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The Corrosion of Archaeological Iron during Burial and Treatment Author(s): S. Turgoose Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 13-18 Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of the International Institute for Conservation of
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THE CORROSION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL BURIAL AND TREATMENT S. Turgoose

IRON DURING

Abstract-The corrosion processes occurring in and against, them need to be examined. Since the are discussed in thelight of proposals of North arise from potential and pH ironartifacts archaeological of electrode measurements and pH, measurements published potentials on corrodedmarineiron,it is worthofthisto theselection of conservationwhile and therelevance the relevant points, especially summarizing In particular is considered. itis concluded that procedures of the resultsis not in dispute. since the validity of ironwork should be wetanaerobic successful, storage insodium continue solu- 2 Potential and pH measurementson corroded andthat corrosion may hydroxide tions. marineiron 1 Introduction In recentyears there has been a large amount of thestructure ofcorroded publishedworkconcerning archaeologicalironwork [1-6] and graduallya considerable degree of agreementhas been reached. However, thisis onlya prelude to the development of moreeffective conservation since for procedures, this to occur we need to understandthe processes that give rise to these structures and the effects of various treatments. Much less attentionhas been givento thisfieldand, perhapsforthisreason,there is notthesame consensusof opinion.In particular, a recentpublicationby North [3] has suggestedthat hydrogenevolutionis the major cathodic reaction occurringduring the corrosion of iron in marine and that corrosion ceases immedienvironments, of ironwork in sodium hydately upon immersion roxidesolutions.Both of theseconclusionsare conto thosereachedpreviously bytheauthor[1, 7] trary and ifcorrectmay considerably affect the choice of or treatment method. storageenvironment If hydrogen evolutionis thepredominant cathodic reactionduringburial it followsthat storagein an will allow corrosionto conanaerobic environment tinueat the same rate afterexcavation.However,if oxygen reduction is the cathodic reaction then removalof oxygenwill markedly reduce the corrosion rate, enabling anaerobic environments to be used safelyforlong-term storageof ironwork. Whethercorrosioncontinuesduringwashingin sodiumhydroxide solutions is obviously of considerable importance whenconsidering thisas a possible treatment method.Not onlywouldcorrosion lead to metalloss butit mayalso reducetheease ofchloride removal[7] and lead to theexistenceof air-unstable ferrous compoundsat the end of treatment. Thus both of these conclusionshave important and the arguments for consequencesin conservation Received 17 August 1983 30 (1985) 13-18 in Conservation Studies North [4] measured pH profilesacross sectionsof excavated concretedcannonballsand found freshly thatthepH rose from 4-8 to approximately 6-0 movto theouteredge of themetalsurface ingaway from the iron-stained At the innerregionsof concretion. the corrosionproduct,in contactwiththe pH 4-8 solution,the solid phases presentwere magnetite, FeO,4, and siderite, FeCO,. forboth Macleod [2] foundsimilarpH variations cast and wroughtiron; in all cases the pH at the metal surfacewas 4-8. Potentialsmeasured at the metal surfacewere -0-412, -0-316 and -0-247v for the three objects. The potential,in all cases, themetalsurface, increasedwithdistanceawayfrom values of 0-016 to 0-040v at theouterconreaching cretionwherethepH was thatof sea-water,8-2. He also reportedchlorideconcentrations at the metal surfaceof 1-1-5M. Afterimmersionin sodium hydroxidesolutions the measuredpotentials of deconcreted artifacts are givenas -0-607 (at pH 12-9) [2] and between-0-6 and -0-72v (in 0-5M NaOH) [3]. The potential measurements of Macleod [2] confirm the applicability of thermodynamic considerationsto a studyof archaeologicaliron corrosion It was previously products. suggested [1] thatthepH of 4-8 found in the Batavia cannonballs [4] representedthe equilibrium betweenferrous carbonate and approximately ions. In thiscase the 1M ferrous or totalanion,concentration wouldbe 2M, chloride, close to that reported,and the potentialshould be withinthe range -0-409 to -0-242v, in excellent agreementwiththat measured. AlthoughMacleod all the objects [2] did not analyze the solids present, were concreted and it seems likely that FeCO3 would formfromreactionof ferrousions withthe of the concretion. originalcalciumcarbonatematrix It is agreed [1-3] that the solution withinthe graphitized region of corroded marine cast iron is essentiallya ferrouschloride solution whose con13

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S. Turgoose centration is 1M or greaterwithpH 4-8, and that boththepotential and pH increasewithdistanceout This evidence providesa good into the concretion. basis fora discussionof the processesoccurring. 3 The cathodicreactionduringburial Corrosion is an electrochemicalprocess with the anodic and cathodicreactionsoccurring at spatially separate points.In iron corrosionthe inodic reaction (1) mustobviouslyoccur at the metal surface. The cathodichalf-reaction can be eitherhydrogen evolution(2) or oxygenreduction (3) or occasionof anotherspecies. ally the reduction studiesof the hydrogen evolutionreactionand they have been reviewed elsewhere [9, 10]. This work indicates that, except at very high overpotentials, the reactionon ironproceedsvia two steps,(4) and (5), where Hadsindicates an adsorbed hydrogen atom.
Hads + Hads-- H2

H ++ e- -- Hads

or

2H20 + 2e02 + 4H + 4eor 02 + 2H20 + 4e-

2H++ 2e-

Fe

---- Fe2 ++ 2e---- H2+ 20H ---- 2H20(3) 40H-

H2(2)

(1)

(2)
(3)

Northbases his presentsuggestion that(2) is the main cathodicreactionon threefactors. 1 No correlation betweendissolvedoxygenlevels and corrosion rateshas been observed,butthere is also no evidence thatsuch a correlation does not exist. 2 A gas is released when concretions are broken in situ, althoughthe natureof the underwater, Pearson [8] has shownthat gas is not mentioned. immersionof corroded cannon in sodium hydroxide solutions caused release of nitrogen, lated rate tosome extent. penetration methane and hydrogen,and whilst there are evolutionat the metalsurThus, whilehydrogen mechanismsavailable to explain the formation face will contribute towardsthe cathodic reaction, of hydrogen in the alkaline solution,the other the evidenceavailable at presentdoes not appear to have been pres- justifythe conclusionthat it is the main cathodic gases, at least,mustpresumably ent at excavation. reaction. 3 Calculationsof corrosionrates based on equaThe possibility of sulphate-reducingbacteria tions(1) and (2) givereasonableagreement with catalyzing thisreactionhas also been suggested, but those observed [2]. Although Macleod found the location of the reduced sulphurspecies in the tendsto suggest thatthisis notoccurring. good agreementfor two objects out of three concretion in theconcrestudied,detailsof how his calculatedrateswere North[4] foundsulphidesand sulphur arrivedat were not published.He quotes calcu- tion, where the pH was 5 or more,but not at the lated ratesof 10-30 /Acm-2, depending on hyd- metal surface.At this part of the concretionthe evolutionis not rogen partial pressure,for a cannon (potential conditionsare such thathydrogen to a corrosion thermodynamically -0-412v, pH 4-8) corresponding possible,so the sulphidecannot The resultfrom directinvolvement of the bacteriain the depthof 2-6cm forthe timeof immersion. actual corrosion depth was 2-5cm. Similar cathodicreaction.It is possible thatthe bacteriaare agreement was obtained for a wrought-iron using hydrogen, produced at the metal surface,to anchor but no calculationsare quoted for the reducesulphate, but thiswillnotincreasetherateof third evolution.Since thereis a plentiful samplewherenone of themeasuredpoten- hydrogen supply tials was low enough forhydrogen evolutionto of organicmaterial from theconcretion it organisms, thatthebacteriaare usingorganic be a possible reaction.This in itselfcasts doubt seems morelikely on theconclusions, butthemajorproblemis that electrondonors in the reductionof sulphate. The the rates differ fromthose calcu- formation considerably of ferroussulphide can be explained by lated below. of these sulphideions by ferrous ions precipitation There have been many kineticand mechanistic diffusing away fromthe metalsurfaceand does not 14 Studies in Conservation 30 (1985) 13-18

The first ion discharge(4), is ratestep, hydrogen and thereactionproceedswithlow surdetermining face coverage of adsorbed hydrogen. On thisbasis the calculated dependence of hydrogenevolution current density, cm-2),is givenby (6) and this ic(A demonstrated has been relationship by Kelly[11], in 0-5M sulphatesolutionover the pH range0-4. = kC (6) aH+ exp(- EF/2RT) ic Equation (6) and Kelly's results givenequation (7) for ic,where E is the electrodepotentialrelativeto the standardhydrogen electrode. log ic = -5-12-pH-E/0-118 (7) Thus forthe cannon studiedby Macleod the calculated hydrogen evolutioncurrent is 0-37 A cm-2, and is not dependenton the hydrogen partialpressure, since the electrodepotentialis sufficiently far below thereversible This ratecorresponds potential. to a penetration rate of less than 1mm duringthe time of burial, far below that observed, although of the metalsurfacemayraise the actual roughness surfacearea, the corrosioncurrent and the calcu-

(5)

(4)

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Thecorrosion and treatment iron burial ofarchaeological during necessarily indicate that 'microbial corrosion' is occurring. Although the argumentsin favour of hydrogen evolutionas the main cathodic reactionare inconclusive, the experimentalevidence on which they were based does enable some conclusionsas to the to be drawn. natureof the processesoccurring Both the possible cathodicreactionscause a local rise in pH, by productionof hydroxideions or by removalof protons.At the anodic areas thepH may reactionssuch as (8) and prefall due to hydrolysis such as (9). of hydroxides cipitation Fe2+ + H20 = FeOH+ + H+ (8) FeOH+ + H20 = Fe(OH)2 + H+ (9) A fallin pH to a value below thatof the bulk solution can only occur if the solution that becomes anodic acidic is in contact with a predominantly area. Thus North[3, 4] and Turgoose [1] have concluded thatthe pH of 4-8 across the metal surface is actingas the indicatesthattheentiremetalsurface somewhere anode, the cathodic reactionoccurring within theconcretion remotefrom thesurface. Macleod's calculationsof reactionrates were based on on the metal surface, evolutionoccurring hydrogen since it is onlytherethatthepotentialis low enough forthe reactionto be possible. On the otherhand,if oxygen reduction were the cathodic reaction, it would be expected to occur remotefromthe metal in fromoutside the consurface.Oxygen diffusing cretion can be reducedas soon as itreachesa level at in electronicconductivity which there is sufficient the solid phase forelectronsto flowto the cathodic is a major componentof the sites. Since magnetite corrosionproducts,and possesses good electronic we would expect oxygenreductionto conductivity, occur some distance fromthe metal, and this will in corroded give rise to the observedpH variations, objects. Thus whilstthe potentialand pH measurements with the idea that do not appear to be consistent hydrogenevolutionis the major cathodic reaction they are exactly those that would be expected if oxygenreductionwere. As a consequence, storage in oxygen-free solutionswill of excavated ironwork reduce the rate of corrosion to well below that occurringduring burial and, since the damaging oxidativechangeswillalso be prevented, constitutes a safe method. inhibitive propertiesof aerated sodium hydroxide solutions towards'clean'iron,i.e. thatcoveredby,at most, an air-formedoxide film. The validity of covered by thick applyingthese resultsto artifacts corrosionproductsis not obvious,since to function as a corrosion inhibitor ions mustbe prehydroxide sent in sufficient at all pointson the concentration metal surface. The major problem with washing methodsfor chlorideremoval fromcorrodedironwork is that equilibrationbetween the solutionat the metal surface, the location of much of the chlorideat excavation,and that in the bulk of the wash-bath solutionis slow,and thereis no reason to of hydroxideions into the suppose that diffusion corrosionproductswill be any fasterthandiffusion of chlorideout. It can thusbe arguedthatinhibition of corrosion ions is not to be expected by hydroxide beforethestateis reachedat whichboththesurface and chlorideconcentrations hydroxide equal those in the bulk and washingis complete. Macleod has claimed on the basis of the results quoted above that'inspectionof the Pourbaixdiagram foriron shows thatsimplewashinghas shifted the cannon froma region of active corrosionto a assumesthatthepH at passive zone'. This argument the metalsurfaceis the same as in the bulk solution (12-9) and can thuseasily be rejected. Recently North [3], accepting for the reasons above thatcorrosioncould be expected duringthe initial stages of immersionin NaOH solutions, statedthat'this does not happen in practiceand the reason for fhis is found in the E values for the artifact'. The reportedpotentialsfor deconcretedmarine cast iron objects in sodiumhydroxide solutionsare between -0-6 and -0-72v (vs. S.H.E.). North resistivarguesthatbecause themeasuredelectronic 'all areas ityof graphitized samplesis low Ofcm) (.01 of the artifact, includingthe residual metal,are at the same potential'and thusthatthe metalpotential with (- 0-6vat pH 4-8) is in the regionof immunity, evolutionoccurring on the metal surface. hydrogen The consequencesof thisare that: 1 the residualiron will not corrode; 2 hydrogen will be evolved; and 3 hydroxide ions will be generateddeep inside the corrosionproducts. It is claimedthat(1) and (2) are observedin practice but, as regards the statementthat it can be solu- observedthatirondoes not corrodein NaOH solu4 The corrosionof iron in sodiumhydroxide tions thatlack ofvisiblechange tions,itshouldbe stressed does not necessarily mean thatno change is occurIt has oftenbeen claimed that archaeological iron ring.In thiscase, where we would expect diffusion will not corrodefurther artifacts ions into the corrosionproducts,any [8-12] or thatthe of hydroxide corrosionrate will be verylow [13] if immersedin freshcorrosionproductswill be precipitated inside sodium hydroxidesolutions, but these arguments the object and so not be visible.In view of the fact to the undoubted that corrosionwill result in iron compounds that have been justifiedby reference 15

in Conservation Studies 30 (1985) 13-18

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S. Turgoose may be rapidlyoxidized on exposure to air, even non-visiblecorrosion may markedlydecrease the ofartifacts. The evolution of post-treatment stability hydrogencan be, and has been for archaeological to the reduction material[81,attributed of waterby ferroushydroxide, the Schikkorreaction,equation (10), althoughthe mechanismis apparentlymore complicatedthan suggestedby thisequation [14]. 3Fe(OH), = Fe3O4 + 2H,O + H2 (10) The generation of hydroxide ions within the corrosionproducts is statedto continue 'untilthepH of the entrappedsolution reaches approximately 10. At thispH level theironis now in a regionofpassivityand, even if E subsequently increases,corrosion will be minimal'.The suggestionis therefore that corrosion of ironwork ceases immediatelyupon in sodium hydroxide immersion solutions,and will not restart whilstthe immersion continues. If thiswere so it would be a considerableadvanmethodbutNorth'sproposals tage of thistreatment seem to be based theprocessesoccurring concerning as to the nature of electrode on a misconception forthe conand thereis no justification potentials, fallsintotheregionof clusionthattheironpotential immunity. is thatsincethe The essentialpartoftheargument of the graphitizedsamples is electronicresistivity are at the same potenlow, all areas of the artifact is that indicates tial. Whatthelow resistivity actually betweenthe thereis negligible potentialdifference and the metalin thesolidphase. It does not graphite of theironand indicatethattheelectrodepotentials the graphiteare the same, and it is these electrode across solidpotentials,i.e. potential differences the natureof the thatdetermine solutioninterfaces, electrodereactionsthatmay occur. In any systemof this sort where there are two electrodes in solution there are four sources of potentialdifference: 1 in the solid phase between the iron and the as is usual withtwo graphite, EFe-Eg, although, thisis negligible electrodes, owingto conducting of the solid phase; the low resistance 2 between the graphite and the bulk solution, Eg-Eb, whichin thiscase is the measuredelectrode potentialof the graphitized object, since electrodewillbe placed in thebulk thereference solution,close to the graphitesurface; 3 betweenthe metalliciron core and the solution theelectrode at themetalsurface, potenEFe-Es, tial of the metalliciron about whichwe would and like some information; and the 4 betweenthesolution at themetalsurface whichdependson theresisbulksolution, Es-Eb, tance of the solutionand the current flowing. Since the potentialdrop between the metal core and the bulk solutionmustbe independentof the 16 path taken we get equation (11) (EFe - Eg) + (Eg - Eb) = (EFe - Es) + (ES - Eb)(1l) or (12) where E'g and E'Fe are the electrodepotentialsof the graphiteand iron respectively, R is the resistance per unit area of the solution path between surfaceand bulk, and i is the conventional current in solution towardsthe metal surdensityflowing face. (Positivei means a flowof cationstowardsthe metal surfaceor of anions away fromit; thus the metalsurface is cathodicto thegraphite.) The metal electrodepotential,E'Fe, onlyequals the measured but potential,E'g, if thereis no solutionresistance, in view of the low diffusion rates of chlorideions through graphitized regions[15] and the extrabarriersto ionicmovement thatwillbe imposedbypreofironhydroxides within theseregions, an cipitation is to be expected. highresistance extremely The low potential measuredafter is the immersion mixedpotentialadopted by the system in whichthe is oxygen cathodicreaction reduction and theanodic reactionis oxidationof ferrous or mixed hydroxide oxidationstategreenrusts, bothreactions occurring at or verynear theoutersurface ofthegraphite. The initially higherpotentialat the metal surfaceindicates that this surfacewill be a net cathode (i in equation (12) is positive) but the rate at whichthe cathodicreactionoccurswilldepend on thesolution resistance and the difference betweenthe two electrode potentials. In the absence of solution resistance,equation of Northto be correct, (12) shows the assumption but in thiscase therewould be otherconsequences thatdo not seem to be borne out in practice.A fall in the metal electrode potential must be accomions panied by reduction (i.e. platingout) offerrous initiallypresent in solution. The requirementfor in thesolutionat the metalsurface chargeneutrality means that this must be accompanied by either ingressof anothercation, Na+ in this case, or by outward movementof chlorideions, or both. The of chloride ions indicates that their high mobility will make the major contribution to this movement from ionic movement, so a rapidremovalof chloride the object should be achieved. The long washing treatments timesused in sodium hydroxide suggest we woulddeduce thatthisis notso. On thecontrary, thatthereis considerablehindranceto ionic movementin solution,and thatthe solutionpath possesses appreciableresistance. In the presenceof resistance, the metalelectrode thanthatmeasured,and the potentialwillbe higher metal will be a net cathode. However, the effects that this will have on the artifact depend on the in Conservation Studies 30 (1985) 13-18 E'g = E'Fe -iR

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and treatment iron burial Thecorrosion during ofarchaeological in solution betmagnitudeof the currentflowing At themetalsurface ween metaland graphite. there are threepossible electrodereactionsthatwill conto the net current, one anodic: tribute (13) Fe--- Fe2 + + 2eand two cathodic: Fe2+ + 2e- ---Fe (14) 2H+ + 2e----+ H2 (15) densities due to theseare and if the partialcurrent for a net called i13, i14 and i15 the requirement cathodicreactionmeans that: i15 + i14 - i13 > 0 (16) or: is5
> i13 i14

(17)

side of equation (17) is the where the right-hand corrosionrate of the metal core. The rate of hydrogenion reduction, has alreadybeen shownto is, the corrosion rate of the be extremelylow, and residual metal, althoughnot necessarilyzero, will low in the initialstagesof immeralso be extremely sion. This low corrosionrate does not, however, arise from any inhibitivepropertiesof hydroxide ions, or fromdepressionof the metal potentialinto but merelyfromthe fact the region of immunity, that the oxygenbeing reduced at the graphitesurface is oxidizingferroushydroxideor green rusts ratherthan metalliciron. Eventuallythe stage will be reached at whichthe ferrousions present at excavation have all been oxidized, and the measuredpotentialof the object will rise. North reportsthis rise for wroughtiron but not after objects aftera fewweeks' immersion, several years for large cast iron artifacts, reflecting ions initially the muchlargeramountof ferrous presentin the lattercase. The potentialrise means that the outer surface becomes cathodic to the metal core, whichcan now corrode at an increasedrate, controlledby the rate of oxygenreductionon the outer surface. North has claimed that if the pH at the metal surfacerises above 10 the iron will be passive and willnot corrodeeven ifthe potentialrises.Whether the pH at the metalsurfacedoes rise to 10 is uncerin towardsthe tain since hydroxideions diffusing surfacewillbe precipitated by the ironions present, evolutionat the metal will not occur and hydrogen Even ifthis the pH noticeably. fastenoughto affect will that it is rise does occur, passivity unlikely pH forseveralreasons.Firstly, pasexperimental result, sivationpotentialsare muchhigher(approximately Ov at pH 10 [16], than those measured. Secondly, is due to the formation inhibition by hydroxide ot a and thisusuon the metalsurfaces, oxide film ferric ally requiresthe presence of oxygenat the surface 30 (1985) 13-18 in Conservation Studies

is whichis not likelyin thiscase. Thirdly, hydroxide ifthesolutionpH is above inhibitor onlyan effective 12-6, presumablybecause this solution concentration is needed to maintain the local surface pH above the critical value of about 9. The processes occurring after immersion of deconcreted ironworkin sodium hydroxidesolutions can thus be summarized.In the initialstages the oxygenreachingthe outer surfaceof the object will be used forthe oxidationof ferrous compounds ions presentin solutionat derivedfromthe ferrous the time of excavation.These ferrouscompounds, can easilybe oxidor greenrusts, ferrous hydroxide whiletheyare ized by air, so cessationof treatment still present will yield an object that may suffer damagingoxidativechangesifexposed to moistair. The durationof this initial stage depends on the ion presentat thetimeofexcavaamountofferrous tion and in the case of marinecast iron low potentials have been measured,and green rustidentified in the corrosion afterseven years'immerproducts, sion in 0-5M NaOH. During this stage the rate of corrosionwill be low, but once the ferrouscomthe pounds have been oxidized the oxygenreaching will once again be used to oxidize metallic artifact cell. The large iron,i.e. as partof theusual corrosion spatial separationof the anodic and cathodicsites, and the difficult access of hydroxideto the metal action by these surface,will preventany inhibitive solutions.Ferrouscompoundswill thuscontinueto and be producedinsidethecorrosion product layers, theirpresenceat the end of treatment may lead to instability. 5 Conclusions Potentialand pH measurements can be helpfulin thereactions in archaeologunderstanding occurring ical material,but only if the possible limitations of the measurements are recognized.In particular the effectthat thickcorrosionproductlayers have on bothpH and electrodepotentials makestheapplication of the ideas of immunity and passivity difficult since the relevantconditions are not those thatcan be measured outside the artifact.However, an of thenatureof thefundamental understanding processes does enable some information to be deduced as to thereactions at themetalsurface and occurring the likelyeffect of treatment methods. Acknowledgements This workwas carriedout while the authorwas at to the and he is grateful College, Cardiff, University SERC forfinancial supportand to ProfessorR. D. Gillard and Dr D. Leigh fortheirencouragement. 17

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S. Turgoose

References
1

2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14

of H2 fromaqueous ing systemsI: the formation suspensions of Fe(OH)2 and reactions with reducible substratesincludingmolecular nitrogen', iron objects' TURGOOSE, S., 'The natureof surviving J.Am.Chem.Soc.98 (1976) 3508-3513. in Conservation of Iron, National Maritime N. A., and PEARSON, Museum Monograph No.53, National Maritime 15 NORTH, C., 'Washing methods for chloride removal frommarine iron artifacts', Museum,Greenwich(1982) 1-7. Studiesin Conservation 23 (1978) 174-186. MACLEOD, I. D., 'Shipwrecks and applied elec16 SHREIR, L. L., in CorrosionVol.I (ed. L. L. SHREIR), J.Electroanal.Chem. 118 (1981) trochemistry', 2nd edn, Newnes-Butterworth 291-303. (1976) 1:1031: 110. NORTH,N. A., 'Corrosion productson marineiron', Studiesin Conservation 27 (1982) 75-83. S. TURGOOSE at CambridgeUnigraduatedin metallurgy NORTH,N. A., 'Formation of coral concretionson where he also obtained a PhD on the subject of marineiron', Int.J.Naut. Archaeol. 5 (1976) 253- versity, corrosioninhibitors. From 1978 to 1984 he was a SERC 258. research assistant in the Departmentsof post-doctoral the of "ferrous" nature corrosion ARGO,J.,'On proand Archaeology at University College, Cardiff, ducts on marineiron', Studiesin Conservation26 Chemistry and after in theConservation Divisionof theBritworking (1981) 42-44. ish Museum he is now a lecturer in corrosionscience and M. R., and SEELEY,N. J.,'The identity of GILBERG, in the Corrosion and Protection engineering Centre,Unichlorideions in marineiron compoundscontaining of Institute of Science and Technology. corrosion products--a critical review', Studies in versity Manchester Author'saddress; UMIST, PO Box 88, Manchester M60 Conservation 26 (1981) 50-56. UK. 1QD, in iron antiS., 'Post-excavation TURGOOSE, changes 27 (1982) 97-101. quities',Studiesin Conservation of cannon after200 Resume--Les processus de corrosion des objets PEARSON, C., 'The preservation years under the sea', Studies in Conservation17 archeologiquesen fer sont discutesici, h la lumieredes sur les mesuresdes potentielsd'electrodeet (1972) 91-110. publications L. L., in CorrosionVol.I (ed. L. L. SHREIR), des pH, en relationavec le choix des methodesde conserSHREIR, 2nd edn, Newnes-Butterworth vation.On concluten particulier (1976) 9:49-9:52. que le stockaged'objets BOCKRIS,J. O' M., 'Electrode kinetics' in Modern en fer dans un milieu humide et anaerobie est possible, dans des solutions Aspectsof Electrochemistry (ed. J. O' M. BOCKRIS), alors que la corrosion peut se maintenir Butterworths de sodium. (1954) 180-277. d'hydroxyde KELLY, E., 'The active iron electrode', J. ElectrochemicalSociety112 (1965) 124-131. Auszug--Es werden die in archiologischen Eisenwerkfor zeugen auftretenden PEARSON, C., 'On the conservation requirements Korrosionsprozesseunter Beriickmarine archaeological excavations', Int.J.Naut. sichtigungveriffentlichter Messungen von ElektrodenArchaeol. 6 (1977) 37-46. spannungenund pH und der Relevanz derselbenfiirdie N. A., and PEARSON, into Auswahl von Erhaltungsprozeduren NORTH, C., 'Investigations erSrtert.Insbesoniron relics recoveredfrom dere wirdgefolgert, methodsforconserving anaerobe Lagerung dab die feuchte, the sea' in Conservationin Archaeologyand the von Eisenwaren erfolgreichsein miiBte, und daB die Korrosion in Natriumhydroxyd-L6sungen Applied Arts,IIC, London (1975) 173-181. fortgesetzt SCHRAUZE, G. N., and GUTH,T. D.,'Hydrogen evolv- werdenkann.

18

Studiesin Conservation 30 (1985) 13-18

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