IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 42, NO.

4, JULY/AUGUST 2006

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Common-Duty-Ratio Control of Input-Series Connected Modular DCDC Converters With Active Input Voltage and Load-Current Sharing
Ramesh Giri, Member, IEEE, Vijay Choudhary, Raja Ayyanar, Member, IEEE, and Ned Mohan, Fellow, IEEE
AbstractThis paper proposes a simple control method to achieve active sharing of input voltage and load current among modular converters that are connected in series at the input and in parallel at the output. The input-series connection enables a fully modular power-system architecture, where low voltage and low power modules can be connected in any combination at the input and/or at the output, to realize any given specications. Further, the input-series connection enables the use of low-voltage MOSFETs that are optimized for very low RDS ON , thus, resulting in lower conduction losses. In the proposed scheme, the duty ratio to all the converter modules connected in input-series and output-parallel (ISOP) conguration is made common. This scheme does not require a dedicated input-voltage or load-currentshare controller. It relies on the inherent self-correcting characteristic of the ISOP connection when the duty ratio of all the converters is the same. The proposed scheme is analyzed using the average model of a forward converter. The stability and performance of the scheme are veried through numerical simulation, both in frequency domain and in time domain. The proposed control method is also validated on an experimental prototype ISOP system comprising of two forward converters. Index TermsCommon duty ratio, fault tolerance, input series and output parallel (ISOP), input-series connection, input-voltage sharing, load-current sharing, modular dcdc converters.

I. I NTRODUCTION ODULAR power-system architecture, where low-power building-block converter modules are connected in parallel (at input and at output), to meet high load-current requirement has been a subject of vigorous research in the recent past [1][13]. The modular approach has several advantages [2], [4], [5]: It leads to a signicant improvement in the reliability of the overall system by introducing the desired

Paper IPCSD-06-023, presented at the 2003 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, Miami Beach, FL, February 913, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATION by the Industrial Power Converter Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review November 1, 2003 and released for publication April 10, 2006. This work was supported in part by the Ofce of Naval Research (ONR) under Award N00014-03-1-0802 and Award N0001405-1-0622. R. Giri is with Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, CA 94086 USA (e-mail: ramesh_giri@maximhq.com). V. Choudhary and R. Ayyanar are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5706 USA (e-mail: rayyanar@asu.edu). N. Mohan is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0170 USA (e-mail: mohan@ece.umn.edu). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIA.2006.876064

level of redundancy; standardization of components leads to a reduction in the manufacturing time and cost; present trend of very high-current (and low output voltage) power-supply requirements can be met with low-current converters that are easier to design and manufacture. By suitably interleaving the converter modules, the lter requirement can be reduced leading to a higher power density, and possibly higher efciency of the overall system [6]. The challenge in a parallel-connected modular system is to ensure equal sharing of the load current in spite of the differences in various converter parameters, controllers, and impedances of the interconnects. Several control techniques of varying complexity and performance, to meet the above challenge, have been proposed, including different types of droop schemes [7], [8], schemes based on current mode control with common current reference, automatic master-slave schemes [9], [10], democratic current-share schemes [3], [11], [12], and frequency-based current-share schemes [13]. A comprehensive review and comparison of different control methods for parallel connection is given in [1]. However, just the ability to connect converters in parallel does not result in a fully modular architecture. Since, the input voltages to a system can be from different sources, and thus can have a wide range of magnitudes, the converter design still has to be different depending on the input-voltage level. Hence, low input-voltage modular converters that can be connected in series at the input, with active input-voltage sharing capability, are needed to realize a fully modular architecture. In such an architecture, a standardized building-block module can be connected in any combinationseries or parallelat the input or at the output to meet any inputoutput specications. Apart from considerations of modularity, the input-series connection has several other signicant advantages. With active voltage sharing, low-voltage MOSFETs, which are optimized for very low RDS ON can be used. For typical input voltages of dcdc converters, the combined RDS ON of N MOSFETs in series, each with a voltage rating of BVDSS /N , is substantially lower than the RDS ON of a single MOSFET with a voltage rating of BVDSS [14]. Another advantage is that, for the presently popular low output-voltage applications, the inputseries and output-parallel (ISOP) conguration requires smaller conversion ratios for the individual converters, thus, leading to improved efciency. However, in spite of the many advantages, only a very few papers have been published on input-series connection of modular converters. The challenge here is to ensure equal sharing of

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Fig. 1. Four possible combinations of inputoutput connections. (a) Input parallel and output series. (b) IPOP. (c) ISOP. (d) Input series and output series.

the total input voltage, in the presence of substantial differences in various converter parameters. In [15], ISOP connection has been implemented for a two-converter system, using a charge control scheme with input-voltage feed forward. In [16], [17], a three-loop control scheme, including a dedicated input-voltage controller for ISOP connection has been presented. This paper proposes a very simple scheme for the ISOP connection, which does not require an input-voltage or loadcurrent-share loop, but still ensures equal sharing of the input voltage and load current. It relies on the inherent self-correcting mechanism of the input-series and output-parallel connection when the duty ratio of all the converters is made common. The proposed scheme does not result in perfectly equal sharing. The sharing is different to the extent that the turn ratios of the power transformers in the individual converters are different. However, with modern transformer manufacturing techniques, such as planar transformers with precise printed circuit-board windings, the mismatch in turn ratios, and, hence, mismatch in the input-voltage and load-current sharing, can be made negligible. The main advantage of the proposed scheme is that neither the input voltage nor the output current (if current mode control is not used) needs to be sensed, leading to extremely simple implementation of a fully modular architecture. The proposed ISOP connection with common-duty-ratio scheme was rst introduced by the authors in [18]. This paper presents a more detailed analysis, simulation and experimental results.

II. C OMMON -D UTY -R ATIO S CHEME FOR D IFFERENT M ODULAR C ONNECTIONS Fig. 1 shows the four possible combinations for inputoutput connections. For the input-parallel and output-series (IPOS) connection, standard, independent converters can be connected without any share bus, when the regulation due to impedances of the interconnections is negligible. Since, each converter regulates its own output voltage precisely, the total output voltage is also well regulated. Output voltage sharing automatically ensures equal sharing of the input currents. However, if the impedances are not negligible, and/or if the advantages of modularity such as redundancy are to be achieved, a dedicated output-voltage share loop can be incorporated [19].

As mentioned in Section I, the input-parallel and outputparallel (IPOP) connection has been investigated extensively, and several control techniques have been proposed and implemented to achieve equal sharing of load current in the presence of parameter mismatches and different impedances in the interconnections. Many of the schemes make use of a dedicated load-current-share bus and control loop. For the ISOP connection, just a load-current-share controller is not sufcient to ensure input-voltage sharing [16][18]. A dedicated input-voltage controller, like the charge-control scheme with input-voltage feed-forward as proposed in [15] or a current mode controller whose reference is adjusted by an input-voltage control loop, as proposed in [16], [17] is needed to ensure input-voltage sharing. A similar scheme for the inputseries and output-series (ISOS) scheme [Fig. 1(d)] has been proposed in [20], to achieve equal sharing of both input voltage and output voltage. The simplest possible control scheme for the modular connections would be to connect the converters in one of the suitable congurations shown in Fig. 1, depending on the input output specications of the system, and operate all the converters with a common duty ratio. However, such a control scheme does not result in stable operation for all the four congurations. For example, consider the IPOP system, comprising of two forward converters, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The duty ratio for both the converters is instantaneously the same, and is derived from the output-voltage loop (either current mode or voltage mode) corresponding to any one of the two converters. Under this condition, even a very small mismatch in the turn-ratios of the power transformers of the two converters can lead to a run away condition, with one converter carrying the entire load current. With the duty ratio and the input voltage remaining the same for the two converters, the converter with slightly higher turn ratio has a slightly higher average secondary rectied voltage rect . The higher voltage drives the inductor current of this converter to a large value, until the converter carries the entire load current. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 2(b), where the common output voltage and the two individual inductor currents (averaged over a switching period) are plotted. As seen, converter 2, which has slightly higher turn ratio, carries the entire load current. However, for the ISOP connection, the common-duty-ratio scheme results in a stable operation, even in the presence of turn-ratio mismatches. Though the input voltage and the load current are not shared perfectly equal among the converters, the unstable run-away mode is eliminated. In the ISOP connection too, with the common-duty-ratio control, the converter with a higher turn ratio and, hence, higher average rectied voltage does produce a higher inductor current momentarily. However, this leads to a higher input current in this converter, which discharges the input capacitor and reduces the input voltage of the corresponding converter. Hence, the average secondary voltages of both the converters become equal. This self-correcting mechanism ensures stable operation, and the input voltage and load current are shared equally to the extent that the transformer turn ratios are equal. From a similar analysis, it can be shown that the commonduty-ratio scheme will result in a stable operation for the ISOP

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Fig. 2. IPOP-connected forward converters using a common-duty-ratio scheme. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) simulated waveforms of the output voltage and individual output currents. Operation is unstable with converter 2 carrying the entire load.

TABLE I SUITABILITY OF COMMON-DUTY-RATIO SCHEME FOR THE FOUR COMBINATIONS OF INPUTOUTPUT CONNECTIONS

and IPOS congurations and unstable operation for IPOP and ISOS congurations. Table I gives the complete details related to the suitability of the common-duty-ratio scheme for different modular congurations. III. A NALYSIS OF C OMMON -D UTY -R ATIO S CHEME FOR ISOP C ONNECTION The schematic of the proposed common-duty-ratio scheme for the ISOP conguration consisting of N forward converters is shown in Fig. 3 (reset windings of the forward converters are not shown for clarity). It may be mentioned that several implementations of the common-duty-ratio scheme are possible and are discussed in detail in Section VI. In the implementation shown in Fig. 3, the converter N is the master converter, and all the other converters are slave converters. A single output-voltage loop generates the current reference for the inner current loop of the master converter N . A peak or average mode current controller in the master converter generates a suitable duty ratio d such that its output inductor current iLN equals the above current reference. This duty ratio d is made common to all the other converters too. If interleaving of the converters is not required, then the actual gate switching signal (with suitable isolation) itself can be made common to all the converters. If interleaving is desired, then, the duty-ratio signal can be shared,

Fig. 3.

Proposed ISOP conguration with common-duty-ratio scheme.

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Fig. 4. Large-signal average model of a two-converter ISOP system with a common-duty-ratio control. Input capacitors are purposely made very different to study the performance of the proposed scheme.

Fig. 5. (a) Small-signal average model of a single forward converter and (b) simplied model valid for analyzing input-voltage perturbations.

which will then be compared with suitably phase-shifted ramp signals in the individual converters to generate the individual gate drive. Though the proposed control scheme, as well as the analysis presented here, is valid for a general N -converter system, to simplify the analysis and experimental verication, only a twoconverter system is considered. Fig. 4 shows the average model (large-signal) of the ISOP connected two-converter system with a common-duty-ratio control. The average model is obtained by replacing the pulse-width-modulation (PWM) switch of each converter by its ideal transformer model [21]. The turn ratio of the ideal transformer is equal to the instantaneous duty ratio, which is common to both the converters in this scheme. This average model is valid even for large-scale transients such as step changes in input voltage or load. The time-domain simulations presented later in the paper are obtained using the above model. In order to study the stability of the proposed system, the small-signal average model of the converter is considered [21]. Fig. 5(a) shows the small-signal average model of a single forward converter, linearized around a specic operating conditioninput voltage Vin , output current Io , and steadystate duty ratio D. For the analysis of the input-voltage sharing under conditions of small-signal perturbations in total input voltage, the perturbations in the output voltage o can be

neglected, assuming a fast output-voltage controller. Hence, the output voltage can be considered as an ideal dc voltage source, and can be represented by a short circuit for small-signal ac analysis. Fig. 5(b) shows the small-signal model with the above assumption used for analyzing the input-voltage perturbations. Fig. 6 shows the small-signal average model of the complete ISOP system, derived from the single converter model shown in Fig. 5(b). Note that the voltage source on the secondary side and the output inductance have been transferred to the primary, and have also been transformed into an equivalent current source and parallel impedance. A converter input voltage in1 , for example, is dened as the voltage across the input capacitor of the corresponding converter, because it is this voltage that determines the voltage stress, and, hence, the ratings, of the MOSFETs. For simplicity of analysis, the two converters are assumed to have the same turn ratio n and same output inductance Lo (though neither of these assumptions is necessary to achieve stability). It may be noted that for an ISOP connected system with independent controllers, the system is unstable even with equal turn ratios and equal output inductor values [16], [18]. For the proposed scheme, under steady state, with the assumption of equal turn ratios, the two converters share the input voltage and load current equally, such that the steadystate values for the individual output currents and individual

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Fig. 6. Small-signal average model of a two-converter ISOP system, with all parameters referred to the primary side of the ideal transformer.

input voltages, to be used in the model of Fig. 6, are given by (1) and (2) Io1 = Io2 = Io 2 (1)

Fig. 7. Bode plots of the input-voltage disturbance transfer function (in1 (s) in2 (s))/in total (s).

where Io1 and Io2 are the individual steady-state output currents, and Io is the total load current Vin1 = Vin2 = Vin total 2 (2)

where Vin1 and Vin2 are the individual steady-state converter input voltages, and Vin total is the total input voltage to the system. For unequal turn ratios, the sharing of the output load current and the input voltages will be slightly different, and is given in (7) and (9). The condition for stability of the ISOP conguration shown in Fig. 6 is that, for an increase in a particular converter input voltage, for example in1 , with respect to in2 , the current through its input capacitor iCin1 should decrease compared to iCin2 , such that the two voltages tend to become equal. The currents through the two input capacitors, assuming the conditions of (1) and (2), and using the model of Fig. 6, are given in (3) and (4) nIo n2DVin n2D2 + d(s) in1(s) iCin1(s) = iin (s) 2 2sLo sLo (3)

since the individual duty ratios are inversely proportional to their respective individual input voltages. Hence, with independent control, as the input voltage of a converter increases, the current through the input capacitor also increases, leading to a further increase in the converter input voltage, eventually leading to a run-away condition. Since, there is no input-voltage controller to be designed in the proposed scheme, the transfer function of interest is the disturbance input transfer function, (in1 (s) in2 (s))/(in total (s)), i.e., response in the individual input voltages to perturbation in the total input voltage. The disturbance input transfer function can be derived using the average model shown in Fig. 6. With the assumption that the turn ratios of the two power transformers are close to each other, the current sources shown in Fig. 6 can be neglected in the analysis of in1 (s) in2 (s). Hence, the required disturbance transfer function can be derived as given in (6) Z1 (s) Z2 (s) in1 (s) in2 (s) = in total (s) Zin (s)+ Z1 (s)+ Z2 (s) Z1 (s) = Resr1 + sC1 in1 Resr2 + sC1 in2
o1 Rser1 + s nL 2 D2 1

(6a)

1 o1 Resr1 + Rser1 + s nL 2 D 2 + sC in1

1 o2 Rser2 + s nL 2 D2 2

(6b)

nIo n2DVin n2D2 iCin2(s) = iin (s) + d(s) in2 (s). (4) 2 2sLo sLo Subtracting (2) from (1) iCin1 (s) iCin2 (s) = n2 D2 [in1 (s) in2 (s)] . sLo (5)

Z2 (s) =

1 o2 Resr2 + Rser2 + s nL 2 D 2 + sC in2

2

(6c) (6d)

Zin (s) = RLin1 + RLin2 + s(Lin1 + Lin2 )

From (5), it can be seen that for small signal perturbations, a difference in the input voltages of the two converters causes a difference in the currents through their respective input capacitors in the correct direction so as to reduce the difference in the input voltages, leading to a stable input-series operation. It may be noted that, in the case of independent control, where d1 (s) = d2 (s), the above stability condition is not obtained,

where Rser is the effective series resistance that includes the resistance of the respective switches and the reected series resistance of the output inductance referred to the primary side, Resr is the equivalent series resistance of the respective input capacitor, and RLin is the series resistance of the respective input inductor. Fig. 7 shows the Bode plots, corresponding to the above transfer function, obtained using the full average model shown in Fig. 4. As seen, it is a stable transfer function with no right-half-plane poles (unlike the case of independent control). The gain at all frequencies is less than 0 dB, and peaks

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Fig. 8. Response to a step change in the total input voltage, corresponding to a large difference in the input capacitance values (Cin2 = 2Cin1 ). (a) Total input voltage and individual input voltages and (b) individual output currents and output voltage.

at f = 1/(2 (Lin1 + Lin2 )(Cin1 Cin2 /(Cin1 + Cin2 ))) Hz. The gain of the disturbance transfer function at 120 Hz is low (around 37 dB), and, hence, the proposed scheme can achieve a good input-voltage sharing when the input voltage is obtained from rectifying the utility voltage. A. Steady-State Input Voltage and Load-Current Sharing When the turn ratios of the power transformers of the two converters are identical, the input voltage and the load current are shared exactly equal by the two converters, even if other parameters such as the input capacitances or output inductances are different. If the turn ratios are different, then the sharing of the input voltage and load current is not exact and depends on the mismatch in the turn ratios. However, it must be emphasized that even a large mismatch in the turn ratios does not result in a run-away situation. Referring to the average model shown in Fig. 4, under steady state, the average voltage across the output inductors should be zero. Hence sec 1 = sec 2 = Vo Dn1 Vin1 = Vo = Dn2 Vin2 n2 Vin1 = . or Vin2 n1

The converter with a smaller turn ratio supports higher input voltage, higher load current, and, hence, higher power. It may be noted that with modern transformer manufacturing methods, such as planar transformers with printed circuit windings, the mismatch in the transformer turn ratios between different converter modules can be made almost negligible. Hence, the proposed scheme can ensure good sharing of input voltage and load current. It should also be noted that mismatches in the gate drive circuitry or in MOSFET characteristics, which lead to differences in the effective duty ratio of the two converters, are also similar to the turn-ratio mismatch and do not cause runaway condition. IV. S IMULATION R ESULTS The proposed ISOP system is numerically simulated using the large-signal average model shown in Fig. 4. In order to demonstrate the validity of the proposed scheme even in the presence of large parametric variations, the input capacitors of the two converters are made very dissimilar (1:2 ratio), and the turn ratio of the two transformers are also made different (about 6%, corresponding to the turn ratios of the transformers of actual hardware). The specications of the system and component values for the power stage and controllers are same as those used for the hardware prototype, which are detailed in Section V. Fig. 8(a) shows the two converter input voltages corresponding to a step change of 30 V in the total input voltage. Due to the large difference in the input capacitors of the two converters, the input voltages vary signicantly during the transient before settling down to the steady-state values determined by the transformer turn ratios. Fig. 8(b) shows the output voltage and the two output inductor currents. As seen, during the transients, the individual output currents deviate signicantly from each other. However, the sum of the two individual output currents remains fairly constant, and, hence, the perturbation in the output voltage is small, corresponding to the step change in input voltage. Fig. 9 shows the response in input voltages and output currents to the same step change in the total input voltage, but

(7) (8)

Therefore, the converters share the input voltages in inverse proportion to their respective transformer turn ratios. Similarly, at the input side, under steady state, the average input current of each converter should be equal due to the series connection iconv1 = iconv2 = Iin Dn1 Io1 = Dn2 Io2 n2 Io1 = . or Io2 n1

(9) (10)

From either (8) or (10), the power shared by each converter can be derived as given in (11) Po1 n2 = . Po2 n1 (11)

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Fig. 9. Response to a step change in the total input voltage, corresponding to a small difference in input capacitance values (Cin2 = 1.25Cin1 ). (a) Individual input voltages and (b) individual output currents and output voltage.

with the mismatch in input capacitors reduced from the original ratio of 1:2 to a more realistic ratio of 1:1.25, with all other parameters remaining unchanged. As seen, the deviation in both the input voltages as well as in the individual output currents is signicantly smaller than those shown in Fig. 8. V. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS The proposed scheme is validated experimentally on an ISOP system comprising of two forward converters. The specications of the overall system are given below. Input voltage 160220-V dc (to be shared equally by the two converters). Output voltage 48-V dc. Maximum output current 10 A (to be shared equally by the two converters). Switching frequency 200 kHz. The values for different parameters such as input capacitance, input and output inductances, and compensators for the output-voltage loop are the same as those indicated in Fig. 4. In particular, the input capacitors of the two converters are purposely chosen to be very different (66 and 33 F) from each other to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. No special efforts were made to make the turn ratios of the two transformers equal. The measured mismatch in the turn ratios is 6%. Fig. 10 shows the individual converter input voltages corresponding to a step change in input voltage from 190 to 220 V. As seen, before and after the transient, the converters share the input voltage with approximately 6% error, which corresponds to about 6% mismatch in the turn ratio of the two transformers. During the transient, the large difference in the input capacitors makes the overshoot in the input voltage of the converter with smaller capacitor (in1 ) much larger. Fig. 11 shows the output inductor currents (average over a switching period) of the two converters corresponding to the above step change in total input voltage. Since the duty ratios of the two converters are the same, the output current (and, hence, input current) of the converter with a higher input voltage (smaller input capacitor)

Fig. 10. Response in individual input voltages to a step change in total input voltage (1 ms/div; in total : 50 V/div; in1 and in2 : 20 V/div).

is higher, thus, correcting the differences in the two individual input voltages. It may also be noted from the gure that the sum of the two output inductor currents remains fairly constant, and, hence, there is a little effect on the output voltage corresponding to a step change in the total input voltage. Fig. 12 shows the two output inductor currents under steady state. As seen, the converters share the current well, with a difference of about 6% as predicted by (9). Fig. 13 shows the two input voltages and the two output currents during the startup of the system. As seen, the input voltage and load current are shared equally even during startup. Fig. 14 shows the deviation in the output voltage corresponding to a step change in the load current from 6 to 10 A. The exponential response and a peak undershoot of less than 2% demonstrate that the common-duty-ratio scheme does not adversely affect the stability and performance of the outputvoltage-control loop. This is also conrmed by the measured

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Fig. 11. Response individual output currents (averaged) to a step change in total input voltage (2 ms/div; 50 V/div and 2 A/div). Fig. 13. Individual output inductor currents and individual input voltages during system startup.

Fig. 12. Individual output inductor currents in steady state, demonstrating load sharing.

Bode plots of overall open-loop gain of the output-voltagecontrol loop (shown in Fig. 15). The compensator for the output-voltage loop is designed similar to the compensator design of a single forward converter, and is designed for a crossover frequency of 5 kHz. As seen from Fig. 15, the Bode plots measured on the ISOP system with common-duty-ratio matches very closely with the above design, which was done based on single converter considerations. Fig. 16 shows the response in the individual input voltages corresponding to the above step change in load current. VI. F AULT -T OLERANT A UTOMATIC M ASTER -S LAVE C OMMON -D UTY -R ATIO S CHEME FOR ISOP S YSTEMS A drawback of the scheme shown in Fig. 3 is that all the converter modules are not identical. One of them is the master converter and has an output-voltage loop and inner current loop, while all the other converters do not have any controller. The

Fig. 14. Response in output voltage (using ac coupling) corresponding to a step change in the total load current.

Fig. 15. Bode plots of overall loop gain of the output-voltage loop with a common-duty-ratio control.

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Fig. 16. Response in individual input voltages (ac coupling) corresponding to a step change in the total load current.

Fig. 17. Fault-tolerant autonomous ISOP conguration with a common-dutyratio-control scheme.

failure of the master converter results in the failure of the overall system, thus, compromising the reliability of the system. In order to achieve an enhanced reliability through modularity, the following four basic requirements must be met: 1) the converter modules should be identical to each other, and, when connected together, should (in the case of ISOP system) share the input voltage and output currents equally; 2) each of the individual converters should have an independent autonomous control, which ensures that even when one or more converters fail, the remaining healthy modules continue to support the system without any adverse impact on the system; 3) the faulted module(s) should be capable of being quickly isolated from the system for different kinds of faults; and 4) as in conventional IPOP systems, each module should be overrated for the designed amount of redundancy in order to make up for the failed modules. The scheme illustrated in Fig. 17 meets the above requirements for fault-tolerant modular three-converter ISOP system. This scheme is motivated by the many single-wireshare schemes for load-current sharing in IPOP congurations [10][12]. As seen from Fig. 17, all the three converter modules are identical and employ common-duty-ratio scheme for input voltage and load-current sharing. Each of the converters has its own dedicated output-voltage-control loop (voltage mode controlled, in this example). The output signals from each of these control loops are connected through a diode to the duty ratio bus. The converter with the highest signal becomes the automatic master and determines the voltage at the duty-ratio bus, which is shared by the other modules as the common duty ratio. In case, this converter fails and is bypassed; a different module (with the next highest duty-ratio signal) becomes the automatic master. The isolation of a failed module is more complex in the case of input-series connected system. The protection at the output side is similar to that of a conventional IPOP conguration.

However, at the input side, the terminals of the failed module need to be shorted in order to bypass it and allow the other converters to share the input voltage and load. The protection scheme using a silicon-controlled rectier (SCR) switch is illustrated in Fig. 17. SCR is a preferred switch for this application since it has a high short term over current rating, and, once triggered, it remains on without requiring a continuous gate drive. In terms of overrating of converter modules to realize n + 1 redundant conguration, the ISOP modules need to be overrated for input voltage and output current, whereas in the conventional IPOP conguration, the modules need to be overrated for input current and output current. Analysis, sensing, and design methods, along with experimental results for the fault-tolerant ISOP system using common-duty-ratio scheme, have been reported in [22]. VII. C ONCLUSION An input-series connection with active input-voltage sharing enables the use of MOSFETs with lower voltage rating and, hence, very low RDS ON , leading to reduced overall conduction losses. It also enables a fully modular power-system architecture, where lower input-voltage rated modules can be connected in different inputoutput congurations to meet any given specications. For very low output-voltage applications, the ISOP connection results in lower conversion ratios for individual converters, again leading to efciency improvements. The common-duty-ratio scheme proposed in this paper is an extremely simple, yet effective technique, to achieve an active sharing of input voltage and load current among the converter modules. The sharing is equal to the extent that the turn ratios of the power transformers of different converters are equal. Even with a large mismatch in turn ratios and very different converter parameters, the scheme ensures that run-away situation, where any one converter supports the entire input voltage or load current, is prevented.

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Analysis and numerical simulation based on the average model of forward converters prove the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. The scheme is validated experimentally on an ISOP system comprising of two forward converters. Apart from the master-slave scheme that has been the main focus of this paper, other common-duty-ratio schemes such as automatic master-slave scheme and democratic share scheme are also possible, as discussed in Section VI. Further, it is also possible to interleave the different converter modules to reduce the lter requirement in each converter module. An important advantage of the common-duty-ratio scheme is that sensing of individual converter input voltages is not required. In fact, when the voltage mode control is used for the output-voltage loop, no current sensing is required in any of the converters. Due to its simplicity, the proposed ISOP conguration with a common-duty-ratio control, can be a viable option even in applications where traditionally IPOP connection has been employed, with complex control methods to achieve equal sharing of load current. The proposed ISOP scheme can achieve load sharing without a dedicated load share controller or associated sensors, and with the added advantages of input-series connection. However, a disadvantage of the ISOP scheme is that the isolation of a failed module in the case of n + 1 redundant conguration is more complex, since the input terminal of the failed module needs to be shorted (through an SCR) to bypass and allow the other modules to share the input voltage and load. In such a redundant system, in the case of ISOP connection, the input voltage and output current of the modules need to be overrated, where as in the case of a conventional IPOP connection, the input and output currents need to be overrated. R EFERENCES
[1] S. Luo, Z. Ye, R. L. Lin, and F. C. Lee, A classication and evaluation of paralleling methods for power supply modules, in Proc. IEEE PESC, 1999, pp. 901908. [2] K. Siri, C. Q. Lee, and T. F. Wu, Current distribution control for parallel connected convertersPart I, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 829840, Jul. 1992. [3] V. J. Thottuvelil and G. C. Verghese, Analysis and control design of paralleled DC/DC converters with current sharing, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 635644, Jul. 1998. [4] T. F. Wu, K. Siri, and C. Q. Lee, Reliability improvement in parallel connected converter systems, in Proc. IEEE IECON, 1991, vol. 1, pp. 429434. [5] L. Thorsell and P. Lindman, Reliability analysis of a direct parallel connected n + 1 redundant power system based on high reliable DC/DC modules, in Proc. IEEE INTELEC, 1988, pp. 551556. [6] C. Chang and M. A. Knights, Interleaving technique in distributed power conversion systems, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Fundam. Theory Appl., vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 245251, May 1995. [7] B. T. Irving and M. M. Jovanovic, Analysis, design and performance evaluation of droop current sharing methods, in Proc. IEEE APEC, 2000, pp. 235241. [8] J. W. Kim, H. S. Choi, and B. H. Cho, A novel droop method for converter parallel operation, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 2532, Jan. 2002. [9] Y. Panov, J. Rajagopalan, and F. C. Lee, Analysis and design of N parallel DC-DC converters with master-slave current control, in Proc. IEEE APEC, 1997, vol. 1, pp. 436442. [10] M. Jordan, UC3907 load share simplies parallel power supply design, Unitrode Corp., Merrimack, NH, Unitrode Appl. Note U-129, 2003. [11] K. T. Small, Single wire current share paralleling of power supply, U.S. Patent 4 717 833, Jan. 5, 1988. [12] M. M. Jovanovic, A novel, low-cost implementation of democratic load current sharing of parallel converter modules, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 604611, Jul. 1996.

[13] D. J. Perreault, K. Sato, R. L. Selders, and J. G. Kassakian, Switchingripple-based current sharing of paralleled power converters, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I, Fundam. Theory Appl., vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 12641274, Oct. 1999. [14] N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003, p. 589. [15] J. W. Kim, J. S. You, and B. H. Cho, Modeling, control and design of input-series-output-parallel-connected converter for high-speed-train power system, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 536544, Jun. 2001. [16] A. Bhinge, N. Mohan, R. Giri, and R. Ayyanar, Series-parallel connection of DC-DC converter modules with active sharing of input voltage and load current, in Proc. IEEE APEC, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 648653. [17] R. Ayyanar, R. Giri, and N. Mohan, Active input-voltage and load-current sharing in input-series and output-parallel connected modular DC-DC converters using dynamic input-voltage reference scheme, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 14621473, Nov. 2004. [18] R. Giri, R. Ayyanar, and N. Mohan, Common duty ratio control of input series connected modular DC-DC converters with active input voltage and load current sharing, in Proc. IEEE APEC, 2003, vol. 1, pp. 322326. [19] S. N. Manias and G. Kostakis, Modular DC-DC converter for highoutput voltage applications, Proc. Inst. Electr. Eng.Electr. Power Appl., vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 97102, Mar. 1993. [20] R. Giri, R. Ayyanar, and E. Ledezma, Input series and output series connected modular DC-DC converters with active input voltage and output voltage sharing, in Proc. IEEE APEC, Feb. 2004, pp. 17511756. [21] V. Vorperian, Simplied analysis of PWM converters using the model of the PWM switch: Part IContinuous conduction mode, IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 490496, May 1990. [22] R. Ayyanar and V. Choudhary, Fault tolerant circuit topology and control methods for input-series and output-parallel modular DC-DC converters, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH, Final Rep. to NASA GRC, Award numberNNC04GB40G, 2005.

Ramesh Giri (M03) received the B.S. degree from P.S.G. College of Technology, Coimbatore, India, and the M.S. degree from Arizona State University, Tempe. He has been a Switched Mode Power Supply Design Engineer in the industry for over 15 years. He is currently a Corporate Applications Engineer with Maxim Integrated Products, Sunnyvale, CA, and is responsible for dening the power management integrated circuits.

Vijay Choudhary received the B.Tech. degree in 2002 from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, and the M.S. degree in 2004 from Arizona State University, Tempe, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering. His research interests include dcdc converter topologies and digital control of power supplies.

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Raja Ayyanar (S97M00) received the M.S. degree from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. He has been an Assistant Professor at Arizona State University, Tempe, since August 2000. He has many years of industrial experience designing switch-mode power supplies. His current research interests include topologies and control techniques for switch-mode power converters, especially dcdc converters, fully modular power-system architecture, new pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) techniques for drives, distributed generation, and other power electronic applications in power systems. Dr. Ayyanar received an Ofce of Naval Research (ONR) Young Investigator Award in 2005.

Ned Mohan (M73SM91F96) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1973. He is the Oscar A. Schott Professor of power electronics at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, where he has been teaching since 1976. He has numerous patents and publications in the eld of power electronics, electric drives, and power systems. He has written ve textbooks. Prof. Mohan is a recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award presented by the Institute of Technology, University of Minnesota.