2686

December, 1969 6943 December, 1969 ST 12

Experiments," Bul/etin 96, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, February 19, 1930. 10. Mctcalf, L., and Eddy, H. P., American Sewerage Practice, McGraw Hill Company, New York 1916, pp.481-534. 11. Rowe, R. R., "Concrete Pipe in Highway Construction," Concrete Pipe Association, January I, 1962. Technical Memorandum, American

Journal of the
~

12. Spangler, M. G., "The Supporting Strength of Rigid Pipe Culverts," neering Experiment Station, February 8, 1933.

Bul/etin 112. lowa Engi.

STRUCTURAL Proceedings

DIVISION

13. Spangler, M. G., "Analysis of Loads and Supporting Strengths, and Principies of Design for ,~ Highway Culverts," Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1946, pp. 189-214.,: 14. Timrners, J. H., "Load Study of Flexible Pipes Under High Fill," Bul/etin 125. Highway Research Board, 1956, pp. 1-11.
"i':'

of the American Society of Civil Engineers

l :;~
THEORYOF NONLINEARELASTIC STRUCTURES By Graham H. Powell,l M. ASCE

1:'

INTRODUCTION General theoretical formulations and computational techniques for the analysis of linear elastic structures have been very thoroughly studied in recent years. The theory can be elegantly and concisely expressed in standard matrix form. Efficient solution procedures for both the force and displacement methods are well established. No such standardzaton exists, however, for the analysis of nonlnear elastic structures, as evidenced by recent papers (1,2,3,4,5,6).2 Indeed, it is still not clear what constitutes a consistent theoretical formulation of the problem. In this paper , an attempt is made to separate, physically, the different types of nonlinearity which are associated with large displacements of elastic structures, to present a theoretical formulation in which these types of nonlinearity can be easily identified, and to examine a number of problems associated with solution techniques. The displacement method of analysis applied to discrete element systems is used throughout, and it s assumed that strans are small although displacements may be large. A member of a plane rigid frame s selected to illustrate the theory. This member is selected because the results can be expressed compactly, and yet the features of more complex structural elements are present. In particular, both flexural effects and axial stran effects are present, and therefore, the principIes developed can be extended to finite elements for plate bending, as well as for plane and threedimensional stress. As the theory is developed, two alternative formulations are presented in
Note.-Discusslon open until May 1, 1970. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the Executive Secretary, ASCE. This paper is part of the copyrighted Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 95, No. ST12, December, 1969. Manuscript was subrntted for review for possible publication on February 19, 1969. 1 Assist. ProL Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif. 2 Numerais in parentheses refer to corresponding items in the Appendix.- References.

.,~I

.~:
'i'

2687

December,

1969

ST 12

6943

December,

1969

ST 12

'6, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, February 19, 1930. 1. P., American Sewerage Practice, McGraw HiII Company, New Yor k, : Pipe in Highway Construction," m, January I, 1962. Technical Memorandum , American

J ournal of the STRUCTURAL

Supporting Strength of Rigid Pipe Culverts ," Bulletin 112, lowa Engion, February 8, 1933, ysis of Loads and Supporting Strengths, and Principies of Design for 'eedings, Highway Research Board, 1946, pp. 189-214. Study of Flexible Pipes Under High Fill" Bulletin 125 H' h ' J,I-II. " Ig way

DIVISIO

Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers

THEORY OF NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES By Graham H. Powe ll ;' M. ASCE

INTRODUCTION General theoretical formulations and computational techniques for the analysis of linear elastic structures have been very thoroughly studied n recent years. The theory can be elegantly and concisely expressed in standard matrix formo Efficient solution procedures for both the force and displacement methods are well established. No such standardization exists, however, for the analyss of nonlinear elastic structures, as evidenced by recent papers (1,2,3,4,5,6).2 Indeed, t is still not clear what constitutes a consistent theoretical formulation of the problem. In this paper , an attempt is made to separate, physically, the different types of nonlinearity which are associated with large displacements of elastic structures, to present a theoretical formulation in which these types of nonlinearity can be easily identified, and to examine a number of problems associated wth solution techniques. The displacement method of analysis applied to discrete element systems s used throughout, and it is assumed that strans are small although displacements may be large. A member of a plane rigid frame s seIected to illustrate the theory. This member is sel ected because the results can be expressed compactly, and yet the features of more complex structural eIements are present. In particular, both flexural effects and axial str ain effects are present, and therefore, the principIes deveIoped can be extended to finite elements for plate bending, as well as for plane and threedimensional stress. As the theory is developed, two alternative formulations are presented in
I\'ote.-Discussion open until May 1, 1970. To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the Executive Secretary, ASCE. This paper is part of the copyrighted Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the Amer can Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 95, No. ST12, December, 1969. Manuscript was submitted for review for possible publication on February 19, 1969, 1 Assist. Prof. Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Calif., Berke iey , Calif. 2 Numerals in parentheses refer to corresponding items in the Appendix.- References.

2687

r
2688 December, 1969 type and one in general matrix ST 12 NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES 2689

parallel, one of a "traditional" form. The development proceeds

engineering as follows:

1. Basic definitions and equations are presented. 2. Geometric compatibility relationships between member deformations and jont displacements are examined. 3. Equilibrium equations for members and joints are developed. 4. The essential equations of the problem are identified. 5. The role of the tangent stiffness in analysis is described, and expres , sons for tangent stiffness are derived. In this development, member deformations and joint displacements are separated, in order to present a theory which is applicable when rigid body rotatons of the members are large. A more direct formulation, in which member deformations are not expl'cttly examined, is considered at the end of the paper. This type of formulation has commonly been used, but it s argued herein that t is not as satisfactory as the less direct formulation. DEFINITIONS AND BASIC RELATIONSHIPS Structure. - The structure consists of a number of rigid body [onts linked together by deformable structural members. In ths study the members are

in which CJ1 = bending moment; CJ2 = axial force; E1 = EI; E = Young's modulus; I = second moment of area of cross section; E2 = EA; A = area of cross section; E 1 = curvature of mem ber axis; and E 2 = axial strain. Member Actions and Deformations .-ln order to develop a theory which is applicable when member rigid body rotations are large, the deformations and rigid body displacements of the members are separated. Fig. 1 shows a frame member supported so that its chord undergoes no rigid body displacement. The member generalized deformations, v1, v2 and v3, as shown, and the corresponding actions, 51, S2 and S3' are selected for the derivation of the theory. The member deformations are assumed to be small. That is, v1 and v2 are smalI n compartson with unty , and vi, v~, and vs/ L are negligible in comparison with unity. Members which may undergo large flexural deformations must be subdivided into shorter members. Large axial deformations are not permitted. In order for the behavior of the complete structure to be defined uniquely n terms of its joint displacements, the deformations of alI differential ele-

RI,rl

SI(
FIG. 1.-;\1EMBER ACTIONS AND DEFORMATIONS

r:
'::~;; FIG. 2.-DISPLACEMENTS ELEMENT OF DIFFERENTIAL

YLx
FIG. 3.-JOINT LOADS AND DISPLACEMENTS

initially straight, and their elast c properties are assumed to be concentrated along ther axes. External loads are applied only at the joints. Differential Element.-Each member is made up of an infinite number of differential elements. The deformations of all differential elements are assumed to be small, and the relationships between actions and deformations are aSSumed to be linear. In general, differential elements will be elements of material wth stress and stran related by Hooke's law. However, an element of a plane frame member is more simply taken as an ele mental length of beam, with stress and strain resultants related by
CJ1=EIE1 E2

ments in a member must be defined uniquely in terms of the member generalized deformations. Transverse displacements, w, are therefore constrained to vary cubically with the distance along the member chord, and longitudinal displacements, u, to vary linearly (Fig. 2). The following linear transformation is then consistent wth the small deformations assumption:

tl
E1

[LU? - :P'

L(P3 _ p2)

.p)

:J l::\
2)v2

...........

(3)

in which the deformed length, L, is not significantly different length, Lo. The differential element deformations are given by

from the original

(1)

and

CJ2

E2

............

.............

.. . . . .....

(2)

d2w dx2

1 = L

(6p - 4)v1

(6p -

........

(4)

"i~

__ "t1

.,

~
2690 December, 1969 and
ST 12 ST 12 NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES

".

. ;

.....

,":,

...

2691

which is a linear function of the displacements,

E2

du dx

+"2
+

1 (dW)2 dx
........... (5)

displacing from an initial state, O, to a new state, A, can be formulated as follows (Fig. 5): XA
= Xo + r4 - r1 (9a)

E3
L

.!
2

{(3p2 _

4p + l)v, + (3p' - 2p)v,)' (

YA = Yo + rs v
=
3

r2

(9b) . (9c)
(9d)

in which the quadratic term introduces the effects of large displacements. More generally, if {v} = <v1 v2 vs> T, then
Ei = <ai(p{v}

(x3t + y3t)1/2 tan-1

(~)

- Lo

eo
(6a) OA

+ {{v}T

<bi(PT

<bi(P

{v}

in which the first and second terms on the right-hand side are, respectively, the linear and quadratic components of deformation, and in which for E 1
<a1> =

= tan-1
= 0
0

(~)

................. eA eA
......................
.................

(ge) (9f)
(9g)

v
v

<L
<O

(6p - 4)

+ r3
+ r
6

(6p - 2)

O>

(6b) (6c)

= eo

and <b1> and for

E2

O O>
1

.....................

More generally, as a structure

deforms from state O to state A, it moves

<a2>

<O
= 3p2

L>

(6d) (6e)

's

t '{6
-r4

r5

and <b2>

- 4p + 1) (3p2 - 2p) O>

Joint Loads and Displacements .-The displacements of any joint consist of translations, r1 and r2' along the fixed coordinate directions, X and Y, and a rotation rs, as in Fig. 3. The joint loads are the corresponding forces Rl1 R2 and R3. Geometric Compatibility.-For a vanishingly small change of geometry of the structure about any deformed or undeformed configuration, a linear dsplacement transformation can be written as {dv} = [c] {dr}
(7)

~/y \.:

Yo

~rl
rl .

~n

Cx
FIG. 4.-MEMBER ARBITRARIL Y ORIENTED IN SPACE

~r4

l.

XA

_I

FIG. 5.-INITIAL AND FINAL STATES OF MEMBER

in which {dv} = matrix of deformation increments for a single member or any group of members; {dr} = matrix of displacement increments at one or more joints; and [c] = displacement transformation matrix which is instantaneously correct in the particular configuration of the structure. For the single member in Fig. 4, the transformation is well known, as follows:

through an infinite number of intermediate states, and the transformation be written as

{VA}

can

J {rA}
o

[cr]

{dr}

...........................

(10)

dv [_l {dvldvs

r;
c
L 1 O O s L
5

-c
L

-c

L
-5

L
C

T
5

-c

;j

r;

drs dr
4

.........

(8)

drs

in which {VA} = matrx of member deformations in state A; {r A} = matrix of joint displacements in state A; and [cr] = instantaneously correct displacement transformation matrix at any intermediate state. Eqs. 9a-9g are smple to use in computation for a frame member, and it should generally be possible to establish similar direct relationships for other structural elements. However, it may be convenient to evaluate member deormations by numerical integration of Eq. 10. For example, the form
N

r, in which 5 = sn ; and c = cos. For large displacements, the transformation is not, of course, linear. For purposes of computation, the nonlinear transformation for a frame member
{VA}

= ~

~
n=l

[cn]

{rA}

........................

(11)

can be used, in which {r A} is divided into N equal parts and [cn

is the instan-

......... .,...

'tt t

~
2692 taneously correct each parto displacement December, 1969 ST 12 at the beginning or middle of ST 12
+

NONL1NEAR ELAST1C <bi>T <bi> {VA}

STRUCTURES

2693

transformation

L: t {dv}T o L:
1 "2

e,

<ae {VA} . Ldp

EQUILIBRIUM

J1
o

{dV}T

<bi>T

<bi> {VA}

e,

{vAF

<bi>T <bi> {VA} . Ldp

(19)

Joint Equilibrium.-All jonts and members must be in equilibrium in the deformed configuration of the structure. The equilibrium equations are conveniently established by application of the Virtual Displacements PrincipIe. For an infinitesimal imaginary displacement, {dr}, about the deformed state, A, the member deformations, {dV}, are given by
{dv}

The imaginarydeformation, {dv}, can be cancelled, and the integraIs of Eqs. 18 or 19 can be evaluated analytically for a frame member to give the result: 2 1 2 O O O A

[CA]

{dr}

(12) transformation (13) of is

in which [c A] is the instantaneously correct displacement matrix in state A. The virtual work equation is then

l::(. 'fI
1~0 (4vi + EA

1 O

{dj:}

T {RA}

= {dv} T {SA}

.......................

21

1::\
-L ( z 2) 280 v1 + v2 1~0 (vi - V1V2 + 4v~) 4v1 - v2 60 symbolically as {VA} (21) 4Vi - v2 30 4V23~ V1 O

in which {RA} isthe matrix of [ont loads in state A; and {SA} isthe matrix member actions in state A. Therefore, Irom Eq. 12, and because {dr} arbitrary {RA}

v1VZ + VZ)2

I I v1

[cAl T {SA} matrtx,

(14)

-L ( 2 2) 280 Vi + v2 4V1~ 60

I \ V2)
I I vg

(20)

The force transformation of the structure.

[c A] T, is dependent

on the

displacements

{rA}

Member Equilibrium.-The chain of equations linking joint displacements and loads {R A} in state A is completed byestablishing a re lationship be-

This equation can be written {sAl

=

tween member actions {SA} and deformations {VA}' For a single frame member, an infinitesimal imaginary displacement {dv} about its deformed position leads, by differentiation of Eqs. 4 and 5, to imaginary differential element deformations dE1 and dEz given by dE1 and dEz

[[k1]

+ [kz (VA)]J {VA} = [ks]

= L =

1 (6p - 4)dv1 + L (6p - 2)dvz + { (3p2 - 4p + l)v1

.................

(15)

Matrix [k1] is the ordinary linear stiffness of the member. Matrix [k 5] is the secant stiffness of the member, and is obviously deformation dependent. If pseudostrains Yi are defined by
Yi

dv T

+ (3pZ - 2p)vz } (16) by differentiation of Eq. 6: (17)

<bi> {liA}

.......

(22)

then Eq. 19 can be rearranged {SA} 1 + "2

Ei

to give <ai> Ldp {VA}

x
dEi

{(3pZ - 4p + 1)dv1 + (3pZ - 2P)dv2} the following equation is obtained

More generally,

L: t <ai>T o
<ai>T
1

z,

<ai>

{v} + {v}T

<lu T <bi> {dv}

The virtual work equation s {dvF {sAl

L:

t a,
o

ai

lilp

L: t a, s, o

L: J1 o L:
f1
o

s, Yi

<bi> Ldp {VA}

Ldp

.....

(18)

L: Jo

<bi>T s, Yi <ae lilp {VA}

or, from substitution {dv}T {SA}

of Eqs. 17 and 6 into Eq. 18 1 + '2 <ai>T z, <ai> {VA} . Ldp

L: t {dvF o

<bi>TYi

EiYi b, lilP {VA}

................

(23)

L: ~

t
o

{dvF

<ai>T Ei {vAF

<beT

<bt> {VA} . Ldp

These integraIs can be evaluated exactly or approximately by numerical integration. The procedure s general because the integration can be carried out over surfaces and volumes as wellas in one dimension. A substantial simpli-

.,.'i

......
2694

.";;'1~4

,-.

".

,.. ;;:' ,',

.

December, 1969

ST 12

ST 12

NONLINEAR ELA$TIC STRUCTURES

2695

fication, possibly wth no great loss in accuracy, can be achieved by assigning constant values to Yi' ESSENTIAL EQUATIONS The essential equations which must be satisfied can be summarized as follows: {rA} {VA} = [an ]{dr} . (10) o

5tiffness s largely just a tool which is a part of some soluton techniques. The fundamental equations are Eqs. 10, 21 and 14, and if a solution can be Iound which satisfies these equations, by any technique whatsoever, this is a valid solution. Member Tangent Stiffness in Member Coordinates.-In any state , A, an equation of the orrn {dS}

= [tA] {dv}

................................

(24)

{SAl

= =

[ks]

{VA} .

s sought, in whieh [IA] is the mem ber tangent stiffness in state A. This matrix is obtained most directly for a frame member by differentiating Eq. 20 with respect to {v}. The result is

(21) (14)

{RA}

[aAF {SAl

as, \
dS2) dSs'

Nonlinearity is present because the displacement transformation is nonlinear (Eq. 10), the members behave nonlinearly (Eq. 21), and the equilibrium equatons must be formulated in the deformed configuration (Eq. 14). In computational algorithms, one or more of these nonlinearites may be ignored, and approxrnate results obtaned. For example, for finite element analyses in which the elements are smal l , a common assumption might be that the member nonlinearity, represented by Eq. 21, can be ignored. The influence of this particular assumption on the solution technique is noted subsequently. TANGENT STIFFNESS
General.-In "exact" computational algorithms for large nonlinear structures, the non-linear problem is most commonly solved by a Newton type of

22

2
1

LO

o ~
140

j r'l
dV2 dvs
+

[( L(12,: - 3v, u + vj)

+ EA .

~)

15

( - L(3': - ''', " + 3,:) _ "- )

280 30

t . symme rrc

( L(v~ - 3v)v2 + 12vV

140

5 ) 15

( 4v)3~ v2 ) ( 4V23~ Vi )

{R}

FIRST DISPLACEMENT SECOND

ESTIMATE DISPLACEMENT ESTIMATE

B
TANGENT AT O

EXACT SOLUTION

dVi ( dV 2 dvs

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

(25)

SECOND UNBALANCED FORCE FIRST UNBALANCED FORCE

whieh ean be written as

{zs} = [[ti] {r}

+ [12(VA)]]

{dv}

= [tA] {dv}

(26)

FIG. 6.-DIAGRAMMATIC

ILLUSTRATION

OF NEWTON PROCEDURE

method in a series of linear steps. The procedure is well known andphysically reasonable, being one in which a soluton which satisfies compatibility is suecessively corrected until it also satisfies equilibrium. The basie method is illustrated diagramatically in Fig. 6. For this method to be applied, tangent stiffnesses for the structure are required. In this secton , expressions for the tangent stiffness matrix of a single member are developed. The tangent stiffness of the complete structure is then considered in the following section. It should be emphasized that, except for stability investigations, the tangent

More generally, the tangent stiffness is obtained by differentiating Eq. 19. This differentiation is conveniently, and instruetively, carried out as follows. Two states are eonsidered, namely {VA}, {SA} and {VA + tov}, {SA + toS}. ln each of these states a virtual displacement is imposed and an equilibrium equation in the form of Eq. 19 is developed. The first equation is then subtracted from the seeond to give an equation for {toS}. Both {toS} and {to v} are then made to tend to zero, 50 that high order terms in {tov} can be ignored. The result ean then be arranged as
{dS}

I
o

r
o

<ai>T

e, <ai>

Ldp . {dv}

If

<ai>T

e, Yi

<bi> Ldp . {dv}

fr;
;' ~ I
I

.. 2696

:: i'"

,
o''::
"v'

..

December, 1969
ST 12 +

NONLINEARELASTIC STRUCTURES
1l2U

. '1-/'.':"

2697 (31)

Lt o Lf
1

<bi>TEiYi<ai>Ldp

{dv} n which U
=

and tij = -",-",<bi>T

uVi uVj

,
=

,..........

r, z, r, <bi> Ldp . {dv}

strain energy; and tij

term of tangent stiffness matrix.

Lt o

STRUCTURETANGENT STIFFNESS <bi>T ai <bi> Ldp . {dv} Member form {dR} Tangent
=

Stiffness

in Structure

Coordinates

.-An equation of the

(32)

The first term on the rght-hand side of this equation is the ordinary linear stiffness of the member. The remaining terms depend on the deformations or the member, and may be collectively termed the "intal stran= stiffness of the member. The tangent stiffness matrix will always be symmetrical, and numerical evaluation of the integraIs is possible. Initial Stress Stiffness.-If, in Eq. 25, the flexural deformations, v and v , l 2 are made equal to zero, the result is

[TA)

{dr}

s sought, in which [TA 1 is the tangent stiffness of a singIe member or a group of members in the fixed coordinates, X, Y. The following equations can be written:

{dS} {dv} and {dR}

= [tA 1 {dv}
= =

(26) (33) + [dcF{SA} (34)

[cAl {dr} [CA]T{dS}

~ [t2(vA)

15 30 O

-~30
~
15 O

EA I _!a.

:1

.....................

(28)

Eq. 34 is obtained by differentiation of Eq. 14, in which the force transformation matrix, [CA]T, is a funct on of the joint dispIacements, {r}. Eqs. 26 and 33 can be substituted into Eq. 34 to give {dR}
=

2 15

-1 30 2

ol

=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (29)

[cAF [tA) [cAl {dr} + [dcl [Tl) {dr} + [dcF {SA}

{SAI

t
(

(35)

or [12(VA)

SsL

-1 30 O

TI
O

:J

Matrix [Tl] is the member tangent stiffness transformed into structure coordinates, and accounts for the changes in magnitude of the member end forces as the structure deforms. Term [dc F {SA} accounts, essentially, for the changes in direction of the member end forces as the structure deforms. This second term must be rearranged as [dc]T {SAI

This matrix now corresponds to the last term on the right-hand side of Eq. 27. It is appropriately termed the "initial stress" stiffness matrix of the member, following the terminology used by Turner, Martin and others (6,5). A further contribution to the structure tangent stiffness, more appropriately identified as a "geometric" stiffness, fol lowingthe terminology of Argyris (1), is considcred in the next secton, It can be seen that the true member tangent stiffness is not n general obtained by adding the ordinary linear stiffness to the "ntal stress= stiffness. Nevertheless, because convergence can be obtaned by a Newtontype of method without the use of an exact tangent, it may be satisfactory n practice to use ths approximation to the true tangent stiffness. For stability investigations of such structures as axially loaded, geometrically perfect columns, the assumption that the flexural deformations are initially zero is, however, correct. It may also be noted that the derivations of Eqs. 23 and 27 are identical in principIe to the use of the strain energy expressions
Si =

= [T2) {dr}

(36)

in which matrix [T2) can be termed the "geometric" stiffness. Two methods of making this rearrangement are considered herein. The first method, which is essentially that used by Argyris (1), involves differentation of the force transformation matrix, [c A) T, and s "exact" but does not appear to guarantee that a symmetric stiffness matrix will resulto The second method follows more cIosely the derivations of the prevous sectons, but requires that some terms be ignored a prior i. Method 1, Differentialion of Force Transformation.-The matrtx, (cAF, for a frame member s a function of the intial geometry of the structure and the joint displacements, rl through re (Fig. 4). Therefore

(dc)

T _

\' /.J
t=

[
1

Ilri

SC JT
J

dri'

, (37)

.E!.Vi

.........................

. . . . . . . . . . "

(30)

and [dcJT {SA}

. z.= 1

,'[SCJT Ilri

lSA} drj

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

(38)

2698 Eq. 38 can now be arranged

December,

1969

ST 1.

ST 12

NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES

2699

,.
.
'\
. ":' \ ~.:\!'.:

"

[8 e/ er il T {SA}' If the multiplication

be expressed

in the form of Eq. 36, in which column i of [T l i 2 sequence is reordered, matrix [T l C 2 in the more convenient form: + S3[T23l

[T2l

= SI [T2] + S2[T22]

.
from Eq. .

surne that for moderately small changes of [oint displacernent {~r} about some deforrned postton of the structure , nonlinear relationships between change of rnember deforrnation and change of joint displacement can be written, and that these relationships can be approximated by the linear and quadratic terms onlyas t.Vi

in which column i of [ T2j 1 is column j of [e/ r i J T. For a planeframe member, matrices [le/8ri]T can be evaluated 8, using [~JT 8ri The result is -2se (e2 _ S2) 2se O O O symmetric 2se (S2 O -2se
c2)

<di> {t.r}

+ ~ {~rF

[eil

{t.r}

(44)

[8eJT 88

~ 8ri

+ [~JT

si.

u: 8ri
(S2 _ e2) -2se O (e2 _ S2) 2se O O O O O O (41)

For an infinitesimal increase, applying the virtual displacements by differentiating d~Vi Eq. 44: + {~rF

{d~r}, in {~r}, such as will be mposed in principIe, the following equation is obtained [eil {dt.r} (45)

<di> {d~r}

[T21l =

[T22]

i2 I

Consider, now, the equilibrium between the [oint loads and the member actions in two adjacent states {r}, {R}, {S} and {r + t.r}, {R + t.R}, {S}, in which{S} remains constant. In the first state, the virtual work equation is {d~'tF {R}

= ~

dt.Vi

Sil,6 r=o

{dt.'t}T

L:

Si <di>T

(46)

In the second state, the virtual {dt.rF {R + t.R}

work equation is
Sil,6r=M ~

= ~ dt.Vi

S2

-se e2

O O O

_S2 se O
S2

se _e2 O -se
c2

O O O O O O {t.R}
I

(47)

{dt.rF

L:

Si [<di>T

+ [eiV

{~r}l)

and [T23] =

-b I

symmetric

.............

(42)

Therefore,

if Eq. 46 is subtracted

from Eq. 47 the result

= [~

Si

[ei1T]

{~r}

(48)

in which s = sns, and e = cose. For more complex structural elements, carry out the corresponding manipulations. structure coordinates is then given by

it should generally be possible The member tangent sttifness

to in (43)

[TA)

[TIl

+ [T2l there appears to be no guarantee

For a frarne mem ber, it is found that there is no simple and direct way to determine [eil for the flexural effects, i = 1 and i = 2. However, if tts assumed, a priori, that the "geometric" stiffness effects associated with the flexural actions SI and S2 are zero, then this problem can be ignored. The quadratic term inthe equation for ~ v3 s then L(~e)2, and therefore matrix [e31 is readi1y written [e31 in which as

However, by this method ways be symmetric.

that [ T21 will al-

If the manipulations required to develop Eqs. 41 and 42 are examined, it is found that for [T21] and (T22] there are contributions of similar orders of magnitude from the differentiations with respect to both e and L. That is, the influence of the change in mangitude of the end shears, (SI + S2)/ L, as the member changes length is of the same order of magnitude as the influence of the changes in direction of those shears as the member rotates. However, it has already been assumed that change of member length is negligible, and, therefore, for consistency [ T21) and [ T 221 should both be ignored. On the other hand, the terms in [T23] result solely from differentiation with respect to e, and are not negligible.
Method 2, Use of Nonlinear

<f3>T <f3>

...............................
<sinO -cose O -sine cose O>

(49) (50)

<f 3>

L-1/2

Deformation-DisPlaeement

Relationship.-As-

Therefore, matrix (T21 becomes S3[ e3], in which [e31 is found to be identical to matrix [T231 in Eq. 42. "Correct" Tangent Sliffness for Use in Large tnepiacements Analysis.For any rnathernatically idealized structure, the most reliable and rapid convergence can be expected by a Newton type of method if the tangent stiffness which is used is exact for the idealized structure. As noted previously, a common assumpton in the analyss of finite element systems is that the member acton deformation relationship of Eqs. 21 and 23 can be linearized as

.....-.......11

~
2700 December, 1969
<ai> JJlp

.~~

ST 12 . {VA}
. (51)

ST 12

NONLINEAR ELAST'IC STRUCTURES

2701

{SA}

[k1l

{VA}

i.J

\' J1
o

<ai>T

s,

If this assumption is made, it becomes an integral part of the mathematical idealization. It follows immediately that the member tangent stiffness, from Eqs. 26 and 27 is

f!!,
~ 1.' {.

{dS}

= [t11 {di'}

~' t

<ai>T

tt,

<ai> Ldp .

{dd

.........

(52)

That is, the "initial strain" stiffness is implicitly ignored, and the only addtional contribution to the structure tangent stiffness must be the "geometric" stiffness. If a more elaborate form of the tangent stiffness is used, it wiU actually be less exact, and may be expected to lead to less rapid convergence. DIRECT FORMULATION In the preceding the o ry , mem be r deformations we re de liberately separated from member rigid body displacements, in order to develop a general theory permitting large rigid body rotations. If the [oint displacements are such that the member rigid body rotatons are known not to be large, then direct nonlinear relationships between the differential element deformations and joint displacements can be written as
Ei = <f[i>

bers result in turn from the nonlinear transformations relating differential element deformations to member deformations, and from the necessity of formulating the member equilibrium equations in the deformed configurations of the members. The nonlinearity which originates within the members has been termed the "initial strain" effect herein, and that which originates outside the members has been termed the "geometric" effect. Expressions for the secant and tangent stiffne sses of members and structnr e s have been presented in a cornpact Ior m , which can be extended to finite element systems of a variely of types. The importance o selecting consistent tangent stiffnesses for solutions by methods of Newton type has been e mphasized, and it has been shown that the "initial strain" erfcct may have to be ignored. Of course, a statement o theory does not constitute a solution. Considerable work remains to be carried out to select efficient computational algorithms and to determine the relative importance of the different types of nonlinearity.

APPENDN.-REFERENCES

I. Argyris, J. H., Kelsey, S., and Kamel, H .. "Matrix

Methods in Structural

Analysis."

Agardo-

{r}

+ ~

{r} T

<hi> T lt ;

{r}

(53)

graph 72, Pergamon Press, New York, 1964, pp. 1-164. 2. Connor, J. J., Logcher. R. D., and Chan. S. c., "Nonlinear Analysis of Elastic Framed Strucurres." .Iournal o/ lhe Structural ivision, ASCE. Vol. 94, No. ST6, Proc. Paper 6011, June 1968, pp.1525-1548. 3. Felippa, C. A., "Refined Finite Elemenl Analysis of Linear and Nonlinear Two-Dimensional Strur.tures," SES M Repor/66-22. University of California, Berkeley, 1966. 4_ Malleu, R. H., and Marcal, P. V., "Finite Element Analysis of Nonlinear Structur es." .Iournal 01 ihe Structura! Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST9, Proc. Paper 6115, SepL. 1968, pp. 2081--2105. 5. Martin, H_ c., "On lhe Derivation of Stiffness Matrices for the Analysis of Large Deflection and Stability Problerns ," Pruceedings. Conference on Matrix Methods in Structur al Mechanics, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, October, 1965, pp. 697- 716. 6. Turner, M. J., Martin, 1-1.c., and Weikel, R. C .. "Further Development and Application of the Stiffness Method." Agardograph 72. Pcrgamon Pr ess. New Yor k , 1964, pp. 203- 266.

for which appropriate matrices <f[ i? and h ; can be determined. Expressions for the secant and tangent stiffnesses directly in structure coordinates can now be derived, by the same methods and with similar form as Eqs. 23 and 27. If the joint displacements are not moderately small, however, the re lationship represented by Eq. 53 may not be sufficiently accurate. In th s case, either higher order terms must be included in Eq. 53 or the theory of the previous sections must be applied. Even if Eq. 53 is sufficiently accurate, the direct formulation does not require substantially less computational or computer coding effort to apply than the indirect formulation. Fu rthe r , the indirect formulation has the advantage that the "initial strain" and the "geometric" nonlinear effects are distinctly separated, so that the "initial strain" effect can be ignored if the initialassumptions require it. It appears, therefore, that the indirect formulation should be preferable in all cases. CONC LUS10NS In this paper the three major sources of nonlinearity in elastic structures undergoing large displacements have been distinguished, and the essential equations of the problem have been stated. It has been shown that the nonlinearity of the structure results from the nonlinearity of the transformations relating member deformations to joint displacements, from the necessity of formulating the joint equilibrium equations in the displaced configuration of the structure, and from the nonlinear action-deformation relationships of the structural members. The nonlinearities orginating within the structural mern-

~.
~,.

?r
:'\