CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Electrical Power Distribution System
In order to remain competitive, it is becoming more and more
important for a power distribution planner to be able to meet efficiently
the demands of Electrical Load Distribution System (ELDS) [1-3] having
Radial and Weakly-meshed Delivery Networks (RWDNs). It is necessary
to develop efficient techniques for the analysis of load-flow of these
networks.

Since the use of digital-computers, many algorithms were developed
for solving the Distribution Power Flow. These algorithms are found to be
robust to obtain the solution for transmission system, but are unsuitable
for Radial and Weakly-meshed Delivery Networks (RWDNs). This difficulty
is attributed to following reasons: RWDNs with the wide range of R/X
ratio; Multi-phase and Unbalanced System with data inclusion like
linedata, busdata, t-section tap-changing transformer. Then the
included data may not be certain i.e. uncertain data has to be considered
for the analysis. To tackle these challenges efficient algorithms are
proposed to analyse RWDNs. Further, the analysis is extended to find
Reliability Range Indices (RRIs) for RDN with Data Uncertainties (DU).
2
The Distribution or Delivery Load-Flow analysis should contain:
Ordered input data ordered output data
Radial to Weakly-meshed circuits on loading
Voltage magnitude and Phase angle
Change in nodal voltages due to Data Uncertainties
Reliability Range Indices (RRIs)
Flow of Power injection and losses and load demands
Voltage variation for different possible components like: t-section
or co-generator ; tap-changing transformer

To solve the problems of distribution system the basic load-flow
analysis must be robust and time efficient. This doctoral work proposes
distribution power flow algorithms to find efficient solution for Radial and
Weakly-meshed Load Delivery Network.

The methods discussed in [4-7] fall into the category of
ill-conditioned Load Delivery System (LDS) for the high R/X ratio data
reported in[8]. The generic Newton-Raphson (NR) and Fast Decoupled
Load Flow algorithms diverge for majority of the LDS studied. The basic
types of networks in LDS for load-flow studies are:
3
1.1.1 Radial Delivery Network
In this type of Radial Delivery Network (RDN) each node is connected
to the substation via at least one path shown in Fig. 1.1. To index the
node-element relation data from main feeder to laterals and sub-laterals
a special technique is needed.


Fig.1.1 Single phase Node-27 RDN with open tie-switches.

1.1.2 Weakly-meshed Delivery Network
In Distribution System some loops are formed by closing normally
open-tie-switches. The RDN can be extracted from a Weakly-meshed
Delivery Network (WDN), even if few loops exist. WDNs with loops, are
4
converted into RDN presented by Horia Andrei [9]. Sometimes
distribution feeder serving high-density load areas contain few loops
created by closing normally open tie switches A, B and C as shown in
Fig. 1.2.

Fig.1.2 Single phase WDN with closed tie-lines at A, B and C.

In WDN, there is a set of simultaneous equations that should be
solved, but its order is relatively small. It is equal to the number of loops
in the network (or close points) which is much smaller than number of
nodes. In case of WDN, to read and index the input data from the main
feeder to the laterals and sub-laterals is still complex as compared to the
RDN. Since 1988 very few techniques have been developed to obtain
WDN Power Flow solution.


5
In a Radial-Weakly meshed Delivery Networks (RWDNs) as the
number of nodes and elements increases the complexity of network also
increases. The present thesis analyzes power flow methods for balanced
and unbalanced networks using standard input data as mentioned in the
references [8, 17, 27, 33]. Efficient algorithms are proposed to solve
power flow problems for RWDNs.

In this Chapter, section 1.2 gives review of the literature for the
RWDNs load flow studies and then the plan of organization of thesis is
laid out in section 1.3.

1.2 Literature survey
This section gives a brief review of the literature in the area of data
assigning, algorithm design and load flow analysis.

In LDS load-flow algorithms are differed based on types of network
structures like:
- Radial Delivery Network (RDN)
- Weakly-meshed Delivery Network (WDN)

1.2.1 Previous power-flow algorithms for RDN
In recent past load flow algorithms for RDN are evaluated in A.G.
Bhutad et al [10]. The first category consists of different version of
Newton-Raphson (NR) based methods [11-14], the second category based
6
on Gauss-Seidel (GS) algorithms are [15-19]. Usually the second category
algorithms are found to be more efficient, when compared to the first
one. The proposed RDN power flow algorithms are compared with the
algorithms of second category.
The below mentioned conclusions of A.G. Bhutad et al [10] are
motivated to improve the solution for RDN and further extended to solve
for WDN.
- It expresses difficulty with the algorithms like : Network-Topology (NT)
[17]; Implicit Z-bus [15] and modified GS [16], since the whole
matrices needs to be updated
___
Forward-Backward (FB) [25, 27] and
Ladder Network (LN) theory [18, 19, 24] are more flexible, even if input
data and system data gets modified.
- In NT, FB substitution and LN theory algorithms, Net Execution
Time (NET) is of descending order i.e., 3.1250 secs, 2.9220 secs and
2.7340 secs, respectively, on P-IV computer with 1.6 GHz frequency
and 128 MB RAM.

Discussions on RDN power-flow algorithms:
The implicit Z-bus T.H.Chen et al [15] based on principle of
superposition, only one type of source is considered at a time for the
calculation of bus voltages. Initially, all the bus voltages are assumed to
be equal to the swing bus voltage. In the next step, since the current
injections and bus voltages are dependent on each other, these
7
quantities are required to be determined iteratively. The swing bus is
short-circuited while calculating the component of bus voltages due to
the current injections. This algorithm is based on the complete
factorization of bus admittance matrix [Ybus] which leads to take more
NET to find the direct power flow solution.

The disadvantage of [15] was overcome by J.H. Teng [16] with merge
of Implicit Z-bus algorithm and the Gauss-Seidal (GS) algorithms to
obtain improve the computational efficiency. In [15, 16] complete or
fractional factorization of [Ybus] is necessary to solve power-flow problem.
But J.H Teng of [17] does not require such factorization for both the
balanced and unbalanced networks, whereas disadvantage of [17] is
extraction of partial topographical information about the network. Using
partial information this method develops matrices [Bus Injection to
Branch Current] and [Branch Current to Bus Voltage] i.e. [BCBV] and
[BIBC] and which leads to less flexibility to modify the system data and
also it takes more computation time to solve these special matrices.

LN theory [18, 19], traces the network to and fro from its load to the
source ends to find power flow solution. The performance of conventional
power routines and shunts/pi-sections are studied in [20-22]. S.Ghosh
and D.Das [23] formulated FB based power flow equations to find voltage
during Forward Sweep, and element current using little complex
technique i.e. nodes beyond the element at backward sweep.
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The steps of LN based methods [18-19, 24]:
(i) Backward-Sweep (BS): The current in each element is obtained by
tracing in the backward direction using KCL
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
main i
a La ap
main i
b Lb bp
p M
main i
c Lc cp
I i I
I i I
I i I
(
( (
(
( (
= +
(
( (
(
( (

e

where Ia(m), Ib(m) and Ic(m) are the element currents of line section m, and
iLa, iLb and iLc are the equivalent node-currents
(ii) Forward-Sweep (FS): Using the element-currents calculated in the
BS, the values of voltages are calculated by using KVL during FS.

LN theory is very much similar to the FB. Though the basic idea of
both the algorithms is same, there are differences in the steps of
implementation. In the LN theory, the optimal
__
ordering of nodes is
done as shown in Fig.1.3. In the BS, the node voltages are assumed to be
equal to some initial value in the firstiteration.

Fig 1.3 A simple nonlinear ladder network

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Due to the voltage dependency of loads in Distribution System (DS),
various static load models are incorporated in the power flow [29] to
obtain better and more accurate results, wherein convergence of the
algorithm is slow.
It is practical requirement to have effective power flow solution with
the inclusion of system components (pi-section, ground-wire, tap-
changing-transformer, co-generator etc..) FB based 3|-power flow in
four-wire is reported by M.Rade Ciric et al [25] and A unified 3|
transformer model is studied in [26].
Comprehensive models are considered including lines, switches,
transformer, shunts capacitors, co-generator and several types of loads
in Fast Decoupled Load Flow method by R.D.Zimmerman et al [27], but
does not read as per the test data of IEEE feeders [28]. In A. Golkar [29]
each network element loss is expressed in small size matrix form, which
plays a key role to obtain the solution only for RDN. In K.Prakash and
M.Sydulu [30] using this concept of primitive impedances of the lines,
only diagonal elements of the Distribution Load Flow (DLF) matrix are
considered to find more direct solution than the method illustrated in
[17], the necessary information is stored in single dimension vectors to
obtain the solution only for RDN. Whereas in [25, 29, 30] methods do not
deal with addition of system-components in the Delivery System.
Further, In LDS due to presence of uncertainties in input data (line,
bus, pi-section etc.), it is not economically advisable to employ
10
measuring devices everywhere along the laterals of RDN and WDN. The
reliable theoretical error analysis is expected to provide an accurate
range-solution for data uncertainty problem in load flow. For that,
Possibilistic and probabilistic solutions are found using Fuzzy-
Techniques [31, 32] and Self-Validating (SV) tools (Interval Arithmetic
and Affine Arithmetic) [35, 37], respectively. These solutions are not
comparable because the underlying assumptions on the data are very
different i.e. one is qualitative; the other is quantitative, though random.
The load flow algorithms like Fuzzy-Model [31] and load estimation using
the Fuzzy set [32] are applied in Fuzzy plus Interval Arithmetic based
algorithm submitted by D.Das [33], but are applicable only for balanced
RDN. An iterative 3-| RDN power flow method was solved by B. Das
[34] for uncertain input data using Interval Arithmetic(IA) given in [35].
Similarly, IA tool has been applied to RDN by A.Vaccaro and D.Villacci
[36] and the solutions are found superior over Monte Carlo simulation
and Stochastic load flow algorithm. IA allows for numerical computation
where in each quantity is represented by interval number without a
probability order. This leads to find strict closed bound solution.
Unfortunately, IA often yields an interval-solution that is much wider
than the exact range of the computed function. It means, IA utilizes the
data variation within relatively for small interval, to obtain feasible
solution. The IA algorithm saves the computation time, but with less
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accuracy when compared to application of Affine Arithmetic (AA) [37]
tool.

Unlike IA, the quantity representation used by AA are first order
approximation, whose error is generally quadratic in the width of the
input intervals. Hence, when compared to IA higher asymptotic accuracy
of AA-Tool compensates for the increased cost of its operation. In this
thesis, IA and AA-tools have been used to formulate power flow
equations and find solution for both the RDN and WDN with input
parameter uncertainties. The work also develops IA and AA tools based
power flow equations obtain the solution for networks with data
uncertainty in lines with pi-sections and tap-changing transformer.

Some applications in Reliability Indices (RI) using fuzzy arithmetic
and fuzzy logic have been suggested in [38-39] for RDN. These Fuzzy-Set
concepts are applied to find RDN performance evaluation accounting for
data uncertainties [40]. The reliability indices evaluation using IA is
reported by Claudio. M et al [41] for data uncertainty, which deals only
for RDN. Object-oriented based RDN and WDN load flow studies
presented by A.Losi and M.Russo [42], which leads to discussion in next
section.


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1.2.2 Previous power-flow algorithms for WDN
The RDN algorithm can not be directly applied to find WDN power
flow solution. In particular, the Newton-Raphson and Decoupled
algorithm in some circumstances, fail to converge for larger or ill-
conditioned systems. For WDN multi-post compensation technique is
proposed by W. F. Tinney [43] using triangular factorization. Then
compensation-technique based algorithms are reported in
D.Shirmohammadi et al [44] and A. Semlyen and G.H.Luo [45]. It was
found to be significantly more efficient than the NR power flow algorithm
while converging to the same solution. The essential advantages of [44]
over [45] are:
i) It uses real and reactive powers as flow variables rather than
complex-currents to simplify the treatment of P-V buses and
reduce the computational effort to half.
ii) It uses a Radiallabelling technique which also contributes to the
computational efficiency of the procedure.
iii) It compensates the open-loop by power-injection.
The compensation based techniques can be classified as Loop
Breaking Technique (LBT), where the accuracy is controlled by the
tolerance of voltage-mismatch between the nodes of a break point. This
mismatch value must be small enough, or else error in the convergence
of solution increases. In these LBTs, it is also observed that there is no
direct mathematical relationship between the System-Status and
13
Control-Variable, which makes these LBTs difficult. In [44-45] the Loop
Break Point (LBP) Impedance matrix is developed without considering t-
section and tap-changing transformer model.

Further, the compensation-based algorithm was extended to 3-|
unbalanced system by C.S.Cheng et al [46]. The Phase Decoupled Load
Flow for RDN and WDN W.M.Lin and J.H Teng [47] is based on NR De-
coupling Technique. Here, the elementcurrent based procedure uses a
constant Jacobian Matrix which needs factorization.
Y. Zhu and K. Tomsovic [48] presents an Adaptive Distributed Power
Flow Algorithm based on compensation-approach, which is useful for
system with Dispersed Generation. The comprehensive load delivery
system model includes 3-| non-linear loads, lines, capacitors,
transformers, etc. In BT (Loop Breaking Technique) reported by
M.H.Haque [49] power-injections at the Loop Break (LB) point in the
equivalent RDN are computed through a reduced order node-impedance
matrix. The additional advantage of [49] over [44] the shunt-load
admittances are incorporated in the calculation of injection-power at the
LBPs, but tap-changing transformer model is not considered in the
analysis. D. Rajii, R.Akovski and R. Taleski [50] presented some
Voltage-Correction Power Flow, further the same authors of [50]
expressed two methods [51] based on i)element by element
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computational admittance summation approach, which is of non-
iterative ii) extension of famous current summation method.

The Network Topology (NT) based Loop Making Technique (LMT)
J.H.Teng [52] solves both RDN and WDN, but it requires two special
matrices i.e. Branch Current to Bus Voltage [BCBV] and Bus Injection
to Branch Current [BIBC]; to obtain solution, which is similar to [BIBC]
and BCBV] of [17] discussed for RDN. To solve these matrices to find
solution for WDN need both KVL and KCL. [52] also does not deal with
handling of issues when WDN elements are modeled as t-section and
tap-changing transformer.

In P.R.Bijwe and Viswanadha Raju [53] a Fuzzy Distribution Power
Flow combines the features of [52] and Boundary Power Flow
A.Dimitrovski and K.Tomsovic [54] for WDN, which gives possibilistic
solution. The algorithm can handle simultaneous presence of several
uncertainties in input variables like: input-data; load-model coefficients;
load-forest and node-shunts.

Sometimes, it is necessary to find the Range Reliability Indices (RRIs)
for RDN, because network parameter may have uncertainties. Alok
Thapar et. al [55] compares the reliability of 2-different network
topologies-meshed and extended (radial), which differs in transmission
network topology, whereas the uncertainty in the input data is not
15
considered. The Reliability Indices performance for fixed data can seen in
[56]. Reliability assessment of the LDS is concerned with the systems
performance at the customer end, i.e., at the load points. For that
Distribution Engineers, especially are expected to achieve the highest
possible range reliability levels. The reliability for four industrial utility
configurations like: i) Basic RDN, ii) RDN with co-generation, iii) RDN
with two utility sources iv) RDN with dual utility sources and
cogeneration presented by Daniel J.Love [57], but this method does not
consider the possible uncertainty in the input data. IA based method
reported by J.Nahman and Dragoslav [58] finds voltage drops, energy
losses and reliability indices, which may differ from the actual value due
overestimation problem. This [58] deal only for constant data of RDN.

The Reliability Indices for RDN Claudio.M et. al [59] calculated using
IA by assigning bounds to some or all the input data like failure rate,
repair time, unavailability and observing the effects on the final interval
outcome that will contain all possible solutions due to the variations in
input parameters. An to AA J.Stolfi and L.H.de.Fifueiredo [37] and AA
division S. Miyajima and M.Kashiwagi [60], these models produces
confirmed enclosures for computed numbers, taking into account any
uncertainties in the input data as well as internal truncation and errors.



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1.3 Proposed Power-Flow Algorithms: RDN and WDN
The power flow algorithms for both Radial and Weakly-meshed
Distribution Networks (RWDNs or RDN and WDN) with and without
system data uncertainties and reliability issues are:
- Tellegens-Theorem and Directed-Graphical information based power
flow algorithms are discussed in sections 1.3.1 to 1.3.2. for 1-| RDN.
- Concept of Duality based Power flow algorithms for 1-| RDN and
WDN are presented in section 1.3.3.
- Concept of Duality is extended to solve 3-| RDN and WDN in section
1.3.4.
- Interval Arithmetic based power flow algorithm for 1-| Radial and
Weakly-meshed Distribution Networks with Data Uncertainties are
reported in section 1.3.5.
- Affine Arithmetic based power flow algorithm for 1-| Radial and
Weakly-meshed Delivery Networks with parameter uncertainties are
proposed in sections 1.3.6.
- Interval and Affine Arithmetic based reliability range indices for 1-|
radial networks with Data Uncertainties are computed in sections
1.3.7.

These algorithms are found to be efficient in solving the power flow
problems of RWDNs:

17
1.3.1 Tellegens Theorem (TT) based Load Flow algorithm for 1-|
Radial Delivery Network
A new power flow algorithm is proposed for 1-| RDN based on
Tellegens Theorem (TT). A set of iterative power flow equations are
developed to compute power and current during Backward and Forward
sweeps, respectively. The accurate value of injected current computation
from up stream to down stream RDN using TT and KVL leads to faster
convergence when compared to Network topology and Ladder theory
based methods [17, 24].

1.3.2 Directed-Graph based Power-Flow algorithm for 1-| Radial
Delivery Network
The Directed-Graph (DG) based algorithm is developed to obtain
power-flow solution for single phase RDN. The Backward and Forward
sweep based algorithms [10] are improved using Directed-Paths in the
RDN. The number of nodes and elements in the paths are used to build
Node Load to Path Load [NLPL] information matrix. The NLPL matrix is
used to formulate power flow equations. The algorithm has been
successfully tested for different values of R/X IEEE 15 bus RDN in
comparison with [17, 24].


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1.3.3 Concept of Duality based Power Flow Algorithm for 1- Radial
and Weakly meshed Delivery Networks
In this algorithm an attempt is made to apply the Concept of Duality
(CD) for both RDN and WDN. Here, the algorithm arranges the nodal
input data of both the networks into an incremental order, based on
Graphical information of the system. CD demonstrates that the network
Forward-element voltage information is the dual of Backward-nodal
current. The CD facilitates the use of either KVL or KCL in the forward
or backward step to develop power flow equations. In case of
conventional algorithms [17-19, 23-27, 44, 45, 52], it is necessary to use
KVL and KCL in the forward and backward steps, respectively. Unlike,
other existing algorithms CD can also be extended to deal the networks
with t-section, co-generator and tap-changing transformer. This idea
helps to improve input data feeding to algorithm and display output with
lees computation time. The algorithm is implemented in MATLAB, for
IEEE 15-Node and 57 node network.

1.3.4 Concept of Duality based Power Flow Algorithm for 3- Radial
and Weakly meshed Delivery Networks
The Concept of Duality is extended to formulate the power flow
equations for unbalanced 3-phase networks. The method is tested on 8
bus data [15] with different range of R/X values and it is found that the
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proposed algorithm is more efficient than algorithms discussed in [17-19,
23-27, 44, 45, 52].

1.3.5 Interval Arithmetic based Power Flow Algorithm for 1-| Radial
and Weakly-meshed Networks with Data Uncertainties
The proposed work predicts the interval load flow solution for both
RDN and WDN with input Data Uncertainties. In order to handle such
uncertainties, an Interval Arithmetic (IA) tool has been applied to obtain
interval load flow solution. This algorithm first arranges the uncertain
input data and then proceeds further to obtain solution by using an
established Concept of Duality based load flow algorithm of Section
1.3.3. The work also expresses an IA relation for the problems such as,
lines with t sections and tap changing transformer. The proposed
algorithm is validated for RWDNs having 15, 27, and 4 bus using
MATLAB Ver. 7.0.
1.3.6 Affine Arithmetic based Power Flow Algorithm for 1- Radial
and Weakly meshed Delivery Networks with Data Uncertainties
AA based algorithm predicts load flow for both Radial and Weakly-
meshed distribution networks, consisting of uncertainties in input data.
Here, AA solution is compared with IA solution of Section 1.3.4. AA
based algorithm formulates power flow equations by using load flow
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algorithm of Section 1.3.3. It also presents AA relations for simulation of
t sections and lines with tap changing transformer. AA based algorithm
is solved for networks having 15 and 4 bus, using MATLAB and the
results are compared with the IA results of Section1.3.5.
1.3.7 Interval and Affine Arithmetic based Reliability Range Indices
for 1-| Radial Delivery Network with Data Uncertainties
IA and AA tools are used to estimate Reliability Range Indices (RRI) for
RDN, with data uncertainties. This algorithm formulates IA and AA based
RRI equations and then proceeds to obtain the variation in the reliability
indices. As a case four feeder practical distribution network 11/33,
Saipeta, Dist.Kurnool, AP,India was under taken. The algorithm is
successfully evaluated using AA and IA tools and the results are
compared with results of non-interval solution.
Problem Statement
Investigate by developing and formulating new algorithms to solve
power flow problems efficiently and accurately for Radial and Weakly
meshed Delivery Networks (RWDNs or RDN and WDN).





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1.4 Organization of the thesis:
CHAPTER 1: It describes the background and motivation for the thesis
and provides an overview of the research effort.

CHAPTER 2: presents a new and efficient RDN power flow algorithm
based on Tellegens law to obtain fast and accurate power flow solution.

CHAPTER 3: proposes another algorithm based on Directed Graph
information and formulates Node-Load to Path-Load matrix to efficient
solution for RDN.

CHAPTER 4: Identifying the duality in Forward and Backward sweeps of
power flow equations for RWDNs, the Concept of Duality is applied to
develop a novel algorithm to solve power flow problems.

CHAPTER 5: extends the application of Concept of Duality for
unbalanced 3-phase RDN and WDN.

CHAPTER 6: IA based algorithm predicts load flow solution for 1-|
RWDNs with Data Uncertainties in lines with pi-sections and tap
changing transformer.

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CHAPTER 7: Presents an Affine Arithmetic (AA) tool to predict accurate
range load flow solution for 1| RWDNs, the results of which are better
than results of IA based algorithm of Chapter 6.

CHAPTER 8: Applies both IA and AA tools to evaluate Reliability Range
Indices studied for RDN with Data Uncertainties.
CHAPTER 9: Summarizes the major contributions of this thesis and
suggestions for further work.