Basic Measurement 150

Basic Measurement 150
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Class Outline
Objectives
The Importance of Measurements
Gaging vs. Inspection
Accuracy and Precision
Sensitivity
The Machinists Rule
Calipers
Micrometers
Vernier Scale
Reading a Micrometer
Types of Micrometers
Gage Blocks
Plug Gages
Ring, Thread, and Snap Gages
Optical Comparators
Coordinate Measuring Machines
Instrument Calibration
Summary
Lesson: 1/18
Objectives
Define standardization.
Distinguish between gaging and inspection.
Distinguish between accuracy and precision.
Define sensitivity for measuring devices.
Identify the uses for the steel rule.
Identify the uses for the caliper.
Identify the uses for the micrometer.
Explain the vernier scale.
Read a manual micrometer.
Identify common micrometers.
Describe the uses for gage blocks.
Describe the use of plug gages.
Identify other common gages.
Identify the uses for the optical comparator.
Describe the uses for the coordinate measuring
machine.
Identify the role of calibration.
Figure 1. Most calipers are digital.
Figure 2. Micrometers are common measuring
devices.
Lesson: 2/18
The Importance of Measurements
One of the fundamental activities of any manufacturing
shop is the measurement of part features. Individuals in
the shop constantly use measuring instruments, such as
those in Figure 1, to compare the actual part to its desired
specifications.
The use of measurements is the primary role of
inspection, which is the examination of a product either
during or after its creation. In turn, inspection makes it
possible to maintain product standardization. Product
standardization is particularly important for parts that
must accurately fit together.
Figure 1. Measuring instruments allow inspection of part
specifications.
It is easy to forget the importance of standardization. If
you buy a light bulb for your lamp or a blank tape for your
video recorder, you assume these products will fit.
However, these products fit because they conform to
universally recognized standards. This class will teach you
the common devices used in the shop that make it
possible to evaluate whether parts meet their size
requirements.
Lesson: 3/18
Gaging vs. Inspection
Every part feature has a corresponding tolerance, as
shown in Figure 1. When you examine a part, you
compare the size of the actual part to an expected
measurement. Different devices perform either gaging
or variable inspection.
Gages determine if the measurement falls within the
acceptable tolerance range. If you use a gage, the part
either "passes or "fails a physical comparison. The
measurement is either acceptable or unacceptable, and
there is no in-between.
Likewise, variable inspection tells whether or not a part
feature falls within the acceptable tolerance range.
However, inspection also tells how far the actual
measurement is from the expected size. An inspection
instrument describes the degree of difference between
the part and its blueprint.
A car has gages and instruments. The oil pressure light
on your dashboard is a gage. If it turns on, you need
more fluid. If it is off, you cannot determine how much
fluid you have. The speedometer is a variable
instrument. If you exceed the speed limit, you can
Figure 1. These part features must fall within an acceptable
compare your actual speed to the legal limit.
tolerance range.
Lesson: 4/18
Accuracy and Precision
Measuring instruments require excellent accuracy and
precision. Many people may use these words
interchangeably. However, each term describes a different
aspect of measurement.
Accuracy describes how close the measurement reading is
to the actual true value of that measurement. Precision is
the degree to which the instrument will repeat the same
measurement over time.
Consider the examples in Figure 1. Imagine that a person
repeatedly shot at the center of each target. Target 1
shows a shooter that is accurate but not precise. On
average, the shooter is effectively aimed toward the
center. However, the shooter cannot repeat the same
location. Target 2 shows a shooter that is precise but
inaccurate. The shooter is off-target, but the same location
is easily repeated. Finally, target 3 shows the ideal shooter
that is both accurate and precise. The shots are on-target,
and the shooter can easily repeat the process.
Figure 1. Effective instruments require both accuracy
and precision.
Lesson: 5/18
Sensitivity
Measuring instruments can be categorized according to
their sensitivity. Every instrument uses standardized
units of measurement, as shown in Figure 1. Sensitivity
is the smallest change in measurement that an
instrument can detect. For example, an inexpensive
instrument may only be capable of detecting
measurements that are 0.001 inches apart. It would
not be sensitive enough to tell the difference between
1.0002 and 1.0003 inches.
Sensitivity is important because it determines the use
of the instrument. In order to be effective, a measuring
device must be at least ten times more precise than
the required tolerances for the part measurement. This
is called the rule of ten.
For example, the part in Figure 2 has an internal hole
with a diameter that must be within 0.005 inches of the
stated dimension. To precisely measure the part, an
Figure 1. The bottom instrument has a greater sensitivity.
instrument must be sensitive enough to detect
measurements of 0.0005 inches or smaller.
Figure 2. The internal hole must be inspected with a very
sensitive instrument.
Lesson: 6/18
The Machinist's Rule
Probably the most familiar measuring device is the steel
rule, which is shown in Figure 1. You may also see this
device referred to as the machinists rule. The steel rule is
a metal strip with notches along the edge that indicate
increments of measurement. Most steel rules have
English measurements along one side and metric
measurements along the other.
The steel rule is a versatile instrument, and it comes in a
variety of forms. Most resemble the wooden rulers you
may have used as a young student. Others are available
as long tape rules.
Figure 1. The steel rule uses line markings to compare
measurements.
However, the steel rule is relatively inaccurate. The
operator must calculate a measurement by manually
lining up the notches and mentally calculating the length.
The greatest sensitivity that a steel rule offers is 1/64th
inch. Consequently, these devices should only be used to
measure features that are not essential for the proper
functioning of a part. For example, a steel rule can be
used to measure stock.
Lesson: 7/18
Calipers
Another popular measuring instrument is the caliper, which
is shown in Figure 1. The caliper has a long section with
measurement markings. On one end, there is a pair of jaws.
The outer jaw is fixed, and the inner jaw slides along the
calipers beam to indicate the measurement. Most calipers
have two sets of jaws. One pair measures the exterior of
parts; the other pair measures interior dimensions.
Calipers are versatile because they can measure both outer
and inner lengths and diameters, as well as depth
measurements. Figure 2 shows a caliper measuring an
internal hole. The range of most calipers is five inches or
more. Most calipers today are sold with a digital readout,
which reduces the chance of miscalculations in the shop.
Though they are more accurate than steel rules, calipers
Figure 1. Calipers can measure outer diameters.
should not be used for precise measurements. The greatest
sensitivity of most digital calipers is 0.001 inches. Different
operators may apply different amounts of pressure when
taking a measurement. This can create a range of readings.
Figure 2. A second pair of jaws can measure internal
features.
Lesson: 8/18
Micrometers
The most common measuring device in the shop is the
micrometer. The micrometer is a U-shaped device with a
threaded spindle on one end and a small anvil on the other. The
operator turns the spindle to gradually advance its end toward the
anvil on the opposite side and close in on the part.
The typical micrometer only has a range of one inch, as shown in
Figure 1. Consequently, you would need different micrometers to
measure distances between 0 and 1 inches, 1 and 2 inches, and so
on.
A micrometer offers a balance of versatility and accuracy. A regular
manual micrometer has a sensitivity that equals digital calipers.
Manual micrometers with a vernier scale provide sensitivity to
0.0001 inches. Manufacturers also offer digital micrometers. Figure
2 compares these devices. Digital micrometers can be sensitive to
Figure 1. Each micrometer has a one-inch
0.0001 inches and smaller, at least ten times the sensitivity of
range.
standard manual micrometers.
Figure 2. Manual and digital micrometers.
Lesson: 9/18
Vernier Scale
Most of the micrometers and calipers you find in the shop
will have a digital readout. However, older dial calipers and
manual micrometers may use a vernier scale to yield
measurement readings with greater precision.
A vernier scale consists of two series of lines positioned
next to one another. Figure 1 illustrates this arrangement
on a micrometer spindle. The lines in one set are spaced
slightly closer together to each other than the lines in the
other set. The operator then examines the scale to see
which pair lines up with each other.
The more closely spaced lines each have a matching
number. The number corresponding to the pair that lines
up equips the instrument with a more accurate
measurement. Essentially, any manual instrument with a
vernier scale is ten times more sensitive than an
instrument without one.
Figure 1. The "3" lines up on the vernier scale of this
micrometer.
Lesson: 10/18
Reading a Micrometer
Digital micrometers are very precise and easy to read.
However, the reading of a manual micrometer is still a
valuable skill. As you can see in Figure 1, the spindle has
markings along the stationary sleeve and around the
revolving thimble. To read a micrometer, simply follow
these steps:
1. Note the last visible number along the sleeve. This
indicates the value in the tenths position.
2. Note the number of completely visible divisions
after the whole number. Each division indicates
0.025 in. after the tenth position.
3. Note the value on the thimble that is at or below
the line along the sleeve. This indicates an
additional thousandths position.
4. If the micrometer has a vernier scale, note the line
pairing that aligns. This indicates the
ten-thousandths position.
5. Add the values together to calculate the
measurement.
To ensure the greatest possible precision, many
micrometers will have a ratchet or similar device that
stops the advance of the spindle after a certain amount
of pressure. This prevents the user from excessively
forcing the spindle.
Figure 1. Reading a micrometer involves adding
incrementally smaller values.
Lesson: 11/18
Types of Micrometers
Different types of micrometers are available for various
measuring needs. The range of a micrometer is only 1
inch. Consequently, you need a new micrometer to
measure a different length from one inch to the next.
Many types of micrometers are available besides the
standard U-shaped device:
The blade micrometer in Figure 1 is used to
measure narrow grooves and slots.
Figure 1. A blade micrometer has flattened extensions.
The depth micrometer in Figure 2 is used to
measure internal depths of holes or slots.
The groove micrometer in Figure 3 is used to
measure the width of internal grooves.
Though these devices differ in appearance, they are
based on the same principles as the standard
micrometer. In fact, additional micrometers are
available for other specialty applications. Different
shapes are necessary to access the features of a wide
range of parts.
Figure 2. A depth micrometer has a thin rod that extends
from the flat base.
Figure 3. A groove micrometer has a small fixed and
moveable disc on the end.
Lesson: 12/18
Gage Blocks
Up to this point, you have learned about instruments that
read a specific measurement within a range. However,
manufacturers will also use gaging devices. These devices
have a known measurement, and they indicate whether a
part feature is larger or smaller than the specified
measurement.
An essential gaging tool is a set of gage blocks. The
standard set consists of 81 metal blocks in different lengths,
as shown in Figure 1. These blocks are available in different Figure 1. A standard set of gage blocks.
grades of accuracy, as shown in Figure 2. Gage blocks are
typically made of heat-treated alloy steel. Carbide gage
blocks are also sold for extra wear resistance.
The surfaces of these blocks are lapped to a mirror finish.
This makes it possible to wring gage blocks together by
applying an oil or fluid and twisting the surfaces. By
combining gage blocks, manufacturers can compare
practically any measurement.
Figure 2. Gage blocks are available in different
accuracy grades.
Lesson: 13/18
Plug Gages
Many parts have round holes, which must be accurate for
proper fits. Manufacturers will use plug gages to quickly
check the size of these holes. This process is often called
go-no go gaging.
A plug gage is simply a handheld device with an accurate
cylindrical end of a specific diameter. Figure 1 shows a set of
simple plug gages. The plug gage is inserted into the hole to
determine if it fits. Plug gages may have a go and no-go
section. These sections may be placed one on each end as in
Figure 2, or the go section will be in front of the no-go
section on one end. A hole is the correct size if the go
section enters it but the no-go section does not.
Figure 1. A set of simple plug gages.
Medium production runs use alloy steel plug gages. For
high-production runs, the gages may be plated with
chromium or made with carbide. Most plug gages are
round, but tapered and hexagonal gages are also available.
Figure 2. A plug gage with go and no-go sections on
either end.
Lesson: 14/18
Ring, Thread, and Snap Gages
In addition to plug gages, manufacturers will use these
gages to check the features of parts:
Ring gages determine the size of cylindrical shafts.
They are available in go and no-go pairs. The no-go
ring has a groove around its exterior.
Thread gages check the accuracy of threaded holes.
If a hole is accurately threaded, the gage will travel
beyond three turns.
Snap gages measure the size of various external
features. They are U-shaped devices with hardened
anvils at each end. The typical snap gage has two
adjustable anvils to create go and no-go
measurements.
Figure 1. Thread gages can check both internal and
Figure 1 shows both internal and external thread gages.
external threads.
Like plug gages, these devices are made with alloy steel or
wear-resistant carbide. Special gages are also available for
checking parts with more uncommon features.
Lesson: 15/18
Optical Comparators
Inspection is becoming increasingly important in the
manufacturing world. Companies are constantly working
to manufacture parts with increased precision.
However, proper inspection takes time. Sophisticated
measuring devices enable manufacturers to rapidly
inspect parts and still maintain excellent quality.
An example of an efficient measuring instrument is the
optical comparator shown in Figure 1. You may also
see this machine referred to as an optical projector.
With this machine, the part is placed on a table, and its
magnified image is projected onto a screen. The shape
of the part can then be compared to the contour of a
matching drawing.
Optical comparators are very useful because they can
quickly check the details of small parts. Most machines
can magnify the image of a part 100 times its normal
size or greater.
Figure 1. The optical comparator can inspect the features
of very small parts.
Lesson: 16/18
Coordinate Measuring Machines
Another example of a sophisticated measuring
instrument is the coordinate measuring machine
(CMM), which is shown in Figure 1. The CMM has a
large granite table that is finished for excellent
smoothness, with a flatness that stays within 0.0002
to 0.0004 in. over distances of 30 inches or more.
Above the table, a special probe is suspended. This
probe moves vertically and horizontally along three
axes and contacts the part to detect its dimensions.
These dimensions are then recorded on a computer.
The CMM is very useful because it can measure
contours very rapidly and accurately. Complex parts
may take several hours to inspect appropriately. A
sophisticated CMM can perform the same task in a few
minutes.
Figure 1. The CMM uses a probe to measure features in
three-dimensional space.
Lesson: 17/18
Instrument Calibration
Parts are constantly checked in the shop for accuracy.
However, the measuring instruments themselves must
be periodically checked as well. This process is called
calibration. Calibration is the comparison and
adjustment of a device with unknown accuracy to a
device with a known, accurate measurement standard
to eliminate any variation in the device being checked.
The more often an instrument is used, the greater the
frequency of calibration. Commonly used instruments
may be calibrated once a year or more. Instruments
that are used infrequently may only need to be
calibrated every three or five years. Calibrations are
recorded and labeled, as shown in Figure 1.
In practice, it is better to reject a good part than to
Figure 1. The markings on the spindle indicate the due date
declare a bad part within acceptable tolerances.
for next calibration.
Consequently, many go plug gages and go ring gages
have a certain amount of wear allowance built into
the gage. Wear allowance may add 0.0001 to 0.0006
in. material to the gage. This prevents the gage from
passing a part that is out of tolerance. Calibration
corrects for the amount of wear experienced over time.
Lesson: 18/18
Summary
One of the fundamental activities of any shop is the
measurement of part features. Consistent
measurement and inspection maintains
standardization. Measurements are taken through both
gaging and variable inspection techniques.
Variable inspection takes a specific measurement using
common devices such as calipers and micrometers, as
shown in Figure 1. The sensitivity of the instrument
must be greater than the measurement being taken.
Both calipers and micrometers are read by finding the
alignments in lines on the devices, as seen in Figure 2.
Figure 1. A dial caliper, depth micrometer, and digital
Various micrometers allow for the measurement of
micrometer.
certain features such as depths and grooves.
Gages reveal whether a dimension is acceptable or
unacceptable without a specific quantity. Common
gaging devices include gage blocks, plug gages, ring
gages, and thread gages. The go-no go plug gage in
Figure 3 determines whether a hole is acceptable or
not.
The optical comparator magnifies a part. It allows for
careful inspection of smaller features. The coordinate
measuring machine (CMM) is used to measure part
contours too difficult to inspect with the usual devices.
Figure 2. The correct micrometer reading is the total of the
marked increments.
Figure 3. A plug gage with go and no-go sections.
Class Vocabulary
Term Definition
The difference between a measurement reading and the true value of that measurement. accuracy
Steel that contains added materials that change the property of the metal. Common alloy elements alloy steel
include chromium, manganese, molybdenum, and nickel.
Imaginary lines perpendicular to one another that are used to define the position of objects in axes
three-dimensional space.
A type of micrometer with flattened tips on the anvil and spindle. It is primarily used to measure blade micrometer
narrow external grooves.
The comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a device with a known, accurate standard to calibration
eliminate any variation in the device being checked.
A measuring instrument with two pairs of jaws on one end and a long beam containing a marked caliper
scale of unit divisions. One pair of jaws measures external features; the other pair measures internal
features.
A compound developed by the combination of carbon with usually chromium, tungsten, or titanium. carbide
Carbide materials are very hard and wear resistant.
A shiny, hard, steel-gray metal used to add hardness and wear resistance to steel. Many gages are chromium
plated with chromium.
A curved surface or feature of a workpiece. contour
A sophisticated measuring instrument with a flat polished table and a suspended probe that coordinate measuring
measures parts in three-dimensional space. machine
A type of micrometer with a spindle perpendicular to a flat base. It is primarily used to measure the depth micrometer
depth of holes.
A standard system of measurements based on the inch, second, pound, and Fahrenheit degrees. English
English measurements are primarily used in the United States and England. measurements
A hardened steel block that is manufactured with highly accurate dimensions. Gage blocks are gage block
available in a set of standardized lengths.
The physical inspection of part features using a device with an established standard size. Gaging gaging
results in a pass/fail decision.
The use of a gage to determine whether a part feature simply passes or fails inspection. No effort is go-no go gaging
made to determine the exact degree of error.
A dense, hard type of rock that exhibits excellent wear resistance and stability. Granite tables are granite
used for various measuring applications.
A type of micrometer with a long stem and two small discs at the end. It is primarily used to groove micrometer
measure the width and position of internal grooves.
The examination of a part during or after its creation to confirm that it adheres to specifications. inspection
Polished with an abrasive paste to remove the last bit of unwanted material. lapped
A standard system of measurements based on the meter, second, kilogram, and Celsius degrees. metric measurements
The metric system is internationally recognized.
A U-shaped measuring instrument with a threaded spindle that slowly advances toward a small micrometer
anvil. Micrometers are available in numerous types for measuring assorted dimensions and features.
A sophisticated measuring instrument that projects an image of a part onto a screen to compare the optical comparator
shape, size, and location of its features.
A hardened, cylindrical gage used to inspect the size of a hole. Plug gages are available in plug gage
standardized diameters.
The degree to which an instrument will repeat the same measurement over a period of time. precision
A hardened, round gage with a hole used to inspect the size of cylindrical parts or features. ring gage
The inspection guideline stating that a measuring instrument must be ten times more precise than rule of ten
the acceptable tolerance of the inspected part feature.
The smallest change in a measurement that an instrument is capable of detecting. sensitivity
A U-shaped gage with hardened, adjustable anvils on opposite ends used to inspect the length of snap gage
part features.
The development of universally recognized units of measurement. Standardization ensures that standardization
parts of the same size are interchangeable.
A simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked scale of unit steel rule
divisions.
Raw material that is used to make manufactured parts. Stock is available in standard shapes such as stock
long bars, plates, or sheet.
A hardened, threaded gage used to inspect the internal threads of a part. thread gage
The unwanted but acceptable deviation from a desired dimension. tolerance
The inspection of part features using an instrument calibrated in standard measurement units. variable inspection
Variable inspection reveals the degree of variation from a given standard.
A type of scale consisting of two opposing line markings with different divisions. Vernier scales vernier scale
appear on both manual calipers and micrometers.
The slight amount of material intentionally remaining on a gage to prevent the passing of defective wear allowance
parts over time.
To twist and rub together so that the two surfaces cling to one another. wring

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