1.

The relative pronouns: The relative pronouns are:

Subject

Object

Possessive

who

whom, who

whose

which that

which that

whose

We use who and whom for people, and which for things. We use that for people or things. We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses, which tell us more about people and things. 2. Relative clauses to postmodify a noun We use relative clauses to postmodify a noun - to make clear which person or thing we are talking about. In these clauses we can have the relative pronoun who, which, whose or that

as subject (see Clauses Sentences and Phrases) Isnt that the woman who lives across the road from you? The police said the accident that happened last night was unavoidable The newspaper reported that the tiger which killed its keeper has been put down. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. We do not repeat the subject: *The woman who [she] lives across the road *The tiger which [it] killed its keeper

as object of a clause (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

Have you seen those people who we met on holiday? You shouldnt believe everything that you read in the newspaper. The house that we rented in London was fully furnished. The food was definitely the thing which I enjoyed most about our holiday. - Sometimes we use whom instead of who when the relative pronoun is the object: Have you seen those people whom we met on holiday? - When the relative pronoun is object of its clause we sometimes leave it out: Have you seen those people we met on holiday? You shouldnt believe everything you read in the newspaper. The house we rented in London was fully furnished. The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed most about our holiday. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object: Have you seen those people who we met [them] on holiday? The house that we rented [it] in London was fully furnished. The food was definitely the thing I enjoyed [it] most about our holiday.

as object of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually put the preposition after the verb.: You were talking to a woman >>> Who was the woman who you were talking to? My parents live in that house >>> Thats the house that my parents live in. You were talking about a book. I havent read it. >>> I havent read the book which you were talking about. - When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually leave it out: Who was the woman you were talking to? Thats the house my parents live in. - Sometimes we use whom instead of who: Who was that woman whom you were talking about. - When we use whom or which the preposition sometimes comes at the beginning of the clause: I havent read the book about which you were talking. - We can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause: I always forget that womans name >>> Thats the woman whose name I always forget. I met a man whose brother works in Moscow. 3. Times and places We also use when with times and where with places to make it clear which time or place we are talking about: England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year when we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when the tsunami happened. Do you remember the place where we caught the train? Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare was born. ... but we can leave out the word when: England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day the tsunami happened. 4. Giving additional information We use who, whom, whose, and which (but not that) in relative clauses to tell us more about a person or thing.

as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwells 1984, which is one of the most frightening books ever written. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. We do not repeat the subject:

My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwells 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening books ever written.

as object (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed. My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw in On the Waterfront. - we can use whom instead of who as object: My favourite actor was Marlon Brando, whom I saw in On the Waterfront. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object: We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed [it]. My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw [him] in On the Waterfront.

as object of a clause :

He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired. We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years ago. We can also use who as the object. He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object: He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him]. We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years ago.

as object of a preposition: He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the newspaper. Thats the programme which we listened to last night. - We sometimes use whom instead of who: He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the newspaper. - The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which: He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper. Thats the programme to which we listened last night. 5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns: many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc. We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition. She has three brothers two of whom are in the army. I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed. There were some good programmes on the radio, none of which I listened to. 6. Using "which" to give more information We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a clause: He was usually late, which always annoyed his father. Weve missed our train, which means we may be late.

indefinite pronouns
The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody

someone

something

anybody nobody everybody

anyone no one everyone

anything nothing everything

We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things: Everybody enjoyed the concert. I opened the door but there was no one at home. It was a very clear day. We could see everything.

We use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun: Everybody loves Sally. Everything was ready for the party. When we refer back to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun: Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped. I will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have been waiting a long time. We can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive. They were staying in somebodys house. Is this anybodys coat? We use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.) Anybody didnt come >> Nobody came. We do not use another negative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing: Nobody came. Nothing happened. We use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things in addition to the ones we already mentioned. All the family came, but no one else. If Michael cant come well ask somebody else. So that's eggs, peas and chips. Do you want anything else?

Determiners and quantifiers

General and specific determiners Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general. Determiners are either specific or general Specific determiners: The specific determiners are:

the definite article: the possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose demonstratives: this, that, these, those interrogatives: which We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to: Can you pass me the salt please? Look at those lovely flowers. Thank you very much for your letter. Whose coat is this? General determiners: The general determiners are:

a; an; any; another; other; what When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we are referring to, we can use a uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner: Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun) Health and education are very important. (= 2 uncount nouns) Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner) or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:

A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter. A man climbing nearby saw the accident. We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking about all of those people or things: Its very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it) With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car. I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat. We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing: Would you like another glass of wine? The plural form of another is other: I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends. Quantifiers We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something: how much or how many.

interrogative determiners: which and what

We use "which" as a determiner to ask a question about a specific group of people or things: Which restaurant did you go to? Which countries in South America have you visited? When we are asking a general question we use "what" as a determiner: What films do you like? What university did you go to?

indefinite article: a and an

1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to: Police are searching for a 14 year-old girl. 2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group: She is a pupil at London Road School.

Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.

Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.

She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes.

Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

3. We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncount nouns: She was wearing blue shoes. (= plural noun) She has short blonde hair. (= uncount noun)

Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday.

Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair.

She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes.

Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

4. We use a/an to say what someone is or what job they do: My brother is a doctor. George is a student. 5. We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all things of that kind: A man needs friends. (= All men need friends) A dog likes to eat meat. (= All dogs like to eat meat)

definite article: the

The definite article the is the most frequent word in English. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to. because there is only one: The Pope is visiting Russia. The moon is very bright tonight. The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979. This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective: He is the tallest boy in the class. It is the oldest building in the town. because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:

We live in a small village next to the church.

(the church in our village)

Dad, can I borrow the car?

(the car that belongs to our family)

When we stayed at my grandmothers house we went to the beach every day. =

(the beach near my grandmothers house)

Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there.

(the boy I am pointing at)

because we have already mentioned it: A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell while climbing. The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men walking on the peakwere killed in a fall. We also use the definite article: to say something about all the things referred to by a noun: The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals) The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia) The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies) We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments: Joe plays the piano really well.(= George can play any piano) She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar) to refer to a system or service: How long does it take on the train. I heard it on the radio. You should tell the police. With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people: Life can be very hard for the poor. I think the rich should pay more taxes. She works for a group to help the disabled. The definite article with names: We do not normally use the definite article with names: William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Paris is the capital of France. Iran is in Asia. But we do use the definite article with: countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic: the United Kingdom; the kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the Peoples Republic of China. countries which have plural nouns as their names: the Netherlands; the Philippines geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals: the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal. newspapers: The Times; The Washington Post well known buildings or works of art: the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers organisations: the United Nations; the Seamens Union hotels, pubs and restaurants*: the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the Kings Head; the Dj Vu

*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner, e.g.,Browns; Browns Hotel; Morels; Morels Restaurant, etc. families: the Obamas; the Jacksons

quantifiers
backnext We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something: how much or how many. Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner: Most children start school at the age of five. We ate some bread and butter. We saw lots of birds. We use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:

all more

any most

enough no

less none of

a lot of some

lots of

and some more colloquial forms:

plenty of

heaps of

a load of

loads of

tons of

etc.

Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns:

both

each

either

(a) few

fewer

neither

several

and some more colloquial forms:

a couple of

hundreds of

thousands of

etc.

Some quantifiers can be used only with uncount nouns:

a little

(not) much

a bit of

And, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:

a great deal of
Members of groups

a good deal of

You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking about members of a group in general

Few snakes are dangerous. Both brothers work with their father. I never have enough money. but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things, use of the as well Few of the snakes are dangerous. All of the children live at home. He has spent all of his money. Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the quantifiers both, either and neither:

One supermarket

Two supermarkets*

More than two supermarkets

The supermarket was closed The supermarket wasn't open I dont think the supermarket was open.

Both the supermarkets were closed. Neither of the supermarkets was open. I dont think either of the supermarkets was open.

All the supermarkets were closed None of the supermarkets were open I don't think any of the supermarkets were open

*Nouns with either and neither have a singular verb. Singular quantifiers: We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:

There was a party in every street.

There were parties in all the streets.

Every shop was decorated with flowers.

All the shops were decorated with flowers.

Each child was given a prize.

All the children were given a prize.

There was a prize in each competition.

There were prizes in all the competitions.

We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years: When we were children we had holidays at our grandmothers every year. When we stayed at my grandmothers house we went to the beach every day. We visit our daughter every Christmas. BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not say: The every shop was decorated with flowers. The each child was given a prize.

possessives: nouns
We use a noun with s with a singular noun to show possession: We are having a party at Johns house. Michael drove his friends car. We use s with a plural noun ending in -s: This is my parents house. Those are ladies shoes. But we use s with other plural nouns: These are mens shoes. Childrens clothes are very expensive. We can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeating words:

Is that Johns car?

No, its Marys [car].

>

No, its Marys.

Whose coat is this?

Its my wifes [coat].

>

Its my wifes.

possessives: adjectives

Can you match these possessive adjectives to the right personal pronouns? its, your, my, their, our, her, his

Subject

Object

Possessive

me

You

you

He

him

She

her

It

it

We

us

They

them

We use possessive adjectives: to show something belongs to somebody: Thats our house. My car is very old. for relations and friends: My mother is a doctor. How old is your sister?

 for parts of the body: Hes broken his arm. Shes washing her hair. I need to clean my teeth.
We use adjectives to describe nouns. Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun: They have a beautiful house. We saw a very exciting film last night. or after a link verb like be, look or feel: Their house is beautiful. That film looks interesting.

adjectives: -ed and -ing

backnext A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding -ing or -ed:

-ing adjectives: The commonest -ing adjectives are:

amusing

shocking

surprising

frightening

interesting

disappointing

exciting

tiring

worrying

boring

terrifying

annoying

If you call something interesting you mean it interests you. If you call something frightening you mean it frightens you. I read a very interesting article in the newspaper today. That Dracula film was absolutely terrifying.

-ed adjectives: The commonest ed adjectives are:

annoyed

bored

frightened

worried

tired

closed

excited

delighted

disappointed

If something annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. If something interests you, you can say you are interested. The children had nothing to do. They were bored.

order of adjectives
Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun: He was a nice intelligent young man. She had a small round black wooden box.

Opinion adjectives: Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe almost any noun:

good

bad

lovely

strange

beautiful

nice

brilliant

excellent

awful

important

wonderful

nasty

Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe particular kinds of noun: Food: tasty; delicious Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion: Nice tasty soup. A nasty uncomfortable armchair A lovely intelligent animal Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is descriptive: a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains We often have two adjectives in front of a noun: a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual: a nice handsome young man; a big black American car; that horrible big fierce dog It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives. Adjectives usually come in this order:

General opinion

Specific opinion

Size

Shape

Age

Colour

Nationality

Material

We use some adjectives only after a link verb:

afraid

alive

alone

asleep

content

glad

ill

ready

sorry

sure

unable

well

Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb: annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled We say: Our teacher was ill. My uncle was very glad when he heard the news. The policeman seemed to be very annoyed but we do not say: We had an ill teacher. When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:

north south east west

northern southern eastern western

countless occasional lone

eventful indoor outdoor

We say: He lives in the eastern district. There were countless problems with the new machinery. but we do not say: The district he lives in is eastern The problems with the new machinery were countless. Try these tasks to improve your adjective ordering.