Transformer

The transformer is a static device, (the one which does not contain any rotating or moving parts) which is used to transfer electrical energy from one ac circuit to another ac circuit, with increase or decrease in voltage/current but without any change in frequency.

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Ac input
I1, V1

Transformer

Ac output

I2 , v 2

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Application of a Transformer

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Transformer Symbol (Iron core)

Schematic symbol for transformer consists of two inductor symbols, separated by lines indicating a ferromagnetic core. The two inductor coils are easily distinguished in the symbol. The pair of vertical lines represent an iron core common to both inductors. While many transformers have ferromagnetic core materials, there are some that do not, their constituent inductors being magnetically linked together through the air.
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Laboratory transformer

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Generator transformer

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Substation transformer

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3 Phase 3 wire transmission / 3 phase 4 wire utilization

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Transformer can be step up or step down transformer. The principle of operation is same.

In step up the secondary coil consists of large no of turns of insulated copper wires Low voltage high current ac high voltage low current
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AUTO-TRANSFORMER

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ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

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Principle of operation (exam)

Energy is being transferred from the primary coil to the secondary coil by means of a mutual magnetic fields.

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Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformer?

No The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil must change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply and transformer will not work. Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance XL is zero as d.c. has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer. There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from the supply when connected to d.c.

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Construction of transformer

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Construction contd.
1) Magnetic circuit consisting of limbs (core), yokes and clamping structures (providing the flux path) 2) Electric circuit consisting of primary and secondary windings 3) Dielectric circuit consisting of insulation in different forms and used at different places in the transformer i.e core to primary winding, primary winding to secondary winding, etc)
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Types of Transformers
Depending on construction: Core type ,Shell type Depending on transformation ratio: Step-up ,Step-down,Isolation &Auto-Xmer Depending on supply: Single phase & three phase
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Core type and shell type transformer

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Core Type Transformer

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Shell Type Transformer

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Core type transformer

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Core type transformer

A single phase core type transformer consists of a magnetic frame with two cores, upper yoke and bottom yoke. The primary and secondary coils are split into two half turns of the primary and half the secondary turns are placed on each core (limb) A 3-phase core type transformer consists of minimum 3 cores, each provided with the primary and secondary coils of one phase. Circular coils (windings) are used in the core type transformer, which indicate theoretically that a circular core should be used. It is very complicated to manufacture circular core as a result, the stepped core is generally used.
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Shell type Transformer

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Shell type transformer

It consists of magnetic frame with a central core (limb) and two side cores, completing the path of magnetic flux. Primary and secondary coils (windings) are placed on the central core in a particular fashion as shown in figure. Such an arrangement forms a shell of iron around copper. The central leg flux is divided at the yoke section, half i.e. /2 towards each side leg. As the flux in the section of yoke and side cores is only half, the cross section of the yokes and side cores is approximately half the section of the central limb
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Comparison
1.
2. 3. Core Type The windings enclose the whole core. Average length of the core is more. Magnetic flux has only one continuous path. More suitable for HV transformers. Easy to repair.

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

4.

5.

Shell Type The core encloses the windings. Average length of the core is less. Magnetic flux is distributed into two parts. More suitable for LV transformers. Difficult to repair.
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Ideal Transformer (exam)

An Ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer studied to understand the concept easily. Characteristics 1) An ideal transformers core is highly permeable so that it requires very small magneto motive force (mmf) to set up the flux in the core. 2) Its leakage flux is zero, that is the entire flux is confined to the core and links with both the windings 3) The resistance of the primary and secondary winding is negligible (zero). Therefore E1=V1 and E2= V2

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Characteristics of ideal transformer

4) There are no losses due to resistance, hysteresis and eddy currents. 5) Efficiency of an ideal transformer is 100% as no losses takes place. 6) Voltage regulation is 0 %. That means secondary voltage will remain constant irrespective of the load current.
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Practical Transformer
A practical transformer possesses the following characteristics: 1. There are Cu & Iron losses.
2. There is leakage flux. 3. Its windings contain resistance. ohmic

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Comparison
Practical Transformer 1. There are Cu & iron losses. 2. There is leakage flux. 3. Its windings contain ohmic resistance. 4. Voltage regulation is never 0%. 5. Efficiency is 93-97 %. 6. All constructed transformers are practical transformers.
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1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Ideal Transformer There is no loss. There is no leakage flux. Its windings consist of purely inductive coils, wound on a lossless core. Voltage regulation is 0%. Efficiency is 100%. It is impossible to construct an ideal transformer.
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EMF equation of a transformer (e)

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EMF equation of a transformer

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are : = Flux m = Maximum value of flux N1 = Number of primary winding turns N2 = Number of secondary winding turns f = Frequency of the supply voltage E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f. E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.

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refer

notes

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Losses in transformer
An ideal transformer has no loss. But in practical transformer copper losses (Pcu ) and iron losses (Pi) takes place. Iron loss is further classified into two types namely hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

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Copper Loss
Copper losses occur in all those parts of a transformer that carry electric current. It is the total power loss taking place in the winding resistances of a transformer Copper Loss = Power loss in the primary resistance + Power loss in the secondary resistance. Cu loss can be calculated by conducting
SC test on the transformer.
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Copper Loss
Should be kept as low as possible to increase efficiency. To reduce this reduce R1 & R2. Also called as variable loss-dependent on square of load current.

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Iron Losses (or Core Losses)

Hysteresis loss occurs in the magnetic frame of the transformer. Due to time varying flux, there is induced emf in the core which causes eddy currents to flow through the core body. Iron loss can be calculated by conducting OC test on transformer.
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Losses in a Transformer
Hysteresis loss depends on area of hysteresis loop of magnetic material used for frame, volume of core, frequency of magnetic flux reversal. This loss can be minimized by selecting a material for the core that has a low hysteresis coefficient (silicon steel) Eddy current loss depends on thickness of lamination of core, frequency of flux reversal, maximum value of flux density in core, volume of core, quality of magnetic material used for the magnetic frame. This loss can be minimized by using laminated core.
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Ideal Transformer(no load)

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Conditions for an ideal or loss free transformer

The primary and secondary windings do not have any resistance i.e. winding resistance of primary and secondary should be zero. The losses taking place in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss should be zero. There should not be any leakage flux
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Phasor Diagram

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Ideal transformer on load

Refer notes

Practical transformer on no load Refer notes

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Ideal transformer on load

When some load is connected between the secondary terminals of the transformer, the transformer is said to be loaded or on load. Due to load on the secondary , a finite secondary current starts flowing. If the load is R+L type the I2 will lag behind V2 by an angle 2. As per the lenzs law, the secondary current I2 will oppose the cause producing it. Hence it opposes the magnetic flux. This is called demagnetizing effect of I2
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Ideal transformer on load

I2 = I2 * N2/N1 =kI2 I2 = kI2 is 180 degree out of phase with I2. The net primary current is 1 =2 + mag Thus due to load on secondary side, the primary current of the transformer increases to supply the additional power to the load
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Practical transformer on NO load

When the practical transformer is on No load, the secondary current will be zero. Hence the copper loss in the secondary winding is zero. However a small primary current does flow under the no load condition. Due to small primary resistance, a small primary copper loss takes place even at no load
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Practical transformer on NO load

The primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses and a small primary copper loss. The primary current under the no load condition is denoted by o. o =m +c m is the magnetizing component c is the active component
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Practical transformer no No load

Im is the purely reactive component. It magnetizes the core and produces flux in the core. This component is at 90 degree w.r.t to E1. Im is also called as wattless component.

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Practical transformer no No load

Ic is the active component of no load current Io. Its job is to supply the total loss under no load conditions. It is therefore called as the power component or core less component of Io. It is at 90 degree w.r.t the magnetizing current Im.
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Practical Transformer(no load)

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 o =m +c Im and Ic are 90degree phase shifted w.r.t each other and Io is the resultant of the two. No laod power factor = coso Im = Io sino Ic= Io coso

Io=Im2 + Ic2
o =
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tan-1(Im/Ic)
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Total input power on No load Wo = V1 Io coso Io coso =Ic Wo= V1 Ic primary current Io is very small therefore primary copper loss is very very small. Ic is called as core loss or iron loss component. Wo represents the core loss or iron loss as copper is small. Wo- iron loss= V1 Ic
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Practical Transformer(on load)w/o resistance and leakage

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Practical transformer on load

When some load is connected between the secondary terminals of the transformer, it is said to be on load. Due to the load on secondary, a finite secondary current starts flowing. Depending on the type of load (resistive ,inductive , capacitive) the secondary current I2 will be in phase, or lag or lead the load voltage V2.

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Due to loading of the transformer, the primary current increases above its no load value due to the following factors: 1) when the transformer is loaded, the load current I2 will start flowing. Due to increase in load current I2 the secondary ampere turns N2I2 will also increase. 2)This increased secondary (mmf) N2I2 will increase the flux 2 set up by the secondary current. 3) This flux opposes the main flux 1 set up in the core by the current flowing through the primary winding. Hence the secondary mmf N2 I2 is called as the demagnetizing ampere turns. Due to reduction in the main flux 1, the induced emf in the primary winding E1 will also reduce. Hence the difference between Vi and E1 will increase and the primary current will increase.
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Effect of additional primary current

The additional current drawn by the primary winding due to the loading is called as the load component I2 I2 is 180 degree out of phase with load current I2. The current I2 develop its own magnetic flux 2. 2 is in opposite direction to that of 2. Hence it helps the main flux 1. 1 and 2 are in the same direction Thus the reduction in the main flux due to 2 is compensated by 2 and the core flux 1 will almost remain constant. Therefore for any load between no load to full load, the core flux will always remain constant.
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Phasor Diagram

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Effect of leakage reactance

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 notes

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Practical Transformer(on load)with resistance and leakage

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Phasor diagram for unity power factor load

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Phasor diagram for lagging power factor

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Phasor diagram for leading power factor

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Transformer Parameters
1. Effect OF Winding Resistances

High voltage side Low current side High resistance side Low voltage side High current side Low resistance side
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Equivalent Impedance

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Equivalent Impedance

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Rules for Transferring Parameters and Quantities

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Rules for Transferring Parameters and Quantities

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Rules for Transferring Parameters and Quantities

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Equivalent circuit of Transformer

No load equivalent circuit

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Equivalent circuit of Transformer

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Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

R2'= R2/K2 , While Where

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X2' = X2/K2' , E2' = E2/K' K = N2 /N1

Z2' = Z2/K2 I2' = K I2

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Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

R1' = K2 R1 ,

X1' = K2 X1, E1'= K E1,

Z1' = K2 Z1 Io' = I1 /K' Io' = Io /K

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Calculation of Regulation

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Efficiency of a Transformer
Power output = Power input Total losses Power input = Power output + Total losses Power input = Power output + Pi + Pcu = Power output/power input = Power output/(power output + Pi + Pcu ) Now power output = V2 I2 cos where cos = Load power factor 75
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Efficiency of a Transformer

This is full load percentage efficiency with, I2 = Full load secondary current
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Efficiency of a Transformer
Let n =Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load/Full load when load changes, the load current changes by same proportion. new I2 = n (I2) F.L. Similarly the output V2 I2 cos2 also reduces by the same fraction. new Pcu = n2 (Pcu ) F.L.
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Efficiency of a Transformer

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Condition for Maximum Efficiency

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Condition for Maximum Efficiency

for maximum efficiency, d /d I2 = 0 Now = (V2 I2 cos 2 )/(V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi + I22 R2e)

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Condition for Maximum Efficiency

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Condition for Maximum Efficiency

(V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi + I22 R2e)(V2 cos 2) - (V2 I2 cos 2)(V2 cos 2 + 2I2 R2e) = 0 Cancelling (V2 cos 2) from both the terms we get, V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi +I22 R2e - V2 I2 2 - 2I22 R2e = 0 ... Pi - I22 R2e= 0 ... Pi = I22 R2e = Pcu
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Load Current I2m at Maximum Efficiency For max, I22 R2e = Pi but I2 = I2m I2m2 R2e = Pi I2m = (Pi / R2e) This is the load current at max, Let (I2)F.L. = Full load current . .. I2m /(I2) F.L.= (1/(I2) F.L.)(Pi / R2e) ... I2m /(I2) F.L.= (Pi )/({(I2) F.L.}2 R2e) = (Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.) ... I2m = (I2 )F.L.(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.) \ This is the load current at max interms of full load current.
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KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency

For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of. KVA at max = I2m V2= V2 (I2) F.L. x (Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.) KVA at max = (KVA rating) x (Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)

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KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency

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Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

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Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

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