1.) Which is false regarding neuronal signaling? a.

Voltage-gated sodium channels are highly concentrated at the axon hillock, which can initiate action potentials. b. Neurons alter their membrane potential by selectively changing the phospholipid composition of their membranes, which affects specific ion permeability. c. During the absolute refractory period, no stimulus can trigger another action potential. d. Electrical signals in the dendrites and cell body of a neuron are called graded potentials. e. The degree of myelination and diameter of the axon are both factors that affect the speed of action potential propagation. The correct answer is B. Voltage-gated channels are concentrated at the axon hillock, and if enough of them allow the entrance of sodium, the all-or-none principal results: an action potential can propagate down the axon. Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential in the dendrites/cell body, which vary in size (as opposed to being all-or-none), and decrease over time and space. Many factors can affect the speed of action potentials, specifically myelination, diameter of axon, length constant of an axon, and the kinetics of voltage-gated channels. Letter B was false because neurons alter their membrane potential by opening and closing gated ion channels in the membrane, not by changing the composition of the phospholipid bilayer. 2.) A brain injury results in a patient with an inability to understand any form of spoken or visual information. What is the most likely cause of the symptoms, and what is the name of the condition that resulted? a. Damage to the frontal lobe; receptive aphasia b. Damage to Brocas area; expressive aphasia c. Damage to the reticular activating system; global aphasia d. Damage to Wernickes area; receptive aphasia The correct answer is D. Sensory input (auditory or visual) enters Wernickes area, then is transmitted to Brocas area. It is integrated and processed, and then output from Brocas area initiates written or spoken action. Therefore, language comprehension occurs in Wernickes area, which is the basis behind the patients loss of ability to understand spoken or visual information. The condition in which a person is unable to understand sensory input is known as receptive aphasia (while Brocas area damage would result in expressive aphasia- inability to produce proper language).

3.) The following are steps of the long-term potentiation pathway: 1. Depolarization of the cell 2. Ca2+ influx 3. Glutamate is released 4. Mg2+ unbinds from the NMDA receptor channel 5. Second messengers induce paracrine release by post-synaptic cell 6. Na+ rushes in 7. Presynaptic neuron releases Glutamate which binds to the receptors Which of the following is the correct order of the pathway? a. 4,6,1,7,5,2,3 b. 5,4,7,2,1,3,6 c. 6,2,1,5,4,7,3 d. 7,2,1,3,4,6,5 e. 7,6,1,4,2,5,3 Correct answer/order of steps is E.

4.) At what point is the concentration of Na+ inside the cell highest? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5 Answer: (C) At 3 because the cell is at the peak of its depolarization due to its Na+ influx. At this point the inactivation gate closes and Na+ entry stops and repolarization follows.

5. One of the hallmark characteristics of neural signals is that they last for a very small duration. Which of the following does NOT contribute to this characteristic? A. Some neurotransmitters in the synapse can be transported back into the presynaptic cell. B. Some neurotransmitters in the synapse will remain strongly bound to its receptor. C. Some neurotransmitters in the synapse will undergo enzyme-mediated degradation. D. Some neurotransmitters in the synapse will passively diffuse away from the synapse. Answer: The answer is B. The general reason why neural signals are so short is there is an equilibrium between free neurotransmitters and bound neurotransmitters, and as unbound neurotransmitters are removed from the synapse, the equilibrium shifts to detach bound neurotransmitters from their receptors, terminating the neural signal. Answers A, B, and D are consistent with this idea. Answer B directly contradicts this idea, as if the neurotransmitter remains bound to its receptor, the neural signal will indefinitely continue.