DURKHEIM AND DOL Essay on Durkheims Theory of Division of Labour Durkheims Theory of Division of Labour is often regarded as his

s major contribution to the field of sociological thought. Durkheims doctoral thesis Division of Labour in !ociety ".#$% is his first major book. &n this the influence of 'uguste (omte is clearly evident. The theme of this book is the relationshi) bet*een individuals and society or the collectivity. &t is indeed a classic study of social solidarity. &n this book he reacted against the vie* that modern industrial society could be based sim)ly u)on agreement bet*een individuals motivated by self+ interest and *ithout any )rior consensus. ,e agreed that the kind of consensus in modern society *as different from that in sim)ler social systems. -ut he sa* both of these as t*o ty)es of social solidarity. &n his famous *ork The Division of Labour in !ociety Durkheim tried to determine the social conse.uences of the division of labour in modern societies. ' major theme in all Durkheims *ritings is the im)ortance of shared social norms and values in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity. ,e argued that the nature of this social solidarity de)ends on the e/tent of the division of labour. Meaning of Division of Labour: The conce)t of Division of Labour has been used in three *ays0 1i2 in the sense of the technical division of labour it describes the )roduction )rocess3 1ii2 as the se/ual division of labour it describes social divisions bet*een men and *omen3 1iii2 as the social division of labour it refers to differentiation in society as a *hole. 4&t is in the third sense that Durkheim uses this term.5 &n a general sense the term division of labour involves the assignment to each unit or grou) a s)ecific share of a common task. 's used by the early classical economists such as 'dam !mith 1"6672 the term describes a s)ecialisation in *orksho)s and the factory system and e/)lains the advantages accruing in terms of the increased efficiency and )roductivity from these ne* arrangements8 Durkheims Op imis i! "ie# of Division of Labour: 9hile :ar/ *as )essimistic about the division of labour in society Durkheim *as cautiously o)timistic. :ar/ sa* the s)ecialised division of labour tra))ing the *orker in his occu)ational role and dividing society into antagonistic social classes. Durkheim sa* a number of )roblems arising from s)ecialisation in industrial society but believed that the )romise of the division of labour out*eighed the )roblems. $#o Main $%pes of &o!ia' &o'i(ari %: 's it is made clear that the main theme of the book Division of Labour in !ociety by Durkheim is the relationshi) bet*een the individual and society. The nature of this relationshi) could be stated in the form of t*o .uestions0 1i2 ,o* can a large number of individuals make u) a society+8 'nd 1ii2 ,o* can these individuals achieve ;consensus *hich is the basic condition of social e/istence8

&n his attem)ts to ans*er these vital .uestions Durkheim dre* u) a distinction bet*een t*o forms of solidarity namely0 1i2 mechanical solidarity and 1ii2 organic solidarity res)ectively. These t*o ty)es of solidarity *ere found in the traditional tribal societies and in the modern com)le/ urban societies. $he Link be #een Division of Labour an( &o!ia' &o'i(ari % Meaning of he )on!ep of &o'i(ari %: i. !ocial solidarity is synonymous *ith social cohesion or social integration. ii. !ocial solidarity refers to the integration and degree or ty)e of integration manifest by a society or grou). iii. !ocial solidarity refers to the condition *ithin a grou) in *hich there is social cohesion )lus co+o)erative collective action directed to*ards the achievement of grou) goals The basis of social solidarity is different in sim)le societies and com)le/ societies. Durkheim made com)arisons bet*een the )rimitive and the civilised societies in terms of his conce)t of solidarity. 'ccording to him the )rimitive society is characterised by mechanical solidarity based on the conscience collective3 and the advanced society is characterised by organic solidarity based on the division of labour. *+ Me!hani!a' &o'i(ari %: 's defined by Durkheim mechanical solidarity refers to social solidarity based u)on homogeneity of values and behaviour strong social constraint and loyalty to tradition and kinshi). The term a))lied to small non+literate societies characterised by a sim)le division of labour very little s)ecialisation of function only a fe* social roles and very little tolerance of individuality. 's Durkheim has stated mechanical solidarity is solidarity of resemblance. &t is rooted in the similarity of the individual members of a society. &n the society *here this kind of solidarity )revails individuals do not differ from one another much. They are the members of the same collectivity and resemble one another because they feel the same emotions cherish the same values and hold the same things sacred. The society is coherent because the individuals are not yet differentiated. ,ere *e find the strong states of the (ollective (onscience. (ollective conscience refers to the sum total of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of the society. This )revails mostly in )rimitive societies. The common conscience com)letely covers individual mentality and morality. ,ere social constraint is e/)ressed most decisively in re)ressive severe criminal la* *hich serves to maintain mechanical solidarity. ,+ Organi! &o'i(ari %: 's defined by Durkheim organic solidarity refers to a ty)e of societal solidarity ty)ical of modern industrial society in *hich unity is based on the interde)endence of a very large number of highly s)ecialised roles in a system involving a com)le/ division of labour that re.uires the co+o)eration of almost all the grou)s and individuals of the society. This ty)e of solidarity is called organic because it is similar to the unity of a biological organism in *hich highly s)ecialised )arts or organs must *ork in coordination if the organism 4or any one of its )arts5 is to survive<

=rganic solidarity is almost the o))osite of mechanical solidarity. 'ccording to Durkheim in+ creasing density of )o)ulation is the major key to the develo)ment of division of labour. =rganic solidarity emerges *ith the gro*th of the division of labour. This es)ecially is *itnessed in the modern industrial societies. Division of labour and the conse.uent dissimilarities among men bring about increasing interde)endence in society. The interde)endence is reflected in human mentality and morality and in the fact of organic solidarity itself. &n organic solidarity consensus results from differentiation itself. The individuals are no longer similar but different. &t is )recisely because the individuals are different that consensus is achieved. 9ith the increase in division of labour the collective conscience lessens. Thus criminal la* tends to be re)laced by civil and administrative la*. ,ere the stress is on restitution of rights rather than on )unishment. 'n increase in organic solidarity *ould re)resent moral )rogress stressing the higher values of e.uality liberty fraternity and justice. Even here the social constraints in the form of contracts and la*s continue to )lay a major role. Differences -et*een :echanical and =rganic !olidarities Durkheim formulated the distinction bet*een the t*o ty)es of solidarity by identifying the demogra)hic and mor)hological features basic to each ty)e. ,e also identified the ty)ical forms of la* and formal features and content of the conscience collective *hich ought to be associated *ith each ty)e. Division of Labour is Differen from Disin egra ion: Durkheim Durkheim distinguishes bet*een division of labour and disintegration. Disintegration is illustrated by industrial failures crises conflicts and crimes. 'll these are )athological in nature. &n these forms the division of labour ceases to bring forth solidarity hence re)resents an anomic division of labour so to say. Division of labour in society is actually different from occu)ational division of labour in the factory as )ointed out by :ar/. &n his earlier *ork Durkheim stated that a society *ith organic solidarity needed fe*er common beliefs to bind members to the society. -ut later he changed his vie* and stressed that even the societies in *hich organic solidarity has reached its )eak needed a common faith a common conscience collective. This *ould hel) the men to remain united and not to disintegrate into a hea) of mutually antagonistic and self+seeking individuals. Division of Labour an( Anomie: Division of labour though an essential element of society can do great harm to the society if carried to the e/treme. Durkheim *as .uite a*are of this and hence had cautioned against the adverse conse.uences of unregulated division of labour. 'nomie is one such adverse conse.uence. &n fact Durkheim *as the first to use this conce)t. The >reek term 'nomie literally means *ithout norms or normlessness. 'nomie is the outcome of clash in ones o*n values and those of the society and one is not clear in *hat *ay to go ho* to behave and ho* to come u)to the e/)ectations of the society and also ho* to mould the environment to suit his e/)ectations.

'nomie is the strict counter)art of the idea of social solidarity. ?ust as solidarity is a state of collective ideological integration anomie is a state of confusion insecurity normlessness. The collective re)resentations are in a state of decay. & a e of Anomie Lea(ing o -ersona' an( &o!ia' Disorganisa ion: The essential )roblem of modern society Durkheim argued is that the division of labour leads inevitably to feelings of individualism *hich can be achieved only at the cost of shared sentiments or beliefs. The result is anomie a state of normlessness in both the society and the individual. !ocial norms become confused or break do*n and )eo)le feel detached from their fello* beings. ,aving little commitment to shared norms )eo)le lack social guidelines for )ersonal conduct and are inclined to )ursue their )rivate interests *ithout regard for the interests of society as a *hole. !ocial control of individual behaviour becomes ineffective and as a result the society is threatened *ith disorganisation or even disintegration. Durkheim *as )robably correct in his vie* that the division of labour and the resulting gro*th of individualism *ould break do*n shared commitment to social norms and it seems )lausible that there is *ides)read anomie in modern societies. @et these societies do retain some broad consensus on norms and values as *e can readily see *hen *e com)are one society *ith another say the Anited !tates *ith (hina. 'lthough this consensus seems much *eaker than that in )reindustrial societies it is )robably still strong enough to guide most individual behaviour and to avert the social breakdo*n that Durkheim feared. Durkheims analysis remains valuable ho*ever for his acute insights into the far+ranging effects that the division of labour has on social and )ersonal life. )on!'u(ing Remarks: Durkheims vie*s regarding division of labour could be summed u) in the *ords of Baymond 'ron in the follo*ing *ay0 'ccording to Baymond 'ron the )hiloso)hical idea *hich underlies the theory of division of labour could be summed u) like this0 The individual is the e/)ression of the collectivity itself it is the structure of the collectivity that im)oses on each man his )eculiar res)onsibility. Even in the society *hich authorises each man to be himself and kno* himself there is more collective consciousness )resent in the individual consciousness than *e imagine. (ollective im)eratives and )rohibitions collective values and things held sacred are needed to bind individuals to the social entity. ,ence Durkheim felt that only if all the members of a society *ere tied to a common set of symbolic re)resentations or to common set of beliefs about the *orld around them the moral unity of the society *ould be safe. 9ithout them Durkheim argued any society *hether )rimitive or modern *as bound to degenerate and decay.

Durkheim on Re'igion &f religion has given birth to all that is essential in society it is because the idea of society is the soul of religion.C

1-ellah "$6% ). "$" 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 CDor *e kno* today that a religion does not necessarily im)ly symbols and rites )ro)erly s)eaking or tem)les and )riests. This *hole e/terior a))aratus is only the su)erficial )art. Essentially it is nothing other than a body of collective beliefs and )ractices endo*ed *ith a certain authority.C 1"$6% ). E" 4e/cer)t from C&ndividualism and the &ntellectualsC52 The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life the last major *ork )ublished by Durkheim five years before his death in "$"6 is generally regarded as his best and most mature. 9here Suicide focused on a large amount of statistics from varying sources The Elementary Forms used one case study in de)th the 'ustralian aborigines. Durkheim chose this grou) because he felt they re)resented the most basic elementary forms of religion *ithin a culture. Durkheim set out to do t*o things establish the fact that religion *as no divinely or su)ernaturally ins)ired and *as in fact a )roduct of society and he sought to identify the common things that religion )laced an em)hasis u)on as *ell as *hat effects those religious beliefs 1the )roduct of social life2 had on the lives of all *ithin a society. DurkheimFs finding that religion *as social can best be described by this e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms: CThe general conclusion of the book *hich the reader has before him is that religion is something eminently social. Beligious re)resentations are collective re)resentations *hich e/)ress collective realities3 the rites are a manner of acting *hich take rise in the midst of assembled grou)s and *hich are destined to e/cite maintain or recreate certain mental states in these grou)s. !o if the categories are of religious origin they ought to )artici)ate in this nature common to all religious facts3 they should be social affairs and the )roduct of collective thought. 't least ++ for in the actual condition of our kno*ledge of these matters one should be careful to avoid all radical and e/clusive statements ++ it is allo*able to su))ose that they are rich in social elements.C 1Thom)son "$#G ). "GE 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 BecogniHing the social origin of religion Durkheim argued that religion acted as a source of solidarity and identification for the individuals *ithin a society es)ecially as a )art of mechanical solidarity systems and to a lesser but still im)ortant e/tent in the conte/t of organic solidarity. Beligion )rovided a meaning for life it )rovided authority figures and most im)ortantly for Durkheim it reinforced the morals and social norms held collectively by all *ithin a society. Dar from dismissing religion as mere fantasy des)ite its natural origin Durkheim sa* it as a critical )art of the social system. Beligion )rovides social control cohesion and )ur)ose for )eo)le as *ell as another means of communication and gathering for individuals to interact and reaffirm social norms. DurkheimFs second )ur)ose *as in identifying certain elements of religious beliefs that are common across different cultures. ' belief in a su)ernatural realm is not necessary or common among religions but the se)aration of different as)ects of life )hysical things and certain behaviors into t*o categories ++ the sacred and the profane ++ is common. =bjects and behaviors deemed sacred *ere considered )art of the s)iritual or religious realm. They *ere )art of rites objects of reverence or sim)ly behaviors deemed s)ecial by religious belief. Those things deemed )rofane *ere everything else in the *orld that did not have a religious function or hold religious meaning. -ut *hile these t*o categories are rigidly defined and set a)art they interact *ith one another and de)end on each other for survival. The sacred *orld cannot survive *ithout the )rofane *orld to su))ort it and give it life and vice versa. &n general those as)ects of social life given moral su)eriority or reverence are considered sacred and all other as)ects are )art of the )rofane. Dor e/am)le the (atholic (hurch res)ects the crucifi/ and the behaviors and

actions )erformed during mass as sacred *hile other behaviors and objects are not. 9hile Iative 'merican societies differed greatly in the details those religions also held certain objects and behavior sacred such as certain animals and the rituals and rites )erformed by the shaman. This division of things into t*o se)arate but interacting s)heres is common among all religions. C...sacred things are sim)ly collective ideals that have fi/ed themselves on material objects.C 1"$6% ). "E$ 4e/cer)t from CThe Dualism of ,uman Iature and its !ocial (onditionsC52 Durkheim concerned *ith social solidarity throughout his academic career *as )rimarily concerned *ith religion as a functional source of social cohesion. 's said before religion acts to )ull )eo)le together 1mentally and )hysically in the form of religious services or assemblies2. -y doing so religion is able to reaffirm collective morals and beliefs in the minds of all members of society. This is im)ortant because if left to their o*n for a long amount of time the beliefs and convictions of individuals *ill *eaken in strength and re.uire reinforcement. Beligion maintains the influence of society ++ *hereas CsocietyC re)resents the norms and beliefs held in common by a grou) of individuals. C' religion is a unified system of beliefs and )ractices relative to sacred things that is to say things set a)art and forbidden ++ beliefs and )ractices *hich unite into one single moral community called a (hurch all those *ho adhere to them.C 1"$#G ). "G$ 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 CThis system of conce)tions is not )urely imaginary and hallucinatory for the moral forces that these things a*aken in us are .uite real ++ as real as the ideas that *ords recall to us after they have served to form the ideas.C 1"$6% ). "7J 4e/cer)t from CThe Dualism of ,uman Iature and its !ocial (onditionsC52 C!ince it is in s)iritual *ays that social )ressure e/ercises itself it could not fail to give men the idea that outside themselves there e/ist one or several )o*ers both moral and at the same time efficacious u)on *hich they de)end.C 1"$6% ). "6" 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 C!ince religious force is nothing other than the collective and anonymous force of the clan and since this can be re)resented in the mind only in the form of the totem the totemic emblem is like the visible body the god.C 1"$6% ). "#K 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 C-ut from the fact that a Freligious e/)erience F if *e choose it this does e/ist and that it has a certain foundation ... it does not follo* that the reality *hich is its foundation conforms objectively to the idea *hich believers have of it.C 1"$6% ). "$J 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 CThat *hich science refuses to grant to religion is not its right to e/ist but its right to dogmatiHe u)on the nature of things and the s)ecial com)etence *hich it claims for itself for kno*ing man and the *orld. 's a matter of fact it does not kno* itself. &t does not even kno* *hat it is made of nor to *hat need it ans*ers.C 1"$6% ). GJE 4e/cer)t from The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life52 !ources0 -ellah Bobert I. "$6%. Emile Durkheim: On Morality and Society, Selected Lress. Thom)son Menneth. "$#G. Emile Durkheim. London0 Tavistock Lublications.

ritings. (hicago0 The Aniversity of (hicago