I.

Pollutants in the Environment (Air, Water, and Land Pollution)

1.1 Introduction to Pollutants A. Air Pollution

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, biological materials, or other harmful materials into the Earth's atmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural or built environment. The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. Indoor air pollution (see Airlog) and urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.

Air Pollutant
An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxidereleased from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. Carbon monoxide (CO)- CO is a colourless, odourless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are a well known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH 4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.

Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosolsthose made by human activitiescurrently account for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health [2] hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease. Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially their compounds. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products currently banned from use <--. Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH 3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. Odors - such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural processes such as theradioactive decay of radon.
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Health & Environmental Effects of Air Pollution Health Effects

Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough concentrations. Millions of Americans live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution, and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience:

heart problems, such as asthma

In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even cause death. Who Is Most at Risk? Air pollution is a problem for all of us. However, some groups of people are especially sensitive to common air pollutants such as particulates and ground-level ozone. Sensitive populations include children, older adults, people who are active outdoors, and people with heart or lung diseases, such as asthma. If you are sensitive to air pollution, you need to be aware of steps you can take to protect your health.

Environmental Effects
Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects: Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading to damaged wildlife and forests. Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems. Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind. Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times higher than in the water or air. Ozone depletion. Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields. Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above, crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion. Global climate change. The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known as global warming. Many scientists believe that global warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife, and coastal areas.

Sources
There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major categories.

Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:

These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel. Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning is [5][6] the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung. Mobile Sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft. Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest. Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement. Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources:
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, aftercigarette smoking. Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NOx, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compoundsto produce a [7] seasonal haze of secondary pollutants. Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

B. Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.

Causes of Water Pollution

Sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings Sewage that is treated in water treatment plants is often disposed into the sea. Sewage can be more problematic when people flush chemicals and pharmaceutical substances down the toilet. Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans. Littering items include cardboard, Styrofoam, aluminum, plastic and glass. Industrial waste from factories, which use freshwater to carry waste from the plant into rivers, contaminates waters with pollutants such as asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals. Oil Pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel. Oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge. Burning fossil fuels into the air causes the formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. When these particles mix with water vapor, the result is acid rain. An increase in water temperature is caused by global warming and thermal plants that use lakes and rivers to cool down mechanical equipment.

Effects of Water Pollution

Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within wildlife in ecosystems. Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when discharged into waters, increase the growth of algae, which causes the depletion of oxygen. The low oxygen levels are not able to support most indigenous organisms in the area and therefore upset the natural ecological balance in rivers and lakes. Swimming in and drinking contaminated water causes skin rashes and health problems like cancer, reproductive problems, typhoid fever and stomach sickness in humans. Which is why its very important to make sure that your water is clean and safe to drink. Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments can accumulate in fish that are later eaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned with metals that are also later consumed by humans. Mercury is particularly poisonous to small children and women. Mercury has been found to interfere with the development of the nervous system in fetuses and young children. Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are affected by the bleaching effect due to warmer temperatures. Additionally, the warm water forces indigenous water species to seek cooler water in other areas, causing an ecological damaging shift of the affected area. Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get aquatic animals caught and killed from suffocation. Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil erosion in streams and rivers. Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve in water so it causes suffocation in fish and birds. Water pollution has been extensively documented as a contributor to health problems in humans and marine animal ecosystems. It has a huge impact on our lives, and if we do our part by not throwing trash or chemicals into our water supplies and drains, we can contribute to the improvement of aquatic life and of our health in general.

Potable Water
Drinking water or potable water is water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry meets drinking water standards, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Typical uses (for other than potable purposes) include toilet flushing, washing andlandscape irrigation. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis meaning drinkable. Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major cause of death and misery in many countries. Reduction of waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries. Water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans and is essential to the survival of most other [1] organisms. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. The United States Environmental Protection Agency in risk assessment calculations previously assumed that the average American adult ingests 2.0 litres per [2] day. However, the United States Environmental Protection Agency now suggests that either science-based age-specific [3] ranges or an all ages level (based onNational Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006 data) be used. Bottled wateris sold for public consumption in most habitated parts of the world.

Contamination of potable water

An adequate supply of safe drinking water is one of the major prerequisites for a healthy life, but waterborne disease is still a major cause of death in many parts of the world, particularly in children, and it is also a significant economic constraint in many subsistence conomies. The basis on which drinking water safety is judged is national standards or international guidelines. The most important of these are the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. The quality of drinking water and possible associated health risks vary throughout the world with some regions showing, for example, high levels of arsenic, fluoride or contamination of drinking water by pathogens, whereas elsewhere these are very low and no problem. Marked variations also occur on a more local level within countries due, for example, to agricultural and industrial activities.

Properties of Soft and Hard Water

Soft Water The water that lathers with soap easily is called soft water. It describes type of water that contain few or no minerals like calcium(Ca) or magnesium(Mg) ions. The term is usually relative to hard water, which does contain significant amounts of such ions. Soft Water mostly comes from peat or igneous rock sources, such as granite but may also come from sandstone sources, since such sedimentary rocks are usually low in calcium and magnesium. Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard water. The resulting soft water is more compatible with soap and extends the lifetime of plumbing. Water softening is usually achieved using lime softening or ion-exchange resins.

Hard Water Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"). Hard drinking water is generally not harmful to one's health, but can pose serious problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdowns in boilers, cooling towers, and other equipment that handles water. In domestic settings, hard water is often indicated by a lack of suds formation when soap is agitated in water, and by the formation oflimescale in kettles and water heaters. Wherever water hardness is a concern, water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water's adverse effects.
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Causes and Effects of River Pollution in the Philippines

One of the main rivers of the Philippines, Pasig River was once praised for its beauty. It encompasses in its system many smaller rivers and tributaries, six subbasins and Manila Bay. It is the primary river supporting the area known as Metro Manila, which is the capital city of Manila, and its surrounding metropolis. Since the end of World War II, Pasig River has been the primary recipient of much of the pollution produced by Metro Manila's ten million inhabitants. Urban Growth The population along Pasig River has continued to multiply, but the developing country's ability to cope with waste disposal has not kept up. Initially used for bathing and fishing, the river has become known as the "toilet bowl" of Manila. Pollution dumped into the river and its tributaries has accumulated, and is no longer capable of sustaining any life other than janitor fish and water lilies. Ecologists consider it dead. Although many laws and plans have been put into place to regulate pollution and clean the water, none have proved very effectual to date. Household Waste It is estimated that 65 percent of the pollution in Pasig River comes from household waste. In a third world country where many of the homes do not have indoor plumbing, the river is a place to dump some of the 440 tons of wastewater produced daily by Metro Manila's citizens. An additional 4,000 settlers along the river are considered to be "informal." Among its other unpleasant features, Pasig River is noted for its dark-colored water, unpleasant smell and the presence of floating feces.

Industrial Waste Approximately 30 percent of river pollutants come from industries, which are located in close proximity to it. One Action Plan created by the River Rehabilitation Secretariat identified 315 industries that generate significant amounts of pollution. Some of these, such as the Republic Asahi glassworks factory, have their own water treatment facilities that are still incapable of removing heavy metal pollutants, such as nickel. Copper, lead, manganese and zinc have also been found in unacceptably high levels, along with pesticides, nitrates and phosphates. Solid Waste Solid waste means garbage. Metro Manila produces 7,000 tons of garbage a day without the facilities to dispose of it adequately. Therefore, much of it -- about 1,500 tons -- is thrown into streams, tributaries and the bay. Some tributaries have actually become clogged from all of the trash in them. One project called "Kapit Bisig sa Ilog Pasig," intends to set up solid waste management facilities, and to encourage communities to become involved by teaching them how to generate income by making items like pails, chairs and bricks from plastic and polystyrene foam.

C. Land Pollution
Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic(human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleumhydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.

Soil Pollutants
Land or soil pollution is the third most commonly found pollution in the atmosphere. Soil is what we use for agricultural purposes, and due to the land pollution, there can be risks of impurities in the growth medium itself. There are discharges from organic and inorganic industries, heavy metals such as lead, plastic, glass, etc., which also contaminate the land around the waste lines. Construction sites also contribute largely to land pollution because they release solvents and silt into the soil around the construction sites. Fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and chemical compounds used to protect the plants from various disease and pests are also washed off in the soil causing soil pollution. Deforestation, could also lead to land pollution and soil erosion.

Causes and Effects of Land Pollution Main Causes of Soil Pollution

1. Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem in the last century, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the by products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that can be considered safe. As a result, the industrial waste lingers in the soil surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use. 2. Agricultural Activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since technology provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage the composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants absorb many of these pesticides and when they decompose, they cause soil pollution since they become a part of the land. 3. Waste Disposal: Finally, a growing cause for concern is how we dispose of our waste. While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every human produces a certain amount of personal waste products by way or urine and feces. While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are full of toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of soil. 4. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel deteriorates the quality of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the groundwater through soil and make the water undrinkable. 5. Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the important nutrients found in soil and change the structure of the soil.

Effects of Soil Pollution

1. Effect on Health of Humans: Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could explain the sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses. Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a long period of time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it. 2. Effect on Growth of Plants: The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion. The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life. 3. Decreased Soil Fertility: The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people consuming them. 4. Toxic Dust: The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and causes serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to other people. 5. Changes in Soil Structure: The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in soil structure. Apart from that, it could also force other predators to move to other places in search of food. A number of ways have been suggested to curb the current rate of pollution. Such attempts at cleaning up the environment require plenty of time and resources to be pitched in. Industries have been given regulations for the disposal of hazardous waste, which aims at minimizing the area that becomes polluted. Organic methods of farming are being supported, which do not use chemical laden pesticides and fertilizers. Use of plants that can remove the pollutants from the soil is being encouraged. However, the road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil pollution will take many more years.

II. Natural Disasters 2.1 Nature of Disasters

A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions,earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected [1] population's resilience, or ability to recover. An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as San Francisco, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, requiring years to repair. In 2012, there were 905 natural catastrophes worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs were US$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological (floods),12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7 % were geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for 14% of all natural [5] catastrophes.
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Avalanches Main article: Avalanche See also: List of avalanches A powder snow avalanche During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in [6] the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front, many of which were caused by artillery fire.

Earthquakes Main article: Earthquake See also: List of earthquakes The 1693 Sicily earthquake An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that createsseismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. The vibrations may vary in magnitude. Earthquakes are caused mostly by slippage within geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and planning. Some of the most significant earthquakes in recent times include: The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake recorded in history,registering a moment magnitude of 9.1-9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this earthquake killed at least 229,000 people. The 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami registered a moment magnitude of 9.0. The death toll from the earthquake and tsunami is over 13,000, and over 12,000 people are still missing. The 8.8 magnitude February 27, 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami cost 525 lives.
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The 7.9 magnitude May 12, 2008 Sichuan earthquake in Sichuan Province, China. Death toll at over 61,150 as of May 27, 2008. The 7.7 magnitude July 2006 Java earthquake, which also triggered tsunamis. The 6.9 magnitude 2005 Azad Jammu & Kashmir and KPK province Earthquake, which killed or injured above 75,000 people inPakistan.

Volcanic eruptions Main articles: List of largest volcanic eruptions and Types of volcanic eruptions Artist's impression of the volcanic eruptions that formed the Deccan Traps in India. Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys many buildings and plants it encounters. Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight but even small quantities will harm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is the pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed . A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory 75,000 to 80,000 years ago a super volcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs creating a bottleneck in [8] human evolution. It also killed three quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

Hydrological disasters
Main article: Hydrological disasters It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of earth's water or in distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in atmosphere.

Floods Main article: flood See also: List of Floods A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary [10] covering by water of land not normally covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of thetide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which [11] overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless the water covers land used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area, roads, expanses of farmland, etc.
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Some of the most notable floods include: The Johnstown Flood of 1889 where over 2200 people lost their lives when the South Fork Dam holding back Lake Conemaugh broke. The Huang He (Yellow River) in China floods particularly often. The Great Flood of 1931caused between 800,000 and 4,000,000 deaths. The Great Flood of 1993 was one of the most costly floods in United States history. The North Sea flood of 1953 which killed 2251 people in the Netherlands and easternEngland The 1998 Yangtze River Floods, in China, left 14 million people homeless. The 2000 Mozambique flood covered much of the country for three weeks, resulting in thousands of deaths, and leaving the country devastated for years afterward. The 2005 Mumbai floods which killed 1094 people. The 2010 Pakistan floods directly affected about 20 million people, mostly by dispolacement, destruction of crops, infrastructure, property and livelihood, with a death toll of close to 2,000.

Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding and storm surge, as happened with: Bhola Cyclone, which struck East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1970, Typhoon Nina, which struck China in 1975, Hurricane Katrina, which struck New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005, and Cyclone Yasi, which struck Australia in 2011

Limnic eruptions Main article: Limnic eruption A cow suffocated by gases from Lake Nyos after alimnic eruption A limnic eruption occurs when a gas, usually CO2, suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising gas displaces water. Scientists believe landslides, volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have been observed and recorded: In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents. At nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people byasphyxiation.

Tsunami Main article: Tsunami Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as the one caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, or by landslides such as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Alaska. The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake created the Boxing Day Tsunami. On March 11, 2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spread through the Pacific.

Meteorological disasters
Main article: Meteorological disasters

Blizzards Main article: Blizzard Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir up snow that has already fallen, it is known as a ground blizzard. Blizzards can impact local economic activities, especially in regions where snowfall is rare. Significant blizzards include: The Great Blizzard of 1888 in the United States in which many tons of wheat crops were destroyed. The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard The North American blizzard of 1947 The 1972 Iran blizzard resulted in approximately 4,000 deaths and lasted for 5 to 7 days.

Cyclonic storms
Tropical Cyclones Main articles: Tropical Cyclone and Cyclone See also: List of tropical cyclones Cyclone, tropical cyclone, hurricane, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780 which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is Hurricane Katrina which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005.

Extratropical Cyclones Main article: Extratropical cyclone Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as synoptic scale low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics) not having tropical characteristics, and are connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones". As with tropical cyclones, they are known by different names in different regions (Nor'easter, Pacific Northwest windstorms, European windstorm, East Asian-northwest Pacific storms, Sudestada and Australian east coast cyclones). The most intense extratropical cyclones cause widespread disruption and damage to society, such as the storm surge of the North Sea flood of 1953which killed 2251 people in the Netherlands and eastern England, the Great Storm of 1987 which devastated southern England and France and the Columbus Day Storm of 1962 which struck the Pacific northwest.

Droughts Main article: Drought Drought is unusual dryness of soil, resulting in crop failure and shortage of water for other uses, caused by significantly lower rainfall than average over a prolonged period. Hot dry winds, high temperatures and consequent evaporation of moisture from the ground can contribute to conditions of drought. Well-known historical droughts include: 1900 India killing between 250,000 to 3.25 million. 1921-22 Soviet Union in which over 5 million perished from starvation due to drought 1928-30 Northwest China resulting in over 3 million deaths by famine. 1936 and 1941 Sichuan Province China resulting in 5 million and 2.5 million deaths respectively. The 1997-2009 Millenium Drought in Australian led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result many desalination plants were built for the first time (see list). In 2006, Sichuan Province China experienced its worst drought in modern times with nearly 8 million people and over 7 million cattle facing water shortages. 12-year drought that was devastating southwest Western Australia, southeast South Australia, Victoria and northern Tasmania was "very severe and without historical precedent". In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year. The drought caused theBastrop fires.

Hailstorms Main article: Hail Hailstorms are falls of rain drops that arrive as ice, rather than melting before they hit the ground. A particularly damaging hailstorm hitMunich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about 2 billion dollars in insurance claims.

Heat waves Main article: Heat wave A heat wave is a period of unusually and excessively hot weather. The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003. A summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelled the massive bushfires in 2009. Melbourne experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40C (104F) with some regional areas sweltering through much higher temperatures. The bushfires, collectively known as "Black Saturday", were partly the act of arsonists. The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer resulted in severe heat waves, which killed over 2,000 people. It resulted in hundreds of wildfires which causing widespread air pollution, and burned thousands of square miles of forest. Heat waves can occur in the ocean as well as on land with significant effects (often on a large scale) eg. coral bleaching.

Tornados Main article: Tornado See also: List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks A tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloudor, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is also referred to as a twister or [12] a cyclone, although the word cyclone is used in meteorology in a wider sense, to refer to any closed low pressure circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debrisand dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), [13][14][15] stretch more than two miles (3 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (perhaps more than 100 km). Well-known historical tornadoes include: The Tri-State Tornado of 1925, which killed over 600 people in the United States; The Daulatpur-Saturia Tornado of 1989, which killed roughly 1,300 people in Bangladesh.

Wildfires Main article: Wildfire See also: List of forest fires Wildfires are large fires which often start in wildland areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can spread to populated areas and can thus be a threat to humans and property, as well as wildlife. Notable cases of wildfires were the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people, and the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.

2.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing the risks of disaster. It aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that trigger them: Here it has been strongly influenced by the mass of research on vulnerability that has appeared in print since the mid[1] 1970s. It is the responsibility of development and relief agencies alike. It should be an integral part of the way such organisations do their work, not an add-on or one-off action. DRR is very wide-ranging: Its scope is much broader and deeper than conventional emergency management. There is potential for DRR initiatives in just about every sector of development and humanitarian work. The most commonly cited definition of DRR is one used by UN agencies such as UNISDR and UNDP: "The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of [2] sustainable development." REPUBLIC ACT No. 10121 AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PROVIDING FOR THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND INSTITUTIONALIZING THE NATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PLAN, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

III. Climate Change

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution ofweather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human [1] activities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming". Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. A climate record extending deep into the Earth's past has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based on geological evidence from boreholetemperature profiles, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunalrecords, glacial and periglacial processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on the physical sciences, are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change.

3.1 Causes and Effects of Climate Change

What is Climate Change? Climate change is a substantial change in a regions average weather patterns including average temperature, precipitation, and wind. This phenomenon has naturally occurred through out our planets history. Such periods as the ice age are allegoric possibilities of the degree in a regions conclusive shift. The difference between historic events and current ones arethe speed at which these shifts may be occurring, due to an increase of human activities contributing to the production of greenhouse gases.

What Role Does Global Warming Play in Climate Change? The balance in our ecosystem has been disrupted and the earths climate is currently changing at a record speed, caused by an increase of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Global warming is the term used to describe the increase of our planets average temperature. This does not mean that earth will become tropical; but rather extreme weather pattern shifts will occur in all regions of the world, warming some places and cooling others. These processes include more frequent and more destructive natural disasters worldwide.

What Is Causing Global Warming and Climate Change? Greenhouse gases and other anthropogenic dark particles in our atmosphere are a direct link to global warming and climate change. Burning fossil fuels for energy is the worlds leading man-made contribution. Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas, and coal. We commonly burn coal to produce electricity from coal-powered plants, we use natural gases to heat up our homes, and we burn oil to drive our cars. The second major contributor to the increase of greenhouse gases is deforestation. Deforestation accounts for 15% of carbon dioxide emissions according to the recent Union of Concerned Scientist (UCS) report, which is 5% less then the 2007 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The UCS says that the decrease is not due to an improvement in deforestation, but rather an increase in burning fossil fuels, among other factors.

Other human activities producing greenhouse gases are: polluted oceans, dirty snow, not recycling, landfills and wastelands, and urbanization to name a few. According to the IPCC report in 2007 the increase in our atmospheres GH gases since pre -industrial times are as follows: Carbon Dioxide 36% increase Entering our atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, solid waste, and as a result of other man made chemical reactions. Methane 148% increase Produced and emitted into our atmosphere by livestock and other agricultural applications, the breakdowns of our waste in landfills, and the production of fossil fuels, are among the main contributors. Nitrogen Oxide 18% increase Produced when fossil fuels and solid waste are burned, and through various industrial and agricultural practices. Fluorinated Gases 100% increase These are synthetic gases greatly depleting our ozone layer, known as High Global Warming Potential Gases. These gases are created solely by human activities such as the production and use of air conditioning systems, refrigerators, and aerosols.

How Will This Affect Us? Climate change will affect all aspects of our lives from our health and safety to our finances and global economic structure. Occupying 71% of the earths surface, oceans play a fundamental pa rt in maintaining the balance of global climates. Changes in wind patterns along with other factors are causing altered ocean currents and circulation. These currents and circulations are collectively known as the Ocean Conveyor Belt. The Ocean Conveyor is greatly responsible for distributing large amounts of heat throughout our planet, making it a corresponding factor to atmospheric influences on earths climate system. Furthermore, this directly influences the altered precipitation patterns worldwide. Changes in our precipitation patterns will cause flooding in some regions and droughts in others. This can affect many crop fields, hindering growth in some and completely destroying others. Since crop farms are used as food for peoples needs, as well as to feed our livestock, which ultimately is sourced as meat and dairy products for many humans, thus resulting in a chain reaction of world hunger challenges. The droughts have also been the cause of increased wildfires worldwide, burning down homes and crops among other things. Such catastrophes end up having a negative financial impact to many economies worldwide as recently seen in the US. Fluctuating precipitation patterns also hinder our fresh water supply. From hunger to homelessness, 130 countries have developed their biggest cities on lowlands. Sea levels are rising due to increased water temperatures and rapidly melting glaciers. As a result, these cities are most vulnerable to flooding and erosion. Many of these cities are at risk of sinking below sea levels, leaving millions and possibly billions without homes. With an increase in urbanization triggered by ever-growing industries supplying the worlds pipeline demands, this forces many to relocate to the larger cities and puts more people at risk, should sea levels rise. If hunger and homelessness is not alarming enough for us to wake up to the worlds apparent crises, what about poor health? As we fill our atmosphere with pollutants, we give rise to increased respiratory illnesses. According to the World Health Organization over 800,00 deaths result from climate change annually. 150,000 of these deaths are as a result of air pollution, and children are most susceptible to becoming victims of poor ambient air quality. Among the many health issues we are faced with resulting from climate change, ambient air quality is only a fraction of our concerns.

We find that climate change is also tampering with the balance of the once powerful, natural selection. With so many species of birds at risk of extinction due to extreme weather conditions changing at slower or faster rates; and land animals such as polar bears faced with extinction due to lack of food resources resulting from breaking and drifting glaciers; these are only a few among thousands of species facing a threat of endangerment. In June 2011, a panel of 27 leading marine scientists from around the world gathered in Oxford. They released an urgent press report on behalf of the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO). The group compared their latest research and collectively determined that all evidence points towards an inevitable marine extinction event, should the existing course of damage continue. When we summarize these events and analyze the potential catastrophes from around the world over a short period of time, we will see that we are leading humanity to an inevitable course of extinction. After all, what will we do when we run out of our natural food supply? Considering we have already polluted our oceans wi th PBC and other fatally toxic materials and since the glaciers are rapidly melting and precipitation has become unpredictable we are running out of fresh water supply. What will we do when oxygen becomes an endangered molecule? What happens after we have polluted our air so much that we risk the spread of airborne diseases every time we breathe?

What Can We Do To Stop Global Warming and Climate Change? We can slow down global warming, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve ambient air quality and reduce the affects of climate change by adapting better ethical practices in our daily routines. It starts at home. Simple decisions such as opening the blinds during the day to make use of natural sunlight, changing all light bulbs to energy saving bulbs, turning off access lights, limiting our electricity usage during peak hours, turning down the thermostat 1.5 degree Celsius in the winter and up 1.5 degree Celsius in the summer, and minimizing hot water usage. These are all conscious decisions we can make in an effort to reduce thousands of pounds of carbon emissions from reaching our atmosphere, through each household annually. There is no reason to leave the water running while brushing your teeth, shaving, or while you wash dishes. We can take shorter showers, and limit the amount of flushes we employ throughout the day. This will save thousands of liters of fresh water from being wasted annually from each household. Making better transportation choices, such as fuel-efficient cars, carpooling and taking public transportation are options readily available to us. These are disciplines we need to practice communally.

3.2 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

Adaptation
Adaptation to global warming is a response to climate change that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of biological systems [1] toclimate change effects. Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, climate change and its effects will last many [2] years, and adaptation will be necessary. Climate change adaptation is especially important in developing countries since [3] those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of climate change. That is, the capacity and potential for humans to adapt (called adaptive capacity) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing [4] countries generally have less capacity to adapt (Schneider et al., 2007). Adaptive capacity is closely linked [5] to social and economic development (IPCC, 2007). The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades, though the amount of money needed is unknown. Donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancn, concrete pledges by developed countries are so far [6] [7][8] missing. The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change. A theoretical, physiological limit to adaptation is that humans cannot survive temperatures of above 35 C (95 F). Another policy response to climate change, known as climate change mitigation (Verbruggen, 2007) is to reduce greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere (through carbon [10] sinks). Even the most effective reductions in emissions, however, would not prevent further climate change impacts, [11] making the need for adaptation unavoidable (Kleinet al., 2007). In a literature assessment, Klein et al. (2007) assessed options for adaptation. They concluded, with very high confidence, that in the absence of mitigation efforts, the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems. For human systems, the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high.
[9]

Mitigation
Climate change mitigation are actions to limit the magnitude and/or rate of long-term climate change. Climate change [3] mitigation generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Mitigation may [3] also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation. By contrast,adaptation to global [4] warming are actions taken to manage the eventual (or unavoidable) impacts of global warming, e.g., by building dikes in [5] response to sea level rise. Examples of mitigation include switching to low-carbon energy sources, such as renewable and nuclear energy, and [3] expanding forests and other "sinks" to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Energy [6] [7] efficiency can also play a major role, for example, through improving the insulation of buildings. Another approach to [8] climate change mitigation is geoengineering. The main international treaty on climate change is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate [9] Change (UNFCCC). In 2010, Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 C [10] (3.6 F) relative to the pre-industrial level. Analysis suggests that meeting the 2 C target would require annual global [11] [12] emissions of greenhouse gases to peak before the year 2020, and decline significantly thereafter, with emissions in [13] 2050 reduced by 30-50% compared to 1990 levels. Analyses by the United Nations Environment [14] [15] Programme and International Energy Agency suggest that current policies (as of 2012) are too weak to achieve the 2 C target.
[2]

VI. Energy Exploration and Utilization 4.1 Issues Concerning and Regarding Energy Resources
The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse. Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million [3] years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increasedcommercialization of various renewable energy sources. Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change. In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes. If the peak oil theory proves true, and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made, our impact could be less hostile to our environment. Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology.

Climate Change Main article: Attribution of recent climate change The scientific consensus on global warming and climate change is that it is caused byanthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the majority of which comes from burning fossil fuels with deforestation and some agricultural practices being [6] also major contributors. Although there is a highly publicized denial of climate change, the vast majority of scientists working in climatology accept that it is due to human activity. The IPCC report Climate Change 2007: Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability predicts that climate change will cause shortages of food and water and increased risk of flooding that will [7] affect billions of people, particularly those living in poverty. One measurement of greenhouse gas related and other Externality comparisons between energy sources can be found in the ExternE project by the Paul Scherrer Institut and theUniversity of Stuttgart which was funded by the European [8] [9] Commission. According to that study, hydroelectric electricity produces the lowest CO2 emissions, wind produces the [9] second-lowest, nuclear energy produces the third-lowest and solar photovoltaic produces the fourth-lowest. Similarly, the same research study (ExternE, Externalities of Energy), undertaken from 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal or oil would double over its present value, and the cost of electricity production from gas would increase by 30% if external costs such as damage to the environment and to human health, from the airborne particulate matter, nitrogen oxides,chromium VI and arsenic emissions produced by these sources, were taken into account. It was estimated in the study that these external, downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 1%-2% of the EUs entire Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and this was before the external cost of global warming from these sources was even [10] included. The study also found that the environmental and health costs of nuclear power, per unit of energy delivered, was 0.0019/kWh, which was found to be lower than that of many renewablesources including that caused by biomass and photovoltaic solar panels, and was thirty times lower than coal at 0.06/kWh, or 6 cents/kWh, with the energy sources of [11] the lowest external environmental and health costs associated with it being wind power at 0.0009/kWh.

Biofuel use Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living biological material and is different from fossil fuels, which are derived from long-dead biological material. Various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacturing.

Bio-diesel Main article: Environmental effects of biodiesel See also: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels and Sustainable biofuel High use of bio-diesel leads to land use changes including deforestation.
[citation needed]

Firewood Unsustainable firewood harvesting can lead to loss of biodiversity and erosion due to loss of forest cover. An example of this is a 40 year study done by the University of Leeds of African forests, which account for a third of the world's total tropical forest which demonstrates that Africa is a significant carbon sink. A climate change expert, Lee White states that "To get an idea of the value of the sink, the removal of nearly 5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by intact tropical forests is at issue. According to the U.N. the African continent is losing forest twice as fast as the rest of the world. "Once upon a time, Africa [12] boasted seven million square kilometers of forest but a third of that has been lost, most of it to charcoal."

Fossil fuel use The three fossil fuel types are coal, petroleum and natural gas. It was estimated by theEnergy Information Administration that in 2006 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.8%, coal 26.6%, natural gas 22.9%, [13] amounting to an 86% share for fossil fuels in primary energy production in the world. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of [14] carbon). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcingand contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.

Coal Main article: Environmental impact of coal mining and burning The environmental impact of coal mining and burning is diverse. Legislation passed by the U.S. Congress in 1990 required theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue a plan to alleviate toxic pollution from coal-fired power plants. After delay and litigation, the EPA now has a court-imposed deadline of March 16, 2011, to issue its report.
[15]

Petroleum Main article: Environmental impact of petroleum The environmental impact of petroleum is often negative because it is toxic to almost all forms of life. The possibility of climate change exists. Petroleum, commonly referred to as oil, is closely linked to virtually all aspects of present society, especially for transportation and heating for both homes and for commercial activities.

Gas Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel, producing less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than either coal or [16] oil., and far fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels. However, in absolute terms it does contribute substantially to global

carbon emissions, and this contribution is projected to grow. According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, in 2004 natural gas produced about 5,300 Mt/yr of CO 2 emissions, while coal and oil produced 10,600 and 10,200 respectively (Figure 4.4); but by 2030, according to an updated version of the SRES B2 emissions scenario, natural gas would be the source of 11,000 Mt/yr, with coal and oil now 8,400 and 17,200 respectively. (Total global emissions for 2004 were estimated at over 27,200 Mt.) In addition, natural gas itself is a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide when released into the atmosphere but is released in smaller amounts.

[17]

Electricity generation Main article: Environmental impact of electricity generation The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally generated at power plants that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. Each such system has advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns.

Nuclear power Main article: Environmental impact of nuclear power The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle, operation, and the effects of accidents such as the Chernobyl disaster (1986) and Fukushima I nuclear accidents (2011).

Wind power Main article: Environmental impact of wind power Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits almost negligible air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is paid back with a typical energy return on investment of about 20, placing wind in a favorable position relative to other forms of power generation such as [18] fossil fuels, nuclear and solar. While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are [19] compatible, with only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use. A study published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics suggested that using wind turbines to meet 10 percent of global energy demand in 2100 could have a global warming effect, causing temperatures to rise by 1 C (1.8 F) in the regions on land where the wind farms are installed, including a smaller increase in areas beyond those regions. This is due to the effect of wind turbines on both horizontal and vertical atmospheric circulation. Whilst turbines installed in water would have a cooling effect, the net impact on global surface temperatures would be an increase of 0.15 C (0.27 F). Author Ron Prinn cautioned against interpreting the study "as an argument against wind power, urging that it be used to guide future research". "Were not pessimistic about wind," he said. "We havent absolutely proven this effect, and wed rather see that [20] people do further research".

4.2 Energy Consumption

The term energy consumption is defined as the use of energy as a source of heat or power. It is also defined in some quarters as the use of energy as a raw material in the process of manufacturing utilities.

World Energy Consumption refers to the total energy used by all of human civilization. Typically measured per-year, it involves all energy harnessed from every energy source we use, applied towards humanity's endeavors across every industrial and technological sector, across every country. Being the power source metric of civilization, World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanity's social-economic-political sphere. Institutions such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically. Improved data and understanding of World Energy Consumption may reveal systemic trends and patterns, which could help frame current energy issues and encourage movement towards collectively useful solutions. According to IEA (2012) the climate goal of limiting warming to 2C is becoming more difficult and costly with each year that passes. If action is not taken before 2017, all the allowable CO2 emissions would be locked-in by energy infrastructure existing in 2017. Fossil fuels are dominant in the global energy mix, supported by $523 billion subsidies in 2011, up almost [1] 30% on 2010 and six times more than subsidies to renewables. Fossil energy use increased most in 2000-2008. In October 2012 the IEA noted that coal accounted for half the increased [2] energy use of the prior decade, growing faster than all renewable energy sources. Since Chernobyl disaster in 1986 investments in nuclear power have been small.

Effects of Non-renewable Resources

Non-renewable energies are those that do not self-sustain naturally. Examples of non-renewable energies are coal, oil and natural gas. Unlike renewable energy sources like wind, water and sun--most of which are converted to power cleanly--the conversion of fossil fuels to usable energy can result in harmful emissions and its collection can disrupt local wildlife. Atmospheric Effects The processing of fossil fuels emits harmful greenhouse gases into the air. These gases, primarily carbon dioxide, damage the ozone layer which protects us from the sun's radiation. The air pollution also negatively affects our respiratory health. A 2004 study concluded that pollution from coal-powered plants shortened nearly 24,000 lives a year in the U.S. Acid Rain Acid rain is created by the emission of sulfur and other chemicals into the atmosphere, often from the conversion of fossil fuels into electricity. It is corrosive to machinery and can disrupt local ecosystems. In 1991 the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) found that five percent of the lakes in New England were acidic and two percent could no longer support trout.

Third Quarter Topics:

I. Pollutants in the Environment (Air, Water, and Land Pollution) 1.1 Introduction to Pollutants A. Air Pollution 1. Effects on the Environment B. Water Pollution 1. Potable Water 2. Contamination of Potable Water 3. Properties of Soft Water and Hard Water 4. Causes and Effects of River Pollution in the Philippines C. Land Pollution 1. Soil Pollutants 2. Causes and Effects of Land Pollution

II. Natural Disasters 2.1 Nature of Disasters 2.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

III. Climate Change 3.1 Causes and Effects of Climate Change 3.2 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

IV. Energy Exploration and Utilization 4.1 Issues Concerning and Regarding Energy Resources 4.2 Energy Consumption