced the whole tillthe work was to finished, continued intervals and then first the each comer done : to the work by payment beingproportional received eleven times as much as the last ; find the time occupied.
161.
162.
Solve the
x
: equations
(1)
y
x2-S
-7
y2-3
x3+f
=
z2+ x2
"
(z+x) b2,
=
x'2 -t-y2z
-
(x+3/)
=
c2.
[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]
508
171.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
is divisible
by 840, if
is
an
172.
Solve the
: equations
I2x=
33, x+y=2S.
(2)
w
,~x
u(y-x) ^
"
=a,
-^
z(y-x)'
=
",
y(u
"
"
z)
-
x(u-z)J
c,
"
7 d.
"
2-W
"
-^-y
[Math. Tripos.]
173.
If
s
be the
sum
of
"
="
"
[Math. Tripos.]
174. A merchant bought a quantityof cotton ; this he exchanged that the number of cwt. of cotton, for oil which he sold. He observed of gallons of oil obtained for each cwt., and the number of the number for which he sold each gallon formed a descending shillings geometrical He calculated that if he had obtained one cwt. more of progression. of oil for each for each and Is. more one more gallon cotton, cwt., he would have obtained "508. 9s. more if he had gallon, ; whereas less of oil for each cwt.,and obtained one cwt. less of cotton, one gallon he would have obtained ."483. 13s. less : how Is. less for each gallon, much did he actually receive ? 175.
2
Prove that
-
+ (b
x)*(b c) (a-x)
-
16
[JesusColl. Camp,.]
176.
If a, /3, y
are
find the
equation whose
177.
roots
^-~
"
"
-.
TR. M. A. Woolwich.]
multiplied
sum
of two
Given that (a2 find p and q in + b2)(c2 + d2)(e2+f2)(c/2 + h'2)=p2 + q2, terms of a, 6,c, d, e,f, [London University.] g, h. 178. Solve the
Woolwich.]
179.
papers
number
A man in which goes in for an Examination with a maximum of m marks for each paper; of ways of getting 2m marks the whole is on
(m +
1 )(2m2+ Am
3).
[Math. Tripos.]
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
509
180.
of x2 +
If a, j3 are the roots of "8+jw?+l=0, and y, S .are the roots + 8)(/3 + 8) J2 jo2. qx+l=0; shew that (a y)(/3y)(a
-
[R.M.
that if am be the coefficient of xm Shew whatever then n be, (1+#)*,
A.
Woolwich.]
expansionof
+ l).
,
"
181.
in the
"0-"1
(n~l)(n A ".,-...+(-l)--1"m_1 ^
/ ,s i =
"
|w;_^ 2U(-i)--i.
[New
Coll.
2)...(n-m
Ox.]
the is the product of three prime factors, A certain number There are of whose 7560 numbers sum (including squares is 2331. than the number and The of which less to sum it. are prime unity) Find the the is and number its divisors (including 10560. unity itself)
182.
number.
two
whose roots shall be the 183. Form an equation of the roots of the equationx3 ax2 + hx + c 0.
-
Solve
2afi + xA +
+ 2
1 2x* + 1 2x2.
[R.M.
184. Prove that if n is
a
A.
Woolwich.]
positive integer,
nn-n(n-2)n+
-'(n-4)nif F
2B[w.
186.
Solve the
: equations
=
(1) x+y+z
2, x2+y2 + z2
=
0, x3+y3 + z3=
=
1.
15
number the the same as of Scotch Conservatives was Liberals. The number was and the Scotch Liberal majority equal number of Welsh Liberals, Irish the to and number Welsh was the of twice to Conservatives, 10 was The English Conservative majority 2 : 3. Liberal majority as number of The whole of Irish members. than the whole number more returned by Scotch constituencies. 60 were members was 652, of whom land, Ireof each party returned by England, Scotland, Find the numbers
and
of Liberals returned election the whole number general the whole number the of Conservatives, more English of English the number twice than 5 more of Conservatives was
At
a
than
Wales,respectively.
Shew
[StJohn's
-
Coll.
Camb.]
188.
that a5 (c
-
b)+ b5(a c)+ " (b a) + 2a*b + abc). (b- c){c a)(a b)(2a3
=
-
510
189.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
Prove that
a3 a2
a
3c*2
a2 + 2a 2a+l
3a
(a-l)"
2a+l
"
1
1
+ 2
13
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
b,c
are
190.
If
"
|
c
1 a"b
=0,
c"b
prove
that a,
in harmonical
unless progression,
+ c.
[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
191.
Solve the
: equations
one
root
ceeds ex-
by
2.
one
(2)
.r4 Ax2
-
0, havinggiventhat
2 +
root is
\/-~3.
given;
a
[R. M.
two two
A. Woolwich.]
Two numbers 192. by the relations 3a1 from alf bx in the same and b, prove that when
=
and
are
=
2"x+6, 3bl
manner,
n
+
so
2b;
on
b"are
b2 are
formed
formed of a and
and
find an,
bn in
terms
is
an"bn. infinite,
[R.M. A.
Woolwich.]
193.
mr
If
+y +
+ w
"
0, shew that
-+(w+ a;)2 yz (w
xy
(w
+ 4xyzw z)2
0.
[Math. Tripos.]
a be not altered in value by interchanging a2 + fc2 + c2 pairof the letters a, b,c not equal to each other,it will not be altered if a + b + c=\. by interchanging any other pair;and it will vanish
be -a2
194.
If
[Math. Tripos.]
On a quadrupleline of rails between two 195. and and two down trains start two at 6.0 6.45, up If the four trains (regardedas points)all 8.30. between find the following equations simultaneously, rates in miles per hour,
*53/i)
"VO
termini A and By trains at 7.15 and another pass one xlt x2, x3i x4, their
Am
+ 5#o
Am
1 Ox, -+-
Jb
-t
where
of miles in AB.
196.
^-4
(1~y)
2
=
l+
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
511
the series
197.
Shew
that the a,
a
"
sum
of the
productsof
,
b,a -2b,
"
{n-l)b,
n
when
is of the form
3m8"
1,
198.
shew
If n is even, and a + /3,a-/3 are the middle pair of terms, is of the cubes of an arithmetical progression that the sum
na{a2+ (w2-l)/32}.
199. If ",
b,c
are
real
111
a
that
a3b3c3
3v +
-
was
hours.
rT.
3u+v
Camb.] [Peterhouse, L J
'
r.
-.
board. The streets of a city are arranged like the lines of a chessThere are m streets running north and south, and n east and travel from the of ways in which Find the number can a man west. shortest distance. the S.E. the to N.W. possible corner, going
201.
[Oxford Mods.]
202. 203.
the
terms
x equation*/
+ 27 +
55
x"
4.
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
that in the series
to 2
terms,
n
"
excess
204.
convergent to
205.
{a-x)Hy-zy
=
{a-yf{z-xY
{a-zY{x-yY
2{{a-yf{a-zf{x-yf(x-zf+{a-z)'i{a-xf{y-zf{y-xY
^(a-xf{a-yf{z-xf{z-yf}. Camb.] [Peterhouse,
512
206.
If a, #, y
are ma ma
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the roots of x3
+
"
qx+r my+n
my
"
n n
m{3 + m(3
-
n n
in terms
of m, n, q, In
r.
one person out of 46 is said to die every year, be If there were of born. 33 out to in how one no emigration, would the double this at Given itself ? rate population many years
207.
England
and
log2
208.
'3010300,log1531
3-1849752, log1518
+ a^c2 +
,
3-1812718.
If
(1+
+ +
x2)n
=
a0 + axx +
1)
prove that
n
'
=
7i
(n
"
"P-war-i unless
r
-y72~
"r-2-
is
of 3. multiple
What
1 Coll.
[St John's
Camb.]
209. In a mixed of Poles,Turks, Greeks, consisting company Germans and Italians, the Poles are one less than one-third of the number of Germans, and three less than half the number of Italians. The Turks and Germans outnumber the Greeks and Italians by 3; the Greeks and Germans form one less than half the company ; while the Italians and Greeks form seven-sixteenths of the company mine : deterthe number of each nation. 210. Find the
sum
to
of the infinity
is
If
is
that
n(n2-l)
[2
*K
;
|2J_3
n{n2-l){n2-V)
\r \r + l
of the series :
to
-
(n2-r2)
~k
'
terms. + to inf.
9x + 16x2
25^3 + 36^
49^
1.3
(3) -x
213.
Solve the
3. 55.
+
7. 9
^r
^3-+-^r +
Ax 6x + 2 Qx + 2 9.r + 3 12.r
tomf-
equation
8#+l
12# l6x + 2 =0.
8.r+l
[King'sColl. Camb.]
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
513
214.
Shew
that
+ ^2(l+c2) + c2(l+rt2)"6"6^ + ^2) (1) a2(l + + + " + 6', + C"+...)(^+^ "+...)"("," + Z)P " + ^ (2) ?2(rtP
C^+...),
of
Solve the
xi/
a(x+y)
y\
that
[Trin. Coll.
Camb.]
216.
If
be
l(2"-^l)
is divisible
2^-1+^+3f4"-^!U...+("-l)
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
man can score
by n.
In a shootingcompetition a each find the number for shot: points 30 in 7 shots. can score
217.
5, 4, 3, 2, or 0
in which he
of different ways
[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]
-
bx3 + ex2 + dx Prove that the expression x" of and a a completecube if completesquare product 218.
will be
the
126_9^_5e_^
" ~ ~
c2
A bag contains 6 black balls and an unknown number, not and not than six, of white balls; three are drawn successively greater and are all found to be white; prove that the chance that replaced
219.
ft*7*7
a
next is
jr"r
[JesusColl. Camb.]
productsof
" -
220.
squares
Shew
that
the
sum
of the
every
"
pair
of the
is
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
221.
that If
x
"
+
a
"
"
'4."_i
x-c
=
^=o
has
x-b 0.
222.
that when
is a
integer, positive
""-"X"-4)8.., ".2.-..^y-.+
(n-4)("-5)("-6) ",_,.
j3
H. H.A.
"
, +"-
[ClareColl. Camb.]
33
514
223. Solve the
HIGHER
: equations
if-
ALGEBRA.
+ 2yz ) .r2 (1
+ 2z.r =g"+
a
%xy + 3
7G.
(2)
?
a
.v+y
+
+ b+
+ f b
S- 3
=
c cz
=
ax
by+
bc +
ca
+ ab
-
to
[Math. Tripos.]
Having giveny
y + that a2d=
225.
+ x1 + r",
expand
in the form
;
and
shew
3abc + 2b3=
1.
[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
buying calves, pig and "2 more of pigs The number he could have bought
fraction in
of money 226. A farmer spent three equal sums than a calf cost Each "1 more pigs,and sheep. than
a
47 animals.
exceeded that of the calves by as many sheep as of animals of each kind. for "9 : find the number 227.
Expresslog2
in the form
1 1
of the infinitecontinued 32 1+ n2
1+
22 1+
1+
1+
[Euler.]
228. In a certain examination assigned 100 marks as a maximum. obtain in which a candidate may of marks is
II
!" ;
six papers are set, and to each are Shew that the number of ways cent, of the whole number forty per
(1245 '
_
'
1144
.
143)
i
\ =
r~
[5{[240
229.
x
r 6"
[139+ll"-|38j
.
"
-, [Oxford Mods.] L J
,f
Test
+
2.4.G.8.10.12*
x*_ +
14
230.
terms
the nth Find the scale of relation, of the recurring series 1 + 6 + 40 + 288 +
sum
term, and
the
sum
of
Shew also that the for its rth term the sum
of
r
terms
of
terms
by taking
4 (2*
-
1)+
i (2*
1)
-
[CaiusColl.
Camb.
516
240. Shew that the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
equation
a
is] ax +
reduces
to
a
\]bx ex + /3 + *J
+ y
=
0.
Solve the
\f6x2
241.
A
1 5.i- 7 +
-
V4.r2
-
8x
11
\/2x2
-
5#+ 5
2#
3.
contains 3 red and 3 green balls, and a person draws He then drops 3 blue balls into the bag,and again that he may Shew out 3 at random. draws just lay 8 to 3 with the latter balls being all of different 3 advantage to himself against
bag
out
3 at random.
colours.
equation
[London University.]
and
243.
Geometrical
a,
Harmonica!
same
b,c
: shew respectively
a(b-c)\oga
0.
244.
series 245. If Tw Tn + l, Tn+2 be 3 consecutive terms of a recurring connected by the relation Tn + fi aTn + l bTn, prove that
=
"
1 {T\ 1-aTnTn
+
+ 1
bTn*}=a
constant.
246.
Eliminate
1
x, y,
"+-+-
from
the
: equations
=-,
z
+ .r*+y2
02
Z"2
a
=
Xs +
y3 +
z3
c3,
xyz
d3.
i
[Emm.
247.
Shew that the roots of the
Coll.
Camb.]
equation
-
x*
"
px3 + ox2
solve .r4
"
rx
"
=
"
are
in
proportion. Hence
1 2.r3 + 47.^2
"
72.r + 36
0.
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
517
hit a targetfour times in 5 shots; U three times in 1 A can and 0 twice in 3 shots. They fire a volley: what is the proshots; that two shots at least hit? And if two hit what is the proliability that it is C who has missed? bility [St Cath. Coll. Camb.]
248.
249.
Sum
each of the
series following
to
terms:
(1) 1+0-1+0
(2) 2-2
+ 7 + 28 + 70+
l-"
, ,
6-23
,
"""
.
.
I.2.3.4T2.3.4.5T3.4.5.6T4.5.6.7
3 +
x
'
(3)
250.
9x* + x3 + 33x*
a* +
1 29^; +
[Second
Solve the
: equations
Public
Exam.
Ox.]
+ x* =
=
ay,
x2 +
xy+y2
az.)
251.
If
"
+
c
"
a+b+cJ
111 +
aH
and
is
1
an
odd
that
bn
7-"
cn
an + bn + cn'
If u6
vG + 5
+ tt"("2 v2)
-
4md
(1
-
u*v *)
=
0, prove that
Cai
..
x+y-\-z=3pJ
z
-
yz +
-
zx
+ xy
-
3q, xyz
=
-
r, prove
-
that
(y+
and
x)(z+
~"
y)(x+y
#
"
z)
+ 36pg 27js3
-
8r,
+2 (.'/
+ x)3+ (s
+ (#+# y)3
*')327j93 24/-.
=
-
253.
Find
the
linear factors,
in x, y, z, of
-
+ by2 + cz2). + c(a + b)z2}2 Aabc (x2 +y2 + z2)(ax2 {a(b+ c)x2 + b(c+ a)y2 [Caius Coll. Camb.]
254.
Shew
that
(
"
\ x+y+z
) Camb.]
that
Coll.
255.
By
means
of the
r=n
\l identity
,"-
"
prove
*r=1"1;
"
r!(r-l)!("-r)!
[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]
518
256. Solve the
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
: equations
a
0.
(2)
-fy +z
~u
"=
12,\
If
"
unity as
far
as
the rthdecimal
to place,
how
many
will places
in general be approximation
correct ?
[Math. Tripos.]
258. A ladybought 54 lbs. of tea and coffee ; if she had bought five-sixths of the quantity of tea and four-fifths of the quantity of coffee she would have spent nine-elevenths of what she had actually spent; and if she had bought as much tea as she did coffee and vicehave spent 5s. more than she did. Tea is more pensive exversa, she would and the priceof 6 lbs. of coffee exceeds that of than coffee, of each. 2 lbs. of tea by 5s. ; find the price
,
259. numbers
productsof
11
J2 +
3!
11
4!
v_i + n\
~2l6'
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
*
260.
If
pa2 + 2qab +
prove that P, p ; the equalities.
rb2
pac +
pc2 2qca+
"
ra2
'
Q, q
; and
R,
may
be
[Math. Tripos.]
y
=
261.
an
+ 3
If
3
+ j8
0, shew that
+ j8n
+ 1
+ y" 1).
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
262.
If
a,
/3, y, 8 be the
x*
roots
of the
rx
equation
+
s
=
+pa? + qx2+
0,
find in terms
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
519
of turkeys,geese, and 263. A farmer bought a certain number for each bird as many ducks, giving there were birds of as shillings he bought 23 birds and spent "10. 11*.;find that kind; altogether the number of each kind that he bought. *o*
264.
Prove
that the
equation
-
"y)i+(#+y 8^ (y+z-8xfi+(z+x
-
0,
is equivalent to the
equation
[StJohn's
265.
If the
Coll.
Camb.]
pair of
L
equation
1
H
x
1
x
have
x
x+b
+ d
either
one
of the
-
a quantities
or
b is
equal to
one
of
d, or else
0
: '
-
+ abed
Prove
are
a,
"
a,'
b,
"
b,0
or
0, 0, ' '
a
+ b
[Math. Tripos.]
266.
Solve the
x
equations
: z
=
(1) (2)
267.
+ y +
z
ab, x-l
cz
=
y-1 +
cz
z-l
=
a-1b, xyz=az.
a. ";+
ay
by+
bzx +
ax
cxy +
by
+ b+
c.
[Second Public
Find the
form simplest of the
Exam.
Oxford.]
expression
*
^"
+""
""
,+...
^_
(*-".)(" 8) -/3)(e-7)(e'
[London University.]
of Clergymen, Doctors, and 268. In a company Lawyers it is fcund that the sum of the ages of all present is 2160; their average a;e is 36; the average age of the Clergymen and Doctors is 39; of the 1 octors and Lawyers 32^; of the Clergymen and Lawyers 36f. If each Clergyman had been 1 year, each Lawyer 7 years, and each Doctor 6 years older, their average age would have been greater by of each profession 5 years : find the number present and their average ages.
269.
Find
the
condition, among
expression
should
be reducible
x
to the
sum
of the fourth
powers
of two
linear
in expressions
and y.
[London University.]
520
270.
Find
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
equations
y2-f w2
b2,
wu
+
+
(z+x)=ca,
z2 +u2 +v2
=c2,
uv
consonant or group of consonants stand immediatelybetween a strong and a weak vowel ; the strong can that the vowels e and i. Shew vowels being a, o, u ; and the weak which be formed whole number of Gaelic words of n + 3 letters each, can
271.
It is
no
2 1ft + 3
of
consonants the
same
aeo
is
"
"
"
where
no
letter is
ft re-
+2
peatedin
272.
Shew
2x
=
that if
x2+y2
where 2z2,
=
x, y,
are
then integers,
+ 2lk-k2), 2y r{l2
are
where
r,
and k I,
integers.
112 4 6
"
273.
Find
the value of
to
1+
1+
3+
5+
274.
Sum
"-2
3.^
" -
(1)
B to inf.
2.3
3.4
4.5
(2) -^
a+l
|1
[2
+ + 2) (a+ l)(a
: equations
[ft
+ +
+ 2)...(a + n) (a+ l)(a
275.
Solve the
+ 3
(1) 2^
80
0.
(2)
276.
3ux
-2oy
that
vx
+ uy
3u2 + 2v2
14 ; xy
10"v.
Shew
a2
ab b2 + X be
ac
ad
ab
ac
be c2+ X
bd cd
d2 + \
ad
bd
cd
MISCELLANEOUS
EXAMPLES.
521
277.
If c,
b,c,... are
equation
that
find the
sum
a"
""
a*
c
c2
a
I/2
c
c2
b
J
Pn-iOr
-2/*.,)
Coll.
2"n
[St John's
278.
Camb.]
Hy
the
expansionof
1 + 2a' j ,
or
otherwise, prove
that
l-3"+
(3m-1) (3m-2)
j-g
+
"
(3/t-2)(3/t-3)(3w-4)
lT273
-cVo.-(-l),
that vanishes.
1.2.3.4 wlien
n
is
an
and integer,
[Math. Tripos.]
and B went out shooting and brought of the number of the squares of shots was of shots fired by each was 48 2880, and the product of the numbers birds killed of the of had numbers times the product by each. If A fired as often as B and B as often as A, then B would have killed 5 of birds killed by each. birds than A : find the number more
279.
Two
sportsmen A
The
sum
home
10 birds.
280.
Prove
that 8
[Pemb.Coll. Cams.]
281.
Shew that the nlh
2 34 46 5'" ...
convergent to
.
2"+1
_
is
2-
2"2r(n-r)\
is infinite?
'
What
282.
If
"
fraction
b+
c+
a+
b+
c-\-
shew
+ 3
+ (bc+l)q3n. bp3n
of n straight lines whose lengths are 1, 2, 3, ...n the which four of number in respectively, may be chosen ways will form a quadrilateral in which a circle may be inscribed is
283.
-L {2n(/i
-
2)(2* 5)
-
3 + 3
1 )"}
.
[Math. Tripos.]
522
284.
and ?i3
"
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
the arithmetic means If u2, u3 are respectively less than n and cubes of all numbers prime to
=
6nu2 + 4m3
0, unitybeingcounted
as
Camb.]
-
285.
If
is of the form
"m
"
1 shew
zx-xy;
2 y + z2 -yz
"
zx
"
xy
)2. products
of the of the mth powers, P the sum If S is the sum of the n quantities together an, shew that alt a2, a3,
286.
...
\n-
"
!n
\jm P.
.
equations
rx3
"
x3 + qx-r
and
"
"
?'2=Q
will have a pairof equalroots ; have a common root,the first equation and if each of these is a, find all the roots of the second equation.
[IndiaCivil Service.]
288.
where
If
V2a2
-
Sx2 +y
*/2a2 -Sy2 +
that
+
\/2a2 3z2 0,
-
a2 stands for
(x+y
z)(-x+y
Find the values of x{, x2, ...xn which : system of simultaneous equations 289.
til
/C\)
ax
bx Oj W
+
"
b2
-
ax-bn~
Xr,
x\
X.,
+...+
a1
Cl2
~~
^2
a2
bn
OC-%
x,
an
bx
+ an
-
bo
+ ...+
an
[London University.]
290. Shew
that yz
zx
-
xl
-
zx
yL
xy yzzx
-
z-
y2
"
xy where r2
=
z2
xy -z2 x2 yz
"
x*
y2
[Trin. Coll.
zx
xy.
Camb.]
524
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
298.
Shew
that
if
a,
b,
0,
of
are
positive
and
unequal,
yz+zx+c=0,
the
equations
ax+yz
zx+by+z=Q,
real of
x
give
three
distinct
of the
triads three
values and y
for
x,
y,
-
;
:
and
a
the
ratio
of
the
products
values
is
(b
c)
{c
a). Mods.]
[Oxford
299.
If
ax
-by-cz,
ax,
D=bz
E=
cy,
B=by-czC
=
ex
az,
cz-
ax
by,
+
F=
ay
bx,
prove
that
ABC-
AD2
-
BE?
-
CF2
2DEF
(a2
b2 +
c2) (ax
by
z2).
[Second
Public
Oxford.]
old
300.
certain
student
found
it
necessary
of could the the read
to
same
decipher
kind varied
an
manuscript.
observed
as
During
that the of
previous
number
of
experiences
words and he
he
had
daily
of the
jointly
he worked
of
per
the
miles He
he therefore
walked
number
hours
amount 1
during
exercise
day.
gradually
the first
rate
increased
of
1
daily
daily
work
at
mile usual
and
hour
day
found
12000 of
respectively,
that
on
beginning
the
day
232000
with
his
quantity.
he
counted the
amount
He
the the
manuscript
contained 72000
on
words,
that that
first he and
day,
had
and
the
last words
day
:
and his
by
end
half
the
time
counted
62000
find
usual
of
daily
exercise
work.
ANSWERS.
I.
1. 4
Paces
:
10"12.
2. 6.
(1) 546
11,
*
: a.
(2) 9
7.
(3) bx
5.
ay.
18. 5 : 6 or
-
3.
385, 600.
13.
17.
3 : 5.
10.
y
= =
ZQ. *-,or^-"i
=
abc+2fgh-af*-bg*-cti"=0.
7,3,2.
23.
20.
25. 26.
21. b
-
-3,4,1.
c
-
22.
3,4,1.
(a2 ft2).
be(b-c)tca(c-a),ab(a-b).
II.
Pages
19,
20. z3
'
45
2.
(1) 12.
0, 3, 8.
j "
(2) 300a36.
3.
.
",.
13 li.
0 o, u, 58
"
14.
15.
"
-.
cm-
bm
7T" -2aii
"
18 21. 25.
19.
g, 9, 10, 15.
23.
20.
gallons from
24.
A ; 8
a
=
gallonsfrom
are
B.
45
gallons.
17:3.
"b. brass 63
or
and
parts of
26.
taken to
parts of bronze.
12 minutes.
Tbe
16,25
The
"200, "250.
the rate for the
21.
day
18 hours
an
28
minutes.
then the cost
cost
is least when
is 12
"9.
miles
hour;
and
per mile is
and ":/ly,
journey is
7*. """'"
526
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
IV.
a.
Pages
31, 32.
1.
277".
-42.
2. 7.
153. -185.
11.
3. 8.
0.
4. 9.
n(10-*" ' v
.
5.
30.
6.
10.
1325^/3.
75^/5.
21
12.
820a -16806. 1
3
--,...,
{n + l)a-n2b.
"(11a -96).
a
"13.
16. 20.
-j,
-9|.
14.
1, -l",...,-39.
x.
-31z, -33a;,
3.
...,a%
17. 22.
?i2.
19. 24.
5. 160.
4, 9, 14.
1, 4, 7.
x
495.
25.
^(o+1Uff5. 2a
IV. b.
10
-8. 8
26.
n("+l)a--.
a
Pages
-13.
35, 36.
3.
1. 4. 5.
or
2.
or
2,5,8,...
8, number
of terms
59. 54.
7.
1\, number
of terms
6.
12.
8.
25.
fi
+ rc~8"^r)" 2(l-.r)(2
10#
%2*
a
-
12,
-te
+
+
+
2)3d.]
3, 5, 7, 9.
[Assume for
tbe numbers
16.
M, a-d,
or
-
d, a
17.
p + q-vi.
12
17.
6r-l.
21.
23.
8 terms.
Series
1|,3, 4^,.
ry
(n+ l-r)x.
V.
a.
Pages
41, 42.
ANSWERS.
V. b.
1-g"
* mi"
Pages
8
Zl
(l-a)2
1-a'
3'
(i
9-
(l-r)fl-H'
s(.r"-l)
*-l
10"
10'2ft'10-
^i'"
*
n(n+l)
2
2 /
14.
l'\
4/2a+
9f1-pJ.
-
li.
16.
^r.
"
19.
B.2"+f-2*"
+ 2.
2o
(i+.)i"y-d,
"c
21.
r
-
1 (
S'":""1'-"!?"*- 1 1
-
VI.
1. 4.
a.
Pages
(1)5.
Gaud
2.
|,J,I
"r
2
11
5.
10.
(" 1 1).
11.
+ l)(?i2 + ^w(?t
?i
3).
12.
gn(n+l)(2"+7).
-n(n
+ l){n2
3/t+
l).
14.
J(3,l+1+ 1)
n
2'1+1.
4"+1-4-w(tt + l)(n2-"-l).
The nth term
term v\
=
fr +
(2n
"
for 1),
all values of
form
greater than
1.
Tho
first
is
+ b + c; 22.
19.
I(2a
1140.
11879.
n^ld) la* + (n 1) ad
Page 16646.
1840.
1} d* [ -("0
.
VI. b.
1. 6. 11. 15.
56.
4. 9.
12,0.
.
2.
3. 8. 14.
2170.
5. 10.
21321.
52. 300.
7.
12. 16.
11940.
190.
18296. n-1.
Triangular364; Square4900.
120.
VII.
1. 6. 11. 16.
a. 3.
Tack
1710137.
59.
4. 9. 14.
333244.
334345.
2. 7. 12.
728G26.
1783212G. 231.
*7074.
2012.
5. 10. 15.
112022.
8. 13.
1625. 1456.
842.
-
M90001.
7071.
(1) 121.
(2) 122000.
VII. b. Pages
65, 66.
4.
1. 6.
20305. 34402.
2. 7.
4444. 6587.
3. 8.
11001110.
2000000. 26011.
5. 10.
i 87214.
8978.
9.
528
11. 16. 20. 25. 31.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
30034342. 20-73.
Nine. Twelve.
12.
710^3.
125-0125. Four. Ten.
+
13.
2714687.
14.
-2046. 5
15.
15-1*6.
2 5
,
18.
22.
19.
5
o
6
o
Twelve. 2n + 27 + 26.
23.
Eight.
24.
Eleven.
30.
39-38-37-36-35
33 + 32 + l.
VIII.
2 +
l.
a.
Pages
72, 73.
3 +
^/2+ ^/6
z.
^6
6 1+
^15
.
4
+ "\/a a*/6
~~
3*
\/a6 (" +
-
6)
.
y/a2 1 + N/2a (a
-
1)
*
~~2^
+ 5^/15 3^/30 ^
5
"'
a-1
12
10^/2
"
5.
^2
6.
1
.
+ "/5 ^/3
g
2 3
.
4
.
7.
8.
33 + 33
541322
2^+3
2 + 33 23.
22 +
3:1 22 + 22.
145
.
56
56
23+ 56
19
56
.
2 + 56
110
23
23".
21
11
10
11
9.
a6-a66*+a%2"-...+a"6*-64.
1
10.
3*+3"+l.
13
11.
23-22.74+2.72"-74~.
11 10
.
10
11
21
12.
53+53
5
+3*.
17
1-33
2
1
+ 33
14.
17-33.22
15
33.22-3.
4 3
.
22 + 33.23-33.22.
2
5
.
15.
32
22-
33
2 + 33
33
221\
22 + 33
22-
33
23.
31262116
11
16.
i(36_36 + 36_36+36_1\ 2 \
J
3 5 1
|S"4
17#
25+26+26+26+26+26 gj
+ ^7-2. v/5
l
.
32 +
18.
+ 86. 8Q6
o
19.
20.
V5-\/7
2 + 2 +
2^3.
21.
1+^/3-^/2.
3
22.
*+
1 +
aA
"
4/^
"
23.
Ja-JSb.
24.
26.
^/5.
27.
^2 3-2^/2.
-
^7
"J3.
25. 28.
^/3. JU-2J2.
29.
2^/3+ ^/5.
30.
3^/3-^/6.
31.
a/^^+a/|-
35.
ll +
56x/3.
36.
289.
37.
5v/3-
ANSWERS. 3.
42.
529
38.
41.
3^3
3 +
5.
=
39.
^/5
5-23007.
a^ +
2.
43.
Sa+Jlr^^r.
1.
0-2^/6.
.i-
4.
+ 1
7-
_8_
29*
3a2
-
10.
2a
13. 16. 19-
"(2 +
9
14. 17rtrt
"(5-6 "(" +
4
15.
"
"(1
+ {("
.
-1S
1
-^
1113. EJ. 5
2"-
^0
7-14''
26
21'
'"
(3a2 -6s).
iTTTaz + b*"
22.
23.
IX.
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 14.
a.
Pages
2.
88"90.
MiH.r'J +
.c (u2-wr)
=
-
35x2
13.r-12
0.
q=
mn
0.
Q.
4. 6. 8.
xa- 14.r+ 29
x.r-
0.
=
0. 0. 0.
=
2px+p--8"j
a-
0. 0.
=
+ 2(ix +
+ b- =
,ab + b- =
10. 0. 12.
0.r!+ 11.c-
19r + 0
-
0.
{4-a-)x2-2ax
4
-
0.
10
3,0.
fr2 2ac
-
15.
2,
--.
".
~^"
7. 1
"
19-
6c" (3ac
-
6")
"
"*("*-4ac)
20-
o7
22.
~aV
-
"
-15.
23.
0.
v
. .
24.
x*
...,-.
(2)
-
-L.
-
27.
"".
""-=
1+
n)*ac.
aW
x--
hinix-{m--n-)- 0.
H.
Ji. A.
34
530
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
IX.
1. 7.
c.
Page
96.
-2.
+ (aa' bb'f
-
2.
"7.
5.
=
(ln'-l'nf=(lm'-l'm)(mn'-m'n).
-
0. + Ji'a) + Jib) (Jib' (ha' 2ac' 2a' c)2 (b2 4ac)(b'2 4a'c') ; which \bb' 10. (be' b'c). (ab' a'b) (ac' a'c)2=
4
-
reduces
to
X.
a.
Pages
101, 102.
13.
4.
17.
9, -7,
1"N/:I24- 182i.
2- ~4" 2, -8,
-1"*/71. -3"3x/5.
19-
3" "g'
3,
"
X"
20.
4,
y^". -J,
22.
2-^". -",
532
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
40. 41.
0,
"
"";
"
y
=
#=
1,
"
-a8 ,716a4
; ?/
"
2a,
-1
V16*4-"2-1
Pages
2. 4.
X.
1. 3.
x
=
c.
109, 110.
# #
=
"3;
?/=
"5;
y
=
z"
"4.
5;
?/=
1;
?/=
7.
2
=
af=5, -1;
.
lf
"
5;
; y
=
"=2.
8, -3;
2
=
3;
3,
8.
5.
.x
4, 3, "3;
2"Vi5i
S, 4,
2=7151
11 ;
1
7.
2,
"
6.
?/=
t2;
=
2=
i5.
jr=
"5; y= "1;
3;
?/=
"==
"1.
8.
8, -8; y
?/= 2;
5, -5;
2
=
3,
-3.
9.
.c
4;
-;
a
-.
10.
*=1;
3.
11.
.r
5, -7; y
3, -5;
6,
-8.
11
12.
.t=1, -2;
#
=
?/=
7, -3;
3,
'
3
14.
13.
4,
"
; */
6, ";
2, -6.
.r
a,
0, 0;
0, a, 0;
0, 0, a.
^-^3'
16.
"
'a-
"=a,
-2a,
a;
"a, a,
^
2
=
a;
2a, -4a,
(l"v/-15)
a.
X. d.
1. 2.
z
= =
Page
113.
3.
5. 7. 9. 11. 13. 16. 17.
6. 8.
x=7p-5, 2; y=5p-4, 1.
.t
=
21^-9, 12; y
19p-W, 3;
horses,15
; an
?/=
8p-5, 23^-19, 4.
3.
14.
10. 12.
a?=9, 20, 31; y 27, 14, 1. .t 50, 3; y 3, 44. s=l$p-2, 11; y=6p-l, 5. -" 17; ?/ 13^, 13. 17/), x llp- 74, 3; y 30p-25, 5.
= = =
=
11
cows.
101.
15.
56, 25
or
16, 65.
To pay 3
and guineas
1147
infinite number
56p.
18. 19.
20.
21.
ANSWERS.
533
122"12-4.
XI.
1. 4. 8. 12. 16. 20.
a.
Tacks
3. 6. 10. 14. 18. 22.
12.
2. 5. 9. 13.
221.
6720.
6. 1440.
360, 144.
224, 896.
2052000. 2520. 25920.
1140, 231.
56.
21000.
17.
21.
360000.
24.
25.
yJ^-p.
26.
27.
5700.
41.
28.
33.
9466.
1956.
29. 34.
2903040. 7.
30.
32.
XL
1. 3. 7.
b.
Pages
131,
132.
(1) 1663200.
151351200.
nr.
(2) 129729000.
4. 8.
(3) 3326400.
5. 9.
2. 6.
360. 531441.
72.
Vn.
455. 1023.
14.
10.
11.
12.
3374. 57760000.
21.
'
13.
'
yunrwr
18.
15.
16.
17.
inn
19.
315.
'
22.
42.
{\m)n \ii
(1) P(p-l){p-e" *Ji"l"-i""zi" + l; (2) 6 g(g-l)(g-2)
_
24.
3"(g-l)(p-2)
6
27.
6
28.
! , hi.
29.
26.
(p+ l)*-l.
30.
113; 2190.
2454.
6666600.
5199960.
XIII.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
a.
Pages
243.
142,
143.
""
15a;4+ 90a;3
-
270.r2 + 405a;
81a:4 + 32.c5
1
-
18rt2+ 135a4
540"G + 1215a8
1458a10 + 729aM.
tlxhf
7"V
x7'f'
81a;8
7.
16-48a;2
54arl-27.c6 +
16
8.
729o"
Ix
160a3 + 35a;4
^
21xn
^
7xG
35a;3
x7
1+T
~T~
~8_
534
64a;6
10*
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
243
_
32a;4
+
20a-
135
+
729
+
'
729~~2~r
1
a
^~
7ft3
4a;2
+
n
8a;4
_
64a;6
,
. _ _
7ft2
35ft4
5~ 8
11.
+ ytv + t? 2ob lb lb
^T^
,
+^T 4
120
5-
+"
ft
8.
10 iC9
-
10
"
45 +
-Z X'
210
+
"
-
252
r a;1
210
+
"
120
^
45
+
x
12. 13.
1-
a'
x*
14.
-
xv
:8 15.
x,.io
35750a:10.
130
112640a9.
312a;2. MK 81
16.
1120
18.
;27|3_
a:3
10500
19. 22. 24. 27. 30. 8 2x 2
20.
10 70x6y
21.
2x4 + 24a;2+ 8.
23.
25.
140^2.
65 (3
252.
26. 29.
32.
-^a;14
1365, -1365.
18564.
Bn
110565ft4. 189ft17
84ft3"6. 7
'"I6a
In
31.
18*
33.
( 1)"
-
2/i* |"|
XIII. b.
1.
Pages
3.
147, 148.
The 6th.
4. 9.
The
9th.
=
2.
The
6.
12th.
The
x
=
10th and
11*.
5. 10.
11.
The3rd
6|.
-
=Jrj"
-
2, ?/
3, n=5.
26a;4
-
I2n+1
xr-ian-r+l.
13.
12.
r-1
14.
n-r+1
15.
(- l)p
2r
=
p + 1
".,
z*"-*"+\
2n -p
14.
n.
XIV.
a.
Page
3
2. i +
155.
3 1 " + _a;-__a:-.
2a-
-2
_
3"
5*
1
-
x-
4.
l-2a;2 + 3a;4-4a;6. 14
5.
a;3.
6.
l+
a;
+ 2a;2+
"
a;3.
o
7.
l-aj+ga^-g^3-
8.
"
a;
;r a;-
"
"
ar
9-
1+X+6-U-
10.
l-2ft +
-ft-
"r
ANSWERS.
535
U.
\ 2a-i 1040
18.
._
a-
"/""/
10//
lb
250
-lra"
x 2 3
19.
2-43rt,.
1
22.
.
20.
+ 1)** (r
21-
+ 3) + l)(r+2)(r (r
a?-.
5
...
(-1)
(2r-3)
_r
23 "'
( I
lr_,11.8.5.2.1.4,..(3r-14) *J
*"
3r|r
24.
-1848.113.
25.
-i^-z"\
161, 162.
+ 2)(r + 3)(r + !)(r + 4) (""
10719
XIV.
b.
Pages
1.3.5.7...(2r-l)
*"
x"
^y
t
"
"
p
2.5.8...(8r-l)xr.
3'- r
"
(3r-4)^, ^1.2.5...
/_nrfe"llt"2)r-r *~. ^_
br
4"
3.5.7...
fi 6.
-
(2r+ l)
*"{-*)
xr.
9"
2.1.4...(3r-5) ^
3'lr
1.3.5...
U"
(2,-1)
l)
7,h.
.rr
V"--'
r
\r
+
2.5.8...
(3r-l)
14.
13.
17.
The 3**.
The
The
18.
The
13th.
19.
16.
The
3r"1.
22.
989949.
23.
20.
9-99333.
10 00999.
G- 99927.
-19842.
XIV.
1.
c.
Patqeb 1G7"
1G9.
3.
-197.
2.
142.
(-1)"-1.
.
4.
(-l)"(n"+2n+2).
6.
v/8=(l-|)
53G
/ 2\-'v /
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
1VH
14. 18.
Deduced
from
(1 a;3) (1 #)3
-
3.r2.
16.
=
6561.
xr in
terms
in
{l+ x)n f1 +
=z2(l+ o;)n-2.
(1 .t2)-*
-
Series
22"-1
on
the left+
x-n in
21.
J
2
|2w
'
In ire +
c2+
..
.c
J2
XV.
Pages
173, 174.
15-
8+
18.
XVI.
a.
Pages
178, 179.
1.
8,6.
2.
2,-1.
2
3.
-i. -^,
"
4.
-4,
-|.
_4_4
3'
8.
157.42 2'
5*
+
b-
5'
~2*
7-
3'
2
'
"3'
3
+
3'
61oga
4
91ogb.
1
+
9.
-loga
2
-logb.
1
10.
--loga
7
-logfc.
1
11.
-gloga--log".
14-
12.
-"log
-log
b.
13.
2^"8fl19. 2
-51ogc.
16.
log 3.
. '
'
X~
\oga'J
-
logw log 6
'
log (a ")
24.
22.
loga;
=
g(a
36),log?7 g(a-26).
=
+ by log(fl
answers.
537
185, 186.
XVI.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9. 13. 17. 21. 28.
b.
Pages
4,1,2,2,1,1,1.
3-8821259, 5-8821259, 6-8821259. -8821259, 2-8821259,
5, 2, 4, 1.
Second decimal place; units' place; fifth decimal 1-8061800.
1-1583626.
6.
place.
8. 12. 16. 20.
1-9242793.
7.
11.
1-1072100.
-3597271. 1-948445. 9-076226. 4-29. frJ
26.
2*0969100.
-0503520.
10.
14. 18.
f-5052973.
1-1998692. 9. 4-562.
23.
1915631. 178-141516.
27.
301.
29.
3-46.
1-206.
14-200.
loS2
log3 -log 2'
,
31og3-21og2
log3
.,"*,
32.
XVII.
1.
Pages
195"197.
6.
2. log, e*~-cy~. 50 in
; (2)
?*
=
2.
3 -log,2. log,
-0020000000666670.
In Art. 225 put
9.
7i
=
10.
10 in
(1);and
1000 in
13.
12.
(.lr..r"i".
r
"
14.
2ji+^.+i_X+...+i_^+...{.
/""-
(2.r)2(2x)4
/)"4 /y"6
(2x)-r
/y"*-7*
,*"
H"1" 111L~
24.
E
a=
1^+iog.a-*).
-log,
(l M
-
=-105360516;
-012422520.
log,(1
A^
-040821995
f1 log,
202.
iA
XVIII.
1. 4. 9.
a.
Page
"1146.
14s. 10J.
2. 5.
3.
14-2 years.
8.
"496.
19*.
4frf.
"119.
16s. 4^7.
XVIII.
1. 4. 8.
b.
Pack
2U.
207.
3.
6 percent.
3 per cent.
5. 9.
2.
"3137. 2s.
6. 10.
"110.
7.
28J years.
"183.
15.
"1275.
"920.
2s.
"6755. 13s.
"1308.
18s.
3} per cent.
11.
13.
12s. 4 U.
"4200.
538
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
XIX.
8. 14.
a.
Pages
xs "
or
"
213, 214.
#2 +
x
greater.
x x
=
12.
2,accordingas
#=1.
"
or
"
2.
is 1.
15.
4 ; 8.
22.
23.
9, when
XIX.
33.55
,n
.
b.
Pages
218, 219.
/3
3/2
XXI.
1.
4. 5.
a.
Pages
3. 2. Convergent. Convergent. #"1, or# l, convergent; x"\" divergent. 6. 7. Same result as Ex. 4. Convergent. l, divergent. #"1, convergent;x"l, or x Divergentexceptwhen p " 2. #"1, or x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent. If x " 1, convergent ; x " 1, or x 1, divergent.
=
= =
SameresultasEx.il.
"
13.
x"l, or x 1, convergent; .t"1, divergent. 16. Convergent. Divergent. (1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.
1. 2. 4.
x"l,
Same
11
x
"
-
or
result
or x
=
Ex.
1.
1
x",
3.
Same
result
as
Ex.
1.
convergent ;
x"e,
divergent.
5.
x"e,
convergent;
or#=e,
divergent.
540
1 X-l
12'
X
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
1
+ l
BiiWsoW "Pn-r-4n*.
_il
3(1-*)
+
4
"
13 ld"
1flll(-1"'-V +
V~*
'
3(* + 5)
15.
2)'1
5
l
'
3V5'-+12^+V
'
-L.
-
-1_
1+
a;
l-# ""
,-4{1+ 1-2*
+
(- l)r-1-2r+2}^. '
""
18-
31
19'
"
2la^I)
2
3a;
1-
"
(l-sc)d
(l-x)2
+
1-sc *"-+2
+
j
*
^r+2
-
c^"2
)
X
'
j(a
b)(a c)
-
1 (6 c)(6^o) (c-a)(c-b)
-
5
22'
2
+
1
+
5r + 9) *
-(2^p-2^
1 11)
(I^-)2 r^;
*
*
f+"-W
1 1+
x x
23
1
1 + ax)
'
f9\
_JL J_l_
(1-a)2 \l+
1
25
*
1 l + aP+tx
anx
(
"
x*
l-^
xn+l i_xn+i
.-r(l-a")(l-.'c2)"
(l-.r)2(l-3
XXIV.
Page
272.
*'
(4r+1)^ (TT^25
2-
l + x-2x*"
{1+(-1)r2r^r-
3
5'
12* + Use2
+
l=^flE?r"5^
tr-+1)"r-6'
3-
2n-l;-(3"-l)+
*
2n-l.
7.
2(1-3^")
1-3*
3(1-2^*)
1-2*
'
l-4x
1-Sx
ANSWERS.
l-.r"
,
541
l-2'l.r"
l-3".r"
?/n-3"n_1+ 3"u_o-j/n_3=:0; M"-4"n_1+6Mw_a-4tito_a+""_4=0. to infinity term. 12. beginningwith (n+ l)th Sn=5aD-S, where 2 smn This may be shewn to agree with the result in Art. 325. easily
11.
=
13.
(2n+
(2**+i+l). 1)3+|
XXV.
a.
Pages
277, 278.
2 L
13
15
7
'
28
323
1'
12
6'
7
13'
9
150'
43
2'
JU3
1497' 1174
'
2' 5'
3 1
'
f7' 22'
13
'
105'
85
'
10 3 1
36
'
T
1
2 +
11
26
37
"359
'
1 1+
1
1
1 + 1
1117
2 + 2
'
*"
2 + 1
* D
2+
1
12
"
157
4+
6.
3+
3+
2+
1+
3;
"30"
'
JL _L JL JL J_ JL *"
3+
3+
3+
3+
3+3'
Ill
109"
11
7'
_1_JLJ^JL_!
3T
2+ 5+
IT 1+
2+ 2+
3+~ 2+
1+
1+
5;
35"
1 +
J__l_ J_ J_ _1_1. _7
1+ 11111111
10.
3; 19"
G3
J_J^AJl_X
7+ 5+
?5i
35
223'
6+
1+
3+
n'
4 +
3+
3+
6+ 3'
r"
1+ 259
2+
1+
10'
208*
1
J__l_l
3+ o+
7
39
47
GO*
,
i'
;
29'
33'
161'
194*
are
16.
1 +
(n + l)+
(n-l)+
//
-
jt
and
-
7i
+ l
n2
?j3 n2 +
1
"'
~T~'
n+~l'
~n*~
XXV.
1 and
*
b.
Packs
281"283.
1
j
151
"
(203)2
11
4. a+
"2(1250)**
11
a
115'
a*+3a+3
+
3'
aa + 3a- + la + 2
'
542
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
XXVI.
1. 2. 3.
a
=
Pages
290, 291.
y
= =
7m
x x
109.
S91.
?/
=
355; x=320,
Seven.
355. 5 4
-.
4.
Four.
6.
-,
^3117
12'
8. 11. 13. 14. 15. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
8*'12' 8;
=
"r
\
8'
9.
L
12
x
=
^
8'
1_
12*
=
"6. 13s.
x
=
9, y
S,
S.
10. ?/ =
5,
6,
7.
"c =
4, y=2, z l. 3, 7, 2, 6, 1; y
y
=
12.
=
as=2,
=
9, s=7.
aj=l, 3, 2;
280" + 93.
ll, 4, 8, 1, 5; 5, 1, 3; z 2, 4, 3.
=
1, 1, 2, 2, 3. 181,412.
16.
305.
v
10,9, 8, 6,4, 3; 6
104th
107th and
end.
425.
22.
899.
23.
1829 and
1363.
XXVII.
1 1
a.
Pages
294, 295.
1
"
26
2889
1+2+
"
"""15*
1
n4+"",1292"
1
42 +
1
3' J +
1
-;
99
2T4T'-;
11
IT4+
35"
1
5-
d +
3+"6+";
1111
6'
J. J_
J_
119
33
1197
116
+1+
1+
1+
1+
6+"-;
7.
3-f 1+
+
2+
1+
6+
""'
31
_L J_ JL J_ JL J_
1+ 2+
4+
'"";
197
.
2+ 1351
1+
8+
"'"'
42
9-
d +
_1_J_
2+ 6+
111111
JL_J_ JL
1+ 161 1+
1_
10+
-;
198
35
*
"390"'
2+
1+
1+
11.
1+
12.
2+
2+
12+
'
21 253
11111111
12 +
1+
1 13.
1+
1+
5+
1+
1+
1+
""
24+
12
'
'
20
111111
4+
'
1+
1+
2+
1+
1+
.
8+
55*
_1_Jj_J_ _1
5+
ie
1_
10+
'""'
47_
270'
.
_1
10+
280
"'"'
1_
2+
'"'
5291
"
1+
2+
1+
4830*
1111111111
"D'
1+
3+
1+
16+
1+
3+
2+
3+
1+
16+
351*
ANSWERS
""4.*"
4030
9'
1(577
*
1
*
1
""
20-
401
22.
( 4 +
r"
21, 2 +
483
111
-
2+2
"
1111
" " "
-
1+
1
""
1+
!
1+
... '
23.
1+
"
4+ 11111
"
2 +
3+
25'
1+
24'
4+3+3T-;rT2+8+3+3+Positive root of
x-
^
-
26.
3" -3
0.
27.
30.
lOx -4
0.
28.
4^/2.
XXVII.
1
1.
a
b.
Pages
301, 302.
8a4 + 8a2 + l
""'
2a +
2a+
2a+
8a:,+ 4a
1
2*
+2T 2(a-l)T
1 1
,
J.
1_
8a2-8a
*,;
2+
1
2(a-l)+
1
8a-4 2a- -1
3.
a-l
1+
1111
4.
2(a-l)+
2a +
1+
"'
2(a-l)+
'
""'
2a
8a2 + 8a + l
1+
2a+
1111
6.
a
2+
2+
8a2 + 4a
'
2a262 + 4a"
'
+ l
'
b+
6.
2a +
b +
2a +
2a"*+26
""
1111
2a/i-l
"
a-l-t 1+
2(n-l)
1+
2(a-l)+
'
2/i
141a4 + 36a2 +1
XXVIII.
l.
Page
311.
2.
#
=
3.
4. 6. 7. 9. 12.
10, y 5. x 3, 2; y=l, 4. 11; 4,3. x=2, 3, 6, y=12, 7, x 79, 27, 17, 13, 11, 9; y=157, 61,29, 19, 13, 3.
= =
2, y
l.
18, 22.
15, ?/
4.
10.
x
=
8.
170, y
39.
x=32, y=5.
2.r =
lG4, y
.
21.
11.
-
x=4,
l.
2V'3 (2+x/3)n+(2-v/3)";
integer.
13.
2x
2x
even
14.
(2+ v/5)n+(2-^/5)'1; 2^/5 ^ (2+ ^5)"- (2 v/5)";n being uny integer. positive n being (4+ v/17)n+(4-v/17)n; 2V/17.?/ (4+ x/17)" (4-v/17)";
.
positive integer. any The form of the answers to 15 17, 19, 20 will vary mode of factorising the two sides of the equation.
"
odd
according to the
544
15.
x
=
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
11fi
3/t2, y
y
=
m?
2mn.
16. 18.
m2 + 2mn
+ n~;
m2
?i2.
17.
19. 21.
x=2mn,
m--n-\
5m?-n*.
20. 2mn; m2 + w2. m2-n2j 2mn + n'2. Anna Hendriek, Geertruij. ; Claas,Catriin;Cornelius,
XXIX.
1
1. + ^n(n + S). l)(n+ 2)(ti
a.
Pages
321, 322.
-
2.
3.
"
n* + {21
90/i2+ 45u
50)
.
71
11
4.
-(n
n
5.
-(n
n
l)(n+ 8)(n+9).
1 3*
1
'
6.
fc
n+1'
1
o 8. t^
-
; 1.
'
7.
3;i+l'
l
l
"
1
9.
'
12
t-t^
=^^
^r
,~.
12"
24
^T
+ l) (3// + 4) 6(3/i
24*
1
2/1 + 5
2
+ l)(?? + 2) (7i + 5
11
6
^
h
2
+
'4
12'
4*
3+(u+
+
3)(h
+
4);6*
+
S-nT2 a(n
1
"H" j^+l"""
n
""(*
""'
14.
-?i2(n2-l).
"
15.
16.
36n2 + 151n+
240)
-
32.
n
1?
(n-l)"(n+l)(n+2)
6(2n+l) 3 + 3) n(/t
2 1 +,
ig
"(n+l)(n+2)
3
20-
n+1"
1
H
19,
~^~
2~^2~
(n+l)(n + Z)'
XXIX.
b.
Pages
1-7l+~r
332, 333.
5/t2+ 3/7;
-
1.
3"2 + 7i;
+ l)2. ?i(7i
2.
n
o
3. 4.
+ l); 7t2(/i
"
"(n+l)(n+2)(3n+l).
-
3u
2).
5.
rc("+l)(n+2)(n+4);^n(n+l) (n+2)(n+3)(4"+21).
l + .r2
7-
l-a; + 6.x-2-2.r3
*
2-.r + .r2
8'
(l-.r)3*
1-aJ
_
(l-a;)3
1 + lLc + lla^+g3
(I-*;3
9
4
+ /7 +
(1+.t)12.
(l-z)0
13.
gj.
3.2"
2; 6(2"-l) +
W^
5^.
ANSWERS.
545
3*+n~+"
n;
]
14.
16.
2"+"-ns-2tt; 2"+2-41
t"(u+1)(2"+7).
"("+l)(.+ 5)
_ _
1
n
17.
3--1 1
-
+ xn
(n+g)
+ (3"+1 8)
"
nx11 19.
xn
" -
"i.rn
"
)i
(n+ 1) xn
18.
(1 a;)2
-
(1 xf
n
-
(1-*)"
4n+1
2
2(1-a?)
1
20.
'
1
21'
n+1
n
2n'
58n +
7TT2-~^~+3
n
22.
2)
23.
37n
8)
15
+ k(k + 1)(9h2
60
1 1
-
13k +
8)
24.
25.
12
2
27.
2'1.3.5.7
(2k+ 1)'
2"t+i
26.
1-
|k + 2'
(k2-k+ 4)2"-4.
*
1-3-5 2.4.6
l
28.
(n-l)3"+1+3.
n
29
J 2".
31.
30.
n
+ 1
n
4
33.
2(k+1)(k + 2) *3"'
k
1
32"
+ 1
+ 4
'
1-
2""^T2
(K + l)(K+2) 2n+1'
XXIX.
c.
Pages
338"340.
1.
(ex e~x)
-
x.
2.
1+
"
-log(l-ar).
1
(ex
-
c~x
ieix+
ie~ix).
6
4.
(r-2)|r-T
7.
5.
(l+ x)ex.
k(2"-1).
{p + q)r
1.
4.
II
9. 12.
8. 11.
0.
10. 13.
log"2-",
...
3("3-l).
K
e*-log(l + .r).
7k4
24
ir
?l'
n6 71"
+
?i5 ?f
+
n3 71*
n8
?i7
7kb
12
14' 15.
"X"
lot'.
2--6+42' (J)
17.
+12
(1)
k
+ 1.
2 \
1 +
n2J
'
+ 1
(1 +
20.
"(n-fl)2"~".
(_1)
22-
W
H.
(n+l)(n+2)/'
35
H.
A.
54G XXX.
1. 7.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
a.
Pages
348, 349.
6.
3, G, 15, 42.
23.
2. 33.
18.
:. b.
20.
x
=
Pages
356"358.
is
an
integer.
XXXI.
2.
a.
Pages
367"369.
1 ; it be shewn that
1 h
"
18.
can
qn=l +j"n-
XXXII.
a.
Pages
376, 377.
5.
2 to 3.
2197
10.
'
20825
11
16.
4165*
(m
7i) (m+n-1)'
XXXII.
b.
Pages
383, 384.
XXXII.
c.
Pages
389, 390
1
4.
" Florins.
.
5.
-.
1
9.
me 11 to
o.
10.
b.
o
548
26.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
The
determinant
is
equal to
27.
w'
v
v'
w
10
=0.
v'
v!
XXXIII.
1.
b.
Pages
427,
1.
2.
0 ; add
first and
4.
second rows,
-
fourth
rows.
3. 6.
(a + 3)(a-l)3.
a2 + b2 + c2
2bc
2ab.
subtract three times the third,from the second 6 ; from the firstcolumn the fourth subtract four times subtract twice the third, and from the third.
6.
abcd(l+
\ -(x
+ y +
_/,
1
-
1
+ T+
1
-
1\
+
a)
-).
x
-
7. 8.
z)(y+
x) (z+
9.
y) (x +
z).
(ax-by+cz)''
B
a'.
12.
.""-"""-"") ; "c.
(a b)(a- c)
"
13-
x=",
k(k-b)(k-c) ('"cTVT (a b) (a c)
-
""
X-{a-b){a-c)(a-d)'
439, 440.
3a + 6
a
= =
XXXIV.
1. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 10. 11. 13. 14. 28.
a.
Pages
2.
-102. x3-2x2
+
x
27.
l; -loz+11.
4.
3.
+ 90x-" + 4S2x-7.
2iabc.
+ 62 + ("-c)(c-a)(a-")(a2
9.
c2 + "c +
ca
+ a) (a+ b). 3a6c("+ c)(c J2 + + 80a"c(a2 c2). 3 (b c)(c a)(a b) (as a)(x-b) (x-c). 12.
-
12a6c
aZ"). (a+
6 +
c).
29.
2.
(p-x)(q- x)
(a+ x) (b+ x) (c+ x)
'
31.-
1.
32.
+ b +
+ d.
XXXIV.
5. 28
b.
Pages
7.
442, 443.
A
=
0.
ax+by
+ ay,
bx-ay.
ANSWERS
549
XXXIV.
1.
4. 7. 9.
c. + rt =
Pages
0.
x3 +
y=
xy2+
ay-
0.
2. 5.
a(x-Sa).
0.
a*-a*=l.
8. 10. ?/--
"4-2a2"2-"4 5a263
=
0.
11.
l+
13. 15. 17. 20.
a
=
1 + 6
1 +
1 + d 1+"Z
-3=1.
12.
6c5.
=
ab
l +
c.
14.
0.
=
(a+6)*-(a-5)$=4c$. 16.
abc
=
l.
=
(i- a-b
-
c)2.
18.
-
+ ac3 + 463-"V
0.
c2 (o+ b
1)-
{a+ b
x
1)(a-
2a6 + "21
b)+
(c
ab
0. 1
1
22
(a-b)cr+(a- c)bq
(b c) ap
-
(b a) cr
-
a) bq+ (c b)ap
-
bcqr+
23.
carp +
=
abpq
ac'
a'c
-
a'd
-
0.
b'd
-
b'd
c'd
XXXV.
1. 3. 4.
a.
Pages
2.
=
456, 457.
x* + 2xri- lis*12.r3+ 3Gx2
=
6x4-13x3-12x2 x6
-
+ 39.r-18
-
0. 80r
0.
ox*
2
0.
5.
re4
-
1,3, 5, 7.
8.
p ~"-
2'
2'
3 1 11-
6, 2, g
/o
_3
2'
113
4' 3"
14.
"n/3, j,
2*
V
16.
2' 4*
17.
|,|,W2.
4 3 5
f,|,2,3.
19. 21.
3'
"1
2'
3'
XXXV.
2 L
b.
Pages
ldb^-3
~2~
~"
d'
~3'
2.
-g,
-3,2"N/3.
+ 25
= =
3. 5. 7.
4. 6. 8.
"7^1, _2"VTT.
.t4-2x2
ar"+ 1G 0. 0.
1*2^/^1.
=
0.
.)
50 s4- 10^+
ar"
-
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
9.
11. 13. 15.
1=0.
26a; + 21
=
10.
re4
-
0. 0.
6a;3 + 18x2-
0.
12.
One One
one
imaginary. [CompareArt.
554.]
least four
16. 21.
24.
Six.
pq-r.
17.
22.
(1)pq
r;
^-3.
pi-4p2q + 2q2+ 4:pr-4LS.
XXXV. Pages
2. 4.
pq-Sr,
pr-ls.
25.
c.
470, 471.
a:4- 37a;2- 123a: a;4-24a;2-l.
-
1. 3. 5. 10.
a,-4-6a;3 + 15a:2-12a; + l. 2a;4+ 8a;3-a;2 -8a; -20. 16aa;7i(.r6 + h6) + 2bh + 7a;4/*2 + 7a;2/t4
110.
2, 2,
1
1,
=
3.
11.
1, 1, 1, 3.
1
14.
3, 3, 3, 2, 2.
^/^3 1"J~Z
2
,
1
"
1
'
13.-2,
15.
2 2.
16.
'
1, 1, 1, -1, -1,
a, a, -a,
17.
6.
"x/3,i^/3,1 /3 l"J-7
"
^/^1.
/3
l",7r23
4
18.
^Wg'"
20.
;"\/2'
=
19. 22.
0, 1,
n"j*-*
4p"{n-2)"-*.
28.
(1) -2;
(2) -1.
XXXV.
27.
5.
99,795.
d.
Pages
2.
478, 479.
+27=0. + Sy'2-9y ?/4-5?/3
3
4.
"2^/2,2
^/3.
6-
2,2l,L(l"Jl3). 2'2'
2
in 1U*
1
4'
X
1
'
2'
~5*
12.
-
+ l ?/4-4?/2
-
0. 0.
13.
y5-7y3 + 12y2-7y=0.
717?/2 773?/
=
42
t/3-^|2+^-^
0.
+ 19j/-15=0. ?/3-8?/2 0. + 8 + 33?/2 + 12*/ ?/3
=
16.
0.
0.
0.
0. y'i-q2y2-2qr2y-r4
= =
23.
25.
26.
+ "/(l-r)2/3 + (l-r)3 ?-^ 0. + + r3 + + 3r2)2/ 2/3 3?^2 (53 + r(r2 + 223) ;V + 3?^2+(3r2+ "/3)?v/
0.
24.
qif-1
0.
28.
"1, "2,
5-
ANSWERS.
XXXV.
e.
Pages
1.
5,
d*""Lll.
a
2-
10,-5"7V^8,
4,
-2"5j~^S.
4.
-6, 3"4
7^~3.
5.
--.-iVJ?.
6.
11,11,7.
U.
1,-4*^/6.
14. 16.
12.
1,2,-2,-3.
1, -3,2"75.
1, 4
2,2,|, |.
-4, -4, -4,
3. 2
18.
"72.
23.
sV
+
26.
0.
""
-
^?.
putting x 4 y, and + 1 y2 3// original equation.
=
-
.t4 8.r3+ 21a;3 20a;+ 5 = (x2 5x + 5)(a;2 3a; + 1); on the expressions a;2 5a;+ 5 and a;- 3a;+ 1 become the so that we + 5 respectively, merely reproduce y2 5//
-
MISCELLANEOUS
2. 4.
EXAMPLES.
3.
Pages
490"524.
6, 8.
Eight.
1,
y=
5 ;
or
x=
3;
5.
1
6.
(1) 1, ^-3;
+ 2b -,
(2) 3.
7.
First term
1 ; common
difference
8.
-pCp8-^); (p2-q)(p"-3q).
10.
9.
14. 15.
+ a-^"1). -(oft
^.
=
13.
a4 + "4 + c4 =
x=
y1= J
a
+ b + c
; or
c-a
-
a-b
-ca-
,-=";
ab) d.
=
where
16.
Jc-a(a+ b- + c2
be
One
17.
^/-g- ^
+
"
'
2~.
18.
; 22G8.
13.
^105
=
(2)x
22.
y="7^;
a^6= -(J+26)="\/y+a623.
1"*5; nine.
i {(1 +
2 + 3+
..
+ (l2 /")--
2-* + 32 +
...
+n-)\.
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
24.
25.
29. 31.
3fc, ?/ 4fc,z
=
Either
or
l, so that fc=l,w, or or. 8 fourpenny pieces; 33 half-crowns, 19 shillings, 17 fourpenny pieces. 37 half-crowns, 6 shillings,
=
5fc; where
30.
480.
32. 35.
6, ft 7.
=
33. x\
40 minutes.
1 +
xi ^x2--
"
37.
-l^y-3^1^/gj[a,.4_.r_5(a;2 l)
pr
1
a;
0.]
38.
8;^"
.r'
-.
40.
The
firstterm.
13, 9.
42.
.,,.,, a2 o- + -|-
"
",
c-
43.
(1) 3,
(2) x
=
2, l,
"
^^"
[Add a-2+
0; 0;
4 to each
side.]
ssl,
2=1,
48.
0,
-1,
-\, 0,
a
0,-1.
at
17.
5780.
150
persons
minoritywas
250, the
majority350.
2m-l
".
_
ad -be
.
51-
0, C1) i*
7J'2m+l
-
rrt.
(2)
K
'
=
a-b-c+d
-
[Put (a
53.
c)(6- d)
6,
--577-.
30
^/a+ ^/6
a;2- 16
=
-r"
,-
"=-,
"
v/a+ ^/6
-^St.
=
58. 60.
we y4,
find
63.
",
males;
^"
" "
females.
b-c
b,
"
a+b
64.
Common which
; common
H.P.
is
ab
+ b(r-l) a(n-r) '-^
" -
-=-"
"
.
-
[The rth
term
is
"
n-1
68.
the in
...
,...
is
"
(n 1) aft(n-l) e rr rv -1 a(n-r) + b (r 1)
-.
" " -
19.
"78.
l"V-3
*
-1*^-3
'
*
U'
2
=
a3 + (a- ft)3-
63 =
-3aft(a ft).]
-
ANSWERS.
553
72.
73.
(1)
v '
(2)
74.
*=*2(^?l0S2)~*l-189 log
1
-
7,
*"* v '
2.
8
...
hours.
= ."c
79.
80. 85.
-.
(1) -=*f=-=sO,
a o
=
!f
*
c
a or
+ 6 +
-
c
.
a6c
2)
u
y b=
, l.
3, 6
1.
81.
were
[Put x-a
"7700
and "3500:
91.
v.]
82.
ar
3.
was
84.
126.
Sums
invested
and
"1100.
86.
95
seven.
25 miles from
+
ItthE}.
29
..
25
'
?/_3 "*"-d'5'
.
10^
96"
2y
\/3'
--
"21'
'
_"
100.
,. function Generating , r,
l + 4x
-z
2(l-2'\r") l-(-l)".r"
.,
is
1-x-
-"
2i-
suru=
-^
"
=
-
"
2.c
1 +
nih term=
107.
109.
a-
+ 6
c-
d. y
=
108.
12 persons, "14.
or
18s.
(1) x
1+
a,
-=-
b,
c.
(2)x
,"
3,
=
1;
y *
=
|f=l,or
492. b.
3.
113.
111.
JL
=
-i--L
y
=
1;
or
1+12+1+1+1+9
117.
948,
=
"12.
15*.
(1) x (2) x
a,
b; 1, y
x
=
3 or
y = 2, 2=1
a,
2a\
2b, y
3;
12"-
W
(2)
l~^TWa(J"'1)
+
+ **+" {*"+"-
2li
1)x
n-
1
.
121.
122.
=
(1)
2
=
y-
or
^2=
(2) x
124
0, y
-
0,
0; x="2,
lO.r-1
t
y="lt
r
'
"3.
13.c 3
125.
-
23
-
4
'
(.r23x
1)
(**+*+ 1)
-
2^+1
2x- ;
1=
1; scale of relation is 1
=
term general
2'1~3 + is {
(- l)n_1 }.r"-'.
127.
(1) .r=-6, 2; y
9, -3.
129.
(2) *=-;
12, 16;
or
y=y
48, 4.
128. 130.
(2)^. (1)^".
(1) x= (2)
-
"7.
=
I
b
"
JL
2abc 134.
where
"2 =
a4
64
c4.
c
=
133.
11,r-1.
384sq.yds.
"2,
3,
"2.
137.
v/2
(2)
"^;
*^/^-
138.
554
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
139.
(1) (3)
+ 2)(Bn2 + l)(n
6n +
l).
|n("+l)(4w-l).
=
141.
(1) x (2) x,
l y,
-
or
y;
?/= have
-
or
y.
may
-
the
=
permutations of
the values 3, 5, 7.
142.
8r
0.
3 + Ua; -157a:2
143.
(1)
(xn 1)
-
(x-iy
x-l'
'
1 + 5x -50a;2 144. 2
-8a;3'
-
(63 d3)
=
145. 146.
3*
in successive
B walks
so
that
overtakes
days 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11,13,15,17,19,21,23, miles, 12, 13, 14,15,16,17,18,19,20, A in 2 days and passes him on the third day ; A
B
subsequentlygainson
and
overtakes b+
him
on
^6-1
147.
~
5
150.
148.
-(a +
c), -(a +
A
-
wb +
u)2c), (a+
-
(o'2b +
wc).
nth term
is -*
(an
"
bn)
L
"
a-b where
A
,
B,
and denotes
an-1xn~i) (1 *_
corre-
ax
(1-aa;)2
of B.
spondingfunction
151.
2p3 q2
-
0.
153.
(1) (1)
".
-7,7"8y~8(2) ^
"8"
4"
154.
days.
156.
| ^ 0"^4
89
-
T92
, ,""
11
"I
157.
22 years
_
nearly.
161.
44 hours.
162.
(1)x (2)x
-7"V217
r*-
-=r=
=
s="i,
, ,
.-
"2;
where
=
y==F2, Tl;ar=-y="V3
2/i;2 + bG + c6 (a6
b2x +
-
h (64 + c4
a262
"c. a?e2)
+
3a262c2)1
=
[Itis
easy to shew
that a2x
c2x
ca
=
a2y+ b2z +
163.
a;3 +
+
c2y .]
b+
=
(a+
b +
+ c)x (be
=
ab)"
J (be+
c)x2-
[Equation reduces to
164.
(a+ b +
c).
0.]
(1) ~n(n
556
HIGHER
ALGEBRA.
223.
1("15W^); (l)^=l("15"V33)j
,=
or*
y
2
a;~fl
g-c
(2)
a(6-c)
where
226.
6(C-rt)~c^rT6)-X'
=
a2 + 62 + ("-c)(C-a)("-")x
c2_"c_ca_^
convergent.
+ 8"
.
=|; f(^-l)}
-1 Xtenn {""
=
230.
Scale
of
relation
23"-i
T
is
5
1-12.,
+ 32.-
2*"-i ^n
11
231233. 235.
=
"
7
232.
"21
ar
=
"
2T3a3 + V +
(1)
J (2) ' 8
236. 237. 244. 247.
1
+ 2)3(n+ l)2(7i
a*V"
-
aux*
.
"^28 + ^
242.
_
+ a20;r,6"
3hours51min. 3,4,5,6.
2, 6, 1, 3.
246. 248.
240.
2 or
140.
(ab*-"f. a*(c*-Sd?)*=:(ab*+2")
"
.
13
+ +
249.
(1)
l)(2,tl). 2*-H-2-jU(n
2
_
S'
"3"
T^
n is
=
*""P
If 0or|.
-a,
-he-
even
If*^
+
'Jiz*^)
when
250.
odd.
*
=
(l)*
*
2/= 2/+
xy
0) then
and
the solution is
V
indeterminate.
z
(2)",
a(-a
+ b +
c)
b(a-b
c)-^(^b^c)
1
'
"
s/l- +
a
*" +
-b cjja
flM 253.
-"+BE1C,H-A, +
A
=
(i
B,
+ c.)"4,-B, + 0,)(Alf
"+ Xre
c)(a + b~^~c)
y/a (6 c),"c.
-
ANSWERS.
55?
256.
(1) .""
1,
w,
to-
z=-(a (2)x
y
257. 262. 266.
=
+ /yu). -(i/w'-
S, 7,
or or
7 3
|
)
0, 4,
or or
-4
-6
258.
To
at least 3r-2
places.
263.
Tea,
2s.
2ga-6pr+24".
(1)x,
y,
a,
z
have
the
la(b-l+sJb*-2b-3), \ (b JJfi^W^3).
1
-
(i j_
b -fc
="
(2) as=f/="
268.
l;
; "c.
267.
0.
16
Clergymen of
Lawyers of
-
average
age 45 years ;
24 Doctors
of average
average
-
age 35 years ;
age
=
20
269.
30 years.
-
(a0a2 afl(a.2a4 a32) (afy a22)2 ; or + a0a32 afaA a23 a0a.2ai 2axa.2a3
-
0.
270.
X=
"
"
"C.
,
"
"
"c
273.
c~$.
Va2 +
274.
62 + c2
V"2 +
^2 + c2
(1)
v'\
"
275.
(1)*=?,?, 2;
?/=-l,
3
2
'
-g,
3
-1;
4'
4'
(2)z="4,
5
2/=
"5, t"="2,
w="l.
*="3 Vi"
276. 279. 287. 291.
294. 300.
or
u="\^^t2v!'u=4v-3'
277.
281.
a2 + ft2 + c2 + d2 + \.
-p18+ 3^02.
Bp3.
^, 6 birds; B, 4 birds.
a,
-5a, -5a.
45
289.
S1=
.4 worked
+ c2 (ft2
-
Walked walked
days ; i",24 days; C, 10 days. + c2)(a2 + ft- c2). a2)(a2 ft2 3 miles, worked 4 hours a day ;
-
miles,worked
3 hours
day.
CAMBRIDGE
PRINTED
BY
C.
J.
CLAY,
M.A.
AND
SONS,
AT
THE
UNIVERSITY
TRESS.