IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20, NO.

2, JUNE 2005

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An Analysis of the Control and Operation of a Solid Oxide Fuel-Cell Power Plant in an Isolated System
Y. H. Li, S. S. Choi, Member, IEEE, and S. Rajakaruna, Member, IEEE
AbstractThe concept of a feasible operating area for a solid oxide fuel-cell power plant is introduced by establishing the relationship between the stack terminal voltage, fuel utilization, and stack current. The analysis shows that both the terminal voltage and the utilization factor cannot be kept constant simultaneously when the stack current changes. This leads to the two possible control strategies as constant utilization control and constant voltage control. By controlling the input hydrogen fuel in proportion to the stack current, constant utilization control can be accomplished. By incorporating an additional external voltage-control loop, stack terminal voltage can be maintained constant. The detailed design of the control schemes is described. The effectiveness of the proposed schemes is illustrated through simulation. Using the numerical results, the maximum value of load power change that the plant can handle safely is predicted. Index TermsDistributed generation, fuel cell, load tracking.

I. INTRODUCTION

N RECENT YEARS, environmental and economic considerations have resulted in much increased interest in the application of distributed generation (DG) [1], [2]. DG, such as internal combustion engines, microturbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic, and wind turbines are typically of 10 kW10 MW in capacity. As these generators are to be incorporated into power systems, their impacts on network reliability and security have come under close scrutiny [3][6]. Among the new forms of DG, the natural-gas-fed fuel cell (FC) that converts chemical energy directly to dc shows a promising future. Several types of FC for a variety of applications are under active research. One important aspect concerning the application of the DG technology is to ensure that a suitable dynamic model is used in system studies [2]. An appropriate FC dynamic model should consider the electrochemical-thermodynamic process and electrical performance. A number of models for simulating FC-based power plant have been developed. Lukas et al. provided a nonlinear mathematical model for molten carbonate FC (MCFC) [7]. This model is, however, complex and is difcult to be implemented for power system analysis purposes. Hatziadoniu et al. derived a reduced-order MCFC dynamical model for dynamic stability analysis [8]. In their work, the FC EMF equation is linearized but the inuence of the fuel intake to the electromotive force (emf) has not been studied. Padulls et al. [9] created a simulation model of a solid oxide FC (SOFC) power plant intended for

a power system analysis package. Their paper shows that the electrochemical and thermodynamic process could be approximated by rst-order transfer functions. Based on the results of [9], Zhu et al. included the SOFC fuel processor in their investigation and used the model to study SOFC load tracking ability [10]. Unfortunately, the authors have not included any analysis on how the SOFC is to be controlled. This paper extends the work of [9] and [10]. Section II will review the model obtained in [9] and from it, the concept of feasible operating area (FOA) of the FC is introduced. Section III considers the power-conditioning unit (PCU) necessary to integrate the FC into the ac system. In Section IV, a simplied SOFC dynamic model is then proposed. The load tracking ability of a SOFC power plant in an isolated system is analyzed. Two control schemes, based on maintaining constant fuel utilization or that of constant terminal voltage, are considered. The efcacies of the two schemes are illustrated through simulation as shown in Section V. II. SOLID OXIDE FUEL-CELL MODEL A. Some Basic Equations The fundamental electrode reaction in the SOFC is different from that of other kinds of FC [11], [12]. The reaction is shown by the following equations: Anode: Cathode: (1)

ions to produce At the anode, hydrogen gas reacts with water in gaseous state and electrical energy is released in the form of the electrons. At the cathode, oxygen reacts with the is electrons taken from the electrode, and oxygen ion formed. cells in To calculate the open-circuit emf of a stack of series, refer to the well-known Nernst equation [11], [12] (2) where is the voltage associated with the reaction-free energy of a cell, is the gas constant is the SOFC operating temperature, is (8.31 J/mol K), are the partial the Faraday constant (96487 C/mol), and pressures of hydrogen, oxygen, and water. By including the function of the fuel processor, an SOFC power plant dynamic model based on [9] and [10] is shown in Fig. 1. The model is seen to be suitable for inclusion into a power system computer simulation package. Two main parts

Manuscript received February 13, 2004. Paper no. TEC-00036-2004. The authors are with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798 (e-mail: pg01763737@ntu.edu.sg; esschoi@ntu.edu.sg; erajakaruna@ntu.edu.sg). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TEC.2005.847998

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could lead to permanent damage to the cells due to fuel starvation and an underused-fuel situation results in unexpectedly high cell voltages [9]. B. Feasible Operating Area From the results of Section II-A, it is possible to examine in greater details the steady-state feasible operating regime of a given SOFC. The electrical parameters dening the operating and as shown in Fig. 1. Specically, the FC status are must operate within its rated power and has to be kept within has the range described earlier. Furthermore, in practice, to be constrained to a certain range to meet the voltage specications of the ac load. These variables are related in a rather complex way, through the Nernst equation. Under steady state, the reaction output partial pressure from Fig. 1 is
Fig. 1. SOFC dynamic model.

can be readily identied in this model. Starting from the fuel input end, one encounters the part of the model representing the so-called balance of plant (BOP) while downstream of which is the FC stack. In the BOP, the fuel storage can provide the preto the fuel processor through heated and high-pressure fuel the fuel valve. The fuel valve can be regulated through a conto troller. The fuel processor reforms the natural gas input form hydrogen-rich fuel. In [10], the fuel processor is represented simply by a rst-order lag model of time constant . denes the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen In the model, molar ows. These reactants are fed into the FC stack where the reaction described by (1) occurs, from which it is seen that full reaction ratio between hydrogen and oxygen is 2 to 1. In order to allow for oxygen to completely react with hydrogen and maintain the pressure difference between the anode and the cathode below a certain threshold value, excess oxygen is provided. Hence, this means that , but typically [10], [12]. Furthermore, the ohmic loss due to the electrodes and electrolyte is represented by the resistance in Fig. 1. , and are the valve molar constant for , hydrogen, oxygen, and water, respectively. Similarly, are the respective response time for the ow of hyand drogen, oxygen, and water. Also included in the model is the Nernst equation relating the reactant partial pressure with the , whereas FC emf. The SOFC output terminal voltage is is the stack current. One factor not shown explicitly in the model is the so-called fuel utilization . It is one of the important operating variables that may affect the performance of FC. Fuel utilization is dened as

(4) Substituting the above three terms into (2) and considering the denition of , FC emf can be written as

(5) From Fig. 1, FC emf should also satisfy (6) Therefore, combining (5) and (6), yields (7) where

(3) where , and are hydrogen input, output, and reacted ow rates. is a modeling parameter which has a value . The desired range of fuel utilization is from 0.8 to of 0.9. This is in order to prevent overused and unfuel conditions. An overused-fuel condition derused

Equation (7) governs the steady-state operating condition of the SOFC. The analysis in Appendix A shows that has a at a particular stack current maximum value for a given . Note that is independent of or and is a constant for a given FC plant operating under a constant temperature. If the operating temperature increases, the will increase. Furthermore, from (7), it is also seen that is also through the parameter . a function of Another useful way to explain the steady-state feasible operating area (FOA) is through Fig. 2. Based on the typical SOFC data given in [9], Fig. 2 shows a family of curves describing the obtained through the applicarelationship between and tion of (7) for a range of . In this example, it has been asis constrained to within 0.951.05 p.u. Hence, sumed that limits in mind. Superthe curves are drawn with these two imposed onto the curves are the constraints on , assumed to be within 0.70.9. The constraints placed on are shown by the straight boundary lines AF and CD. Finally, the FC output power , which is simply the product , has been assumed to be conned to within the 0.11.0-p.u. range. These are shown by

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Fig. 3.

SOFC power plant in an isolated system.

IV. LOAD TRACKING From Fig. 1, even with the approximation introduced by Padulls, the resulting SOFC model is still rather complex and not amenable to analysis. If it is assumed that the problem in hand pertains to the study of small perturbations in the isolated power system, such as that due to random load switching of relatively small capacity, it is then possible to further simplify the model through the small-signal analysis of the nonlinear system. Although this method is valid only for a limited range of the SOFC operation, the result can still be very helpful in providing an understanding of the essence of the dynamic process. From Fig. 1, one notes that a variation in either the fuel or stack current will cause a change in the th reactant partial pressure such that (8) where is the th reactant reaction coefcient shown in (1). By linearizing the Nernst equation, the SOFC output emf after the small variations in the reactants will undergo the respective as follows: change

Fig. 2.

Feasible operating area of the fuel cell.

the curves AB and DE. Taking all of these into consideration, the FOA of the SOFC must therefore be within the area ABCDEFA of Fig. 2. From (7) or Fig. 2, it is obvious that it is impossible for the SOFC to maintain a simultaneous constant and constant operating regime for a range of . Furthermore, the existence is also apof the maximum utilization factor for a given occurs parent from the diagram. For this particular plant, at about 0.28 p.u. Indeed, according to analysis, the maximum utilization condition always occurs at a relatively lightly loaded increasing from this value, will always be condition. For decreasing. Thus, the overused fuel situation can certainly be avoided if it can be ensured that overused fuel condition does with the minimum operating voltage. Furnot occur at thermore, one could use the FOA to advantage when assessing the steady-state capability of an SOFC power plant. For example, the operating point E corresponds to the condition of of 1.05 p.u., while is at the lower limit of maximum 0.95 p.u., with an approximately 0.88 utilization factor. Conof close to 0.095 p.u. versely, point B yields the minimum p.u. and . when III. POWER-CONDITIONING UNIT AND THE LOAD Unless the load supplied by the FC plant is of dc type, the power generated by the FC stack invariably has to be converted to ac form by using a power-conditioning unit (PCU). Since the FC terminal voltage varies with the supplied current and the loads are normally designed to operate under constant voltage, the PCU need not only transform dc to ac but should also possess voltage controllability. This can be readily achieved by using a pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) inverter as shown in Fig. 3. If the FC voltage varies in a large range or the inverter does not possess sufcient voltage controllability, a dc/dc converter is also needed in between the FC terminals and the inverter [13]. In conjunction with the PCU, the primary objective of having the capacitor C in between the FC stack and the PCU is to lter out the harmonic components generated by the PCU. Since the PCU keeps the load voltage constant despite changes in FC terminal voltage, a change in real power demand of the ac load appears as a change in dc load current at the FC terminals. Thus, the ac load can be modeled as a variable resistor for the purpose of analyzing the system behavior in the quasi-steady-state.

(9) The initial steady-state reactant output partial pressure shown with subscript 0 is given in (4). Consider the situation where the SOFC operates in an isolated system and its function is to track slow load variations. To do so and to ensure the proper operation of the FC, some control methods must be introduced to guarantee that the FC will always be operated within the FOA. In this paper, two control methods will be discussed based on the dynamic model derived earlier. These methods are based on the strategy to maintain a constant fuel utilization or a constant terminal voltage. The external load is represented by a quasi-steady-state dc resistor . The shunt capacitor shown in Fig. 3 is not considered as its function is deemed to be that for harmonic ltering only. A. Constant Fuel Utilization Control If the possible range of the FC output power is known, one such that any can select a suitable preset utilization value variation in the load will result in the nal steady-state operating condition to be within the FOA. For example, this means the corresponding to that of the line YZ selection of a constant

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From Fig. 5, one observes that the hydrogen fuel input signal . Subis stituting this into (9), the relationship between and is (10) where

Fig. 4. FOA.

Constant fuel utilization and constant voltage-control schemes in the

The derivation of (10) is as shown in Appendix B. Next, the with respect to is open-loop transfer function of (11)
Fig. 5. Proposed SOFC load tracking control scheme for constant V .

where

shown in Fig. 4. This can be achieved by feeding back the stack to adjust the fuel input current with a proportional gain . A PWM inverter in the PCU can easily as handle the resulting small change of voltage on the FC terminals while supplying the ac load with a constant voltage. B. Constant Voltage Control In some practical cases, such as when the PCU inverter is a six-step type having no voltage controllability, or when the load is primarily dc type, it is necessary to maintain a constant dc voltage at the FC terminals. With the help of FOA, one proper value for dc voltage can be obtained to guarantee that would always be within the range of when FC output power varies. The stack current feedback used in the constant utilization factor control scheme can still be included in this instance to mitigate the disturbance that originates upstream of the can also be fed back as another control stack. In addition, signal to regulate the fuel input. This is illustrated by the control block diagram in Fig. 5 and the cascade control scheme is introduced. In this gure, the Process block represents the fuel handling process and the FC stack shown in Fig. 1. In this mode, the steady-state operating state will be, for example, along the constant voltage curve XZ of Fig. 4 if the reference voltage is selected as 1 p.u. The controller in this scheme is represented by . The outer voltage loop must be designed to coordinate its operation with that of the inner current loop for the purpose to achieve acceptable dynamic performance.

The derivation of (11) is again given in Appendix B. describes the SOFC power plant in an isolated system. Considfor the power plant is to be efcient ering the fact that with the typical SOFC data, can be simand plied and (11) can be rewritten, as shown in (12) at the bottom of the page. It is now useful to illustrate the above using the plant parameters given in [9]. Fig. 6 compares the Bode plots resulting from is 0.7 p.u. and is 1 p.u. It shows (11) and (12), when the close agreement of the Bode plots of (11) and (12). Hence, the simplied transfer function (12) would be satisfactory for . use in the design of the controller It can be observed from (10) that the parameter is a function of initial stack current and , where can be deand . Numerical results termined from (7) for given will have the largest value when the initial stack show that current is at its lowest level. As a result, the gain at the crossover frequency will increase and the open-loop system will have a smaller phase margin as the stack current decreases. This point is illustrated in Fig. 7 where the Bode plots corresponding to . Note different initial stack currents are shown under rated that over this rather wide range, the crossover frequency varies in a limited range of between 1.5 to 5.1 rad/s. This clearly demonstrates the slow response characteristic of the FC power plant.

(12)

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TABLE I PARAMETERS IN THE PROTOTYPE SOFC POWER PLANT

Fig. 6. Bode diagram of SOFC transfer function : p.u. and V p.u.

07

=1

1V 1
=

when I

Fig. 7.

Bode plots of G under different FC operating conditions.

and are known, and are also preselected to satAs isfy stability consideration, the right-hand side (RHS) of (13) is and can be evaluated. Typically, known and, therefore, should be at least . V. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES The examples in this section will be used to illustrate how the control system of an SOFC power plant can be designed to track slow variations of the load. The examples are based on the experimental data given in [9] and [10] and shown in Table I. The controller design is based on the linearized SOFC model described in Section IV. However, the effectiveness of the design is veried through simulation using the nonlinear SOFC model shown in Fig. 1. The simulation tool is MATLAB/SIMULINK. In the following two illustration conditions, it is assumed that the load resistor has the following variation. The FC is operating at its rated operation point initially. At 40 s, a load disturbance causes the stack current to decrease instantly by 0.1 p.u. (30 A). After 2 min, the load resistor value is ramped up such that the stack current drops from 0.9 to 0.4 p.u. when the ramp change will cease. At 640 s, another step load disturbance results in the stack current to decrease further to 0.3 p.u. At this point, the . After a further 2 min, the FC stack current is close to load resistance excursion is reversed. It nally returns to the initial rated condition. As a comparison, the simulation study was repeated with a variation in the ramp rate. A. Constant Fuel Utilization Control

Controller Design: The SOFC controller for constant operation can be designed using the frequency response method. In order to guarantee stability of the closed-loop control scheme should be designed under the shown in Fig. 5, the controller most onerous system condition. From the analysis of (11) and Fig. 7, it is clear that the power system will have the smallest stability margin when the initial stack current is at its minimum, . Therefore, the controller such as point X in the FOA at rated should be designed to produce a new open-loop crossover frequency , which is substantially typically ten times lower than the open-loop crossover frequency corresponding to the minimum stack current. The spread of the two bandwidths will give rise to the desired performance by avoiding any contradictory control actions [14]. is a proportional-integral type and Suppose the controller has the structure . Let the plant-transfer . Therefore, the open-loop transfer function with phase margin becomes function

Equating the real and imagine parts on both sides, one obtains

In solving the above equations,

and

can be evaluated as (13)

From Fig. 2, suppose the fuel utilization is set at the value of and 0.8 with the help of FOA. Fig. 8 shows the proles of following the load disturbance. From the simulation results,

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Fig. 8. Load tracking under constant u control scheme: load resistance variations in steps and in different ramp rates.

Fig. 9. Load tracking under constant V control scheme: load resistance variations in steps and in different ramp rates.

it can be seen that the load is properly tracked along the line YZ shown in Fig. 4 over the complete interval of load variations. When subjected to the step disturbances, the SOFC will assume a larger excursion when the load is lighter. Under the ramp will experience larger excursions disturbances, both and when the load resistor ramp rate increases. Compared to the during rated FC terminal voltage, the resulting change in the transient period is less than 5% in this instance. Thus, the ac load voltage can be kept constant readily by controlling the modulation index of the PWM inverter. According to Fig. 8, the maximum step change in the load should be less than 0.1 p.u. to avoid overused fuel conditions. For a ramp change, the limit is estimated to be about 0.25 p.u. per minute for the same consideration. B. Constant Voltage Control From the Bode plot of (11) when the initial current is 0.1 p.u., is about it can be seen from Fig. 7 that the cut-off frequency 5.1 rad/s and the phase margin is only 4.8 . With the controller, is chosen to be 0.5 rad/s and the new crossover frequency . The controller is designed using with a phase margin (13) and is given as . and following the same Fig. 9 shows the proles of load disturbances as before. The simulation results verify the satisfactorily under proposed controller can indeed maintain different stack current conditions. The load is properly tracked along the curve XZ shown in Fig. 4. However, compared with the constant fuel utilization control method, this control method is more complex. Furthermore, will have a larger excursion when the 0.1-p.u. step load change occurs especially when is close to . VI. CONCLUSION A simplied SOFC dynamic model is derived and it is used to study the FC load-tracking capability in an isolated power system. The concept of FOA is introduced in which it becomes a simple tool to assess the possible operating regime of the FC. The relationship between the FC emf, hydrogen fuel input, and stack current has been established by using the small-signal

method. In the situation when the external load is a slow varying one, FC can be operated with the constant fuel utilization condition by tuning the fuel intake according to the stack current. Combined with the inner current feedback, a voltage-control loop can also be used to maintain the FC terminal voltage. Simulation results show that the use of a SOFC-based DG is feasible as a slow-acting energy source. APPENDIX A Derivation of : For a constant , the relationship becan be examined from (7). Let tween and

Then, it can be shown that

Since , when . it can be seen that Thus, has a maximum or minimum value at the critical stack current . with Since and , it can be observed that for all stack currents. However, ; therefore, for all stack currents. Now, if . Conversely, if . Hence, at the has a maximum value. critical stack current, From the above, it is clear that fuel utilization will be decreasing with an increasing stack current if the FC output power . For example, with the typical values is greater than of the 100-kW SOFC shown in Table I, the critical stack current is 83.5 A, and the corresponding output real power is 27.6 kW. APPENDIX B Derivation of (10) and (11): Substituting and the initial

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steady-state output reactant value into (9), the relationship between the emf, fuel regulation signal, and stack current is

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Standard (Draft) for Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power Systems, Jan. 2002. IEEE P1547. [2] N. Hatziargyriou et al., CIGRE Tech. Brochure, Nov. 2000. Modeling New Forms of Generation and StorageTF 38.01.10. [3] W. H. Lee, Distributed Power Generation: Planning and Evaluation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1998. [4] A. R. Oliva and J. C. Balda, A PV dispersed generator: A power quality analysis within the IEEE 519, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 525530, Apr. 2003. [5] R. C. Dugan and T. E. McDermott, Distributed generation, IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 1925, Mar./Apr. 2002. [6] M. T. Guttromson, Modeling distributed energy resource dynamics on the transmission system, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 11481153, Nov. 2002. [7] M. D. Lukas, K. Y. Lee, and H. Ghezel-Ayagh, Development of a stack simulation model for control study on direct reforming molten carbonate fuel cell power plant, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 16511657, Dec. 1999. [8] C. J. Hatziadoniu, A. A. Lobo, and F. Pourboghrat, A simplied dynamic model of grid-connected fuel cell generators, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 467473, Apr. 2002. [9] J. Padulls, G. W. Ault, and J. R. McDonald, An integrated SOFC plant dynamic model for power systems simulation, J. Power Sources, vol. 86, no. 12, pp. 495500, Mar. 2000. [10] Y. Zhu and K. Tomsovic, Development of models for analyzing the load-following performance of micro-turbines and fuel cells, J. Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 111, May 2002. [11] A. Dicks, Fuel Cell System Explained. New York: Wiley, 2000. [12] L. J. Blomen and M. N. Mugerwa, Fuel Cell Systems. New York: Wiley, 1993. [13] N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. New York: Wiley, 1993. [14] G. F. Franklin, J. D. Powell, and A. Emami-Naeini, Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1988. Y. H. Li received the B.E. and M.Eng. degrees from the Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China, in 1994 and 1998, respectively. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He was a Lecturer at Wuhan University, Wuhan, from 1998 to 2001. S. S. Choi (M76) received the B.E. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, in 1973 and 1976, respectively. Currently, he is a Professor and Heads the Power Engineering Division, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He was with the New Zealand Electricity Department before he took up a lecturing post at the National University of Singapore in 1978. He joined the State Energy Commission of Western Australia (SECWA), Perth, WA, Australia, in 1981, where he was responsible for system studies pertaining to stabilities, voltage control, power quality, SVC applications, and network transients. From 1989 to 1992, he was Head of the System Analysis Section. His research interests are power system dynamics, exible ac transmission systems (FACTS), and power quality. Dr. Choi received the Institute of Electrical Engineers S. Z. De Ferranti Premium Award for the 19891990 Session. He is a member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institution of Engineers, Australia. He is a Chartered Professional Engineer of Australia.

(B.1) From (B.1), the coefcients in (10) can be calculated as

By substituting (6) into (10), it yields (11). As , (11) can be rewritten as (B.2) and Substituting can be calculated as into (B.2), coefcients in (11)

S. Rajakaruna (M93) received the B.Sc.Eng. degree from the University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, in 1986, the M.Sc. degree from the University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, in 1989, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada, in 1993. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor with the Power Engineering Division of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. In 1986, he was an Assistant Lecturer with the Department of Electrical Engineering of University of Moratuwa. Upon the completion of post-graduate studies, he served the same department as a Senior Lecturer from 1993 to 1999. He was a Visiting Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Toronto, for one year. His current research interests include distributed generation, new energy storage techniques, and induction generators. Dr. Rajakaruna is a Member of Institute of Electrical Engineers and a Chartered Engineer registered with the Engineering Council of United Kingdom.