Lecture #13: Example Data Link Protocols.

Contents Types of services provided by DLL protocols 7 Flow control functions Flow control protocols Stop-and-Wait protocols Sliding window protocols 19 Go-back-n Selective Repeat/Reject Performance comparison HDLC 24 Internet DLL protocols 27
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Communication Functions according to the OSI Model Application layer

User application 1 ...

Presentation layer Session layer Transport layer Network layer

Encryption/ decryption Session control Session synch.

compression/ expansion Session to transport mapping Error recovery Routing Error control Flow control

Choice of syntax Session management Multiplexing Addressing Synch Framing

Layer and flow control Connection control Data link establishment Access to transm. media

Link layer
Physical layer

Physical and electrical interface

Activation/ deactivation of con.

Framing: considers frame format/ length issues (incl. error detection/correction implementation Flow control: SAW, Sliding Window Error control: correction, detection, recovery (ARQ: SAW, GBN, SR)

Data link layer

The data link layer provides functional and procedural means to establish, maintain and release data link connections among network entities and to transfer data link service data units. A data link connection is built upon one or several physical-connections. The data link layer detects and possibly corrects errors which may occur in the physical layer. In addition, the data link layer enables the network layer to control the interconnection of data circuits within the physical layer.
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DLL Services
Types of DLL services:
Unacknowledged connectionless service
frames are sent independently (connectionless) no recovering of the lost/damaged frames (unack.) for reliable links or upper levels recovery architecture

Acknowledged connectionless service

possible implementation of damaged/lost frames

Connection-oriented services
correct and in-order frame delivery

DLL Services
Services provided to the network layer by the data link layer are:
data-link-connection; data-link-connection-endpoint-identifiers; sequencing; error notification; flow control; quality of service parameters.
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Data Link Layer Functions

Functions within the data link layer
data-link-connection establishment and release; delimiting and synchronization; sequence control; error detection; error recovery; flow control; identification and parameter exchange; control of data-circuit interconnection; data link layer management.
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Terminology

Flow Control

Simplex: Signal flows always in one direction (e.g., computer - to - printer) Half Duplex: Alternating one-way. Signal flows in both directions not simultaneously but alternatively. Full Duplex: Signal flow is in both directions simultaneously

Logical Connectivity:
Peer-to-Peer: Either station can initiate a call Primary-Secondary: Only the Primary may initiate a call. There is no Secondary-to-Secondary calls initiated separately.

Connection Phases: Apply to both logical connectivity types: Peer - to - Peer, Primary - Secondary
Connection Establishment: Determines which station transmits, which receives, and whether the receiver is ready to receive. Data Transfer: Data are transferred in one or more acknowledgment blocks Connection Termination: Terminates the logical connection, physical connection upon which that logical connection was based may remain connected

Frame transmission models:

Error free transmission Transmission with errors or losses

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Flow Control
Flow Control (Physical Connectivity Possibilities)
Point-to-Point (P-P) Logical Connectivity: Can use either Peer-to-Peer or Primary-Secondary depending on whether a Primary station has been designated or not Addressing: No addressing is required. Multipoint Logical Connectivity

Peer-to-Peer: Uses contest access methods Primary-Secondary: Uses Poll (The primary request data from the secondary) and Select (The primary has data to send to the secondary)
Addressing:

Peer-to-Peer: Two addresses required (transmitter and receiver) Primary-Secondary: One address needed, to identify 8 the secondary

Flow Control Protocols

Network Layer
Virtual packet transfer Time-Driven Control (for synchronous transmission, dedicated service, simplex errorTrmCount RcvTimer

DLL

PackBuff

free channel Event-Driven Control (some SAW: for asynchronous transmission, multiple service, half-duplex error-free channel Event-Driven Control with Timeouts (SAW, PAR/ARQ, sliding window: for asynchronous transmission, multiple service, full-duplex channel with losses/errors
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FromNL
TrmTimer

ToNL
RcvCount

ToPhL

FromPhL
FrameBuff

Virtual frame transfer

Physical Layer
Physical bit transfer (signaling)

Examples of Flow Control Protocols

SAW (Stop And Wait protocols) PAR/ARQ (Positive Acknowledge with Retransmission [of the non-acknowledged frames]/Automatic Repeat reQuest) sliding window protocols

Applicable mechanisms:
piggybacking employs the outgoing traffic for carrying frame receive acknowledgements; timeout control over the delayed acknowledgments in case of no outgoing data frames. pipelining: sequential frame transmission upon the new Network Layers requests prior to acknowledgement for the frames already sent. Outstanding frames form so called sender window.

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Stop-And-Wait Protocols
SAW Protocol (Idle ARQ)
Algorithm
Send frame Wait for an ACK before sending the next frame ( good for half duplex links) 0>U>1 U depends on the channel length D:

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Channel Utilization, U:

U = Tfr/Tt
Bit Error Rate BER: BER = nerr/nt

(1)

where Tfr is the frame transmission time and Tt is the total transmission time including Tfr, Tp (propagation delay), TACK (acknowledgement generation, propagation and transmission) , Tproc (frame processing time). Approximation for error-free channel (BER-->0):

channel bit rate [b/S] Tt = Tfr + 2 Tp (2) Tp = (D/2)10-8 [S] (by signal speed = 2.108m/S in copper) a = Tp / Tfr = (sfr/Drb)c [non-dimensional] (3) relative channel length [with respect to the frame duration]

(1), (2) and (3) yield U=1/(1+2a) i.e. Ua

(4)
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EM-waves speed

Sliding Window Protocols

Duplex (bi-directional) data connection based on pipelining Event-driven synchronization with system of timeouts. Timers are required for each frame being tracked. ACKs are usually piggybacked onto the forward traffic from receiver Cyclic sequenced numbering of the outgoing frames; cycle length L = 2n - 1 1 Sender window SW keeps the numbers of frames that are to be transmitted Receiver window RW keeps the numbers of frames that are to be received and acknowledged cont ...
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 cont.

Sliding Window Protocols

Buffers are required for each frame being transmitted (received)

Frames are buffered in seq_number order at the sender for possible retransmission Frames are buffered in seq_number order at the receiver for delivery to the Network Layer when Selective Repeat error handling is applied
Sliding window protocols guarantee the number and the order of the transmitted frames thus simulating connection-oriented transmission SW and RW can differ in the limits and window-size Important performance and robust parameters are the maximal sender/receiver window size wS/R and the timeouts in context to the actual throughput and the frame round-trip transit 13 time.

Sliding Window Protocols

First frame waiting transmission

Sender Window

Last frame waiting transmission

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 Transmitted frames zone Trailing edge shrinks as frames are sent Leading edge expands as ACKs are received

First frame that might be accepted

Receiver Window

Last frame that might be accepted

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 Acknowledged frames zone Trailing edge shrinks as frames are received Leading edge expands as ACKs are sent
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Sliding Window Protocols

Step 1.
A ready to transmit 7 frames beginning with frame 0; B ready to receive 7 frames beginning with frame 0

1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Sliding windows

A Sender

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

B Rec-er

Step 2.
1 0

A have sent 3 frames, sender window shrinks to 4 frames

A 7 Sender

6 5 4 3

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

B Rec-er
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Sliding Window Protocols

Step 3.
1 0 7 A Sender 6 5 4 3 6 5 4 3

B received 3 frames; receiver window shrinks to 4 frames too

B Rec-er
2 1 0

Step 4.
1 0
B transmits acknowledge for frames 0-2 which causes receiver window to expand back

Ack3
6 5 4 3 6 5 4 3

A 8 Sender

B Rec-er
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Sliding Window Protocols

Step 5.
1 0
Sender window expands with 3 positions when the acknowledgement for the 3 frames is received

Ack3

A 7 Sender 6
5 4 3

1 0 7 6 5 4 3

B Rec-er

Step 6.
A has transmitted frame 3 and then frames 4, 5 and 6; B processed frame 3, 4, 5 and 6 and transmits Ack4

A Sender
4 3 2 1 0 7 6

1 0 8 7 6 5

Ack4 B Rec-er
4 3

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Sliding Window Protocols

Step 7.
4 3
Receiver window expands with 1 position upon the departure of the acknowledgement for the 4 frames.

A 2 Sender
1 0 7

Ack4

2 1 0 7 6

B Rec-er
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Step 8.
4
A window expands with a position upon the receiving of the Ack4; B processes frames 5 and 6

Ack4
2 1 0 7 2 1 0 7

A 3 Sender

B Rec-er

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Sender window size wS n (but still wS L-1) Receiver window size wR= 1

Sliding Window Protocols Go-back-n

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Sender may send multiple frames up to wS Receiver buffers only one received frame. It cannot receive frames out of order. Frames are passed in order to the NL. Damaged Frame:

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B detects error in frame (i): B sends REJ(i). When A receives REJ(i) it must resend (i) and all subsequent frames. B does not detect frame (i) (frame is lost) and A already sent (i+1): B receives (i+1) out of order and sends REJ(i) Frame (i) is lost and A does not send anything after frame (i): A timeouts and resend (i). 19 cont ...

Sliding Window Protocols cont Go back n Damaged ACK

ACKs (Receiver Ready, RRs) are cyclic-cumulative. If an ACK (i) get lost and:
a subsequently higher ACK (i+n) is received: this ACK will account for intervening ACKs peer A timeouts without ACK: A requests retransmission of the cumulated ACK

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Damaged NACK (REJ): peer A timeouts. Performance

More complex than SAW: wS buffers/timers at the transmitter, 1 buffer/timer at receiver More efficient that SAW - allows for pipelining, but inefficient for noisy channels

Channel utilization (only by error free assumption!):

U=

1, wS (2a+1) wS/(2a+1), wS (2a+1)

wS is greater than the number of frames that can fit into the
channel; peer A can transmit frames without pausing 20

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Sliding Window Protocols Selective Repeat/Reject

wS = wR - the receiver buffers all the received frame. It can receive frames out of order and only NACKed frames are retransmitted. Frames are passed in order to the NL. Channel utilization (only by BER-->0!) is the same as for GBN ARQ. Performance
More complex than GBN: wS buffers/timers both at the transmitter and receiver More efficient than GBN for noisy channels
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Sliding Window Protocols Performance Effect of the Window Size

Mb/S 100 Mb/S Ethernet LAN
24 20 16 12 8 4 Effect of saturation when wS becomes greater than the number of frames that can fit into the channel Possible effect (for LANs and other multiple access systems) of degradation if receivers buffer is overloaded

10 Mb/S Ethernet LAN

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16

20

24

wS

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DLL Protocols Performance Comparison

Single bit error probability (or bit error rate) BER= nERR/nt Frame error probability Pfr=1-(1-BER)Sfr [for BER-1>>Sfr] SfrBER (where Sfr is the frame size) Channel utilization as a function of the relative channel length a and frame error probability Pfr : SAW: U = (1 - Pfr) / (1 + 2a) (1 - Pfr,) / (1+2a Pfr) ; wS 2a+1 GBN: U = w (1 Pfr) / ((2a+1)(1- Pfr +wS Pfr)); wS 2a+1 S

{ 1-P ; SR: U = {w (1 - P ) / (2a+1);

fr S fr

wS 2a+1 wS 2a+1
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Example DLL Protocols - HDLC

HDLC - High-level Data Link Control Widely applied standard
LLC in IEEE802.2 (Upper part of DLL in LANs/MANs) LAPB (Link Access Protocol - Balanced) in X.25 LAPD (Link Access Protocol of the D-channel) in ISDN

Bit-oriented protocol - with bit stuffing Applies sliding window algorithms (GBN or SR) HDLC-defined station types:
primary (link establishment and control - issues commands) secondary (controlled by primary - issues responses) combined

Link configuration: balanced (P-P only)/unbalanced (P-P and multi-P operations; obsolete - terminal complexes)

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HDLC - frame format

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Address field (8 b extendible to 16): contains destination by multi-P configuration; in P-P mode this field distinguish commands and responses Information - variable data length FCS - CCITT-CRC Control field - distinguish 3 types of frames:
Information frames:
N(S) field (3b) sequence number of the frame being sent i.e. the sliding window may contain up to 7 outstanding frames N(R) field (3b) sequence number of the next frame expected Poll/Final bit: primary invites secondary to send data with a P/F set to P; the secondary data frames also have P/F=P but the last of them has P/F=F ; (somewhere used to suspend piggybacking ACK delays)

Supervisory frames - protocol (sliding window) control frames :

S field (2b) for supervisory function: ACK (RR), NACK (REJ), RNR (receiver not ready) and SR (Selective Retransmission) cont
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HDLC - frame format

Control field types cont.: unnumbered (3rd type) frames for control and specific data transfer:
M (5b, split by the P/F bit) field - up to 32 command/info codes including:
connection mode setting (peer A: SABM Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode, Disconnect, B: UA Unnumbered ACK for acknowledgement of control frames etc.) information commands and responses (ID exchange, test, provide day time, setup link ) recovery commands and responses for untypical problems (e.g. long data field, invalid control field )

Example HDLC operations

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Internet DLL
Internet P-P architectures:
leased lines to the Internet communication subnets 3/26 dial-up lines to time-sharing shell account or router

Internet DLL protocols - SLIP and PPP

SLIP (Serial Line IP)
character stuffing no error handling IP support only (not Novel IPX...) static IP addressing not approved as Internet standard

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Internet DLL
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) - RFC 1661; provides 3 mechanisms
Framing Method providing also error control. A Link Control Protocol (LCP) which brings line up, tests it, negotiates options, and brings lines down in the end. Negotiation of the NL options (independence of the network protocol being used). The method used is to have a different NCP (Network Control Protocol) for each network layer used.

Phases of data link setup/termination in Internet

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Dead - no physical layer present Establish a Physical Connection: (The users PC first calls the providers router via a modem Authenticate - Establish a Link Connection: (PPP next sends a series of LCP packets to configure the data link layer.)
LCP provides a mechanism (proposal - acceptance/rejection between 28 the two sides) to negotiate link options

Internet DLL
Authenticate - Establish a Link Connection: (PPP next sends a series of LCP packets to configure the data link layer.)
LCP provides a mechanism (proposal - acceptance/rejection between the two sides) to negotiate link options Options may include
setting the maximum payload size for data frames enabling authentication to be conducted choosing a protocol to use LCP also allows for testing of the line (Echo - types)

Network - Establishes the Network Connection: (PPP next sends a series of NCP packets to configure the network layer.)
Typically this is the TCP/IP protocol stack (so an IP address is needed) Each Internet provider manages a block of addresses, (one of which is dynamically assigned at login time).

Open - The PC is now an internet host (and is permitted to send and receive IP packets.) Terminate - Procedure is reversed at the end of the session Disestablish Network Connection - release IP address Disestablish the Data Link Connection - release the logical connection Disestablish Physical Connection - release the TP line
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PPP Frame 3/27

Internet DLL

Similar to HDLC (except it is based on eight-bit word size - character stuffing is used) Preamble - HDLC flag byte (0111 1110) (Character stuffed if it occurs within the frame) Address Field - All 1s Control Field - used to indicate that PPP is using unnumbered frames. (I.e., no seq-nums, ACKs -therefore is an unreliable CLS) Protocol - used to indicate which Data Link or Network Layer Protocol is being used. Payload (variable length) Checksum (2 or 4 bytes)
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Sender

Receiver

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