BIOLOGY (40)

due to natural selection

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Capacity to adjust to the environment over the long term by adaptation

Bioenergetics How animals obtain, process, and use chemical energy Function correlates with structures in the tissues of animals Tissues Group of cells with common structure and function ECM Holds tissues together Epithelial Tissues Covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body Cells are closely joined Riveted together by tight junctions For barrier Has free surface and one end attached to the basement membrane o Helps organize sequential events in cellular metabolism o Filtering of wastes (blood in kidney) o Provides routes of migration for cells during development TYPES through a. Number of cell layers 01. Single single layer 02. Stratified multiple layers 03. Pseudostratified single layer but appears to be stratified due to variation in the length of cells b. Shape exposed on the free surface 01. Cuboidal dice 02. Columnar bricks on end 03. Squamous floor tiles Additional functions o Absorb or secrete chemical solutions o Lines lumen (digestive and respiratory tract) = MUCOUS MEMBRANE Lubricates the surface with mucus, keeps moisture o May have cilia in respiratory tract

Connective Tissue Bind and support other tissues Have sparse population of cells scattered through the ECM (ExtraCellular Matrix) o Consist of web of fibers, embedded in uniform foundation that may be liquid, solid, or semi-solid Fibers are made of proteins a. Collagenous fiber Made of collagen Most abundant protein Non-elastic Does not tear easily b. Elastic Long thread made up of ELASTIN Provides rubbery quality that complements non elastic collagen fibers c. Reticular Very thin and branched With collagen and fibers Form tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissues to adjacent tissues Major types in vertebrates a. Loose Connective Tissue Most widespread in vertebrates Binds epithelia to underlying tissues For: packing material, holding organs in place Loose weave of fibers Types: collagenous, elastic, and reticular Fibroblast secrete protein ingredients of

extracellular fibers Macrophages amoeboid cells that roam the maze of fibers, engulfing bacteria and debris by phagocytosis b. Adipose Tissue Stores fat in adipose cells Pads and insulates the body and stores fuel molecules Adipose cell

With a large fat droplet that swells when fat is

stored and shrinks when fat is used c. Fibrous Connective Tissue Dense due to large number of collagenous fibers in parallel bundles In tendons Attaches muscles to bones In ligaments Joins bones to joints d. Cartilage With lots of collagenous fibers in a rubbery matrix Made of chondroitin sulfate and collagen Secreted by chondrocytes (in spaces in lacunae) Chondroitin sulfate and collagen makes the cartilage strong yet flexible support material

e. Bone Skeleton Mineralized connective tissue Osteoblast Bone forming cells Deposits matrix of collagen but releases calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions Chemically combine and harden within the lacuna into the hydroxyapatite Haversian Canal System Hard mammalian bone repeating units With layers of concentric mineralized matrix Osteoblasts If trapped in their own secretions become the osteocytes o Seen in lacuna f. Blood Without extensive ECM Plasma = water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins Erythrocytes Red Blood Cells carry oxygen Leukocytes White Blood Cells defense

Cell Fragments Platelets clotting

Nervous Tissue Senses stimuli and transmits signals from 1 part of the animal to another Neuron (functional unit) nerve cell o Transmits nerve impulses o Parts: Cell body 2 or more extensions or processes 01. dendrite 02. transmit impulses from tips towards the rest of the neuron axons transmit impulses toward another neuron

Muscle Tissue Composed of long cells called muscle fibers With large number of microfilaments made of actin and myosin Most abundant tissue in most animals Types: 01. Skeletal Voluntary movements Striated Cardiac Contractile wall of the heart Striated BUT are branched and the ends are joined by intercalated discs Relay signals from cell to cell during heartbeat Smooth Without striations In walls of digestive tract, bladder, arteries, some internal organs Spindle shaped Slower contraction Can remain contracted longer Involuntary body activities

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BIOLOGY (41)
Story of the snow hare

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Nutritional adequate diet for Fuel (chemical energy) --- cellular energy Organic molecules (raw materials) --- for biosynthesis Essential nutrients (animals cant make their own essential nutrients from food) Bioenergetics nutrition Monomers of Substances ---fuel---> ATP (through cellular respiration) Fats Source of protein Carbohydrates and proteins Basal energy requirements for functions (metabolisms) Glycogen (stored structure) --- liver and muscles Glucose Fuel Molecules Cells and Metabolisms Calories Used = liver (glycogen) muscle (glycogen) FAT Undernourished Diet is deficient in calories If body is starved for calories, body begins to break down own proteins muscles decrease in size brain is protein deficient Damage is irreversible Can be caused by anorexia nervosa = compulsive aversion to body Overnourishment Obesity Body hoards fat o Not used as energy source If carbohydrate is taken more than normal, the body adjusts the carbohydrate consumption Less direct weight gain than great amount of fat intake Fat before important to hunters/gatherers Fat storage and use in mammals Adipose cells leptin

Increase in adipose tissues in the body = increase in leptin in blood decrease appetite and increase energy consuming muscular activity and body heat production Decrease in body fat = decrease in leptin increases appetite *there are some genes that are involved in homeostasis of fat and chemical signals that underlie the brains regulatory role *animals diet must supply essential nutrients and carbon skeletons for biosynthesis Animals cannot make raw materials (inorganic) from complex molecules needed by the body Raw materials are grown an replenished food consumption organic precursors (carbon skeletons) Organic Nitrogen from amino acids from protein digestion formation of organic molecules Essential nutrients cannot be made by animals Giraffe and bones (contain calcium phosphate) of dead mammals Osteophagia Soils and plants are deficient in phosphorus from ATP, Nucleic Acids, Phospholipids, Bones Malnourishment Missing one or more essential nutrients Cow + plant in nutrient poor soil = mineral deficiency Overnourished can be malnourished

4 Classes of Essential Nutrients Amino Acids o Sources: meat (provides all essential amino acids in proper proportions), eggs, cheese, other animal products o plant proteins incomplete

o Fatty o o o

corn deficient in lysine beans with lysine but deficient in methionine cannot be stored in the body if deficient = retards protein synthesis limits the use of amino acids balanced diet Acids Animals can synthesize most fatty acids needed by the body With double bonds = unsaturated fatty acids Linoleic acid for phospholipid production

Minerals o Inorganic nutrients o Required in very small amounts o <1 mg to 2500 mg per day o humans and vertebrates need large quantity of calcium (for normal function of nerves and muscles) and phosphorus (for ATP and nucleic acid) for bone construction and maintenance o Iron component of cytochromes (for cellular respiration) and hemoglobin o Magnesium (present in enzymes that split ATP), Iron, Copper, Manganese, Selenium, Molybdenum o Iodine thyroid hormones regulate metabolic rate o Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine nerve function and osmotic balance o Great amount of sodium = high blood o Excess iron = liver damage Vitamins o Organic molecules required in diet in small amounts o 13 essential vitamins Water soluble B complex (coenzymes for metabolic processes) Vitamin C connective tissue synthesis Fat soluble Vitamin A incorporated in visual pigments in the eye

Vitamin D calcium absorption and bone formation Vitamin E not fully understood, with vitamin C protects the phospholipids in membranes from oxidation Vitamin K blood clotting o EXCESS overdose, toxic, deposited in body fat Animals require 20 amino acids to make proteins o Half can be made by the body if there is nitrogen in the diet Half must be obtained in food essential o 8 are essential to adults (9th histidine in infants) if animal doesnt get nutrients = protein deficiency

Food Types and Feeding Mechanisms Opportunistic feeders o Most animals o Outside the main dietary category Feeding adaptations (evolution) 01. Suspension feeders 02. Substrate feeders Live in or on their food source Deposit feeders earthworms, eat their way through dirt Fluid feeders Sucking nutrient rich fluids Aphids phloem sap of plants Bulk feeders Large pieces of food

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Adaptations body parts (claws, tentacles, pincers, etc.) Digestion occurs in specialized compartments o Intracellular digestion Food vacuoles + lysosomes = simplest digestion Pinocytosis and phagocytosis o Extracellular digestion (hydrolysis digestion) Outside cell

Occurs in compartments that are continuous that are continuous via passages with the outside of the body o Simple animals with gastrovascular cavity For digestion and distribution of nutrients Tissue digestive enzymes breaks soft tissues of the prey into pieces gastrodermal cells engulf the food actual hydrolysis (intracellular) Hydra and flatworms o With cavity larger prey o Complete digestive system Nematodes to Chordates Alimentary canal One direction (with specialized regions for digestion and nutrient absorption, in a stepwise fashion)

Mammalian Digestive System Peristalsis o By the smooth muscles in the wall of canals o Pushes the food Sphincter o Ring like valves o Closes the tube o Regulating the passage of minerals Accessory glands o 3 pairs of salivary glands o pancreas o liver o gallbladder Oral Cavity o Start of physical and chemical digestion o Food in oral cavity chewingtriggers the nervous reflux of salivary glands o Saliva Mucin (protection for soft lining of the mouth from lubrication)

Pathway 01.

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Pharynx o Throat

Contains buffer prevents tooth decay Antibacterial agents With salivary amylase For carbohydrates Hydrolyzes starch and glycogen Products of this action polysaccharides and maltose Bolus ball shaped food

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o Intersection that leads the bolus to both esophagus and windpipe (trachea) o Swallowing: top of windpipe moves up to close the glottis by the epiglottis Esophagus o Conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach o Peristalsis (involuntary takes over after swallowing) bolus esophagus o Muscle on top of esophagus is striated (voluntary) Stomach o Left side of the abdominal cavity preliminary digestion o Below the diaphragm o Can store food o Can accommodate 2 L of food and water o Epithelium secretes gastric juice High in hydrochloric acid 2 pH disrupts extracellular matrix that binds animal cells o Epithelium also secretes mucus Though degraded, will be regenerated through mitosis o Pepsin Hydrolyzes proteins Breaks peptide bonds Low pH Produced by the chief cells as pepsinogen

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Parietal cells hydrochloric acid converts pepsinogen to pepsin Positive feedback o Gastric ulcer (lesions) by Helicobacter pylori o Acid chyme nutrient broth (from digestion in the stomach) o Pyloric sphincter regulates the passage of chyme into the intestine Small Intestine o 6 m in humans largest section in the alimentary canal o helped by the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder o name: diameter compared to the large intestine o site: most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules occur o 1st part: duodenum acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas (secrete hydrolytic enzymes and alkaline solutionrich in bicarbonate to offsetting the acidity of the chyme), liver (production of bile with bile salts act as detergent and aids in digestion and absorption of fats), gallbladder, gland cells (stores bile) of small intestine o Enzymatic Action (Figure 41.13, Page 803) Carbohydrate Digestion Salivary amylase continues in the small intestine Pancreatic amylases (into maltose)hydrolyze starch, glycogen, and smaller polysaccharides Sucrose Lactose Forms energy rich monomers Protein Digestion From stomach (pepsin) bolus Enzymes in duodenum polypeptides smaller peptides Trypsin and chymotrypsin (from pancreas in active form) hydrolyzes peptide bonds adjacent to amino acids

Carboxypeptidase (from epithelium) splits off one amino acid at a time from the start of the polypeptide (from carboxyl group) Aminopeptidase from the amino group Dipeptidase breaks small peptides Enthropeptidase triggers activation of enzymes with the lumen of small intestine Nucleic Acid Digestion Nucleases DNA and RNA in food into their

component nucleotides Fat Digestion Mouth Small Intestine undigested Keeps the fat from coalescing emulsification Lipase hydrolyzes fat o Jejunum and Ileum function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water o Absorption of Nutrients food lumen absorption stomach and intestine (most absorption) areas for absorption lining of small intestine surface area ~ 300 square meters (tennis court) with villi (with lacteal) each cell of a villus with microvilli active transport across the gradient: amino acids, small peptides, vitamins, glucose, and other sugars

absorption blood glycerol and fatty acids (intestines) epithelial cells stored fats mixed with cholesterol and coated with special proteins (chylomicrons) lacteal blood vessels (drains chylomicrons) villi nutrients vein hepatic portal vessel liver o Hormones help regulate digestion

Inhibited by the drop in pH (negative feedback) Gastrin (stomach) secretion of gastric juice ensures that the enzymes are only present when needed Enterogastrones inhibit peristalsis in stomach Secretin (duodenum) o Stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate (buffer) o Stimulated by acidic pH of the chyme

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Cholecystokinin (CCK) (duodenum) o Stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic enzymes to the small intestine o Stimulate gallbladder to contract, to release bile into small intestine. o If increase in amino acids or fatty acids Large Intestines / Colon o Connected at a T-shaped junction One part is the cecum (small appendix) Sphincter large intestine To reabsorb water 7 L of water secreted in the lumen Small and Large Intestine reabsorb about 90% of water Feces Becomes more solid as they move along the colon May also contain salt, sometimes with iron and calcium Diarrhea VS Constipation E. coli in large intestines Colon bacteria generates gases, including methane and hydrogen sulfide, and some produce vitamins (biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, several B vitamins) reabsorbed in blood Rectum

Terminal portion of the colon Feces are stored Between anus and rectum with 2 sphincters (one voluntary, other involuntary)