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Women and art history in Oxford Art Online

OxfordArtOnline

GroveArtOnline

Womenandarthistory
articleurl:http://www.oxfordartonline.com:80/subscriber/article/grove/art/T092072

Womenandarthistory.
Thereisnolackofevidenceofwomensparticipationinthehistoryofartsofallforms,culturesandperiods,from ancienttraditions,suchaspotteryandcarvingorsilkweavingandpaintinginChina(c.3000BC),tothepresent andnumerousformsofartisticexpression.Yettraditionalarthistoryhaskeptusinsystematicignoranceofthefact thatwomenhavealwaysmadeart.Ittooktheemergenceoffeminisminthelate20thcenturytoredressthealmost completeneglectofwomenartistsbyarthistoryandtounderminethestereotypedviewsofartmadebywomen.

I.Introduction.
Whendiscussed,artbywomenwasderogativelycategorizedaswomensartinordertodistinguishitfromart, which,despiteitslackofadjectivalqualification,hadcometobeexclusivelyidentifiedwithacanonofwhitemen. Sincethe1960smanybookshavebeenpublishedonthehistoryofwomeninallareasofthevisualartsinall periodsandmanycultures.Theevidenceforwomenasartistsisoverwhelming,buttheprojectofrestoringwomen tothehistoryofarthasraisedmajorhistoriographical,politicalandtheoreticalissues.Ithasbeenshownthatitis onlyinthe20thcentury,whenarthistorywasfullyconsolidatedasanacademicdiscipline,thatwomenartistswere systematicallyeffacedfromtherecordofthehistoryofart.Thisraisesthequestionofwhythishashappenedand producesthesecondproblemofwhetherarthistoryasestablishedcanaccommodatethedifferenthistoriesofart thatalonewouldaccountforwomensexperiencesasartistsandmakelegiblewhattheyproduced.Itisnecessary, therefore,todistinguishbetweenthehistoryofartasthefieldofhistoricalartisticpractice,andarthistoryasthe organizeddisciplinethathasstudiedthisfieldinselectiveways.Arthistorytellsastoryofartincompatiblewith understandingthehistoriesofwomeninthevisualarts.Itisagendereddiscoursethatparticipatesinthesexual divisionsofsocietybycelebratingthemosthighlyvaluedcreativityastheexclusivepropertyofaselectmasculinity. Thus,questioningofwhyartbywomenhasbeenneglectedor,ifmentioned,hasbeenstereotypedaswomens art,thatis,asfeminineandother,andplacedalwaysasthenegativecipherto(masculine)art,hasfocused attentionontheideologicalbasesofthediscoursesofarthistoryinthiscentury.Theredressoftheneglectof womenbyarthistorycannotbeaccomplishedwithoutamajorreframingofthearthistoricalproject,shifting attentionawayfromtheidealizationoftheautonomouscreativeartistandtheexclusivelyformalpropertiesofart objects.Feministcritiquesofarthistoryhavebeendevelopedfromnewtheoreticalpositionsontheoriesofhistory (challengingtypicalperiodizationsandnotionsofstylisticdevelopment),theoriesofideology(thesocialinvestment inculturalmeanings),theoriesoftheimageandtext(semiotics,authorship),theoriesofsociety(theroleofgender aswellasclassandraceinsocialformations)andtheoriesofthesubject(challengingnotionsofindividualagency throughattentiontotheroleoftheunconscious,fantasyandpsychicallyinstalledsexualdifferencesee II,4 ). Newwaysofreadingvisualrepresentationhavebeenproduced,whileartisreconceivedasasocialpractice, shapedbyhistoricallyspecificinstitutions,whichisproductiveofimagesthatarebothdeterminedwithinsocial relationsofclass,race,genderandsexualityandareeffectiveinshapingsocialmeaningsandsexualidentities.

II.Westernworld.
1.Thehistoricalrecord.
Ithasbeenpossibletoreclaimthehistoryofwomenintheartsthroughsurvivinghistoricalrecordsandworks,as wellasfromthedocumentationofwomenartistsworkintheliteratureonWesternartuntilthe19thcentury,whenit wasinterrupted,toavirtualerasureofsuchknowledgebysomearthistoriansinthe20thcentury.

(i)Ancienttomedieval.

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TheRomanhistorianPliny(AD23/2479)includedinBookXXXVofhisNatural Historysixwomenartistsofantiquity:Timarete,AstarteandOlympia,Helenof Egypt,KalypsoandIaiaorLalaofCyzicus.Someofthesenamesarealsolisted inDeclarismulieribus(1370)bytheItalianpoetBoccacciowithThamyris,Eirene andMarcia(whoisprobablyIaiaseefig.),theyreappearedinmost Renaissancecommentariesasexemplars,however,ofexceptionalwomen. Womenarerecordedinmedievalartproductioninbothreligiousandsecular institutions.WomensnamesareattachedtomanuscriptsfromAD800onwards. ASpanishRomanesquemanuscriptknownastheBeatusApocalypse ofGirona (Girona,Mus.Catedralicio)wasillustratedinpartandsignedbyENDE (c.AD 975).FortyfivebooksbythehandofDiemudofthecloisterofWessobrunare known,whileGudaofWestphalia,another12thcenturynun,wroteandpainted MarciaPainting,temperaon aHomiliaryofStBartholomew.HerradofHohenbourg(d 1195)produceda vellum,miniaturefrom Boccaccio:Descleres massivefoliocalledtheHortusdeliciarum,andHILDEGARDOFBINGEN,who wasacomposeraswellasanilluminatorandwriteronnaturalhistory,createdanilluminatedvolumeofhermystical visions,Scivias(114252Wiesbaden,HessischeLandesbibliothek,fol.1 r)avolumeoftheofficialPatrologia Latina isdevotedentirelytoherworks.Womenscontributiontootherareasofmedievalart,suchassecularand ecclesiasticalembroidery,iswidelydocumented(Parker,1984),andwomenarerecordedasbeingactiveinmany medievalcrafts,someofwhichwerefemalemonopolies.SabinavonSteinbachsstonesculptures(14thcentury)on StrasbourgCathedralaresigned,andlegend,recountedbyVachon(1893),suggeststhatshewasgiventhetask ofcompletionofthefaadesculpturesonthecathedralonthedeathofthemasterbuilder.

(ii)Renaissancetoearlymodern.
GiorgioVasari,theRenaissanceartistwhoseVite (1550rev.1568)becamea modelforlaterarthistoricalwriting,referredinthistexttothewomenPlinynoted andintheeditionof1568mentionedfiveFlemishwomenartistsandadded somecontemporariesoftheItalianschool:SuorPlautillaNelliLucretiaQuistelli dellaMirandolaIrenediSpilimbergo,apupilofTitianBarbaraLonghi SofonisbaAnguissolaandherthreesisters(seefig.)andtheBologneseartists ProperziadeRossi,whowasalsorenownedasasculptor,andLaviniaFontana. Duringthe17thand18thcenturiestheworksandcareersofwomenartistswere publiclydiscussedandcelebrated.CarloCesareMalvasiawroteanadulatory biographyofElisabettaSiranititledFelsinapittrice (1678),inwhichhealso mentionedFontana,SofonisbaAnguissolaandFedeGalicia(15781630). ArnoldHoubrakensbookonthelivesofDutchpaintersDegrooteschouburgh SofonisbaAnguissola:Infanta CataliaMicaela,oiloncanvas, derNederlandtschekonstschildersenschilderessen (171821)includedwomen 620489mm, artistsinhistitleandnamed11ofthemwithinthebook.Womenhadbeenactive inFlemishartsincethelate15thcentury(e.g.LeviniaTeerlinc,1510/2076,andCaterinavanHermessen,after 1528after1587),andtheywerewellrepresentedingenreandstilllifepaintingin17thcenturyHolland(Judith Leyster,ClaraPeeters,RachelRuysch). Womenwerecourtartists,forexampletheSpanishsculptorLuisaRoldn,whoworkedforCharlesIIofSpain.The internationalreputationachievedbytheVenetianpastellistRosalbaCarrierawasindicatedbyheradmissiontothe AccademiadiSLucainRome(1705)andtheAcadmieRoyaledePeintureetdeSculptureinParis(1720). WomenartistswereamongfoundermembersoftheRoyalAcademyinLondonin1768:AngelicaKauffmanand MaryMoserwhiletherewereseveralwomenmembersoftheAcadmieRoyaleinthelate18thcentury,including AnneVallayerCoster,theBerlinartistAnnaDorotheaTherbusch,ElisabethLouiseVigeLeBrunandAdlade LabilleGuiard.RecordsofwomensculptorsaremoreintermittentforthisperiodbutincludeAnneSeymourDamer andMarieAnneCollot,whoworkedwithFalconetontheequestrianstatueofPetertheGreat(1766)inSt Petersburg,modellingtheTsarsheadandmakingportraitbustsformembersofthecourtofCatherinetheGreat (Opperman,1965).

(iii)Modern.
Thehistoricalrecordfromantiquitytothe18thcenturywasconsiderably expandedbythe19thcentury,whenmanywomen,professionalandamateur, wereactiveinthevisualarts,exhibitingatsalonsandacademies(seefig.),as wellasparticipatinginnew,independentartgroupsandtakingupnewmedia suchasphotography.ArtistsinthisfieldincludeClementina,Viscountess Hawarden,JuliaMargaretCameron,FrancesBenjaminJohnson,MaryE.Flenoy andEliseHarleston.Bytheendofthe19thcentury,whenthedisciplineofART HISTORY wasbecomingarecognizedareaofresearchandpublication,a constantbutfluctuatingrecordofwomenintheartswasconsolidatedintoa seriesofmajorsurveysofwomensparticipationinallbranchesofthevisualarts: Guhl(1858),Ellet(1859),Clayton(1876),Fidire(1885),Vachon(1893), Sparrow(1905),Hirsch(1905),Ragg(1907)andScheffler(1908).In1904Clara Clementproducedamassivecompilationofover1000entries,andLMrten producedherstudyDieKnstlerin .TheKnstlerlexikon begunbyThiemeand
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MargaretFoley:Cleopatra, marble,608498301mm, 1876(Washington,DC,

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Smithsonian printmaking.

Beckerin1907listsover6000womenintheareasofpainting,sculptureand

Bythemid20thcentury,however,standardtextbooksinusethroughout universityandcollegearthistorycoursesmentionedeitherveryfewwomen artistsor,moreoften,noneatall(e.g.H.W.JansonsTheHistoryofArtE.H. GombrichsTheStoryofArt)womenphotographerswereneverascompletely erasedaspaintersandsculptors.Itisthisfactthatledwomenradicallyto reappraisemodernarthistoryanditshierarchies,whichhaveensuredthatthe morehighlyvaluedtheactivity,thelesswomenwillbeassociatedwithit.This reflectsawidespreadculturalphenomenonstudiedbysocialanthropologiststhat revealsthatsocialacknowledgementoftheperformerofsocialactionsrelates moretosocialstatusthantothenatureorextentofactivityperformed(Ortner, 1974).Inthefewmoderntextsthatdorefertowomen,commentsaretypically dismissive,revealingtheuseofthefemininestereotype:RudolfWittkowerinArt EdmoniaLewis:OldIndian andArchitectureinItaly,16001750 (1965)describedRosalbaCarrieraswork ArrowMakerandhisDaughter, marble,545345340 asmellow,fragrantandsweet,typicallyfeminineinreferringtoVigeLeBrun, themosthighlypaidportraitpainterofhertime,MichaelLeveyinRococotoRevolution (1966)wrote:Byremoving anysuggestionsofintelligence(naturally)asifithadbeenrouge,shecreatedthelimpid,fashionablyartless portrait.DrawingonatendencythatcanbetracedtoBoccaccioandVasaritorepresentanywomanartistasan exceptiontohernaturalsex,whowouldnonethelessalwaysbetraysignsofherfemininityinherart,Victorian commentatorsontheartserectedarigiddivisionbetweentheabilities,tastesandsensibilitiesofthesexesto createseparatespheresforartbymenandbywomen.TheAmericancriticJohnJacksonJarveswritingin1871of thegroupofneoclassicalsculptorssettledinRome,namedbyHenryJamesawhitemarmoreanflock,which includedHarrietHosmer,EmmaStebbinsandEdmoniaLewis(seefig.),said:Womenarebynaturelikewise promptedinthetreatmentofsculpturetomotivesoffancyandsentimentratherthanrealisticportraitureorabsolute creativeimagination(A.J.,x,1871,p.7)LonLegrangewrote:Malegeniushasnothingtofearfromfemale taste(Gaz.B.A .,viii,1860,pp.3043).Thedoctrineofseparatespheresfunctionedparadoxically.Intheeraof highbourgeoisculture,womenartistsweregrantedadegreeofrecognitionfortheirspecialsensibilities,whichwas reinforcedbytheformationofsuchwomensartorganizationsastheSocietyofFemaleArtists(laterLadyArtists)in Britain(founded1856)andtheUniondesFemmesPeintresetSculpteursinFrance(founded1881seeGarb, 1994),andthemanyartcirclesforwomen,suchastheVereinderBerlinerKnstlerinnen(founded1867).Inthe differentculturalregimeofearly20thcenturymodernism,separationcouldanddideasilybecomesegregation,and intheatmosphereofamodernistculturethatreactedagainsttheoversexualizationof19thcenturyideologybya completedenialofanyvalueforgenderdifference,theverydiscoursesthathadatleastacknowledgedwomenas artists,howeverbelittlingly,becamethejustificationfortheirtotalexclusion,sothatJanson,authorofoneofthe mostwidelyreadtextbooks,TheHistoryofArt(1962),couldstatein1979thatnowomenwereincludedinhisbook becausenowomanhadbeenimportantenoughtogointoaonevolumehistoryofart(Salomon,1991).

2.Womenandthewritingofarthistory.
Womenhaveparticipatedinthedevelopmentofthedisciplineofarthistorysinceitsemergenceinthelate18th century.Theirinterestsreflectedaspectsofwomenscircumstancesintheprivilegedclasses,andalthoughthey wereneverexclusivelyconcernedwithwomenartists,manyofthefirstprofessionalwomenarthistorians accommodatedwomenartistsintheirhistoricalsurveysandguidestomuseumsandcollections.Johanna Schopenhauer(17661838)wroteJohannvanEyckundseineNachfolge (1822),oneofthefirstbooksonthe artistandhisschool.MariaDundasGraham,LadyCallcott,publishedthefirstmonographonPoussinin1820and in1835producedaDescriptionoftheChapeloftheAnnunziatadellArena .AbiographyofSalvatoreRosawas writtenbyLadyMorganin1824,whileAnnaBrownellJameson,consideredthefirstprofessionalwomanart historian,initiatedworkonreligiousandseculariconographywithherSacredandLegendaryArt(1848).French GothicsculpturewasresearchedbyFliciedAyzacherHistoiredeSaintDenisappearedin186061.Mary PhiladelphiaMerrifieldisstillnotedforherresearchandpublicationoftreatisesonpaintingandotherartformsfrom the12thand13thcenturies.ShetranslatedCenninoCenninistreatiseonpaintingin1844andin1846wroteThe ArtofFrescoPainting .ElizabethEllet,EllenClaytonandClaraClementwrotebooksonwomenartists,whileAnna JamesondevotedpartofherVisitsandSketches(1834)toanappraisalofwomenartists,whilesheplanneda threevolumememoironcelebratedfemaleArtists. InWomenasInterpretersoftheVisualArts,18201970 (1981)ClaireRichterShermanandAdeleHolcomb provideddetailedstudiesofmajorwomenarthistoriansandcritics,includingcriticsMargaretFullerandMariana GriswoldVanRensselaer,EmiliaFrancesPattison,LadyDilke(17thto18thcenturyFrenchart),Georgiana GoddardKing(medievalSpanishart),GiselaRichter(Greekart),EricaTietzeConrat(RenaissanceandBaroque art)andAgnesMongan(drawings).Thisresearchshowstherelationsbetweenwomensworkintheemergent disciplineofarthistoryandchangingsocialandculturalattitudestowardswomen.Whilethefieldwasstillrelatively undefinedinthe19thcentury,womenmademajorcontributionstothestudyofartinanatmosphereinwhich independenttravelandfreelanceresearchandwritingwererespectableactivitiesformiddleclasswomen.With greaterprofessionalizationthedistinctionbetweentrainedacademicsorcuratorsandamateurintellectuals widened,and,althoughintheUSAwomenconstitutedalmost50%oftheinitialmembershipoftheCollegeArt Association(founded1917),therewasgrowinginequalityofstatusbetweenmenandwomen,asarthistorywas firmlylocatedinmuseumsanduniversitiesandculturalattitudesbegantodictatetowomenarigidchoicebetween workandfamily.Thecontributionofwomentotheformationanddevelopmentofthestudyofthehistoryofarthas
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beenneglectedinthehistoriesofarthistoryShermanandHolcombmadeanimportantstartinthisnecessaryarea ofresearchandreassessmentofmajorwomenscholarsinthefield.

3.Historicalrecovery.
Thereemergenceofthewomensmovementinthelate1960sandearly1970sprecipitatedareassessmentofall branchesoforganizedknowledge.Initialrecoveriesofwomenartistsmadewomenarthistoriansandartistsbeginto critiquethesilencesandstereotypesofarthistorywithregardtowomenartists,producingaseriesofinterventions thathavesincechallengedtheauthorityofthedisciplineandquestioneditspractices:forinstanceitsfocusonthe great,individualartistitsisolationofartfromothersocialpracticesasexemplifiedinitstypicalformsthe monographandthecatalogueraisonnitspreoccupationwithstylisticevolutionitsseparationoficonographyfrom socialmeaningandideologyitsselectivityinpreservingawhitemalecanon.

(i)Redressingtheneglect.
Fromtheearly1970sasteadyflowofexhibitionsandpublicationsbegantheretrievalofknowledgeaboutwomen artiststhathadbeeneffacedinthe20thcentury,expandingthatknowledgewithbothnewresearchanda differentlyorientatedanalysisofthecultureproducedbywomen.ThemostsignificantweretheexhibitionsOld Mistresses(1972),Knstlerinneninternational,18771977 (1977)andDasverborgeneMuseum(1987),thelastof whichdocumentedtheartbywomeninBerlinspubliccollections,andthebookWomenArtists,15501950 byAnn SutherlandHarrisandLindaNochlin(1976).In19756atravellingexhibitionWomenofPhotography:AnHistorical Surveyprovidedabasichistoricalrecordofwomeninthisfield,whichhasbeensupplementedbyagrowingnumber ofstudiesonselectedphotographers,suchasLadyHawarden,JuliaMargaretCameron,FrancesBenjamin Johnson,ImogenCunningham,DorotheaLangeandmanyothersactiveinthe20thcentury(Fisher,1987).Jeanne MoutoussamyAshehasdocumentedthehistoryofAfricanAmericanwomenphotographers(1986,rev.1993). SurveysofwomenintheartspublishedinEnglishduringthe1970sand1980s(includingTufts,1974Peterson andWilson,1976HonigFine,1978Greer,1979Rubinstein,1982Slatkin,1985Heller,1987)mainly concentratedonwhiteEuropeanandAmericanartists,althoughtherewasdetailedstudyofwomenartistsofChina publishedasanappendixtoPetersonandWilsonasearlyas1976(see IV ).OraWilliamsproducedAmerican BlackWomenintheArtsandSocialSciences:ABibliographicSurveyin1973,andinthesameyearmanywomen weredetailedinAfroAmericanArtists:ABioBibliographicalDirectorybyT.CedarHolm.WomeninGermanyhave publishedonwomeninart(Nabakowski,SanderandGorsen,1980Berger,1982Krull,1984). Bythe1980swhitefeministarthistoriansrespondedtocritiqueoftheracisminarthistoryandjoinedwithwomen fromallnationsinresearchonwomenoutsidetheWest(seealso IIIIVbelow),particularlyLyle,Mooreand NavarettasWomenArtistsoftheWorld (1984),onthoseworkingintraditionsderivedfromAfrican,Asian, Amerindian,AustralianorCanadiantraditions,andthosewhowerepartofthepostcolonialdiasporas(Rubinstein, 1982GoumaPetersonandMathews,1987,Sulter,1990).AspecialexhibitionwasdevotedtoJapaneseWomen Artists,16001900 (1988see IV ),andtheNationalMuseumofWomenintheArts,inWashington,DC,has producedexhibitionsonwomenartistsfromPoland(VoicesofFreedom:PolishWomenArtistsandtheAvantgarde, 18801990 ,1991)andfromtheArabnations(ForcesofChange:ArtistsfromtheArabWorld ,1994).Inthelate 1990sworkwasinprogressonwomenartistsinSouthAfrica,Korea,Japan(Shalala,1994),IndiaandPakistan (1994exh.cat.byHashmiandPoomayaSmith).Sinceithasbeenarguedthatthehierarchicaldivisionbetween artsandcraftsechoedandreinforcedagenderhierarchy,renewedattentionwaspaidtowomenindesignand textiles(Callen,1979Anscombe,1984Parker,1984).Lessattentionhasbeenpaidtothespecifichistoryof womensculptors,althoughMitchell(1989)begantoworkonwomensculptorsinFrance,particularlyCamilleClaudel andJeannePoupelet,andRubenstein(1990)documentedanAmericanhistory.Therearespecialcasestudieson Victorianwomenartists(GerrishNunn,1986Cherry,1993)aswellasafewmajormonographs(e.g.Garrardon Gentileschi,1989,andmanymoreonwomenofthe19thand20thcenturies).Researchintowomenartistsis assistedbymuseumsintendingtocollectandconservewomensart,suchastheNationalMuseumofWomensArt inWashington,DC,theVerborgeneMuseumprojectinBerlinandtheFrauenMuseuminBonn.

(ii)Facingtheoreticalissues.
Whileithasbeenimportanttoturnbackthetideofignorancebypublishing surveysandmonographsonwomenartiststoensuretheirinclusioninacademic syllabiandculturesgeneralknowledge(themostcompleteofwhichbythelate 20thcenturywasChadwicksWomen,ArtandSociety,1990),thestudyof womenartistsisnotwellservedbyafocusontheartistinbiographicalisolation orbyamerereplicationofthestandardformatsandinterestsofmainstreamart histories.Thefeministinterventioninarthistoryimmediatelyconfrontsproblems abouttext,authorandsexualdifferencethattranscendthefield,tobe consideredalsoinsuchotherareasofculturalproductionasfilmandliterature: doesgendermakeadifference?Ifso,isitsocial,cultural,psychological, biological?Isitatranshistoricalfactaboutmenorwomen,orisithistoricallyand culturallyvariable?Thepositionthatattributestowomenagivenqualityshared JudyChicago:plate byallofthesexledcertainartistsandarthistorianstoexamineartmadeby representingMargaretSanger, fromTheDinnerParty, womenforafemaleiconography,forexampletheworkofJudyChicago(see fig.seealso FEMINISMANDART).Othersarguedthatwomensartisticproductionwasshapedhistoricallyby
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socialforcesresultingfromsuchfactsaswomenslimitedaccesstoformaltrainingintheperiodoftheacademies andtheirofficialexclusionfromstudyfromthenudemodel,andthegeneralculturalideologiesaboutwomens natureandsensibility(Nochlin,1971).Anotherpositionisthatpsychologicalfactorsarisingfromthegeneralposition ofwomeninsocialandpersonallifeaffectedtheirart,whichwasmadeinconditionsthatrepressedtheirsexualities andbroketheirenergiesagainstaseriesofobstacles,suchasfamily,illusionofsuccess,loveandsoforth(Greer, 1979).TheanthologySignificantOthers(1993)byChadwickanddeCourtivronhasreexaminedwomenartistsin relationshipswithmenartists,whileRogoff(1992)hasprovidedamoretheorizedanalysisofhowtoexamine womenartistsinrelationtobothmalecultureandwomensnetworks. Adifferentapproachthatcanbelooselydefinedaspoststructuralistlocatedtheissueinlanguage,andthe discoursesofculturethatinstitutionalizedmasculinityasthenormanddefinedfemininityasdevianceand insufficiency.Inaworldorderedbysexualimbalance,suchoppositionsashigh/low,serious/trivial,art/craftwould alwaysechothesexualhierarchy.Thuswomenarthistorianscouldnotbegintodiscusstheculturalpracticesof womenwithoutdeconstructingtheverypremisesofthesystemicsexismwrittenintoandperformedbylanguage andreproducedinarthistorysownspecialformsandparticulardiscourses.Amajorexampleoftheradical transformationisTicknersTheSpectacleofWomen (1987),whichanalysedthevisualhistoryofthecampaignsfor womenssuffrage,identifyingthesuffragistsuseofvisualspectacle,banners,postcards,posters,mass demonstrationsinordertodevelopavisualrhetoricthatchallenged,whileusingtheexistingtermsof,Edwardian femininity.Theanalysisofthewarofimagesunleashedwhenwomentookonthebourgeoisstatetodemandcivil statuswasacontestaboutdefinitionsofsexualdifferenceasmuchascivilrights.Ticknersworkrevealedthe importanceofvisualrepresentationinsocietydefinedasabattlefieldofrepresentations.Thisbooknecessarily abolishedthecuratorialandarthistoricaldistinctionsbetweenpaintingandposters,betweenperformanceand politicsinordertoestablishtheimportanceofthismomentinthehistoryofwomen,societyandrepresentation. Feministarthistorianshave,therefore,stressedtheneedforasocialstructuralanalysisoftheconditionsofboth artisticproductionandgenderrelationsinordernotonlytosituateandcomprehendtheforcesthatshaped womenslives,actionsandculturalproductionsbutalsotounderminethefalseclaimstosuprasocialuniversality thatismadeforcanonizedwhitemaleart(see FEMINISMANDART).Thustheissueofsexualdifferenceis introducedtochangethewholehistoryofart,andnotmerelytoreconfirmwomensabnormalstatuswithinit.

4.Feministcritiques.
(i)Interventions.
WhenLindaNochlinpublishedthearticle:WhyAreThereNoGreatWomenArtists?(1971),herobjectwasnotto answerthequestionbuttoexposeitsdangers,sinceittookforgrantedtheideaofgreatnessthatiscentraltothe canon(seealsoDuncan,1975).Sherevealedthesocialandculturalpressuresthatdeterminewhocanandcannot makeartandbeacknowledgedasagreatartistbyshowingtheimportanceofextraaestheticfactors,suchas education,artinstitutionsandprevailingculturalideologies.Nochlinposedfeminismasacatalystforreevaluating thedisciplineasawhole,becauseitraisedsuchfundamentalquestionsaboutthewayarthistoryobscuresthe socialcharacterofartisticpracticeandvaluesystems.In1981ParkerandPollockpublishedOldMistresses: Women,ArtandIdeology,borrowingthetitlefromGabhartandBrounsexhibitionof1972.Theytookupthe questionposedbytheexhibitionsauthorsofwhythereisnofemaleequivalentforthereverentialtermoldmaster. Pointingoutaconsistentpatterninthelanguageusedofwomenbyarthistoriansandcriticssincethe18th century,whichtheynamedthefemininestereotype,theyarguedthatarthistorywasnotindifferenttowomenbut hadactivelyproducedthetermsofwomensexclusionbycreatinganegativecategoryagainstwhichaselective creativity,unacknowledgedasmasculine,waserectedasthesolerepresentativeofWesternculture.Furthermore, theyexaminedtheideologicalbasesofthedivisionbetweentheartsandcrafts,analysedthevaryinghistoryofthe identityoftheartist,anddefinedthehistoricalmomentoftherevolutionaryemergenceofbourgeoissocietyasthat atwhichthetermswomanandartistbecamesociallyandideologicallyantagonistic.Theyarguedthatwomen werepositioneddifferentiallyinrelationtodominantstructuresofartisticpracticeanddefinitionsofartisticidentity, butthattheyproducedartasmuchbecauseofasdespitetheseconditions.Refutingamerelynegative explanation,theystressedthewaysinwhichwomenartistsnegotiatedbothinstitutionsandrepresentational traditionstoproduceworksthatrequirereadingsattunedtorecognitionofspecificityratherthanabsolute difference.Finally,theyexploredtheproductionrelationsbetweenwomenartistsandcertainmodernistmovements Surrealism(seealsoVergine,1980Chadwick,1985),AbstractExpressionismandconceptualartleadingupto thedecisivechallengetomodernismposedbytheemergenceoffeministpracticesinthevisualartsinthe1970s. Theyestablishedthenecessitytoerasetheboundarybetweenhistoricalandcontemporaryart.Twoanthologies editedbyNormaBroudeandMaryGarrard(1982and1992)bringtogetherrepresentativesamplesofthe interventionswomenhavemadeusingthesemodelsandothersintoallperiodsfromancientGreecetothepresent. In1987GoumaPetersonandMathewsprovidedahistoricaloverviewofthevaryingpositionsanddebates producedbyTheFeministCritiqueofArtandArtHistory(respondedtobyPollock,1993).LisaTickner(1988) systematicallyevaluatedthechallengeoffeminismtoarthistorythroughanalysisofseveraltheorizationsofthe meaningofsexualdifference.

(ii)Thenude.
OneofthekeyareasoffeministinterventionhasbeentheportrayalofthefemalenudeinWesternart,whichposes directlythequestionofsexualityandrepresentationandrevealsthattherehasbeenapoliticsofvisioninthe
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privilegedfieldofart.NochlincoeditedaseriesofpapersonthethemeofWomanasSexObjectin1972.Duncan (1993)wroteextensivelyonthefunctionofthemodernistnudebothinitsearly20thcenturycontextandthenasa majorelementofthenarrativesofthemodernistmuseum.Ticknersstudyofhowcontemporaryartistsnegotiated thehistoricallegacyoftheartsappropriationofthefemalebodyinTheBodyPoliticappearedinthefirstvolumeof theAssociationofArtHistoriansjournalArtHistory(1972),creatingconsiderabledebateasthefirstmajorarticleto presentfeministchallengestothefieldofrepresentationofsexualityandthefemalebody.NeadsTheFemale Nude (1992)explorestheambivalentstatusofthenude,whichhasbecomesynonymouswithartinsofarasthe representationofthefemalebodycanbemanagedtofigurecontainmentandaestheticconquestofthepotentially unrulyandobscene.Thusshebreachedtheboundariesbetweenhighartandpornography,traditionalcultureand contemporaryfeministpracticeinordertotracethecomplexwebofrelationsaroundthefemalebody,sexuality, obscenityandthediscoursesofaesthetics.Pollock(1993)providedacasestudyoftherelationsbetweensexand race,betweencolonialismandmodernismintheanalysisofasinglepaintingofthenudebyGauguin.Abigail SolomonGodeausstudyofthe19thcenturyphotographicarchive(1986)ofimagesoftheCountessofCastiglione producedasearchinganalysisoftherepresentationofthefemalenudeinparticularandthefemalebodyin generalintheformationofphotographicpracticeswithincommodityculture,withitsdualfetishizationofgoodsand sexuality.

(iii)Questioningthecanon.
In1982Nochlinposedanotherkeyquestion,WhyHaveThereBeenGreatMale Ones[Artists]?,inanarticleanalysingthesocialandpoliticalconstructionof GustaveCourbetsreputationasthefatherofmodernart.Sheshowedthat questionsabouttheabsenceofwomenartistsfromarthistoryrequireda complementaryanalysisofthewaysinwhichthereputationsofthoseartistswho arecanonizedaresecured.Pollock(1980)similarlyidentifiedtheprocessby whichvanGoghbecametheparadigmaticmodernartist,articulatingancient mythsaboutcreativity,madnessandgenius,onekeyaspectofwhichis masculinity(seealsoLiptononPicasso,andZemelonvanGogh).Rogoff(in BroudeandGarrard,1992)appliedacomplementaryanalysistothevisual constructionofartisticidentityinGermanExpressionistselfportraiture.Salomon (1991)providedathoroughanalysisoftheformationofamasculinizedcanonby KtheKollwitz:Selfportrait, lithograph,19202007Artists discerninginthegenealogyofarthistoricalwriting(fromVasarito20thcentury RightsSociety keepersofthecanonsuchasJanson)astructureofmasculineidentificationwith heroicmalecreators.ThisideaisalsoproposedinKofmansstudyofFreudsaesthetics(1988).Feministworkon thecanonitselfhasledtorereadingsoftheworksofvanGoghandToulouseLautrec(Pollock,1995)Degas (Lipton,1986KendallandPollock,1992Callen,1995)Courbet(Nochlin,1988exh.cat.)andRembrandt(Bal, 1991).Bringingsemiotics,psychoanalysisandliterarytheorytobreakdowntheword/imageopposition,Bal providedcriticalreadingsoftherepresentationofgenderintheworkofRembrandtandalsoproducedamodelof readingagainstthegrain,readingforthewoman,bringingtovisibilityoverlookedandrepressedpossibilitiesinthe figurativeandnarrativetextsofaBaroquepainter.Similarkindsofrevisioningofcanonicalmomentsoccurinthe workofSimonsontherepresentationofwomeninearlyRenaissanceprofileportraits(WomeninFrames,1988) whichelaborateissuesofthegazeanditspoliticsinrepresentationbasedinthesocialexchangeofwomenbymen incontemporarymarriageandpropertyrituals.Iftheidentityoftheartistasmasculinewasincreasinglyestablished fromthe19thcentury,womenartistshavehadtonegotiateawaytorepresenttothemselvesandtosocietytheir owncreativeidentity.Thishasgeneratedaseriesofstudiesofwomensselfrepresentationusingdiarymaterials, suchasthosebyMarigaBashkirtseva(MarieBashkirtseff),KtheKollwitz(seefig.),PaulaModersohnBecker,orby lookingatselfportraitureandphotographicrepresentation,asinthecaseofAmericanAbstractExpressionistLee Krasner(Wagner,1988).

(iv)Newarthistoricalparameters.
Womenartistsandtheissuesraisedbyfeministstudiescannotbeaccommodatedwithinexistingnarrativesofart history,particularlyperiodizationsdefinedexclusivelythroughstylisticchangeorepochalshiftsthatreflectunequally historicalchangesinthefieldofgenderrelationsofimportanceforwomen.DidwomenhaveaRenaissance?was aquestionposedandansweredinthenegativebythefeministhistorianKelly(1984),provokingarelated reconsiderationofthemajorbenchmarksinthehistoryofart:suchquestionsasWastheFrenchRevolutiona historicaldefeatforwomen?andHowdidwomenbothbourgeoisandworkingclassexperiencemodernityand metropolitanlife?werealsoposed(Pollock,1988).Ifsocialrelationsaretakentobemoredeterminantthansimply stylisticshifts,thehistoryofwomenintheartswillproduceadifferentpatternofsignificantmoments(as demonstratedbyTickner). InanunpublishedMastersdegreethesisof1980ShirleyMorenofocusedherresearchontheemergenceofthe visualrhetoricoftheeroticnudein16thcenturyVenetianart,inrelationtotheredefinitionsofconcupiscenceand temptationordainedbytheCouncilofTrentandtheCounterReformation,aswellastopracticesaround prostitutionandanxietiesraisedbyvenerealdiseases,theemergenceofilliciteroticaandpornography,aswellas traditionalimageryforcelebrationsofmarriage,andtheregulationofmaritalalliancesinchangingclassformations inbothVenice(wheresuchpaintingsweremadebyTitian)andSpain(bywhosekingtheyhadbeen commissioned).Morenoconcludedthattherepresentationofwomaninthisformasacentralcategoryofwestern Europeanpaintingshouldbeunderstoodintermsofamajorshiftintheorganizationandofficialdefinitionsof
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sexualityrepresentedbythecrossrelatedinstitutionsofthemilitantRomanCatholicChurchandtheSpanish monarchy.SheutilizedtheconceptofwomanassigndevelopedbyCowie(1978)toargueagainstperceivingthe visualimageasmerereflectionofsocialprocesses.Drawingonstructuralistanalysisofsocietyasalanguage system,Cowiearguedthatpracticesofvisualrepresentationareconstitutiveofmeanings,andthatinpatriarchal cultureswomanbecomesthesignoftheexchangebywhichmenareconstitutedasthekeyrepresentativesof societyitself.Visualsystems,suchasfilmandpainting,usewomanasasign,notofwomanhoodoranysocial aspectofactualwomen,buttosignifyrelationsbetweenmenwithinapatriarchalstructure.Thusfeministart historianswouldarguethattherearenoimagesofwomen,butratherthatthehistoryofart,asaprivilegedsiteof producingmeaningforculture,shouldbeanalysedintermsofthevaryingformationsofsexualdifferenceand socialpowerinwhichrepresentationisasemioticfield,thatiswheresignsproducemeaningsinrelationtoeach otherforspecificandpositionedusers(PollockinKendallandPollock,1992). Usingtheconceptofwomanassign,CherryandPollock(1984)focusedonBritishcultureduringthe19thcentury, anotherkeymomentofchangeintheregimesofrepresentationaroundsexualdifference.Studyingthe constructionofworkingclassmodelandartistElizabethSiddalasRossettismuse,Siddal,inbothRossettis drawingsandthecontemporaryliteraturethatmanufacturedtheartistasagreatmaster,theyarguedthatthe objectoffeministanalysisshouldbethediscursiveconstructionofmeaningsforthetermwomanandartist,thus showingthattheyarehistoricalandvariable,whilealsorevealingtheintertextualitybetweenverbalandvisual discoursesaspartofacomplexsocialtotality.Notonlysocialstructureshavetobeconsidered.Visualimages appealtotheviewerbyofferingvisualpleasure,luringthespectatorsgazeandarousingdesire,itselfthetraceof formativememories.Feministshavebeguntousepsychoanalyticaltheoryintheanalysisofvisualrepresentation. ReconsideringFreudsessayonLeonardodaVinciinthelightoflate20thcenturyLacanianrevisionsof psychoanalysis,KristevaproposedananalysisoftherepresentationoftheVirginintheworkofGiovanniBellini (1980),thatusedasinglecasestudytoexplaintheattractionandthevariationsoftreatmentofatopicof RenaissanceartwhoserecurrenceisnotsolelyduetoChristiantheologybutratheroverdeterminedbyinfantile memoriesofandpsychicinvestmentintheimageofthemother.Kristevasworkonabjection(Pouvoirsdelhorreur, 1980)hasbeenwidelyusedintheanalysisofrepresentationsofthematernalfeminineinartandphotography. Althoughfeminismhasthepotentialtochallengeandrewritetheentirehistoryofart,notonlytorestorewomens culturalcontributionstothehistoricalrecord,butalsotoallowustoreadvisualrepresentationsandartisticpractices asdistinctbutnecessarypartsofthecomplexofsocialpracticesthatcollectivelyconstitutesociety,itsclass, gender,sexualandracerelations,theprocesshasonlyjustbegun.Thereareareasmorethoroughlyinvestigated thanothersmodernismandPostmodernismhavereceivedconsiderablefeministanalysis,whereasfeminist interventionsintoRenaissanceandBaroqueperiodsarelessnumerous.SeventeenthcenturyDutchartisa growingfield,asisClassicalantiquity.Thestudyofwomenaspaintershaspredominatedoverresearchinto sculptureandprintmaking,althoughareassuchasembroideryandothertextileformshavebeenreclaimedas womenstrueculturalheritage(Mainardi,1973).Westernartismoreconsistentlydocumentedandresearchedthan artbywomenintherestoftheworld.Apossibledangerexistsofconstitutinganewfeministcanon,whichprivileges whitewomenartistsandneglectsbothwomenofcolourintheWestandwomenartistsacrosstheworld.Feminist arthistoriesofthe1970swerecriticizedforanunacknowledgedracisminthe1990sthischallengewasbeing faced,stimulatedbytheactivitiesofblackwomenartistsandarthistoriansequallyrecoveringadoublyrepressed heritageofcreativity.IntermsofAmericanarthistory,thetokenreferencetothesculptorEdmoniaLewisisbeing amplifiedbyresearchonsculptorsAugustaSavageandMetaVauxFuller,whilepaintersAlmaThomas(b 1895) andGeorgiaJessup(b 1926)andmultimediaartistFaithRinggoldarerepresentedintheNationalMuseumof WomensArt,whichhasalsodevotedaretrospectivetophotographerCarrieMaeWeems(1994).Hagewara(1990) haspublishedabookinJapaneseonblackwomenartistsinBritaininordertochallengethehegemonyofWestern ideasofart,whichnotonlyrefusesacknowledgementofcreativitytoitsownwomenbutequallydeniesittowomen ofcolour.Issuesofracisminrepresentationhavebeendebatedincontemporaryartbywomen(Phillippi,1987)and feministanalysesoforientalism(Nochlin,1982,andPollock,1992)havepointedthewayforfeminismtobethe catalystbymeansofwhichissuesnotonlyofgenderandsexualdifferencebutalsoofsocialandculturaldifference areconsistentlyconsideredintheanalysisofthehistoryofart.Inthiswaytheinterventionsofwomenintoart historycanradicallyexpandtheperspectives,theories,methodsandconcernsofarthistorytoproducemore comprehensiveandcriticalhistoriesofart.

Bibliography Earlysources
C.C.Malvasia:Felsinapittrice (1678)ed.G.Zattori(1841) A.Houbraken:Degrooteschouburgh (171821) E.Guhl:DieFraueninderKunstgeschichte (Berlin,1858) E.Ellet:WomenArtistsinAllAgesandCountries(NewYork,1859) E.C.Clayton:EnglishFemaleArtists(London,1876) O.Fidire:LesFemmesartisteslAcadmieroyaledepeintureetdesculpture (Paris,1885) M.Vachon:LaFemmedanslart(Paris,1893)
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C.Clement:WomenintheFineArtsfromtheSeventhCenturyB.C.totheTwentiethCenturyA.D.(Boston,1904/R NewYork,1974) A.Hirsch:DiebildendenKnstlerinnenderNeuzeit(Stuttgart,1905) A.Hirsch:DieFraueninderbildendenKunst(Stuttgart,1905) W.ShawSparrow:WomenPaintersoftheWorld (London,1905) L.M.Ragg:WomenArtistsofBologna (London,1907) K.Scheffler:DieFrauinderKunstgeschichte (Berlin,1908) L.Mrten:DieKnstlerin (Munich,1914)

General
L.Nochlin:WhyAreThereNoGreatWomenArtists? (1971)repr.inArt&SexualPolitics,ed.E.BakerandT. Hess(NewYorkandLondon,1973) OldMistresses:WomenArtistsfromthePast(exh.cat.byGabhartandE.Broun,Baltimore,MD,WaltersA.G., 1972) D.Miner:AnastasieandherSisters:WomenArtistsoftheMiddleAges(Baltimore,1974) S.B.Ortner:IsFemaletoMaleasNatureIstoCulture?,Women,CultureandSociety,ed.M.Z.RosaldoandL. Lamphere(Stamford,1974) E.Tufts:OurHiddenHeritage:FiveCenturiesofWomenArtists(NewYorkandLondon,1974) C.Duncan:WhenGreatnessIsaBoxofWheaties,Artforum(Oct1975),pp.6064repr.inAestheticsand Power:EssaysinCriticalArtHistory(Cambridge,1993),pp.12132 WomenofPhotography:AnHistoricalSurvey(exh.cat.byM.MannandA.Noggle,SanFrancisco,CA,MOMA SantaF,Mus.NMNewYork,SidneyJanisGal.Milwaukee,U.WIandelsewhere19756) L.NochlinandA.SutherlandHarris:WomenArtists,15501950 (LosAngelesandNewYork,1976) K.PetersonandJ.J.Wilson:WomenArtists:RecognitionandReappraisalfromtheEarlyMiddleAgestothe TwentiethCentury(NewYork,1976) E.HonigFine:WomenandArt:AHistoryofWomenPaintersandSculptorsfromtheRenaissancetothe20th Century(LondonandMontclair,1978) G.Greer:TheObstacleRace:TheFortunesofWomenPaintersandtheirWork(London,1979) J.CollinsandG.B.Optiz,eds:WomenArtistsinAmerica:18thCenturytothePresent,17901980 (NewYork, 1980) G.Nabokowski,G.SanderandP.Gorsen:FraueninderKunst(FrankfurtamMain,1980) R.ParkerandG.Pollock:OldMistresses:Women,ArtandIdeology(LondonandNewYork,1981) C.RichterShermanwithA.M.Holcomb:WomenasInterpretersoftheVisualArts,18201970 (Westport,CT,and London,1981) R.Berger:MalerinnenaufdemWegin20.Jahrhundert:KunstgeschichtealsSozialgeschichte (Cologne,1982) C.S.Rubinstein:AmericanWomenArtists:FromEarlyIndianTimestothePresent(NewYork,1982) I.Anscombe:AWomansTouch:WomeninDesignfrom1860tothePresentDay(London,1984) C.Lyle,S.MooreandC.Navaretta:WomenArtistsoftheWorld (NewYork,1984) W.Chadwick:WomenArtistsandtheSurrealistMovement(LondonandBoston,1985) C.Petteys:DictionaryofWomenArtistsBornbefore1900 (Boston,1985) W.Slatkin:WomenArtistsinHistory:FromAntiquitytothe20thCentury(EnglewoodCliffs,1985) E.Krull:FraueninderKunst(Leipzig,1986Eng.trans.,London,1989) J.MoutoussamyAshe:Viewfinders:BlackWomenPhotographers(NewYork,1986,rev.1993) P.GerrishNunn:Canvassing:RecollectionsbySixVictorianWomenArtists(London,1986) N.Heller:WomenArtists:AnIllustratedHistory(London,1987)

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P.GerrishNunn:VictorianWomenArtists(London,1987) R.ParkerandG.Pollock:FramingFeminism:ArtandtheWomensMovement,19701985 (London,1987) D.Phillippi:TheConjunctureofRaceandGenderinAnthropologyandArtHistory:ACriticalStudyofNancy SperosWork,ThirdText,i(1987),pp.3454 DasverborgeneMuseum:DokumentationderKunstvonFraueninBerlinerffentlichenSammlungen (exh.cat., ed.G.Breitlingandothers,Berlin,1987) S.Kofman:TheChildhoodofArt:AnInterpretationofFreudsAesthetics(NewYork,1988) G.Pollock:VisionandDifference:Feminism,FemininityandHistoriesofArt(London,1988) P.Simons:WomeninFrames:TheEye,theGazeandtheProfileinRenaissancePortraiture,Hist.WorkshopJ., xxv(1988),pp.430repr.inN.BroudeandM.Garrard:TheExpandingDiscourse:FeminismandArtHistory (NewYork,1992) L.Tickner:Feminism,ArtHistoryandSexualDifference,Genders,3(1988)repr.inGenerationsand Geographies,ed.G.Pollock(London,1995) P.GerrishNunnandJ.Marsh:WomenArtistsandthePreRaphaeliteMovement(London,1989) A.Wagner:LeeKrasnerasL.K.,Representations,xxv(1989)repr.inN.BroudeandM.Garrard:TheExpanding Discourse:FeminismandArtHistory(NewYork,1992),pp.42535 W.Chadwick:Women,ArtandSociety(London,1990) P.Dunford:ABiographicalDictionaryofWomenArtistsinEuropeandAmericasince1850 (LondonandNewYork, 1990) H.Hagewara:Konemunenoarashi[Thisstormraginginmyheart](Tokyo,1990)[BlackwomenartistsinBritain] C.S.Rubinstein:AmericanWomenSculptors:AHistoryofWomenWorkinginThreeDimensions(NewYork,1990) N.BroudeandM.Garrard:TheExpandingDiscourse:FeminismandArtHistory(NewYork,1992) D.Cherry:PaintingWomen:VictorianWomenArtists(LondonandNewYork,1993) C.Duncan:AestheticsandPower:EssaysinCriticalArtHistory(Cambridge,1993) G.Pollock:ThePoliticsofTheory:GenerationsandGeographies:FeministHistoriesandtheHistoriesofArt Histories,Genders,17(1993),pp.97120 N.Shalala:CreatingtowardsRecognition:JapaneseWomenArtists,AsianArtNews,iv/4(1994),pp.1618 ForcesofChange:ArtistsoftheArabWorld (exh.cat.byS.MikdadiNashashibi,Washington,DC,N.Mus.Women A.,1994) AnIntelligentRebellion:WomenArtistsofPakisthan (exh.cat.byS.HashmiandN.PoomayaSmith,Bradford, CartwrightHall,1994) G.Pollock:DifferencingtheCanon:FeministDesireandtheWritingofArtsHistory(London,1995)

Specialiststudies
H.Opperman:MarieAnneCollotinRussia:TwoPortraits,Burl.Mag.,cvii(1965),pp.40810 L.NochlinandT.B.Hess,eds:WomanasSexObject:StudiesinEroticArt,17301970,ArtNewsAnnu.,xxxviii (1972) C.Duncan:VirilityandMaleDominationinEarlyTwentiethCenturyVanguardArt,Artforum(Dec1973)repr.in FeminismandArtHistory:QuestioningtheLitany,ed.N.BroudeandM.D.Garrard(NewYork,1982) P.Mainardi:Quilts:TheGreatAmericanArt,FeministA.J.,ii/1(1973)repr.inFeminismandArtHistory: QuestioningtheLitany,ed.N.BroudeandM.D.Garrard(NewYork,1982),pp.33146 L.NochlinandT.B.Hess,eds:WomanasSexObject(London,1973) E.Lipton:PicassoCriticism,19011939:TheMakingofanArtistHero (NewYorkandLondon,1976) Knstlerinneninternational,18771977 (exh.cat.,W.Berlin,SchlossCharlottenburg,1977) E.Cowie:WomanasSign,M/f,1(1978)repr.inM/fReader,ed.P.AdamsandE.Cowie(London,1992) L.Tickner:TheBodyPolitic:FemaleSexualityandWomenArtistssince1970,A.Hist,i/2(1978),pp.23949, 26376repr.inR.ParkerandG.Pollock:FramingFeminism:ArtandtheWomensMovement,19701985 (London,1987),pp.26376,3369
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A.Callen:TheAngelintheStudio:WomenintheArtsandCraftsMovement,18701914 (London,1979) C.M.Zemel:TheFormationofaLegend:VanGoghCriticism,18901920 (AnnArbor,1979,2/1980) P.Gorson:KunstundKrankheit:MetamorphosenderaesthetischenEinbildungskraft(FrankfurtamMain,1980) J.Kristeva:MotherhoodaccordingtoBellini,DesireinLanguage (NewYork,1980),pp.23770 J.Kristeva:Pouvoirsdelhorreur(Paris,1980)Eng.trans.byL.S.RoudiezasPowersofHorror:AnEssayon Abjection (NewYork,1982) G.Pollock:Artists,MediaandMythologies:Genius,MadnessandArtHistory,Screen ,xxi/2(1980),pp.5796 L.Vergine:Laltrametdellavanguardia,19101940 (Milan,1980,Fr.trans.,1982) R.Berger:MalerinnenaufdemWegim20.Jahrhundert:KunstgeschichtealsSozialgeschichte (Cologne,1982, 2/1987) N.BroudeandM.D.Garrard,eds:FeminismandArtHistory:QuestioningtheLitany(NewYork,1982) L.Nochlin:TheDepoliticizationofGustaveCourbet:TransformationandRehabilitationundertheThirdRepublic, October,22(1982),pp.6578 D.CherryandG.Pollock:WomanasSigninPreRaphaeliteLiterature:AStudyoftheRepresentationof ElizabethSiddall,A.Hist.,vii/2(1984),pp.20627repr.inG.Pollock:VisionandDifference:Feminism, FemininityandHistoriesofArt(London,1988) M.Kelly:ReviewingModernistCriticism,ArtafterModernism:RethinkingRepresentation ,ed.B.Wallis(NewYork, 1984),pp.87103 L.Nead:TheMagdaleninModernTime:TheMythologyoftheFallenWomeninPreRaphaelitePainting,Oxford A.J.,vii/1(1984),pp.2637 R.Parker:TheSubversiveStitch:EmbroideryandtheMakingoftheFeminine (London,1984) M.Blind:TheJournalsofMarieBashkirtseff,intro.byR.ParkerandG.Pollock(London,1985) E.Lipton:LookingintoDegas:UneasyImagesofWomenandModernLife (BerkeleyandLondon,1986) A.SolomonGodeau:TheLegsoftheCountess,October,39(Winter1986),pp.65108 H.Dawkins:TheDiariesandPhotographsofHannahCullwick,A.Hist.,x/2(1987),pp.15487 T.GoumaPeterson:FaithRinggoldsNarrativeQuilts,FaithRinggold,Change:PainterStoryQuilts(NewYork, 1987),pp.916 T.GoumaPetersonandP.Mathews:TheFeministCritiqueofArtHistory,A.Bull.,lxix/3(1987),pp.32657 L.Tickner:TheSpectacleofWomen:ImageryoftheSuffrageCampaign,190714 (London,1987) P.Simons:GenderandSexualityinRenaissanceandBaroqueItaly(Sydney,1988) L.Nochlin:CourbetsRealAllegory:RereadingThePaintersStudio,CourbetReconsidered (exh.cat.,ed.S. FaunceandL.NochlinNewYork,BrooklynMus.,1988) M.Garrard:ArtemisiaGentileschi:TheFemaleHeroinItalianBaroqueArt(Princeton,1989) C.Mitchell:IntellectualityandSexuality:CamilleClaudel,theFindeSicleSculptress,A.Hist.,xxii/4(1989),pp. 41947 M.Sulter:Passion:DiscoursesofBlackWomensCreativity(London,1990) M.Bal:ReadingRembrandt(NewYorkandCambridge,1991) S.Godeau:PhotographyintheDock(Minneapolis,1991) N.Salomon:TheArtHistoricalCanon:SinsofOmission,(En)genderingKnowledge ,ed.J.HartmannandE. MesserDavidow(Knoxville,1991) R.KendallandG.Pollock:DealingwithDegas:RepresentationsofWomenandthePoliticsofVision (London, 1992) L.Nead:TheFemaleNude (LondonandNewYork,1992) G.Pollock:AvantgardeGambits:GenderandtheColourofArtHistory(London,1992) I.Rogoff:TinyAnguishes:ReflectionsonNagging,ScholasticEmbarrassment,andFeministArtHistory, Differences,iv/3(1992)
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W.ChadwickandI.deCourtivron:SignificantOthers:CreativityandIntimatePartnership (London,1993) T.Garb:SistersoftheBrush:WomensArtisticCultureinLateNineteenthcenturyParis(LondonandNewHaven, 1994) A.Callen:TheSpectacularBody:Science,MethodandMeaningintheWorkofDegas(NewHavenandLondon, 1995)

Bibliographies
T.CedarHolm:AfroAmericanArtists:ABiobibliographicalDirectory(Boston,1973) O.Williams:AmericanBlackWomenintheArtsandSocialSciences:ABibliographicSurvey(NewJerseyand London,1973) D.BachmannandS.Piland:WomenArtists:AnHistorical,ContemporaryandFeministBibliography(Metuchen, NJ,andLondon,1978) E.Tufts:AmericanWomenArtists,PastandPresent:ASelectedBibliographicalGuide (NewYork,1984)

GriseldaPollock

III.SouthandCentralAmerica.
LittlemainstreamSouthandCentralAmericanarthistoryhasdealtspecifically withtheroleofthewomanartist.IndividualartistssuchastheColombianBeatriz Gonzalez(b 1936)orMARISOLinVenezuelaaredominantfiguresintheir respectivecontexts(seefig.).Certainartists,suchastheColombianDBORA ARANGOortheCubanAmeliaPelez(18971968),havebeenreappraisedin lightoffeministwritings,buttheproblematicrelationshipofLatinAmericanartto thatofinternationalart(seeRichard)hasingeneraltakenprecedenceover discussionsofgenderdivisions.Thetwoissueshavemerged,however,inone instance.Late20thcenturyperceptionsoftheartofSouthandCentralAmerica havebeendominatedbytheenormouspopularityofawomanartist,the MexicanFRIDAKAHLO.Kahlohasbecomenotonlythemostfamousandhighly pricedwomanartistbuthasalsocometorepresenttheperceivedcharacteristics ofanartproducedoutsidethemainstreamofEuropeanandNorthAmerican culture(Baddeley,1991).

Marisol:TheFamily,painted woodandothermaterials, overall,2.101.660.39

Theelisionofthesetwostrandsofmarginalitywithincontemporaryarthistory,thenonEuropeanandthefeminine, hasservedtohighlightratherthanhidetheroleofthewomanartistwithinLatinAmerica.Tosomeextentthework ofthewomenartistsofSouthandCentralAmericahasfoundawiderinternationalaudiencethanthatofmanyof theirmalecompatriots.Inthissensethecategorizationwomanartist,despiteitsintrinsicclaimstorepresenta marginalizedculture,isamoreempoweringcategorythanLatinAmerican,whichdeniesaninternationalrelevance totheartitdescribes.ManyofthestereotypesofLatinAmericanartdecorative,naive,emotional,exoticrelate totheinternationalstereotypesoffemininitysoattackedbylate20thcenturyfeminism.Kahlosreputationbythe 1980shadgrownfromarecognitionofthesesharedcharacteristics(see1982exh.cat.Herrera,1983).Inaddition tothis,thetraditionaldivisionsbetweenthearts,thehighartlowartdebate(whichassignsahierarchicalvalueto particularformsofcreativity),hasgreatrelevancewithinthecontextofSouthandCentralAmerica(Baddeleyand Fraser,1989).Thecultureofthisregionhasbeenrecognizedabroadprimarilyviaitspopularart,usually anonymouslyproducedmanifestationsofLatinAmericascomplexracialandculturalmix.Aswithmanypopularcraft traditions,womenhaveplayedakeyroleininitiatingandperpetuatingtheseformsofcreativity.Withintheareaof fineart,manyofthemorerenownedfemalepractitionershavemanifestedanawarenessofsuchpopulartraditions. InMexico,Kahloisanarchetypeforsuchaposition,butthisisalsofoundintheworkofhercontemporariesMara Izquierdo,OlgaCosta,ROCOMALDONADOandAmaliaMesaBains(b 1943).Theformallanguagesofallthese artistsdrawheavilyonthetraditionsofpopularreligiousimageryandlayclaimtoanartofhighlychargedemotion. ThescaleandmaterialsofKahlosworks(e.g.MyGrandparents,MyParentsandI(FamilyTree),1936 )echothe smallvotiveimagesontinfoundinmanyMexicanchurches.IzquierdosbrightlycolouredVirginsofSorrows(e.g. AltarofSorrows,1943MexicoCity,Gal.A.Mex.)showthesamemixoftheaestheticandtheviolentintrinsictothe Catholictradition.ThesesamereferencesarefoundintheworkofCosta(e.g.TheFruitseller,1951MexicoCity, Mus.A.Mod.),withtheaddedclaimtothecarefreebeautyoftheMexicanmarketplace,withitsriotofcolourand carefullycomposedobjectsandproduce.MaldonadoandMesaBainshaveaddedtothisappropriationofthe languagesofpopularart,withitsevocationofthewomansworldofchurchandmarketplace,amoreknowing feministaestheticthattransfersthetraditionsofearlierwomenartiststothelargecanvasesandinstallationsofthe late20thcenturythisisexemplifiedby,forexample,MaldonadosTheVirgin (1985MexicoCity,Cent.Cult.A. Contemp.)andMesaBainssinstallationQueenoftheWaters(1992)fortheArteAmericaexhibition(Bogot,Bib. LuisAngelArango). However,theLatinAmericanartistsfascinationwiththetraditionsofthepopularhavenotbeentheonlystrandof
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practicetoproduceimportantwomenartists.InBrazilthebeginningsofmodernistexperimentationweredominated bytheworkofTARSILAandAnitaMalfatti(18891964).Thenegativecriticalresponsetoanexhibitionin1917of Malfattisfauviststylepaintings(e.g.theYellowMan ,191516SoPaulo,U.SoPaulo,Mus.A.Contemp.) madeherafigureheadfortheBrazilianavantgarde.In1922bothwomenparticipatedinthegroundbreaking SEMANADEARTEMODERNA,whichwastobeinstrumentalinintroducingtheBrazilianartworldtothedebatesof Europeanmodernism.InconjunctionwiththepoetOswalddeAndrade,Tarsilatransformedthemodernistaesthetic intoamorespecificallyLatinAmericanandanticolonialistmovement,outlinedinAndradesAnthropophagite manifesto (1928)andmadevisualinTarsilasAnthropophagy(1929Fund.JosePaulinaNemirovsky). Thenaturalizationandreworkingoftheprevailinginternationalavantgardeaesthetic,initiatedbyTarsila,was continuedbyayoungergenerationofartistsincludingIonaSaldanha(b 1921).Inherminimalistsculptures,such asBambooInstallation (1969artistscol.),sheusedtraditionalmaterialsandritualizedcompositionstocreatean artthatlinkstheconcernsofcolourfieldpaintingofthe1960swithanthropology.InBolivia,MARALUISA PACHECOandinPeru,TilsaTsuchiyaalsocreatedavisuallanguagethatsynthesizedthespecificsoftheir cultures,asbothwomenandLatinAmericans,withthedemandsofmodernity.Inboththesewomensworksthe purityofpainterlyabstractionisundermined:inPachecossubtlecanvasesbythefleetingglimmerofanAndean landscape,andmoreobviouslyinTsuchiyasreferencestoQuechuamythology,asinMachuPicchu (1974Lima, priv.col.,seeBaddeleyandFraser,p.114). Aharderedgedabstractionhasbeenmanifestedintheworkofsomewomen artists,suchasGegoandMercedesPardoinVenezuela,butprobablymost notablyintheworkoftheBrazilianLYGIACLARK(seefig.).In1959Clark (alongwithLygiaPape(b 1929))wasoneofthefoundermembersofthe BrazilianNeoConcretegroupandthroughherarticulatedsculptures(e.g. MachineAnimal(Bicho ),1962SoPaulo,FulvioandAdolphoLeirnerpriv.col., see1989exh.cat.,p.265)gainedaninternationalreputation.Clarkshighly cerebralworksubvertstraditionalexpectationsoftheirrationalnatureofLatin Americancultureanddeniesexpectationsofagreaterphysicalityandemotionin LygiaClark:Grub,corrugated theworkofwomenartists.Thechangingexpectationsofthe1980sand1990s, rubber,dimensionsvariable, inthewakeofthePostmodernistrejectionofasinglemonolithicculture,have 1964imagecourtesy ledtotheinternationalrecognitionofcontemporaryLatinAmericanart.Withinthiscategorytheroleofthewoman artisthasbeencentral,anintrinsicpartofawiderexplorationofculturalidentity.

Bibliography
J.Franco:ModernCultureofLatinAmerica:Society&theArtist(Harmondsworth,1970) FridaKahlo&TinaModotti(exh.cat.,London,WhitechapelA.G.,1982) H.Herrera:Frida:ABiographyofFridaKahlo (NewYork,1983) N.Richard:PostModernismandPerifery,ThirdText,ii(Winter19878) J.Franco:PlottingWomen:Gender&RepresentationinMexico (London,1989) O.BaddeleyandV.Fraser:DrawingtheLine:Art&CulturalIdentityinContemporaryLatinAmerica (London, 1989) ArtinLatinAmerica:TheModernEra,18201980 (exh.cat.byD.Adesandothers,London,HaywardGal.,1989) LamujerenMxico/WomeninMexico (exh.cat.,NewYork,N.Acad.Des.MexicoCity,Cent.Cult.A.Contemp. Monterrey,Mus.19901) O.Baddeley:HerDressHangsHere:DeFrockingtheKahloCult,OxfordA.J.,xiv/1(1991) SixLatinAmericanWomenArtists(exh.cat.,Lewisburg,PA,BucknellU.,1992) E.LucieSmith:LatinAmericanArtoftheTwentiethCentury(London,1993) Regardsdefemmes(exh.cat.,Lige,Mus.A.Mod.,1993) LatinAmericanWomenArtists,19151995 (exh.cat.byG.Billerandothers,Milwaukee,WI,A.Mus.,1995) TarsiladoAmaral,FridaKahloandAmeliaPelez(exh.cat.byL.MontrealAgusandothers,Barcelona,Cent. Cult.Fund.CaixaPensions,1997) M.Agoisn:AWomansGaze:LatinAmericanWomenArtists(NewYork,c.1998)

OrianaBaddeley

IV.EastAsia.
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ThevisualartsinwhichChineseandJapanesewomenengagedwereprimarilypainting,calligraphyandtextile decoration.NeedleworkwasthepremierfeminineartinChina,wheretheinventionofsilkiscreditedtoalegendary empressofremoteantiquity,andsilkproductionwastraditionallyregardedaswomenswork.AmongtheChinese womencelebratedfortheirtextiledecorationareZhuKerou,a12thcenturyspecialistinthetapestrytechnique knownaskesi(slitsilk),andHanXimeng,anembroidereractiveintheearly17thcentury.Thisarticle,however, focusesonwomenscontributionstothehistoryofpaintingandcalligraphy,themosthighlyesteemedandcritically evaluatedvisualartsinChinaandJapan.Briefreferencesarealsomadetothealliedartsofprintdesignand potterydecoration.

1.Roleofwomenandprofessionalartists.
InearlytimesthesocietiesofChinaandJapanwereverydifferent,and,despiteJapanssubsequentadoptionof manyaspectsofChineseculture,theyremaineddistinctintothemodernperiod.Thestatusofwomeninthetwo countriesbecamesimilar,butitwasneverentirelythesame.UnlikeChinesewomen,Japanesewomendidnotbind theirfeetandatcertaintimes,suchastheHeianperiod(7941185),theyplayedactiverolesintheformationof liteculture.BeforetheHeian,manywomenheldreligiousandpoliticalauthorityinJapan:betweenAD592and 770thecountryhadsixfemalerulers.AsJapanembracedConfucianidealsinanattempttorecreateitselfin Chinasimage,however,thepowerandpositionofwomensteadilydeclined.IntheConfucianview,anorderly societyisbasedonhierarchicalrelationships,includingthesubordinationofwomentomen.Thissocialsystem excludedwomenfromthehallsofpoweranddefinedtheirpropersphereofactivityasthefamily.Somewomen managedtosubvertthissystemandtakethereinsofgovernment,butmostfollowedConfuciandictatesand cultivatedtheirvarioustalentsathome. Sociallyrestricted,womeninbothcountrieshadfewpointsofentryintothepublicartarenawhereprofessional artists,oftenorganizedinworkshops,producedfunctionalanddecorativeimagesfortheCourt,religious establishmentsandthegeneralmarket.Bythe1990sevidencehadyettobefoundthatwomenwereemployedin thepainting,printingorsculptureworkshopsofChina.ThefewrecordedChinesewomenpaintersfromthe professionalclassbelongedtoitsmoreliteranks.Theywereusuallythedaughtersofleadingprofessionalartists andprobablyworkedathome.DaughtersofDaiJinandQiuYing,forinstance,wereknownaspainters.MissQiu (personalname?Zhu)treatedfigurativesubjects,especiallybeautifulwomen,inastylebasedonherfathers.She acceptedcommissionssimilartothosehereceivedandsucceededashedid,bycateringtothetasteofthegentry forrefinedimagesinantiquemanners. Opportunitiesforwomentopaintprofessionallyseemtohavebeengreater,oratleastmorediverse,inJapan. SomecourtladiesoftheHeianperiod,notablyLadyTosaandLadyKii,servedassemiprofessionalpaintersat court,carryingoutpubliccommissions.AsmallnumberofwomenwereaffiliatedwiththeKanschool,thepremier paintingacademyinJapanfromthe16thtothe19thcentury.KanYukinobuwasthedaughterofapupilofKan Tanyandmayalsohavestudiedwiththismaster.Yukinobuemployedarangeoftraditionalstyles,Chineseand Japanese,indepictingfigures,birdsandflowers,andlandscapesforportableformats,usuallyhangingscrolls. ApparentlyshedidnotjointheteamsofKanartistswhocarriedoutlargescaledecorationsofcastleandtemple interiors.ThemajorityofwomenactiveasprofessionalartistsintheEdoperiod(16001868)producedukiyoe , picturesofthefloatingworldofthetheatreandbrothels.Bestknowninthe18thcenturywereYamazakiRyjo andInagakiTsurujo,bothofwhompaintedcourtesans.Inthe19thcenturywomencontributedtoukiyoe notonly aspainters,butalsoasprintdesigners.ThedaughterofKatsushikaHokusai,whocalledherselfi,assistedher fatherinhisworkshopherownworksincludedpaintingsandbookillustrations.TheeldestdaughterofUtagawa Kuniyoshi,Acho(whousedthesignatureYoshitori),collaboratedwithherfatheronafamousseriesof70ormore prints,underthegeneraltitleSankaimedetaizue (Excellenciesofmountainandseaillustrated1852U. Manchester,WhitworthA.G.),forwhichshedesignedthebackgroundscenesandhedidthemainfigures.

2.Womenaspatrons.
Theachievementsofsuchfemaleartistsnotwithstanding,womenmainlycontributedtothepublicartarenaas patrons(see WOMENASPATRONSANDCOLLECTORS ).Religiousestablishmentsespeciallybenefitedfromtheir support.ManywomenweredrawntoBuddhism,whichenteredChinaaroundthetimeofChrist,andwhichwas officiallyintroducedintoJapaninAD552.AlthoughoriginallynolesspatriarchalthanConfucianism,Buddhismwas moreflexibleandcapableofadaptingitselftodifferentaudiences,maleandfemale.ToChineseandJapanese womenitofferedasociallyacceptablesphereofactivityandvenueforpersonalexpressionoutsideofthefamily. ThewomeninthebestpositiontoleaveimpressivelegaciesofBuddhistartweremembersofimperialfamilies. EmpressWu(reg 690705),theonlyfemaletoruleChinainherownright,usedBuddhismtosanctionherhighly unorthodoxassumptionofthethrone,andsponsoredBuddhistartandarchitectureonagrandscale.Sherepaired thefamousWhiteHorseMonasteryatLuoyangatgreatexpense,hadafivestoreypagodahousingahuge woodenimageoftheBuddhabuiltonthepalacegrounds,andcommissionedthecolossalfiguresofthe VairochanaBuddhaassemblyattherockcutBuddhistsanctuaryatLongmen.ThemuchlaterEmpressdowager Cisheng(15461614),amorerepresentativeimperialwoman,providedfundsforthecelebratedmonkarchitect FudengtoerectabronzehallandgiltstatueofthebodhisattvaGuanyinattheLongchangMonastery,southeast ofNanjing,andalsocommissionedhimtobuildthemainhalloftheXiantongMonasteryonMtWutaiinShanxi Province.InJapantwoempressesoftheNaraperiod(71094),KmyandShtoku,bothsponsoredcolossal templesintheancientcapitalofNara.TheformerhadbuilttheShinyakushiji,dedicatedtotheBuddhaofmedicine, whenherhusband,EmperorShmu,fellillin747.In765EmpressShtokuorderedtheconstructionoftheSaidaiji
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(westerngreattemple)torivalherfathersTdaiji(easterngreattemple)locatedintheeasternpartofthecity.

3.Influenceofwomenonsubjectandstyle.
Asaudiencesaswellaspatrons,womenpopularizedcertainsubjectsandsometimesinfluencedthemannerin whichtheywererepresented.Chinesewomen,forinstance,embracedthebodhisattvaofcompassion,Guanyin,to whomtheyprayedforchildren,usuallyformalesessentialtothecontinuationofthepatriarchalfamilyline.Guanyin becameapatrondeityofwomenandacquiredvariousfeminineorfemaleguises.ImagesofGuanyinholdinga child,reminiscentofWesternportrayalsoftheMadonnaandChild,wereproducedinavarietyofmedia,including painting,embroideryandporcelain,inlateimperialChina. AtellingexampleofanarrativetailoredtoaJapanesefemaleaudienceisfoundintheTalesofGishandGangy (orBiographiesoftheSixPatriarchsoftheKegonSectJap.Kegonshsshieden orKegonengi),asetof handscrollsgiventotheKzanjiinKyotoc.121925.InthescrollsillustratingthetaleofthemonkGish,therole ofthefemaleprotagonistZenmyisenlargedtoappealmoredirectlytothescrollsprobablepatron,LadySanmi, andtootherwomenassociatedwiththeKzanjiinthefirsthalfofthe13thcentury. WithinthecorpusofsecularliterarythemessharedbyChinaandJapanwere somecreatedspecificallyfortheeducationofupperclasswomen.Opinionson femaleeducationwerealwaysmixed,withconservativesmaintainingthatitwas atbestawasteoftime.GiventheConfucianemphasisonlearningfromhistory, however,itwasmorewidelyheldthatwomencouldbenefitfromstudyingsuch edifyingtextsastheLienzhuan (Biographiesofeminentwomen)byLiuXiang (7776CE )andtheNxiaojing (Ladiesclassicoffilialpiety)creditedtoacertain MadamZhengoftheTangperiod(618907).Illustrationsoftheseandsimilar booksservedthesamepurpose.Earlydesignsbasedonthebiographiesare preservedintheLientu (Picturesofeminentwomen),ahandscrollattributed totheoldmasterGUKAIZHIinthePalaceMuseuminBeijing.Gusnameisalso associatedwiththemostfamousextantChinesedidacticpaintingforwomen,the AdmonitionsoftheInstructress totheCourtLadies(Nshijian handscrollAdmonitionsoftheCourtInstructresstotheLadiesPalace . IllustratedscrollsoftheNxiaojing werepopularintheSongdynasty,andseveralversionsdatabletotheSouthern Songperiod(11271279)survive.Althoughthepaintingsinthesescrollsareascribedtofamousmaleartists,they weredirectedtofemaleviewers,andtheaccompanyingtextualpassagesmayhavebeentranscribedbypalace womenskilledincalligraphy.

4.Amateurartists.
WhilerestrictionsonwomensactivitiesoutsidethehomekeptmostChineseandJapanesewomenfrombecoming professionalartists,theprivatesphereofamateurartprovidedanalternative.Manywomentookupthebrushat homeandpaintedasamateurs,oratleastwithinatraditiondefinedasamateurevenifsomeparticipantswere compensatedfortheirworks.InbothChinaandJapanpaintingcametobeacceptedasasuitableleisurepursuit forcultivatedindividuals,menandwomen.Asoneofthepolitearts,itwascloselyalliedwithcalligraphyand literature,especiallypoetry.Thisalliancefosteredthedevelopmentofdistinctivepaintingstylesandpreferencesfor certaincategoriesofsubjectmatter. InHeianperiodJapan,aristocraticwomenandladiesinwaitingatthecourtwereexpectedtocomposepoetry,write aneleganthand,paintandappreciateallofthesearts.TheywerecloselyinvolvedwiththedistinctivelyJapanese pictorialgenresdevelopedatthistimeinconnectionwiththevernacularliteratureinwhichwomenexcelled.The wellknown12thcenturyhandscrollillustrationsoftheTaleofGenji(Genjimonogatari,c.1005),thegreatnovelby LadyMurasakiShikibu,representthetypeofsmallscalepicturescreatedtoamuseHeianaristocrats,particularly women.Womenalsopaintedpicturesofthistype,andtheyarethoughttohavedevelopedthehighlystylized, static,colourfulstyletheydisplay.Thisstylewasalsoemployedbymaleprofessionalpaintersbut,becauseofits closeassociationwiththeHeianwomensquarters,somescholarsrefertoitasonnae ,orwomenspainting. InChina,wherepaintingwasarelativelatecomertotheconstellationofartsknownasthethreeperfections (painting,poetryandcalligraphy),theearliestknowngreatfemaleartistwasacalligrapherknownasWeiFuren (MadamWei)orWeiShuo(272349CE ).SheisrememberedastheteacherofWangXizhi,themostcelebrated andinfluentialofallChinesecalligraphers.AlthoughWeiFurensworkshavebeenlost,aglimpseofherartmay perhapsbecaughtinthefluidgraceofherfamouspupilshand.Latermen,apparentlyperceivingthefeminine eleganceunderlyingthisclassicaltradition,promotedmoremasculinestylesofwritingtocompetewiththatofWang Xizhi. ThetheoreticalfoundationsfortheChinesetraditionofscholarlyamateurpainting,knownasliterati(wenren ) painting,werelaidintheNorthernSongdynasty(9601127)bythefamousscholarofficialSuShi(10361101) andmembersofhiscircle.Scholarlystylistictraditionsassociatedwithcertaingenres,notablylandscapeandplant subjects,suchasbambooandfloweringplum,developedthroughtheYuan(12791368)andMing(13681644) periods.InthelateMing,stylisticlineagesweredefined,andaliteraticanonwasestablished,engenderingan orthodoxtraditionhandeddowntothemodernperiod.Worksproducedwithinthistraditionwereheldtorevealthe characteroftheirmakers,butmoreimportantlytheirsubjectsandstylessignifiedliterativaluesandthusclass identity.Themostinfluentialcriticsheldthistypeofarttobeinherentlysuperiortotheworkofprofessionals,
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denigratedasmerecraftsmen. DuringtheSongperiodwomeninsomeoftheleadingliteratifamiliesjoinedtheirfathers,brothersandhusbandsin sketchingsubjectssuchasplumblossomsandbamboo.AttheSongcourtswomenemulatedofficialsandmale membersoftheimperialfamilyinpractisingcalligraphyandpaintingforpleasure.Unfortunately,nopaintings securelyattributabletowomenofthistimeseemtohavesurvivedourknowledgeoftheirachievementscomes whollyfromsuchtextualsourcesasthosecitedintheYutaihuashicompiledbyTangSouyu. TheearliestChinesefemalepainterwhoseartisticpersonalitycanbedefinedonthebasisofbothwrittenrecords andextantworksisGuanDaosheng(12621319).WifeoftherenownedscholarofficialandartistZhaoMengfu, GuanDaoshengisalsothemostfamousfemalepainterinChinesehistory.Sheissaidtohavedepictedarangeof subjects,includingBuddhistfigures,buttohaveexcelledinmonochromeinkbamboo(mozhu ).Shereportedly createdadistinctivetypeofbamboopaintingfeaturingnewgrowthbamboogrovesafterrain.Acompositionofthis typedated1308,nowmountedwithotherYuanpaintingsinahandscrollbelongingtotheNationalPalaceMuseum inTaipei,maybestrepresentherwork.GuanDaoshengwasalsoadmiredforhercalligraphy.Accordingtoher epitaph,EmperorRenzong(reg 131221)collectedanexampleofherwriting,alongwithpiecesbyherhusband andtheirsonZhaoYong,fortheimperialarchives,andremarked:[This]willletlatergenerationsknowthatmy reignnotonlyhadanexpertfemalecalligrapher,butawholefamilycapableincalligraphy,whichisanextraordinary circumstance!(Weidnerandothers). AfewotherfemaleartistsareknownfromtheYuan,butonlyinthelateyearsoftheMingdynasty(13681644), towardtheendofthe16thcentury,dowomenbegintoappearontheChinesearthistoricalstageinsignificant numbers.Thisincreaseinthenumberandprominenceoffemaleartistsisusuallyexplainedintermsofbroader changestakingplaceinChinesesocietyinthelateMing:thegrowthofthemarketeconomyandmerchantclass, resultinginawiderdisseminationofthematerialandintellectualaspectsofliteculture.Withtheexpansionof printingandpopularliterature,generalliteracyincreased,andbythe16thcenturyfemaleliteracywaswidespread. Inopenminded,affluentfamiliesofthelaterimperialperiod,literaryandartistictalentcouldincreaseayoung womanschancesforagoodmarriagetoaneducatedgentleman.Meanwhile,inthethrivingpleasuredistrictsof Nanjing,Hangzhouandelsewhere,thenumberofcourtesansincreased.Thesewomenusedtheartstoentertain, astheyhadforcenturies,butnowincreasinglyincludedpaintingintheirrepertories. RepresentativeofthesocialrangeoffemalepaintersactiveinthelateMingareMissQiu(flmidlate16th century),whowasdiscussedaboveasaprofessionalpainter,thegentrywomanWenShu(15951634)andthe courtesanMaShouzhen(15481604).WenShuwasbornintoadistinguishedandartisticfamilyinthesouth easterncityofSuzhou.ShewasrelatedtothepainterWenZhengming,oneoftheFourMastersoftheMingand theverymodelofthescholarlyartist.HerhusbandwasasonofanotheroldSuzhoufamily,agentlemanwholived, inEllenLaingswords,alifeofunhurriedscholarship(seeWeidnerandothers).Thecouplesstraitenedfinancial circumstancesapparentlyledWenShutosellherpaintings.Shewasoneofmanywelleducatedwomenandmen who,despitetheirallegiancetotheamateurideal,reliedontheirwritingandpaintingskillsassourcesofincome. WenShuspecializedinfinelydrawn,delicatelycoloureddepictionsofplants,flowersandbutterflies.Atypical compositionoffersacloseupviewofflowers,oftenlilies,growingbyanerodedgardenrock.WenShusartbecame sowellknownthatitinspiredforgery.Shewasalsosoughtoutbyupperclasswomenasapaintingtutor,andlike WeiFurenandGuanDaosheng,becameamodelforlaterwomenpaintersofthegentry.Herimmediatefollowers includeherdaughter,ZhaoZhao,andthesistersZhouXiandZhouHu(fllater17thcentury). SomanycourtesanstookupthebrushinthelateMingthattheperiodmightberegardedastheageofthe courtesaninthehistoryofChinesewomenpainters.MaShouzhensharedthestagewithsuchotherpainting courtesansasXueSusu(fllate16thmid17thcentury),LinXue(flfirsthalf17thcentury),GuMei(161964), DongBai(162551)andLiuShi(161864).Allareknownbecauseoftheirallianceswithleadingliterati.Towin upperclassadmirers,thesewomencultivatedskillsinpoetry,calligraphy,paintingandmusic,thesamepastimes enjoyedbytheirclients.Withsomeexceptions,suchasLinXue,whospecializedinlandscape,thecourtesans generallypaintedsimplefloralandplantsubjectsthatcouldbeeasilymasteredandspontaneouslyexecutedfor theamusementofagentlemancaller.Theorchid,ametaphorforabeautylivinginpureseclusion,wasafavourite subject.MaShouzhenpaintedorchidsinink,orininkandlightcolours,withadelicatetouchandcalculated refinement. IfthelateMingwastheageofthecourtesans,thentheQingdynasty(16441912)belongedtothedaughtersof thegentry,suchasChenShu(16601736),YunBing(fl18thcentury)andMaQuan(flfirsthalf18thcentury).As wasoftenthecasewithgentrywomenpainters,YunBingandMaQuanwerebornintoartisticfamilies.YunBing wasadescendantofYunShouping,oneofthesocalledSixMastersoftheEarlyQing.YunBingtookupher illustriousforebearsmethodsofflowerpaintingand,ofhismanydescendantswhopainted,wasthemost successful.PeopleofthesouthernregioncalledYunBingandMaQuanapairofincomparables,withtheformer acclaimedforherboneless(unoutlinedwash)methodofpaintingflowersandthelatterknownforheroutline technique.Thisconventionalobservationnotwithstanding,thetwowomenbelongedtothesamestreamofQing flowerpainting.MaQuansfather,MaYuanyu(16691722),reportedlystudiedsketchingfromlifewithYun Shouping.LikeYunShoupingandYunBing,MaQuanobservedherfloralandinsectsubjectsclosely,favoureda lighttouchandfreshcolours,andmadefrequentreferencetotheartoftheoldmasters,astandardpracticeinthe scholarlypaintingtradit

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