Shane Weinberg

nSC 8|o|ogy Notes

Ma|nta|n|ng a 8a|ance
1. Most organ|sms are act|ve |n a ||m|ted temperature range
lJeotlfy tbe tole of eozymes lo metobollsm, Jesctlbe tbelt cbemlcol composltloo ooJ ose o slmple
moJel to Jesctlbe tbelt speclflclty oo sobsttotes
Clobular proLelns wlLh polymer proLeln chalns folded Lo form a spherlcal shape
Lnzyme has speclflc conformaLlon - speclflc for one subsLraLe
CaLabollc and anabollc reacLlons
AcLlve slLe ls a pockeL on enzyme surface Lo whlch subsLraLes wlLh a preclse complemenLary
sLrucLure wlll flL
1emporary bond forms beLween Lhe enzyme and subsLraLe - LS Complex
LS complex forms sLresses whlch wlll elLher break aparL or [oln Lhe subsLraLe
Lnzymes are noL used up by Lhe reacLlon, requlred ln small amounLs, remaln unchanged
Lowers Lhe energy of acLlvaLlon by havlng an afflnlLy for Lhe subsLraLe Lo lLs acLlve slLe
See llver experlmenLs whlch LesLed Lhe varlables whlch have an effecL on Lhe concenLraLlon
on Lhe acLlvlLy of a named enzyme.
Lock and key Mode|
o
1he lock an key analogy can be used Lo descrlbe enzyme acLlvlLy uslng Lhe lock as Lhe subsLraLe and Lhe
key as Lhe enzyme
o
1he key llke Lhe enzyme ls unalLered ln lLs reacLlon
o
1he key/enzyme ls Lhe easlesL way of promoLlng Lhe reacLlon because lL ls Lhe mosL energy efflclenL by
lowerlng Lhe energy of acLlvaLlon
o
Llke Lhe key, each enzyme ls speclflc Lo one reacLlon due Lo lLs unlque 3 dlmenslonal conformaLlon
o
1he same enzyme can be used Lo caLalyse Lhe forward and reverse reacLlon ln Lhe same way a key can
boLh lock and unlock Lhe lock
o
A Lemporary bond wlll exlsL beLween Lhe enzyme and subsLraLe llke Lhe key whlch ls unable Lo be pulled
ouL of Lhe lock unLll lL has done lLs [ob

lJeotlfy tbe pn os o woy of Jesctlbloq tbe oclJlty of o sobstooce
pP whlch ls measured by a pP meLer ls a way of descrlblng Lhe acldlLy of a subsLance
xplolo wby tbe moloteoooce of o coostoot lotetool eovltoomeot ls lmpottoot fot optlmol metobollc
efflcleocy
1he basls for meLabollc efflclency ls Lhe healLh of Lhe lndlvldual cells
1he lnLernal envlronmenL (Llssue fluld) musL remaln consLanL (raw maLerlals supplled and
wasLes removed) for opLlmum meLabollsm
MeLabollsm ls broughL abouL by enzyme acLlon, Lherefore lf lnLernal envlronmenL ls
malnLalned Lhen enzymes wlll work aL Lhelr opLlmal efflclency
Cell meLabollsm lLself changes Lhe lnLernal envlronmenL by uslng raw maLerlals and
produclng wasLes
lL means an anlmal can adapL Lo a changlng envlronmenL
Cell meLabollsm can only be broughL abouL by enzymes, exLreme lnLernal envlronmenLal
condlLlons wlll desLroy Lhe enzymes and Lhe funcLlon of Lhe cell wlll noL be aL opLlmum.
Shane Weinberg


uesctlbe bomeostosls os tbe ptocess by wblcb otqoolsms molotolo o telotlvely stoble lotetool
eovltoomeot
PomeosLasls refers Lo malnLalnlng sLable physlcal and chemlcal condlLlons of Lhe lnLernal
envlronmenL
lnLernal envlronmenL = Llssue fluld
lacLors regulaLed by homeosLasls:
- 1emperaLure - WaLer volume
- Clucose ConcenLraLlon - CC, and C, ConcenLraLlon
- SalL ConcenLraLlon - pP

xplolo tbot bomeostosls cooslsts of two stoqes
- uetectloq cbooqes ftom tbe stoble stote
- coootetoctloq cbooqes ftom tbe stoble stote
1. ueLecLlng a devlaLlon from seL polnL
2. CounLeracLlng devlaLlon

PomeosLasls ls achleved by negaLlve feedback
- A self ad[usLlng correcLlve mechanlsm ln response from a sLlmulus of devlaLlon
from Lhe norm. 1hls seLs lnLo moLlon Lhe approprlaLe correcLlve response Lo resLore
Lhe norm.
PomeosLaLlc negaLlve feedback follows Lhe sLlmulus response paLhway
All body sysLems are lnvolved ln malnLalnlng homeosLasls, however Lhe hormonal
and nervous sysLems are Lhe maln sysLems responslble for co-ordlnaLlon and
conLrol.


Shane Weinberg



Ootlloe tbe tole of tbe oetvoos system lo Jetectloq ooJ tespooJloq to eovltoomeotol cbooqes
1he nervous sysLem ls a slgnalllng neLwork wlLh branches comprlsed of neurons LhaL carry
lmpulses from conLrol cenLre Lo Llssues and vlce versa
A sLlmulus ls deLecLed
- devlaLlon from Lhe norm or seL polnL ls deLecLed by Lhe recepLor
- Sensory recepLors respond Lo only speclflc sLlmull
AfferenL (sensory) message Lravels Lo Lhe conLrol cenLre along a sensory nerve
PypoLhalamus LhermoregulaLory cenLre
- arL of braln LhaL monlLors LemperaLure sLlmull ln relaLlon Lo norm
LfferenL (moLor) message Lravels along a motor nerve
- Cr a hormone whlch ls dlsLrlbuLed by Lhe blood
8rlngs abouL a response
- CorrecLlng Lhe devlaLlon and resLorlng Lhe seL polnL.







1hermoregu|at|on
1hermoregulaLlon ls Lhe homeosLaLlc role of conLrolllng Lhe body's core lnLernal
LemperaLure and keeplng lL consLanL
1he LhermoregulaLory conLrol cenLre and recepLor ls Lhe hypoLhalamus ln Lhe braln
A devlaLlon ln LemperaLure from Lhe seL polnL lnlLlaLes negaLlve feedback mechanlsm
no afferenL message as hypoLhalamus ls boLh recepLor and conLrol cenLre
An efferenL message ls senL along moLor neurons Lo effecLors whlch wlll brlng abouL Lhe
approprlaLe correcLlve response.
lncrease ln core LemperaLure
o vasodllaLlon of caplllarles ln skln dlverLs blood Lo skln surface where heaL ls radlaLed
ouL of body
o SLlmulaLlon of sweaL glands Lo produce sweaL, evaporaLlve coollng Lakes place
o llll muscles relax allowlng alr flow over body resulLlng ln a consLanL humldlLy
gradlenL beLween body and alr so dlffuslon occurs.
o 8esLlng whlch decreases muscle movemenL and reduces heaL producLlon
urop ln core LemperaLure
o vasoconsLrlcLlon whlch dlverLs blood away from skln Lo core organs
Shane Weinberg

o SkeleLal muscles spasm causlng shlverlng whlch lncreases meLabollc raLe produclng
heaL
o lncreased meLabollsm broughL abouL by hormones - adrenalln & Lhyroxln


lJeotlfy tbe btooJ tooqe of tempetototes ovet wblcb llfe ls foooJ compoteJ wltb tbe oottow llmlts fot
loJlvlJool specles
Crganlsms can be found across a range of amblenL LemperaLures
Lach organlsm has a very narrow range of LemperaLures where lL can survlve
o 1he organlsm has adapLed so LhaL lLs enzymes acL opLlmally ln Lhe narrow range
1erresLrlal envlronmenLs have a greaL range of amblenL LemperaLures over Lhe day and
season perlod compared Lo waLer
o 8ecause alr ls more dense Lhan waLer and has a hlgher Lhermal capaclLy
o 1herefore LerresLrlal organlsms wlll need a more efflclenL LhermoregulaLors


compote tespooses of oomeJ Aosttolloo ectotbetmlc ooJ eoJotbetmlc otqoolsms to cbooqes lo tbe
ombleot tempetotote ooJ explolo bow tbese tespooses osslst tempetotote teqolotloo
Lctotherms
uepend on envlronmenL for source of heaL
use behavloural mechanlsms Lo conLrol body LemperaLure
8eferred Lo as cold blooded
8ed 8ellled 8lack Snake
o 8asks ln sun
o llaLLens body Lo lncrease surface area exposed Lo sun
o llnds shade when LemperaLure ls Loo hlgh and burrows underground.
Lndotherms
8ely on meLabollc acLlvlLy for heaL energy
8eferred Lo as warm blooded
8ed kangaroo
o 8ecomes acLlve when core LemperaLure ls low and ln dlrecL sun llghL
o 1o lose PeaL
Shane Weinberg

! Less acLlve durlng dayLlme
! SLays ln shade away from dlrecL sunllghL
! 8reaLhlng raLe lncreases and panLlng promoLes evaporaLlve coollng
! Llcks forellmbs where llLLle fur ls presenL whlch permlLs evaporaLlve coollng
! ulls Lall under body Lo reduce surface area exposed Lo sun llghL
! lncreases blood flow ln arms where halr ls Lhln whlch radlaLes heaL away
lJeotlfy some tespooses of ploots to tempetotote cbooqe
|ant Adaptat|ons
8educed surface area whlch llmlLs Lhe absorpLlon of solar radlaLlon Lhrough small leaves
Shlny surface Lo reflecL solar radlaLlon
Palry leaves creaLe area of shade whlch blocks solar radlaLlon
Large raLlo of edge of leaf lengLh Lo surface area of Lhe leaf
- Leaves loose mosL of Lhelr heaL from Lhls reglon.
Leaves hang down verLlcally as Lo provlde a large surface area Lo Lhe cool mornlng sun buL a
small surface area (leaf face) Lo Lhe mld day sun.
|ant kesponses
SLomaLes closed durlng Lhe day (durlng Lhe hlgh Lemps) and open aL nlghL (low Lemps)
8adlaLlon - planL radlaLes heaL Lo surroundlng ob[ecLs
1ransplraLlon - LvaporaLlve coollng
ConvecLlon - Surroundlng alr ls heaLed
- PoL alr less dense and Lherefore rlses, carrylng heaL away from planL
PeaL-shock proLelns are produced whlch flL lnLo Lhe acLlve slLe and prevenL lL from belng
denaLured.
Leaf fall ls lncreased durlng dry season - 8educes surface area by whlch heaL may be galned
uleback
- Aerlal parLs dle off, buL rooLs are proLecLed by Lhe lnsulaLlng soll
AnLl-freeze
- lce forms ln alr spaces ln beLween cells
- ConcenLraLlon lnslde Lhe cell ls hlgher Lhan ouLslde concenLraLlon, waLer moves osmoLlcally
ouL Lhe cell
- MovemenL of waLer ouL of cell decreases Lhe waLer concenLraLlon and lncreases Lhe lon
concenLraLlon and Lherefore lowers Lhe freezlng polnL of Lhe cell
Luca|yptus
Leaves hang down verLlcally and orlenLed away from sun ln hoL condlLlons
SLomaLa open durlng cool mornlng, and closed durlng hoL perlods durlng Lhe day
May loose leaves durlng dry seasons
Outer most layer of bark dies
- Dieback
Leaves may spiral
- Reduces the surface area exposed to solar radiation
aper I|ower
Shane Weinberg

Crlnkly leaves
- lncreased raLlo of leaf edge lengLh Lo surface area
- CreaLer ablllLy Lo lose heaL
Leaf Palrs
- 8locks ouL solar radlaLlon leavlng a shaded leaf surface

2. |ants and an|ma|s transport d|sso|ved nutr|ents and gases |n a f|u|d
med|um
lJeotlfy tbe fotm(s) lo wblcb eocb of tbe followloq ls cottleJ lo mommolloo blooJ
Carbon uloxlde
- P
2
CC
3
(Carbonlc Acld) ln blood plasma
- Con[ugaLed form as carbamlnohaemoglobln
- CC
2
molecules dlssolved ln blood plasma
Cxygen
- Molecules / con[ugaLed as oxyhaemoglobln ln 88C
- 4 oxygen molecules Lo one Pb (one aLLached Lo each lron group)
WaLer
- Molecules as blood solvenL
SalLs
- ulssolved lons ln blood plasma
Llplds
- ulgesLed llplds are re-synLheslsed lnLo Lrl-glycerldes whlch are released lnLo Lhe lymph
vessels
nlLrogenous WasLes
- ln Lhe form of urea dlssolved ln blood plasma
CLher producLs of dlgesLlon
- Amlno aclds, nlLrogenous bases, monosaccharldes, glycerols and vlLamlns
- ulssolved molecules ln blood plasma
xplolo tbe oJoptlve oJvootoqe of boemoqloblo
lgmenL of red blood cell made from four polypepLlde unlLs called globln (2 alpha & 2 beLa
chalns)
ln Lhe cenLre of each globln ls an lron haem unlL whlch blnds wlLh Lhe oxygen
Can carry more oxygen Lhan whlch can be carrled as dlssolved form ln blood plasma. uue Lo
Lhe haem group's afflnlLy for oxygen.
unloads very qulckly ln Llssues when pC
2
(Cxygen concenLraLlon) ls low, and loads very
qulckly ln Llssues when pC
2
ls hlgh.
Lach successlve haem group loads/unloads qulcker as each load changes Lhe shape of Lhe
haemoglobln maklng lL easler Lo load and unload oxygen
Low Lemps promoLe qulcker unloadlng of Lhe oxygen Lo faclllLaLe more energy Lo malnLaln
Lhe seL norm Lemp.
Low pP promoLes qulcker unloadlng afLer exerclse when CC
2
has bullL up and C
2
Would have
Lo be uLlllsed
Shane Weinberg

AL basal meLabollc raLe, Lhe Pb unloads 20 (leavlng 80) of Lhe oxygen Lo allow for a
reserve supply capaclLy for when needed for exerclse.
Myoglobln (muscle Llssue) has a hlgher afflnlLy for oxygen Lhan haemoglobln does whlch
allows for Lhe Lransfer and dlffuslon of Lhe oxygen.
compote tbe sttoctote of ottetles, coplllotles ooJ velos lo telotloo to tbelt fooctloo

ArLery
- 1hlck ouLer connecLlve Llssue for supporL and proLecLlon as Lhere ls hlgh blood pressure
- 1hlck layer of smooLh muscle Llssue whlch conLracL and dllaLe arLery Lo malnLaln Lhe blood
flow ln beLween Lhe hearL beaLs
- Small lumen whlch lncreases Lhe pressure by decreaslng Lhe avallable volume area for Lhe
blood.
- 1akes blood away from hearL
veln
- 1akes blood back Lo hearL
- SmooLh eplLhellum Lo reduce frlcLlon so blood can draln easler back Lo hearL
- 1hlnner connecLlve Llssue as blood pressure ls lower
- Large lumen Lo allow for easy flow of blood
- Works agalnsL gravlLy so lumen ls larger

Caplllary
- Slngle layer of cells whlch ls a Lhln barrler and allows easy dlffuslon of maLerlals beLween
blood and Llssue fluld
- Small dlameLer lncreases Lhe SA:v raLlo whlch promoLes dlffuslon
- LxLenslve caplllary beds whlch slgnlflcanLly lncrease Lhe surface area.
uesctlbe tbe molo cbooqes lo tbe cbemlcol composltloo of tbe blooJ os lt moves otoooJ tbe boJy ooJ
lJeotlfy tlssoes lo wblcb tbese cbooqes occot
ULMCNAk CIkCUI1 (Lungs):
Shane Weinberg

! 8lood enLers Lhe rlghL aLrlum of Lhe hearL vla Lhe vena cava (ma[or veln):
- 1he blood ls deoxygenaLed, and hlgh ln carbon dloxlde
- lL ls low ln glucose and oLher nuLrlenLs, lL ls also hlgh ln urea, oLher
nlLrogenous wasLes and varlous polsons.
! As Lhe hearL beaLs, Lhe rlghL venLrlcle pumps Lhe blood Lhrough Lhe pulmonary arLery, Lo
Lhe |ungs:
- Pere Lhe blood galns oxygen, and loses lLs carbon dloxlde.
- 1he blood Lhen enLers Lhe lefL aLrlum vla Lhe pulmonary veln.
SS1LMIC CIkCUI1 (8ody):
! 1he lefL venLrlcle pumps oxygenaLed blood Lo Lhe body Lhrough Lhe aorLa.
! ln Lhe body, varlous changes occur Lo Lhe blood.
- 1he blood loses oxygen and galns carbon dloxlde ln a|| body cells, as
resplraLlon occurs. Clucose levels also drop.
! ln Lhe LIVLk:
- Levels of glucose are regulaLed - excess glucose ls changed Lo glycogen, or
glycogen sLores are changed Lo glucose (lf needed)
- Lxcess amlno aclds are changed Lo ammonla, and Lhen Lo urea
- olsons are also reduced, as Lhe llver changes Lhem Lo less Loxlc forms
! ln Lhe IN1LS1INLS:
- Levels of nuLrlenLs from dlgesLlon lncrease.
- Clucose, amlno aclds, lons, llplds and oLher subsLances from food enLer Lhe
blood. 1he lncrease ls Lhrough Lhe small lnLesLlnes reabsorpLlon of food
! ln Lhe kIDNLS:
- SalL and waLer levels are regulaLed
- All urea ls removed, Loxlns are excreLed lnLo Lhe urlne
! 1he changed blood, agaln hlghly deoxygenaLed, Lhen flows back Lo Lhe pulmonary
clrculL.

Ootlloe tbe oeeJ fot oxyqeo lo llvloq cells ooJ explolo wby temovol of cotboo JloxlJe ftom cells ls
esseotlol
A1 ls an energy carrler molecule LhaL LransporLs energy
o Composed of Adenlne, rlbose and 3 phosphaLes
o Lnergy ls capLured ln Lhe bonds beLween second and Lhlrd phosphaLe
Cxygen ls needed for aeroblc resplraLlon as Lhe accepLor of hydrogens durlng Lhe
breakdown of glucose ln Lhe mlLochondrla
lf lnsufflclenL oxygen ls presenL, anaeroblc resplraLlon (fermenLaLlon) wlll Lake place whlch ls
Lhe lncompleLe breakdown of glucose resulLlng ln lacLlc acld and only 2 A1 are formed.
Shane Weinberg

o Ceneral: 38Au + 38 + C
6
P
12
C
6
+ 6C
2
" 6CC
2
+ 6P
2
C + 38A1
o SLage 1: 2Au + 2 + C
6
P
12
C
6
" 2C
3
P
6
C
3
(pyruvaLe) + 2A1 - occurs ln Lhe cyLoplasm
(fermenLaLlon)
o SLage 2: 36Au + 36 + 2C
3
P
6
C
12
+ 6C
2
" 6CC
2
+ 6P
2
C + 36A1 - occurs ln Lhe
mlLochondrla
As a resulL of resplraLlon, carbon dloxlde ls formed.
When carbon dloxlde dlssolves ln waLer, lL produces carbonlc acld, whlch wlll dlssoclaLe lnLo
free hydrogen lons Lhus maklng Lhe Llssue fluld acldlc.
1he enzymes are only able Lo perform aL an opLlmal level wlLhln a cerLaln pP range, wlLh Lhe
decrease of pP from Lhe carbonlc acld, Lhe enzymes wlll denaLure Lhe acLlve slLe of Lhe
enzyme maklng Lhem no longer Lo perform Lhelr funcLlon.
Carbon dloxlde ls removed by:
o ulssolved ln plasma
o Con[ugaLed wlLh haemoglobln as carbomlnohaemoglobln
uesctlbe cotteot tbeotles oboot ptocesses tespooslble fot tbe movemeot of motetlols tbtooqb ploots
lo xylem ooJ pbloem tlssoe
ky|em
Complex Llssue made up of vessels and Lachelds surrounded by parenchyma
Walls made from cellulose and llgnln ln rlng and splral form
1ransporL of waLer and mlneral salLs upwards Lo Lhe leaves
AbsorpLlon by osmosls whlch ls faclllLaLed by Lhe lncrease of SA ln Lhe rooL halrs
o asslve LransporL Lherefore noL requlrlng energy
Mlnerals absorbed by dlffuslon
xylem vessels are long and Lhln whlch lncreases SA:v, promoLes absorpLlon.
aLh of WaLer Across Lhe CorLex
WaLer moves osmoLlcally from cell Lo cell Lhrough plasmodesmaLa
SymplasLlc movemenL from cell cyLoplasm Lo cell cyLoplasm Lhrough plasmodesmaLa
ApoplasLlc movemenL Lhrough cell walls
verLlcal AccenL of WaLer
8ooL ressure
- WaLer ls absorbed
- arenchyma cells become Lurgld
- ressure gradlenL from epldermls Lo cenLre of corLex, waLer ls noL able Lo move backwards
as more waLer ls belng absorbed.
1ransplraLlon pull
- As LransplraLlon occurs from leaves, waLer molecules pull eachoLher
- WaLer molecules are polar molecules and are coheslve
Caplllary AcLlon
- Coheslve forces of aLLracLlon beLween Lhe waLer molecules Lhemselves, and adheslve
forces beLween Lhe waLer molecules and cell walls of Lhe Lubes allows waLer molecules Lo
move up xylem.

Shane Weinberg



h|oem
hloem Llssue conslsLs of llvlng sleve Lube elemenLs wlLh ad[acenL companlon cells
surrounded by parenchyma.
MovemenL of organlc molecules (Sugars)ln glucose form
8l-dlrecLlonal
- uown ln summer when phoLosynLhesls produces glucose and sLored ln rooL slnk
- upwards durlng sprlng from sLorage Lo buds
AcLlve LransporL
1ranslocaLlon ls Lhe movemenL of sugars ln Lhe phloem
ressure I|ow 1heory
AL Lhelr 'source'- Lhe leaves ln summer, sugars are pumped by acLlve LransporL lnLo Lhe
companlon cells and sleve elemenLs of Lhe phloem
WaLer follows Lhese sugars by osmosls
1hus, Lurgor pressure (or hydrosLaLlc pressure) bullds up ln Lhe sleve Lubes.
lurLher along Lhe phloem vessel Lhere ls a low amounL of soluLe, lower waLer conLenL and a
lower Lurgor pressure
lL ls Lhe pressure gradlenL beLween source and slnk LhaL wlll drlve Lhe conLenLs of Lhe
phloem up and down Lhrough Lhe sleve Lubes
Sugars are Lhen acLlvely removed by Lhe corLex cells of boLh sLem and rooL and consumed or
converLed lnLo sLarch
SLarch ls lnsoluble and exerLs no osmoLlc effecLs
1herefore, fluld pressure of Lhe conLenLs of Lhe phloem decreases
llnally, relaLlvely pure waLer ls lefL ln Lhe phloem, and Lhls leaves by osmosls and ls drawn
back lnLo nearby xylem vessels by Lhe sucLlon of LransplraLlon
1hus, lL ls Lhe pressure gradlenL beLween source and slnk LhaL drlves Lhe conLenLs of Lhe
phloem up and down Lhrough Lhe sleve Lubes.

letfotm o fltstbooJ lovestlqotloo osloq tbe llqbt mlctoscope ooJ ptepoteJ sllJes to qotbet
lofotmotloo to estlmote tbe slze of teJ ooJ wblte blooJ cells ooJ Jtow scoleJ Jloqtoms of eocb
8Lu 8LCCu CLLLS (LryLhrocyLes):
! S|ze: 6-9 m
! Shape: 8l-concave dlscs
! Iunct|on: 1ransporL of oxygen.
! 1hey have no nuclel, Lhey only llve for 3
monLhs. AfLer Lhls Lhey are desLroyed ln
Lhe llver or spleen.
! 3-6 mllllon ln every mllllllLre of blood.
! 1hey are produced ln Lhe bone marrow
o WPl1L 8LCCu CLLLS (LeucocyLes):
Shane Weinberg

! S|ze: 12-13 m
! Shape: lrregular shape, can change shape
! Iunct|on: 1o defend agalnsL dlsease
! Cnly 4-12 Lhousand per mllllllLre of blood
! 1hey are Lhe largesL blood cell
! 1hey have nuclel, unllke red blood cells
! 1hey are produced ln Lhe lymph glands

lJeotlfy cotteot tecbooloqles tbot ollow meosotemeots of oxyqeo ooJ cotboo JloxlJe cooceottotloo
lo tbe blooJ

u|se Cxymeter
Measures C
2
levels ln arLerlal blood
8ased on haemoglobln belng brlghL red when oxygen saLuraLed and bluelsh red when
unsaLuraLed
eg llke devlce aLLached Lo flnger and measures Lransmlsslon of llghL Lhrough Lhe Llssue.
o 1wo llghL emlLLlng dlodes (red llghL and lnfrared llghL) pass llghL Lhrough exLremlLy
1he brlghL redness of Lhe oxyhaemoglobln wlll reflecL Lhe red llghL whlch wlll pass Lhrough
Lhe exLremlLy Lo a phoLorecepLor whlch deLecLs Lhe quallLy of Lhe llghL recelved
1he quallLy of red llghL ls compared Lo Lhe quallLy of lnfrared llghL recelved and Lhese are
compared Lo known relaLlve oxygenaLlon concenLraLlons

Arter|a| 8|ood Gas (A8G) Ana|ys|s
Measures C
2
, CC
2
and pP levels ln arLerlal blood Lhrough exLracLlon of Lhe blood
pP ls measured wlLh a pP sensor
o usually an elecLrode, Lhere ls a glass bulb whlch conLalns a soluLlon of known pP
o Class acLs as membrane whlch hydrogen lons can dlffuse Lhrough.
o 1he dlfference of Lhe Lwo pP's are compared and presenLed.
Cxygen dlffuses Lhrough permeable membrane - LlecLrochemlcal reacLlon wlLh sensor
- Measures parLlal pressure (C
2
)
resence of CC
2
(blcarbonaLe) reduces Lhe pP and measured by pP sensor.
LvaluaLes how effecLlve Lhe dellvery of oxygen and Lhe removal of carbon dloxlde
used on paLlenLs ln emergencles, lnLenslve care, under anaesLhesla

lJeotlfy tbe ptoJocts exttocteJ ftom JoooteJ blooJ ooJ Jlscoss tbe oses of tbese ptoJocts

lacLor vlll
- 8lood cloLLlng facLor
- Clven Lo haemophlllacs
Albumex 4
- 8urns or shock due Lo blood loss
Shane Weinberg

WhlLe 8lood Cells
- Clven Lo people wlLh low W8C counL, helps Lo flghL lnfecLlons
8ed 8lood Cells
- 1reaLmenL of anaemla and bleedlng afLer Lrauma or surgery
lmmunoglobulln
o Clven as form of passlve lmmunlLy for Lemporary proLecLlon agalnsL measles, rubella
lresh frozen plasma
o 1reaL paLlenLs followlng severe blood loss Lo resLore blood volume

kepott oo ptoqtess lo tbe ptoJoctloo of ottlflclol blooJ ooJ teosoos wby socb teseotcb ls oeeJeJ
Art|f|c|a| 8|ood kesearch
8easons why We wanL ArLlflclal 8lood
ArLlflclal blood ellmlnaLes Lhe rlsks once assoclaLed wlLh blood Lransfuslons such as Plv
lnfecLlon.
1here ls a need for a conLlnuous supply of blood whlch as Lhere are shorLages wlLh Lhe
currenL supply of blood.
Supplles of arLlflclal blood would be lmmedlaLely avallable
CompleLely safe
SLored for long perlods of Llme wlLhouL belng degeneraLed
LxLremely useful ln emergencles, dlsasLers and war.
naemog|ob|n-based Subst|tute
AdvanLages
Able Lo LransporL oxygen ouLslde of Lhe red blood cell
2
nd
CeneraLlon uon'L have membranes and Lherefore do noL need Lo be crossed maLched by
blood Lype and can be glven Lo any paLlenL.

ulsadvanLages
kldneys Lend Lo break down haemoglobln molecules LhaL are noL conLalned ln 88C
Paemoglobln has a chemlcal afflnlLy LhaL llmlLs lLs ablllLy Lo unload oxygen Lo Llssues
1
sL
CeneraLlon Pb was conLamlnaLed wlLh Lhe blood group proLelns on Lhe membrane
surface whlch causes re[ecLlon by Lhe lmmune sysLem.
lree haemoglobln ouLslde 88C ls a Loxln.
noL havlng a carrler, wlll alLer Lhe flow Lhrough Lhe smallesL blood vessels.
erf|uorocarbon
AdvanLages
LxcellenL capaclLy for carrylng oxygen and carbon dloxlde wlLhouL acLually blndlng Lo Lhese
gasses.
Can dlssolve 30 Llmes more oxygen and carbon dloxlde Lhan whaL can be dlssolved ln plasma
Shane Weinberg

uoes noL conLaln any anlmal or human proLelns whlch would ellmlnaLe re[ecLlon by lmmune
sysLem.
Can be glven Lo paLlenLs who cannoL recelve donor blood or haemoglobln-based subsLlLuLes
because of Lhelr rellglous bellefs.
Second generaLlon does noL acLlvaLe Lhe complemenL sysLem
Chemlcally produced ln large amounLs wlLh a good quallLy conLrol.
ulsadvanLages
lnablllLy Lo load up on as much oxygen as haemoglobln subsLlLuLes, meanlng LhaL less oxygen
wlll geL Lo Lhe Llssues
noL mlsclble ln plasma whlch wlll cause blockages
llrsL generaLlon acLlvaLed Lhe compllmenL sysLem whlch causes hlgh blood pressure, hyper
allerglc reacLlons and enlarged llver and spleen. 1he remalns of Lhe lC sLay ln Lhe body
sysLem for years
AmounL LhaL can be admlnlsLered ls noL enough Lo achleve a slgnlflcanL beneflL.
Iuture D|rect|ons
no subsLlLuLes have been lnvenLed LhaL can replace Lhe oLher vlLal funcLlons of Lhe blood:
coagulaLlon and lmmune defence.
Modlfy haemoglobln Lo allow lL for use as blood subsLlLuLe
Cross llnk haemoglobln molecules whlch prevenLs degradlng
use of blo-Lechnology Lo modlfy genes and make lL more sLable
1he producL musL undergo years of research and developmenL followed by cllnlcal Lrlals
before lL ls ready for use ln paLlenLs.
3
rd
CeneraLlon creaLe arLlflclal red blood cells
- Longer llvlng
- WonL uegrade
- no 1oxlns



Shane Weinberg





|ants and an|ma|s regu|ate the concentrat|on of gases, water and
waste products of metabo||sm |n ce||s and |n |nterst|t|a| f|u|d
Shane Weinberg

xplolo wby tbe cooceottotloo of wotet lo cells sboolJ be molotoloeJ wltblo o oottow tooqe fot
optlmol fooctloo
MalnLaln waLer aL opLlmal levels so as noL Lo dlluLe or lncrease concenLraLlon
lncrease of waLer lncreases blood pressure
- 8lsk of sLroke, lmpalred vlslon & bursL renal valve (renal fallure)
uecrease of waLer decreases blood pressure
- lnefflclenL clrculaLlon
- 8lood Lo glomerulus ls noL pressurlsed so wasLes aren'L removed from blood and wasLe
bulld-up occurs.
WaLer ls Lhe prlmary solvenL for all chemlcal reacLlons ln cyLoplasm. lf waLer concenLraLlon ls
changed, Lhe concenLraLlon of soluLes and lons become dlluLed or concenLraLed whlch alLers
Lhe raLe of reacLlon.
xplolo wby tbe temovol of wostes ls esseotlol fot cootlooeJ metobollc octlvlty
MeLabollc wasLes are consLanLly produced
lf accumulaLlon occurs Lhen Lhey would reach a Loxlc level and polson Lhe organlsm
Maln wasLes of meLabollsm are waLer, carbon dloxlde and nlLrogenous wasLes
- carbon dloxlde ls excreLed by Lhe lungs
nlLrogenous wasLes lnclude ammonla, urlc acld and urea
Ammon|a
roduced by Lhe breakdown of amlno aclds
Plghly Loxlc
LxcreLed dlrecLly by awauLlc lnverLebraLes as lLs dlluLed ln Lhe surroundlng waLer
envlronmenL
CLher organlsms musL converL ammonla Lo less Loxlc subsLances
Ur|c Ac|d
roduced from ammonla
Low LoxlclLy and low solublllLy
LxcreLed as a whlLe pasLe (conservlng waLer)
nlLrogenous excreLory producLs of blrds and lnsecLs
Urea
roduced from ammonla
MeLabollcally expenslve
Low LoxlclLy and very soluble Lherefore can be sLored ln Lhe body for longer perlods of Llme.
LxcreLed ln a concenLraLed form
Maln nlLrogenous wasLe ln mammals



Shane Weinberg

lJeotlfy tbe tole of tbe klJoey lo tbe exctetoty system of flsb ooJ mommols
Mamma|s
rlmary role of kldney ls osmoregulaLlon
- 8egulaLlon of salL and waLer levels
urlne conLalns urea as well as excess waLer and salLs
kldney malnLalns Lhe blood pressure lnLercellular fluld composlLlon
8elaLlng Macroscoplc Lo mlcroscoplc
CorLex ls dark red because of heavy vascularlsaLlon of Lhe glomerulus and around Lhe
convoluLlons of Lhe nephron.
CorLex appears granular because lL's a cross secLlon reveallng llLLle clrcles whlch are parL of
Lhe convoluLlons, glomerull and 8owman's capsules.
Medulla ls pale plnk as Lhere ls less vascularlsaLlon around Lhe loop of henle and Lhe
collecLlng ducLs.
Medulla appears sLrlped due Lo Lhe parallel Lubules of Lhe loop of henle and Lhe collecLlng
ducLs.
I|sh
Ammonla ls noL converLed and ls excreLed as ammonla vla Lhe gllls sLralghL lnLo waLery
envlronmenL
urlne produced conLalns malnly excess waLer and salLs
lresh WaLer llsh
LxLernal envlronmenL ls hypoLonlc, lnLernal ls hyperLonlc
CsmoLlc lnflux of waLer occurs across gllls so flsh consLanLly need Lo expel excess waLer
Large volumes of dlluLe urlne produced
kldneys reabsorb salLs
Ammonla ls excreLed Lhrough gllls
llsh does noL drlnk
Marlne llsh
LxLernal envlronmenL ls hyperLonlc, lnLernal ls hypoLonlc
SalL wlll move lnLo body and waLer ouL
LxcreLe small volumes of concenLraLed urlne
llsh urlnks waLer Lo consLanLly replace losL waLer, salL from sea waLer ls acLlvely removed
Lhrough gllls.

xplolo wby tbe ptocess of Jlffosloo ooJ osmosls ote looJepoote lo temovloq JlssolveJ olttoqeooos
wostes lo some otqoolsms
Csmosls and dlffuslon rely on Lhe movemenL down Lhe concenLraLlon gradlenL unLll an
equlllbrlum ls reached
1hese passlve processes are qulLe slow and wasLes would accumulaLe fasLer Lhan Lhey can
be removed.
lnadequaLe ln mulLl cellular organlsms as Lhe volume of subsLances Lo be moved ls Loo greaL.
Csmosls and dlffuslon resulL only Lo an equlllbrlum, Lhus only half Lhe subsLances have been
reabsorbed.
Shane Weinberg

1hls wlll lead Lo greaL waLer loss (dehydraLlon) and Lhe lnsufflclenL removal of wasLes whlch
wlll reach Loxlc levels
ulstloqolsb betweeo octlve ooJ posslve ttoospott ooJ telote tbese to ptocesses occottloq lo tbe
mommolloo klJoey
ass|ve 1ransport
MovemenL of molecules from hlgh concenLraLlon Lo low concenLraLlon down Lhe
concenLraLlon gradlenL.
uoes noL requlre any energy usage as relles on parLlcles own klneLlc energy
Cccurs unLll an equlllbrlum has been reached
Act|ve 1ransport
8equlres energy from A1
Moves agalnsL concenLraLlon gradlenL
Membrane requlred for carrler molecules and gaLed pores
needed ln kldney Lo capLure requlred maLerlals beyond equlllbrlum
Mamma||an k|dney
asslve LransporL of waLer and salLs unLll equlllbrlum has been reached ln proxlmal, dlsLal
Lublng and Loop of Penle
AcLlve LransporL of Lhe remalnlng salL and waLer conLrolled by Lhe hormones AuP and
AldosLerone
SecreLlon ls Lhe acLlve LransporL of molecules from Lhe blood lnLo Lhe nephron whlch wlll
secreLe any addlLlonal Loxlns.

xplolo bow tbe ptocesses of fllttotloo ooJ teobsotptloo lo tbe mommolloo oepbtoo teqolote boJy
flolJ composltloo
I||trat|on
AfferenL vessels has larger lumen LhaL efferenL vessel whlch lncreases Lhe blood pressure
allowlng Lhe small molecules Lo move lnLo Lhe 8owman's Capsule ln Lhe glomerulus
1he nephron ls only one layer of cells Lhlck whlch mlnlmlses Lhe barrler for fllLraLlon
Caplllarles ln glomerulus has gaps / pores whlch faclllLaLe Lhe Lransfer of maLerlals
no blood cells, proLeln, hormones and plasma go Lhrough as Lhelr molecular slze ls Loo large
Clucose, waLer, salLs and urea go Lhrough
ke-Absorpt|on
asslve dlffuslon of glucose, amlno aclds and salL from fllLraLe back lnLo blood caplllarles
- Cnly occurs up Lo equlllbrlum for all subsLances
AcLlve LransporL by whlch Lhe remalnlng amlno aclds and glucose are reabsorbed
Cccurs ln Lhe flrsL convoluLlon
Csmosls wlll occur as Lhe soluLes are reabsorbed lnLo blood
Act|ve Secret|on
Shane Weinberg

AcLlve Lransfer of urea and some Loxlns from Lhe blood lnLo Lhe fllLraLe
Cccurs ln Lhe dlsLal Lublng (second convoluLlon)
Cccurs agalnsL Lhe concenLraLlon gradlenL so uses A1
Concentrat|on of Ur|ne
Cccurs ln Loop of Penle and collecLlng ducLs
uescendlng Llmb
o noL permeable Lo salL, only waLer
o WaLer movlng osmoLlcally from fllLraLlon Lo Llssue fluld
Ascendlng Llmb
o noL permeable Lo waLer, only salL
o AcLlve reabsorpLlon of salL
CollecLlng ducLs
o llnal secLlon of Lhe nephron
o ConLrols Lhe concenLraLlon of Lhe urlne by flnal reabsorpLlon of waLer.
o Walls of collecLlng ducLs are under hormone conLrol and are permeable Lo waLer
o WaLer moves ouL osmoLlcally Lo balance Lhe removal of salL ln Loop of Penle





compote tbe ptocess of teool Jlolysls wltb tbe fooctloo of tbe klJoey
ulalysls ls Lhe process whlch can separaLe subsLances dlssolved ln waLer by dlfferenLlal dlffuslon
across a dlfferenLlally permeable membrane
Shane Weinberg

rlnclple of dlalysls ls Lo remove soluLes from where Lhey are aL hlgh concenLraLlon, across a
membrane, Lo keep Lhelr concenLraLlon of Lhe oLher slde of Lhe membrane low.
8enal dlalysls ls Lhe process of dlalysls used when a paLlenL undergoes renal fallure.
naemod|a|ys|s
aLlenLs blood ls Laken vla a Lube and ls passed Lhrough a dlalysls machlne where blood ls
cleaned before reLurnlng lL Lo Lhe body
Peparln ls added Lo Lhe blood Lo prevenL cloLLlng
1he machlne ls a compacL apparaLus arranged wlLh numerous permeable membranes
A flsLula ls formed by a surgeon whlch connecLs Lhe arLery and veln (usually ln forearm) so
LhaL Lhe blood flows dlrecLly from Lhe hlgh pressure arLery lnLo Lhe large capaclLy of Lhe veln.
1he paLlenL's blood passes along Lhe membrane surface, dlalysls fluld ls kepL flowlng along
Lhe oLher slde. 1hls fluld ls known as Lhe dlalysaLe and has a composlLlon exacLly Lhe same as
normal blood.
CounLer currenL flow of dlalyse fluld Lo blood ensures blood ls aL puresL when leavlng dlalysls
lllLer used Lo remove any alr bubbles or cloLs ln blood LhaL could cause blockages before
reLurnlng Lo veln
er|tonea| D|a|ys|s
1he naLural perlLoneal membrane whlch llnes Lhe abdomlnal cavlLy and covers all Lhe organs
and guL wlLhln ln. Approx 2 square meLers
SLerlle dlalysls fluld ls poured lnLo Lhe perlLoneum Lhrough a caLheLer lnserLed ln Lhe fronL of
Lhe abdomen. 1he fluld ls lefL Lhere for a perlod Lo permlL chemlcal equlllbrlum by dlffuslon
across Lhe membrane and ls Lhen removed.
1he cycle ls Lhen repeaLed.
lluld ls exchanged every 24 hrs and ls kepL lnslde perlLoneum cavlLy for 6 hrs
no machlne ls requlred and Lhe paLlenL doesn'L have Lo remaln lmmoblle.

Ootlloe tbe tole of tbe botmooes olJostetooe ooJ Aun (ootl-Jlotetlc botmooe) lo tbe teqolotloo of
wotet ooJ solt levels lo blooJ
ADn (Ant| D|uret|c normone)
P
1
0
romoLes reabsorpLlon of waLer lnLo blood
roduced ln hypoLhalamus and sLored ln plLulLary gland
Works on descendlng arm on Penle and co||ect|ng ducts by maklng walls more permeable Lo
waLer.
8elease of hormone ls sLlmulaLed by a deLecLlon of lncrease ln blood pressure or low soluLe
concenLraLlon.


A|dosterone
SalL
AcLs by reabsorblng Lhe salL back lnLo Lhe blood
1argeLs Lhe ascendlng arm of Lhe Loop of Penle
Shane Weinberg

roduced ln Lhe adrenal corLex and carrled ln blood
8ecepLor cells ln kldney wlll deLecL elLher low levels of sodlum lons ln blood and decreaslng
blood pressure or hlgh levels of sodlum lons and hugh blood pressure.

8oLh Pormones use a negaLlve feedback mechanlsm. AldosLerone acLs by conLrolllng Lhe mounL of
salL ln Lhe blood and as a resulL waLer wlll follow osmoLlcally.
Ootlloe tbe qeoetol ose of botmooe teplocemeot tbetopy lo people tbot coot sectete olJostetooe
Adrenal corLex lnsufflclency (where aldosLerone ls noL produced) ls known as Addlson's
ulsease
lf aldosLerone lsn'L produced Lhen nephron cannoL absorb salL, consequenLly waLer lsn'L
osmoLlcally absorbed.
SympLoms are leLharglc, weak, Lhln, bronze plgmenLaLlon of skln, low blood pressure, large
amounL of urlne produced.
P81 conslsLs of ln[ecLlng fludrocorLlsones (arLlflclal hormone)

xplolo tbe telotloosblp betweeo tbe coosetvotloo of wotet ooJ tbe ptoJoctloo ooJ exctetloo of
cooceottoteJ olttoqeooos wostes lo o tooqe of Aosttolloo losects ooJ tettesttlol mommols
Ammon|a ls Lhe dlrecL resulL of amlno acld breakdown and ls a wasLe producL of all organlsms. lL ls
very waLer soluble, buL vL8? Loxlc, and musL be removed qulckly, or changed Lo a less Loxlc form.
1he removal of ammonla would requlre large volumes of waLer, and Lhls ls noL posslble for anlmals
or lnsecLs LhaL seek Lo conserve waLer
Ammonla ls converLed Lo urlne ln mammals and blrds and lnsecLs converL Lo urlc acld. 1hese forms
can be excreLed uslng less waLer and are less Loxlc and can be sLored lnslde Lhe body for longer
perlods of Llme.
Insects - Desert Locust
uoesn'L drlnk
urlc acld ls exLracLed from blood Lhrough malplghlan Lubules whlch exLend Lo Lhe open
excreLory sysLem
urlc acld ls deposlLed lnLo guL and expelled wlLh faeces
AlmosL no waLer ls losL
kept||es & 8|rds

llush [usL enough waLer so wasLes reach cloacha
MosL of molsLure ls reabsorbed from cloacha back lnLo blood sLream
LmpLylng cloacha releases faeces wlLh a whlLe urlc acld cap
ked kangaroo
Perblvore LhaL eaLs malnly grasses ln seml-arld areas
urlnk waLer when avallable, small volumes of concenLraLed urlne conLalnlng urea ls exLreLed
uefloe eoootlostosls os tbe moloteoooce of metobollc ooJ pbysloloqlcol fooctloos lo tespoose to
votlotloos lo tbe eovltoomeot ooJ Jlscoss lts lmpottooce to estootloe otqoolsms lo molotololoq
opptoptlote solt cooceottotloos
LnanLlo means opposlLe, sLasls means keeplng same
Shane Weinberg

LnanLlosLasls ls Lhe malnLenance of meLabollc and physlologlcal funcLlons of an organlsm ln
Lhe response Lo changes ln Lhe envlronmenL

PomeosLasls LnanLlosLasls
lnvolves negaLlve feedback and sLlmulus
response paLhway
8esLores norm Lo keep lnLernal envlronmenL
consLanL
lnLernal envlronmenL ls conLrolled
LxLernal envlronmenL changes llLLle
SLlmulus ls devlaLlon from seL norm
lnvolves physlologlcal, behavloural and meLabollc
mechanlsms
AblllLy Lo cope wlLh changes ln exLernal
envlronmenL
lnLernal envlronmenL may change
LxLreme change ln exLernal envlronmenL
SLlmulus ls change ln exLernal envlronmenL

Csmoconformers
lnLernal envlronmenL wlll flucLuaLe wlLh exLernal envlronmenL, Lhese anlmals wlll LoleraLe
change of exLernal envlronmenL.
- Lg Salmon
8ehav|our
lsolaLe Lhemselves away from change
- Crabs burrow ln mud where sallnlLy levels are more consLanL Lhan ln waLer
Csmoregu|ate
lnLernal mechanlsms whlch use energy Lo conLrol lnLernal salL concenLraLlon envlronmenL
- Mangroves
uesctlbe oJoptotloos of o tooqe of tettesttlol Aosttolloo ploots tbot osslst lo mlolmlsloq wotet loss.
ulscoss ptocesses oseJ by Jlffeteot ploots fot solt teqolotloo lo solloe eovltoomeots
Mangroves & Lnant|ostas|s
Cope wlLh consLanL Lldal flucLuaLlons whlch resulL ln exposure Lo boLh fresh and salL waLer
SalL glands on under surface of lead acLlvely expel salLs (noL sLomaLa)
SalL accumulaLlon and ellmlnaLlon ln older sacrlflclal leaves or bark
SalL excluslon aL rooLs by selecLlvely permeable membranes
Cxygen

neumaLaphors: verLlcal rooLs whlch absorb oxygen from alr lnLo spongy Llssue

1ldal llow Change

Cable rooLs sLable Lree ln sofL mud
xerophyLlc feaLures
- Waxy cuLlcles
Shane Weinberg

- Palry leaves
- Shlny surface

Cotbet lofotmotloo oboot sttoctotes lo ploots tbot osslst lo tbe coosetvotloo of wotet
Luca|ypts

Waxy, hard leaves: 8educes waLer loss by reduclng Lhe raLe of LransplraLlon from Lhe leave
surface
1he leaves hang verLlcally, and Lhls reduces Lhe waLer loss, conservlng waLer
Leaves coaLed wlLh waxy cuLlcle.
ueep slnker rooLs whlch conducL waLer aL exLremely hlgh raLe.
8anks|a:
Leaves have sunken sLomaLes - Lhls reduces LransplraLlon
llowers only afLer lnLense raln
roduces woody frulL
Leaves are halry and shlny
AdapLaLlons of AusLrallan xerophyLes (planLs adapLed Lo dry condlLlons) lnclude:

Ieatures 8enef|t |ant
Lxamp|es
needle llke Leaves 8educes surface area Lo volume raLlo so Lherefore Lhere
ls less of a surface Lo whlch waLer loss can occur
Casuarlnas,
hakeas
Waxy Leaves Layer of cuLln whlch ls lmpermeable Lo waLer, Lhus
creaLlng a physlcal barrler Lo waLer loss canL occur
SalLbrush
Leaf Curllng Leaves roll up ln a cyllndrlcal shape whlch reduces Lhe
surface area LhaL ls exposed Lo Lhe sun as well as
Lrapplng a layer of humld alr whlch reduces Lhe
concenLraLlon gradlenL for waLer Lo dlffuse across
Pummock
Crass
Sunken SLomaLes SLomaLes lle ln cavlLy ln Lhe leaf. Pumld alr ls Lhen
concenLraLed above Lhe sLomaLa whlch reduces Lhe
concenLraLlon gradlenL Lo whlch waLer can dlffuse
across.
Pakeas
WaLer SLorage WaLer ls sLored ln large succulenL cells wlLhln Lhe planL 8aobab Lree
Panglng Leaves Leaves hang downwards whlch reduces Lhe surface area
exposed Lo Lhe sun. Less heaLlng of Lhe leaf occurs so
less waLer ls losL.
LucalypLs
Palry Leaves Leaf halrs Lrap a humld layer of alr whlch reduces Lhe
concenLraLlon gradlenL so Lherefore reduces waLer
dlffuslon ouL of leaf Lo achleve equlllbrlum
8ankslas
Shlny Leaf Surface 8eflecLs radlaLlon from Lhe sun whlch reduces heaL galn 8ankslas
Shane Weinberg

WaLer-dlrecLlng Leaves
& SLems
SLems and leaves are shaped wlLh canal Lype sLrucLures
whlch waLer ls dlrecLed down Lowards Lhe rooLs so
more waLer ls able Lo be absorbed
CacLus
8educLlon ln Leaf
Surface
Leaves are modlfled lnLo Lhorns and fleshy sLems whlch
Lake over Lhe role of phoLosynLhesls and waLer sLorage
and Lherefore reduce Lhe number of sLomaLa.
CacLus
8educed number of
SLomaLa
lewer pores for waLer loss Lo occur. Some sLomaLa are
closed durlng Lhe heaL of Lhe day Lo mlnlmlse waLer
loss.


ract|ca|s
nypothes|s
1he enzyme found ln 8acLerla x wlll work opLlmally ln an acldlc envlronmenL whlle Lhe enzymes
found ln bacLerla L wlll work opLlmally ln an alkall soluLlon.
Method
1. CollecL 6 LesL Lubes, place 3mL of bacLerla x lnLo Lhree LesL Lubes and place 3mL of 8acLerla L
Lo each of Lhe remalnlng Lhree LesL Lubes. Label Lhe LesL Lubes.
2. CollecL anoLher 6 LesL Lubes. repare 2 LesL Lubes by addlng 1mL of 1M PCl and 1mL of
dlsLllled waLer, anoLher Lwo LesL Lubes add 1mL of 1M naCP and 1mL of dlsLllled waLer. Add
2mL of dlsLllled waLer Lo each of Lhe remalnlng Lwo LesL Lubes. Label all LesL Lubes
3. SeL up a gas measuremenL apparaLus by fllllng a plasLlc Lub wlLh waLer, fllllng up a large
measurlng cyllnder wlLh waLer and lnverLlng lL (ensure no alr bubbles are presenL) onLo a
beehlve sLand ln Lhe Lub of waLer. lnserL rubber Lublng Lhrough Lhe beehlve sLand and lnLo
Lhe measurlng cyllnder. 1he amounL of waLer dlsplacemenL by any gas reflecLs Lhe reacLlvlLy
of Lhe enzyme.
4. Add one of Lhe prepared acldlc soluLlons Lo one of Lhe bacLerla x LesL Lubes
3. uraw 3mL of Lhe named subsLraLe lnLo a syrlnge. lnserL Lhe syrlnge needle Lhrough a rubber
LesL Lube cork. llL Lhls cork wlLh Lhe rubber dellvery Lube LhaL leads lnLo Lhe lnverLed
measurlng cyllnder.
6. lace Lhe cork LlghLly lnLo Lhe pP affecLed bacLerla soluLlon LesL Lube.
7. lnLroduce Lhe 3mL of Lhe subsLraLe and allow Lo mlx for 13 seconds.
8. Measure Lhe amounL of waLer dlsplacemenL and record Lhe resulLs.
9. 8epeaL Lhls for all Lhe remalnlng bacLerla soluLlons so LhaL Lhere ls a LesL for boLh an acldlc,
alkall and neuLral d soluLlons (dlsLllled waLer) for each bacLerla x and L







Shane Weinberg






































1he 8|uepr|nt of L|fe

Ootlloe tbe lmpoct oo tbe evolotloo of ploots ooJ oolmols of.
- cbooqes lo tbe pbyslcol cooJltloos lo tbe eovltoomeot
- cbooqes lo tbe cbemlcol cooJltloos of tbe eovltoomeot
- competltloo fot tesootces

LvoluLlon:
Shane Weinberg

1he cumulaLlve buL gradual change ln Lhe characLerlsLlcs of a populaLlon over many successlve
generaLlons. 1he Lrend ls from slmple Lo more complex, whlch means LhaL slmpler organlsms are Lhe
common ancesLors for many complex organlsms. 1he mechanlsm of evoluLlon ls naLural selecLlon,
whlch means LhaL lndlvlduals mosL sulLed Lo Lhe changlng envlronmenL wlll survlve and produce
slmllar offsprlng. 1hose unsulLed wlll dle wlLhouL reproduclng, so Lhelr genes are losL from Lhe gene
pool.

Changes ln physlcal condlLlons:
lnclude changes ln waLer avallablllLy, LemperaLure, wlnd speed and dlrecLlon, amounL of
sunllghL
Crganlsms LhaL are geneLlcally beLLer sulLed Lo a change ln physlcal condlLlons wlll be able Lo
survlve and produce offsprlng wlLh slmllar genes, whlle Lhose LhaL do noL have adapLlve
advanLages wlll dle ouL and Lhelr genes wlll be removed from Lhe gene pool
Lxample: eppered moLhs ln Lngland
! SeparaLe peppered moLh populaLlons are usually elLher pale or dark ln
colour. ln unpolluLed foresLs, pale moLhs are well camouflaged on Lhe pale,
llchen-covered Lree Lrunks - dark moLhs are more consplcuous. 1he blrds
LhaL prey on Lhese moLhs eaL Lhe dark moLhs, as Lhey are more vlslble. 1he
pale moLhs Lherefore survlve and reproduce, and become more frequenL
wlLhln Lhe populaLlon
! ln polluLed foresLs Lhe dark moLhs have an advanLage ln colour as Lhe Lree
Lrunks are blackened due Lo Lhe polluLlon, so Lhe llghLer moLhs are more
consplcuous, reverslng Lhe frequency of moLhs, as Lhe darker moLhs wlll
become more frequenL ln Lhe populaLlon due Lo Lhelr adapLlve advanLage
! AfLer many years of naLural selecLlon, dark moLhs have had a hlgher survlval
raLe ln Lhe polluLed envlronmenL, and so have become domlnanL or more
frequenL

Changes ln Chemlcal CondlLlons:
ConcenLraLlon of chemlcals ln an envlronmenL whlch a populaLlon uses or ls adapLed Lo can
lmpacL Lhe evoluLlon of a populaLlon
lncludes changes ln sallnlLy, lon concenLraLlon, presence of Loxlns, change ln food nuLrlenL
conLenL
Lxample: lluoroaceLaLe and ossums
! ossums who were more reslsLanL Lo Lhls Loxlc subsLance ln leaves
flourlshed as Lhey had a vasL food source avallable Lo Lhem, produclng
offsprlng wlLh slmllar genes
! ossums LhaL couldn'L LoleraLe Lhe fluoroaceLaLe conLenL of leaves dled ouL
and dld noL reproduce, removlng Lhelr genes from Lhe gene pool
! 1hls lncreased Lhe frequency of possums LhaL were geneLlcally reslsLanL Lo
Lhe Loxlc fluoroaceLaLe

CompeLlLlon for 8esources:
CompeLlLlon may be for food, shelLer, resources, or maLes
When Lwo dlfferenL specles occupy Lhe same ecologlcal nlche (have exacLly Lhe same
ecologlcal requlremenLs) lL ls posslble for Lhem boLh Lo co-exlsL ln Lhe same area
Cne wlll ouLcompeLe and dlsplace Lhe oLher
AlLernaLlvely, Lhey wlll parLlLlon Lhe resources so LhaL each specles wlll speclallse ln a
dlfferenL parL of Lhe nlche Lo mlnlmlse compeLlLlon
Lxample: Leaden llycaLcher and 8esLless llycaLcher
! 8oLh feed on slmllar lnsecLs buL feed ln dlfferenL ways
Shane Weinberg

! Leaden flycaLcher caLches flylng lnsecLs from Lrees and Lhe resLless
flycaLcher hovers above Lhe ground and emlLs a call LhaL dlsLurbs lnsecLs,
Lhen pounces
! As a resulL of compeLlLlon, Lhe flycaLcher evolved lnLo Lwo specles Lhrough
compeLlLlon for resources (lnsecLs), so each evolved Lo occupy sllghLly
dlfferenL nlches wlLhln Lhe same envlronmenL

uesctlbe, osloq speclflc exomples, bow tbe tbeoty of evolotloo ls soppotteJ by tbe followloq oteos of
stoJy.
- loloeootoloqy, locloJloq fosslls tbot bove beeo cooslJeteJ os ttoosltloool fotms
- 8loqeoqtopby
- compototlve embtyoloqy
- compototlve oootomy
- 8locbemlstty

a|aeonto|ogy:
1he sLudy of llfe ln pasL geologlcal perlods (l.e. Lhe sLudy of fosslls, Lhelr age, sLrucLure and
relaLlonshlps)
alaeonLologlsLs work boLh quallLaLlvely and quanLlLaLlvely Lo descrlbe Lhe Lrend from
slmple ancesLors Lo more complex modern forms
Law of superposlLlon ls used Lo undersLand Lhe llneage beLween older and more recenL
fosslls by Lhe placemenL of Lhe rocks ln whlch Lhey were found. 1he lower down Lhe rock,
Lhe older Lhe organlsm
8adloacLlve decay daLlng and relaLlve daLlng are also used
8adlomeLrlc daLlng compares Lhe raLlo of uranlum Lo lead (1he more lead, Lhe older Lhe
fossll. 1he more uranlum, Lhe younger Lhe fossll)
1here are remarkable slmllarlLles dlscovered beLween all organlsms, regardless of how
complex or slmple (unA, membranes, cells, llplds, carbohydraLes, proLelns, enzymes)
uaLed losslls of Lhe Anlmal klngdom:
! !awless flsh 300 mya
! 8ony flsh 400 mya
! Amphlblans 360 mya
! 8epLlles 300 mya
! 8lrds 190 mya
! Mammals 130 mya
Anlmals came ouL of waLer and onLo land over mllllons of years
Shows Lhe llneage of anlmals, from flsh Lo mammals
ulsplays Lhe change from slmple more complex organlsms (mammals are much more
complex Lhan flsh)
SuggesLs evoluLlon from slmple Lo complex as one group over Llme developed from a
predecessor
Common ancesLry ls Lraced back Lhrough a serles of daLed fosslls, gradually changlng Lo be
more complex and more sulLed Lo a changed, new envlronmenL
A slmllar Lrend ls evldenL ln planLs, evolvlng from slmple Lo more complex:
! Algae 300 mya
! Seed ferns 400 mya
! Conlfers 300 mya
Shane Weinberg

! llowerlng planLs 130 mya
1ranslLlonal losslls
! A fossll wlLh feaLures of Lwo dlsLlncL groups of anlmals
! L.g. CoelocanLh (lobe-flnned flsh), seed ferns, 1heraplsld, ArchaeopLeryx
! ArchaeopLeryx:
! Pas feaLures of boLh blrds and repLlles
! Avlan feaLures - wlngs, feaLhers, beak, long and
flexlble neck, compacL body, body slLs on Lop of hlnd
llmbs, claws on hlnd llmbs, belleved Lo be warm-
blooded,
! 8epLlllan feaLures - claws on fronL llmbs, no klel on
breasLbone, LeeLh presenL, llzard-llke Lall and pelvls
! As Lhese forms have feaLures of Lwo anlmal groups, and Lhese feaLures are
governed by genes, lL musL lmply LhaL Lhese forms are ancesLors of Lhe
dlsLlncL groups, as genes can only be lnherlLed Lhrough one's parenLs
AncesLral lorms
! Lxample: Lhe Porse
! 60 mllllon years of evldence of horse fosslls
! Cver Llme Lhe horse has lncreased ln helghL, has become a nall walker, has
galned a larger sLrlde, larger [aw, has experlenced lncreased lengLh of llmbs,
! Changes correlaLe wlLh Lhe change of envlronmenL from foresL Lo grassland
! AdvanLages:
! CreaLer speed and sLrlde
! CreaLer range
! Able Lo see over grasses
! Able Lo crush Lougher grasses
! Could ouLrun predaLors more easlly
! Slmllar feaLures found ln Lhe ancesLral forms of Lhe horse and Lhe modern
horse suggesL slmllar genes, and because genes can only be lnherlLed, lL ls
lnferred LhaL Lhese forms musL have a common ancesLor, or evolved from
Lhe same polnL
8|ogeography:
SLudy of Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of organlsms
8ange - are where a specles ls found, whlch may be very narrow or very broad
lnLerbreedlng occurs LhroughouL a range of a populaLlon
lf a range ls large, lnLerbreedlng ls less frequenL
A range can be dlvlded by:
! Ccean
! ueserL
! MounLalns
! LnvlronmenLal barrler, e.g. flre, earLhquake
! 8lologlcal barrler, e.g. lack of food, predaLlon
ulvlslon of a range lmposes dlfferenL envlronmenLs wlLh dlfferenL selecLlve pressures
Cver Llme, Lhose wlLh genes Lo survlve wlll flourlsh and reproduce offsprlng wlLh slmllar
genes
Shane Weinberg

lnLerbreedlng wlll be prevenLed beLween Lhe lsolaLed populaLlons, and evoluLlon wlll occur
separaLely, meanlng Lhere wlll be dlfferences ln Lhe gene pools
1hls causes dlvergenL evoluLlon Lo occur, as one specles evolves lnLo varlous dlverse
subspecles
PlsLorlcal blogeography explalns how relaLed planLs and anlmals found on dlfferenL
Condwana conLlnenLs are dlfferenL, e.g. AnLarcLlca, AusLralla, Afrlca, lndonesla, lndla, SouLh
Amerlca
Cceanlc lslands such as Lhe Calapagos lslands and Cape verde lslands, have blrds on Lhe
malnland resembllng Lhose on Lhe lslands, buL have slgnlflcanL dlfferences. 1hese blrds could
have mlgraLed, been blown off course or Lravelled on floaLlng vegeLaLlon. 1hrough dlfferenL
selecLlve pressures, Lhese Lwo populaLlons have become dlfferenL specles
S po|nts for b|o-geograph|ca| evo|ut|on
o uurlng Lhe course of Llme a populaLlon range exLends
o opulaLlon becomes dlvlded by lsolaLlng barrler
o Cene flow and lnLerbreedlng ls prevenLed
o SelecLlon pressures become dlfferenL and Lhey dlverge lnLo dlfferenL specles by
evolvlng Lo adapL Lo Lhe prevalllng envlronmenL
Comparat|ve Lmbryo|ogy:
Slmllar feaLures of embryos of varlous anlmal groups lmplles slmllar genes whlch can only be
lnherlLed, whlch means LhaL Lhese organlsms musL have a slmllar ancesLor
MosL groups appear as slmllar embryos, wlLh Lalls and oLher slmllar feaLures
Larly embryos of mammals resemble embryos of flsh, repLlles, amphlblans and blrds
Larly developmenL ls governed by genes, and organlsms appear slmllar ln Lhls sLage, Lhere
musL be common genes. As genes musL be lnherlLed, Lhls lndlcaLes LhaL Lhey all have a
common ancesLor
Cenes for laLer developmenL are noL Lhe same as Lhose for early developmenL, whlch
evolved by random muLaLlons over mllllons of years

Comparat|ve Anatomy:
Pomologous SLrucLures
! SLrucLures ln dlfferenL anlmal groups whlch share baslc sLrucLural slmllarlLles
as Lhey are deLermlned by slmllar genes. 8ecause genes can only be
lnherlLed, Lhese slmllar sLrucLured musL have come from a common
ancesLor
! Lxample: enLadacLyl llmb ln Lhe whale, blrd, human, horse, llzard
! 1he enLadacLyl llmb ln Lhese anlmals has Lhe same amounL of bones whlch
are ln slmllar poslLlons, wlLh slmllar muscles and clrculaLory sysLems, servlng
Lhe same or slmllar purpose
! 1hey are dlfferenL and aren'L ldenLlcal as Lhey evolved under dlfferenL
selecLlve pressures
vesLlglal Crgans
! Crgans whlch have become dlmlnlshed ln Lhe course of evoluLlon or have
become used ln a LoLally new way (dlfferenL from Lhelr orlglnal funcLlon)
! L.g. Lar Csslcles, appendlx, coccyx, body halr, wlsdom LeeLh
Shane Weinberg

! Shows evoluLlon as slmllar feaLures Lo Lhose wlLh Lhose feaLures for
dlfferenL funcLlons have Lhe same genes, and as genes can only be lnherlLed,
Lhey musL have a common ancesLor

8|ochem|stry:
1here are many blochemlcals LhaL are common ls organlsms - unA, enzymes for resplraLlon,
membranes, organlc compounds (carbohydraLes, llplds, proLelns)
roLeln analysls:
! CyLochrome-C
! a proLeln used ln resplraLlon, found ln all organlsms,
form slmple Lo complex, has 104 amlno aclds
! 1he more dlfferences ln Lhe amlno acld chaln, Lhe
longer ago dlvergence occurred and Lhe less closely
Lhe organlsms are relaLed
! roLelns are made of a chaln of amlno aclds ln a
speclflc order, governed by unA
! L.g. Lhere ls only one dlfference ln Lhe amlno chaln
of monkeys and humans ln Lhe cyLochrome-c
molecule
! naemog|ob|n
! a proLeln of 146 amlno aclds
! 1here are no dlfferences beLween chlmpanzee and
human haemoglobln
! lf haemoglobln ls Lhe same or has mlnor dlfferences,
lL means Lhere are slmllar or Lhe same genes, and as
genes are only lnherlLed, we musL have slmllar
ancesLors
! Sequenclng of proLelns shows evldence for evoluLlon, glves a quanLlLaLlve
lndlcaLlon of relaLedness beLween organlsms or specles, and can be used Lo
bulld a phylogeneLlc Lree whlch lndlcaLes a paLhway along whlch evoluLlon
could have occurred
lmmunologlcal SLudles:
! 8lood plasma wlLhouL cloLLlng proLelns ls called blood serum
! lnLroducLlon of human blood proLelns lnLo anoLher specles Lo obLaln anLl-
human anLlbodles LhaL are produced by Lhe lmmune sysLem
! 1hese anLl-human anLlbodles are exLracLed wlLh blood serum and Lhen
fllLered Lo obLaln Lhe anLlbodles alone
! When added Lo blood serum of varlous oLher specles ln LesL Lubes, Lhe
anLlbodles wlll form preclplLaLe as Lhey reacL wlLh human blood proLelns
! 1hls means, Lhe more preclplLaLe formed, Lhe more closely relaLed Lhe
specles
! As a resulL of Lhese sLudles, lL has been seen LhaL our closesL blood relaLlves
are chlmps, greaL apes, old world monkeys and new world monkeys
! lL has also been found LhaL Lhere are close relaLlonshlps beLween Lhe caL,
llon and Llger, as well as Lhe zebra, horse and donkey
unA Sequenclng:
Shane Weinberg

! 1hls lnvolves analyslng unA and comparlng Lhe placemenL of Lhe nlLrogen
bases (A,C, C, 1) ln varlous specles or organlsms
! ulfferences are counLed by Lhe amounL of bases whlch dlffer wlLhln Lhe
same gene of Lhe organlsms, and calculaLed as a percenLage dlfference
! 1hls shows a quanLlLaLlve relaLlonshlp beLween organlsms
unA PybrldlsaLlon:
! unA hellces of Lwo organlsms are heaLed and separaLed, Lhen one ls
lnLroduced Lo Lhe oLher and Lhey are cooled so LhaL each slngle sLrand wlll
flnd a parLner
! ln Lhe hybrld unA formed Lhere wlll be some mlsmaLchlng bases, meanlng
LhaL when Lhe unA ls reheaLed, Lhese sLrands wlll separaLe aL a lower
LemperaLure Lhan Lhe maLched unA sLrands
! 1he fewer mlsmaLches, Lhe hlgher Lhe LemperaLure needed, meanlng Lhe
more closely relaLed Lhe organlsms are

xplolo bow uotwlo/wolloces tbeoty of evolotloo by oototol selectloo ooJ lsolotloo occooots fot
Jlvetqeot evolotloo ooJ coovetqeot evolotloo.

uarwln and Wallace's Lheory of evoluLlon explalns how naLural selecLlon has caused
dlvergence and convergence of specles
1he Lheory ouLllnes LhaL characLerlsLlcs favourable Lo Lhe reproducLlon and survlval of
organlsms ln Lhelr envlronmenL wlll be selecLed for, and over Llme, new specles wlll appear
ln response Lo envlronmenLal changes

1. varlaLlon exlsLs ln a populaLlon ln dlfferenL genes
2. 1here ls overpopulaLlon as more offsprlng ls produced Lhan wlll be able Lo
survlve, so Lhere ls safeLy ln numbers
3. 1here ls compeLlLlon and sLruggle for survlval ln Lhe search for food, shelLer
and maLes, and escaplng predaLors
4. uurlng Lhls sLruggle Lhere are naLural selecLlve pressures ln Lhe
envlronmenL, ln whlch some are more readlly equlpped Lo survlve. 1he ones
wlLh adapLlve advanLages are able Lo survlve and produce offsprlng wlLh
slmllar genes, and Lhose LhaL are noL adapLed wlll dle ouL and Lhelr genes
wlll be removed from Lhe gene pool
3. lavourable alleles wlll occur more frequenLly ln Lhe gene pool, as organlsms
produce oLhers LhaL are geneLlcally slmllar. Cver many generaLlons a
populaLlon wlll adapL Lo Lhe prevalllng naLural selecLlve pressures

ulvergenL LvoluLlon:





1he process of Lwo or more relaLed organlsms becomlng more and more geneLlcally
dlsslmllar , radlaLlng ouLwards from a common ancesLor
Shane Weinberg

1he gradual formaLlon of a number of dlfferenL specles (or varleLles), evolvlng from a
common ancesLor, LhaL have evolved under dlfferenL selecLlve pressures or ecologlcal nlches
Cne specles glves rlse Lo oLher specles LhaL are geneLlcally dlfferenL as Lhey have become
lsolaLed or separaLed from Lhe orlglnal populaLlon and have evolved ln dlfferenL
envlronmenLs
lacLors causlng dlvergenL evoluLlon lnclude:
! Ceographlcal lsolaLlon, e.g. sea levels rlse and separaLe land masses
! CompeLlLlon for resources



ConvergenL LvoluLlon:





When specles LhaL are noL from Lhe same Laxon share a slmllar physlcal envlronmenL, Lhey
acqulre slmllar adapLaLlons LhaL allow Lhem Lo survlve ln LhaL envlronmenL
unrelaLed specles becomlng more slmllar ln appearance, orlglnaLlng from dlfferenL
ancesLors
1hls occurs because of a common selecLlve pressure

lloo, cboose epolpmeot ot tesootces ooJ petfotm o fltst-booJ lovestlqotloo to moJel oototol
selectloo

PypoLhesls: 8acLerla LhaL can geneLlcally reslsL anLlbloLlcs wlll reproduce and evolve as a populaLlon
Lhrough Lhe process of naLural selecLlon, galnlng a greaLer reslsLance Lo Lhe anLlbloLlc.

MeLhod:

SeL up Lwo agar dlshes, one of whlch wlll be Lhe experlmenL and Lhe oLher wlll be Lhe conLrol

LxperlmenL: ConLrol:
1) repare nuLrlenL agar accordlng Lo Lhe
packeL. Add 1 soluLlon anLlbloLlc Lo Lhe
agar
2) Mlx bacLerla wlLh 10mL waLer ln a LesL
Lube (Lo be used for conLrol and
experlmenL)
3) use a dropper and drop 1mL of Lhe
bacLerla-waLer suspenslon onLo Lhe agar,
whlch has been seL ln a peLrl dlsh
4) lncubaLe aL 37C for 24 hours
3) AfLer 24 hours of lncubaLlon, collecL
Lhree colonles from Lhe agar plaLe and
1) repare nuLrlenL agar accordlng Lo Lhe
packeL and seL ln a peLrl dlsh
2) lrom Lhe suspenslon of waLer and
bacLerla (ln 'LxperlmenL') use a dropper
Lo drop 1mL of Lhe mlxLure onLo Lhe agar
plaLe
3) lncubaLe for 24 hours aL 37C
4) AfLer 24 hours, collecL 3 colonles from
Lhe agar plaLe and place lnLo a LesL Lube
wlLh 10mL of waLer
3) Shake Lhe conLenLs of Lhe LesL Lube and
repeaL Lhe above process as many Llmes
Shane Weinberg

place lnLo a LesL Lube wlLh 10mL of waLer
6) Shake Lhe LesL Lube dlsperse Lhe
bacLerlal colonles and, uslng a dropper,
drop 1mL of Lhe suspenslon onLo a
prepared agar plaLe, Lhls Llme wlLh 2
anLlbloLlc soluLlon ln Lhe prepared
nuLrlenL agar
7) 8epeaL Lhe lncubaLlon process and
collecL Lhree bacLerlal colonles
8) 8epeaL Lhe enLlre process agaln 4 more
Llmes, each Llme lncreaslng Lhe
percenLage of Lhe anLlbloLlc soluLlon by
one percenL
as Lhe 'LxperlmenL' ls done, buL do noL
change Lhe nuLrlenL agar reclpe aL all

CollecL Lhree colonles from each plaLe (conLrol and experlmenL) and mlx each wlLh 10mL of
waLer ln separaLe LesL Lubes
urop 1mL of each soluLlon onLo dlfferenL agar plaLes, each wlLh a 3 soluLlon of anLlbloLlc ln
Lhe nuLrlenL agar
lncubaLe for 24 hours aL 37C and Lhen assess Lhe number of bacLerlal colonles formed on
each plaLe. 1he number of colonles on each can Lhen be compared and assessed

AnLlclpaLed 8esulLs:

1he agar plaLe wlLh Lhe 'experlmenL' bacLerla wlll have more colonles afLer lncubaLlon wlLh a 3
anLlbloLlc soluLlon Lhan Lhe 'conLrol' bacLerla.

Concluslon:

8ased on Lhe resulLs of Lhe experlmenL, lL can be seen LhaL Lhe bacLerla LhaL had geneLlc adapLlve
advanLage and were less suscepLlble Lo Lhe anLlbloLlc ln Lhelr envlronmenL, survlved and produced
offsprlng wlLh Lhe same geneLlc feaLure. WlLh successlve generaLlons, Lhe gene for reslsLance
became more frequenL ln Lhe gene pool, as Lhose LhaL were noL adapLed were losL from Lhe gene
pool, as Lhose wlLh genes wlLh no advanLage would have dled wlLhouL reproduclng. 1hls ls Lhe
process of naLural selecLlon, where Lhose favoured by Lhe envlronmenLal pressures wlll survlve and
reproduce, and Lhose LhaL are noL favoured wlll dle wlLhouL reproduclng. 1hls ls seen as we compare
Lhe experlmenL bacLerla Lo Lhe conLrol bacLerla, whlch were noL exposed Lo Lhe anLlbloLlc aL all, even
aL a low concenLraLlon.

letfotm o fltst-booJ lovestlqotloo ot qotbet lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces (locloJloq
pbotoqtopbs/Jloqtoms/moJels) to obsetve, ooolyse ooJ compote tbe sttoctote of o tooqe of
vettebtoe fotellmbs.

Shane Weinberg











1he enLadacLyl llmb ls found ln Lhe whale, blrd, human, horse, llzard
Same number of bones ln slmllar poslLlons, wlLh slmllar muscle and clrculaLory sysLems
1hey are dlfferenL and are noL ldenLlcal as Lhey have evolved under dlfferenL selecLlve
pressures
Pomologous sLrucLures
As feaLures llke Lhese are governed by genes and genes can only be lnherlLed, lL can be sald
LhaL Lhese organlsms musL share a common ancesLor

use ovolloble evlJeoce to ooolyse, osloq o oomeJ exomple, bow oJvooces lo tecbooloqy bove
cbooqeJ scleotlflc tblokloq oboot evolotloooty telotloosblps.

uebaLe abouL Lhe classlflcaLlon of prlmaLes
Chlmpanzees are currenLly grouped ln Lhe ongldae famlly, however Lhere ls evldence LhaL
Lhey should be ln Pomlnldae famlly (same famlly as Pomo Saplens)
unA analysls and proLeln sequenclng show LhaL chlmps are more closely relaLed Lo humans
Lhen any oLher ape.
Pumans and chlmps are closer relaLed Lhan Lhe horse and zebra whlch are ln Lhe same
Laxon.
1he sclenLlflc advances have led sclenLlsLs Lo observe Lhe small percenLage of dlfferences ln
Lhe nlLrogen base sequence ln Lhe unA of humans and chlps
o 1hls lmplles LhaL Lhe Lwo are very closely relaLed and only recenLly dlverged from a
common ancesLor.
Mlnlmal dlfferences ln Lhe unA sequence of haemoglobln proLeln and cyLochrome C
proLeln.

Aoolyse lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces oo tbe blstotlcol Jevelopmeot of tbeotles of evolotloo
ooJ ose ovolloble evlJeoce to ossess soclol ooJ polltlcol lofloeoces oo tbese Jevelopmeots.

Creek hllosophers
MeLaphyslcal lnLerpreLaLlon
Shane Weinberg

ldenLlfled Lrend from slmple Lo complex organlsms
8elleved naLure sLrlved Lo become more complex and perfecL
!udalsm & ChrlsLlanlLy
llxed naLure of earLh and creaLures
Crganlsms dld noL change over Llme - creaLlonlsm
Age of 8eformaLlon
8ellglous and pollLlcal lnfluences
Challenges power of CaLhollc Church
8enalssance
8eblrLh and quesLlonlng of esLabllshed convenLlons
8elearnlng whaL was losL ln Lhe dark perlods
ue vlncl - ldenLlfled LhaL fosslls were remalns of dead organlsms. 1hls formulaLed Lhe ldea
LhaL caLasLrophlsm LhaL new creaLlons were made afLer dlsasLers as Lhe fosslls were
dlfferenL from Lhe currenL llvlng organlsms.
Age of LnllghLenmenL
8aLlonal LhoughL
SLarL of sclenLlflc dlscoverles Lhrough evldence based experlmenLs
Church was accused of resLrlcLlng lndependenL LhoughL
lrench 8evoluLlon
Lmerged from Lhe Lhlnkers of Lhe Age of LnllghLenmenL
8uffon dlscarded speclal creaLlon
o Pe belleved small changes caused by envlronmenL accumulaLed over Llme Lo make a
large change.
o Allowed for a specles Lo change, however dld noL allow for a new specles Lo emerge
!ean Lamark belleved llvlng organlsms are endowed wlLh a force LhaL conLrolled
developmenL and enables Lhem Lo overcome hardshlp
o Crganlsms wlll make use of feaLures when Lhey need Lhem and wlll dlsuse Lhose
feaLures when no longer needed.
o 1ralLs and feaLures acqulred durlng llfeLlme wlll be passed on Lo successlve
generaLlons
o uld noL allow for exLlncLlons as organlsms could always adapL.
o Lg 1he long neck horse whlch became glraffe.

Charles uarwln
Crew up ln Lngland [usL afLer Age of LnllghLenmenL whlch allowed for raLlonal LhoughL
1here were greaL opporLunlLles for naval exploraLlon and a need for evldence based
research
Shane Weinberg

Crew up ln a famlly of wealLhy docLors and belleved ln evoluLlon Lherefore uarwln was
famlllar wlLh evoluLlon. WealLhy famlly allowed for good educaLlon and pald for passage on
PMS 8eagle
uarwln sLudled medlclne and Lheology Lherefore had a good sclenLlflc background
8eagle lefL ln 1831 and crulsed along coasLs of Amerlca wlLh Lhe maln purpose of charLlng
geographlcal locaLlons.
noLlced greaL slmllarlLles and dlfferences beLween Lhe feaLures of llnch on Lhe Calapagos
lslands and malnland
WroLe greaL deLalled records on molluscs, blrds and repLlles ln order Lo gaLher evldence
Ma|thus sLudled soclal condlLlons ln Lngland and sald Lhe faLe of Lhe poor was unavoldable
as Lhey had Loo many chlldren and Lherefore llfe was a consLanL sLruggle: roduclng more
offsprlng Lhan LhaL can be provlded for.
1rlggered uarwln LhaL more offsprlng were produced Lhan LhaL can survlve
uarwln delayed Lhe publlcaLlon due Lo Lhe fear of Lhe church and Lhe lmpllcaLlons lL would
have on hls famllles sLaLus who were well known.
1844 uarwln had made a summary of hls flndlngs lndependenL Lo Wallace who made Lhe
same dlscoverles
uarwln and Wallace corresponded and evenLually presenLed a [olnL paper ln 1838 and
Lherefore have a [olnL ownershlp of Lhe Lheory of naLural selecLlon.

Ootlloe tbe expetlmeots cottleJ oot by Cteqot MeoJel.

Cregor Mendel was an AusLrlan monk who ls regarded as Lhe 'faLher of geneLlcs'. Pe carrled ouL
some ploneerlng work uslng pea planLs Lo sLudy Lhe lnherlLance paLLerns of a number of LralLs
(characLerlsLlcs). Mendel observed LhaL characLers could be masked ln one generaLlon of peas buL
could reappear ln laLer generaLlons. Pe showed Lhe lnherlLance lnvolved Lhe passlng on Lo offsprlng
of dlscreLe unlLs of lnherlLance, whaL we now call genes. Mendel examlnes seven phenoLyplc LralLs
and found LhaL Lhey were lnherlLed ln predlcLable raLlos, dependlng on Lhe phenoLype of Lhe
parenLs.
Such LralLs analysed were:
- lorm of seed (round or wrlnkled)
- Colour of coLyledons (?ellow or green)
- Colour of seed coaL (coloured or whlLe)
- lorm of pod (lnflaLed or resLrlcLed)
- Colour of pod (green or yellow)
- oslLlon of flower (axlal or Lermlnal)
- PelghL of planL (Lall or dwarf)



MeLhod:
1. CbLalned Lrue breedlng parenLs Lhrough long-Lerm self polllnaLlon of a cerLaln Lype. 1hls was
al under assumpLlon. arenLs always produced llke offsprlng, so lL was assumed Lhey were
pure-breedlng.
2. Cross polllnaLlon of Lwo parenLs of one opposlng characLer, e.g. Lall x shorL. 1hls was Lhe
1

generaLlon.
Shane Weinberg

3. Cffsprlng produced were called Lhe l
1
generaLlon, whlch all had Lhe appearance of Lhe
domlnanL gene phenoLype. Mendel concluded LhaL one feaLure musL domlnaLe over Lhe
oLher.
4. l
1
becomes
1
as lLs seeds are planLed so as Lo become Lhe nexL parenL generaLlon. 1hese
were self polllnaLed, yleldlng Lhe l
2
offsprlng, whlch showed a phenoLype raLlon of 3
dom|nant : 1 recess|ve. 1hey showed a genoLype raLlon of 1 homozygous dom|nant : 2
heterozygous : 1 homozygous recess|ve.

Law of Dom|nance:
CfLen descrlbed as Mendel's flrsL Law of lnherlLance
ln a heLerozygoLe, Lhe allele whlch expresses lLself phenoLyplcally ls Lhe domlnanL allele
whlle Lhe oLher allele whlch falls Lo express lLself phenoLyplcally ls Lhe recesslve allele
1he heLerozygoLe shows phenoLyplcally only Lhe domlnanL characLer
Cenes do noL blend

Law of Segregat|on:
1he law of segregaLlon sLaLes LhaL when a palr of alleles ls broughL LogeLher ln a
heLerozygoLe, Lhe members of Lhe allellc palr remaln LogeLher wlLhouL mlxlng, dlluLlng or
alLerlng each oLher and wlll separaLe or segregaLe from each oLher lnLo dlfferenL gameLes
durlng melosls.
Alleles separaLe Lo dlfferenL gameLes, so only one allele wlll be presenL ln Lhe gameLe
AL ferLlllsaLlon, alleles from separaLe gameLes wlll be resLored Lo dlplold.

Law of Independent Assortment:
When an organlsm forms gameLes
o Lach gameLe recelves one allele from each allellc palr
o 1he assorLmenL of Lhe alleles of dlfferenL LralLs durlng Lhe gameLe formaLlon ls
LoLally lndependenL of Lhelr orlglnal comblnaLlons ln Lhe parenLs
CreaLes varlaLlon
ComblnaLlon of chromosomes ln a gameLe ls lefL Lo chance by Lhe number of dlfferenL
chromosomes.
uesctlbe tbe ospects of tbe expetlmeotol tecbolpoes oseJ by MeoJel tbot leJ to bls soccess.

Mendel sLarLed wlLh Lrue breedlng planLs for a cerLaln characLerlsLlc so he knew Lhe exacL
sLarLlng polnL of Lhe planLs and could dlfferenLlaLe beLween Lhe domlnanL and recesslve.
Mendel cross polllnaLed by hand so he knew and conLrolled Lhe geneLlc facLors (genes) belng
Lransferred.
Cnly examlned and crossed one feaLure for each experlmenL Lherefore could Lrace Lhe
lnherlLance of Lhe domlnanL and recesslve characLerlsLlcs.
8epeaLed hls experlmenLs many Llmes whlch creaLed rellablllLy
used maLhemaLlcs whlch provlded quanLlLaLlve resulLs ln exacL raLlos.
Mendel was lucky because:
o eas were self polllnaLlng - reduced Lhe work load
o Lach characLer ls conLrolled by one gene whlch lnhlblLs Lhe lnfluence of oLher genes
o 1here was no co-domlnance
o 1he genes separaLed lndependenLly durlng melosls.
Shane Weinberg

uesctlbe tbe ootcomes of mooobybtlJ ctosses lovolvloq slmple Jomloooce osloq MeoJels
exploootloos.

A monohybrld cross ls a cross beLween Lwo organlsms of Lhe same specles LhaL have one
palr of opposlng feaLures or characLerlsLlcs.
A homozygous (Lrue breadlng) planL wlLh yellow seeds ls crossed wlLh a homozygous planL
wlLh green seeds. 1he gene for yellow seeds ls domlnanL.



















sseotlol Jefloltloos lo qeoetlcs
Shane Weinberg

Genotype - 1he geneLlc consLlLuLlon as deLermlned by Lhe parLlcular seLs of alleles presenL.
henotype - 1he sum of Lhe observable characLerlsLlcs of an organlsms
Dom|nant Gene - A gene LhaL produces Lhe same phenoLype, wheLher presenL elLher as boLh
homozygous alleles or as one allele of a heLerozygous palr.
kecess|ve Gene - A gene whlch has no effecL on Lhe phenoLype unless lL ls homozygous. 1hls ls
because lL ls masked by Lhe domlnanL allele.
nomozygous - Pavlng ldenLlcal genes for a parLlcular characLerlsLlc on Lhe homologous palr of
chromosomes. le uu or dd
neterozygous - Pavlng dlfferenL alleles of a glven gene on Lhe homologous palr of chromosomes le
ud
nybr|d - Cffsprlng of Lwo dlfferenL specles eg horse and a donkey " mule. Many hybrlds are sLerlle
due Lo fallures ln palrlng of chromosomes ln melosls.
A||e|e - 1wo or more genes are sald Lo be alleles of each oLher when Lhey occupy Lhe same relaLlve
poslLlon on homologous chromosomes and produce dlfferenL effecLs on Lhe same developmenLal
process.
Cenes occur ln dlfferenL forms whlch are alleles
Cenes for A, 8 and C blood group are alleles
Co-domlnance alleles wlll creaLe Lhe blood group AC, or C8 or A8
o Co-domlnance also creaLes plnk flowers (comblnaLlon of red and whlLe)

ulstloqolsb betweeo bomozyqoos ooJ betetozyqoos qeootypes lo mooobybtlJ ctosses.

Pomozygous genoLype: a CenoLype wlLh 2 ldenLlcal alleles for a characLerlsLlc. L.g. 88 or rr.

PeLerozygous (hybrlds): A genoLype wlLh 2 dlfferenL alleles for a characLerlsLlc. L.g. 8r


l1

8

8

r

8r

8r

r

8r

8r


arenLs (l1) are boLh homozygous and all offsprlng's are heLerozygous


l2

8

r

8

88

8r

r

8r

rr


arenLs (l2) are 100 PeLerozygous and 30 of offsprlng are homozygous, and 30 are
heLerozygous.


Shane Weinberg

ulstloqolsb betweeo tbe tetms ollele ooJ qeoe, osloq exomples.

Cene:
LengLh of chromosomes unA, smallesL lengLh of chromosome LhaL can be acLlve.
ueLermlnes Lhe lnherlLed characLerlsLlcs of an lndlvldual
assed from parenLs Lo offsprlng
Cne gene carrles lnformaLlon for one polypepLlde chaln

Allele:
Allele ls dlfferenL forms of gene LhaL occur on same place on chromosome.
When boLh alleles are Lhe same Lhe organlsm ls homozygoLe for LhaL gene.
When alleles are dlfferenL Lhe organlsms ls heLerozygoLe for LhaL gene.

xplolo tbe telotloosblp betweeo Jomlooot ooJ tecesslve olleles ooJ pbeootype osloq exomples.

henoLype:
Sum of Lhe observable characLerlsLlcs
Crganlsms may have same genoLype buL dlfferenL phenoLype due Lo envlronmenLal
varlaLlon.
Crganlsms may have same phenoLype buL dlfferenL genoLype due Lo domlnanL gene
masklng recesslve.

uomlnanL Cene:
Cne whlch produces Lhe same phenoLype, wheLher presenL elLher as boLh homozygous alleles or as
one of a heLerozygous palr

8ecesslve Cene:
Cne whlch has no effecL on Lhe phenoLype unless lL ls homozygous. 1hls ls because lL ls masked by
Lhe domlnanL allele presenL.

Ootlloe teosoos wby tbe lmpottooce of MeoJels wotk wos oot tecoqolseJ ootll sometlme oftet lt
wos pobllsbeJ

Mendel was a monk and was noL recognlsed by Lhe sclenLlflc communlLy
Pe was lsolaLed ln Lhe monasLery
Pls reporL was very compllcaLed conLalnlng maLhemaLlcs Lherefore hard Lo undersLand
8esulLs were publlshed ln an obscure [ournal
1heorles were very dlfferenL Lo prevlous convenLlons.
World was occupled by uarwln





ltocess lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to Jesctlbe oo exomple of bybtlJlsotloo wltblo o specles
ooJ explolo tbe potpose of tbls bybtlJlsotloo.
Shane Weinberg


PybrldlsaLlon ls Lhe creaLlon, elLher naLurally or arLlflclally, of offsprlng as a cross beLween Lwo
dlfferenL specles, sub-specles or varleLles. Mules, hlnnles, and varlous grape varleLles are consldered
Lo be hybrlds as Lhe producers have crossed dlfferenL specles or varleLles selecLlvely Lo yleld Lhe besL
aLLrlbuLes ln Lhe offsprlng Lo ensure hybrld vlgour. Pybrld vlgour ls when an organlsm shows Lhe besL
feaLures of each parenL. 8reedlng wlLhln a specles produces hlgher yleldlng and more vlgorous,
reslllenL offsprlng compared Lo Lhelr Lrue-breedlng parenLs. lnLerbreedlng successfully produces
ferLlle offsprlng. ulfflculLles ln hybrldlsaLlon arlse lf Lhere ls:
- dlsLance ln dlsLrlbuLlon/range of organlsms (dlfferenL 8logeographlcal nlches)
- dlfferenL maLlng/courLlng rlLuals, pracLlces or mechanlsms
- dlfferenL ferLlllsaLlon mechanlsms
- planLs may be self-polllnaLlng, whlch requlres much efforL and expense
- hybrlds are usually sLerlle
- melosls creaLes varlaLlon, so hybrld vlgour ls noL a sureLy
- arLlflclal hybrldlsaLlon becomes expenslve and Llme consumlng
Lxample - WheaL (1tltocom oestlvom) PybrldlsaLlon:
1800s - llour produced ln AusLralla was of poor quallLy, unflL for baklng, meanlng flour had
Lo me lmporLed. 1he flrsL flours grown ln AusLralla were old Lngllsh varleLles LhaL rlpened
Loo laLe Lo survlve hoL summers and were affecLed by fungal dlseases
Larly 1900s - Wllllam larrer cross-bred Lo lmprove Lhe quallLy of bread wheaL by prevenLlng
self-ferLlllsaLlon and carrylng ouL arLlflclal crosses beLween wheaL varleLles - malnly varleLles
of bread wheaL or pasLa wheaL
Crossed varleLles wlLh feaLures such as:
! narrow leaves Lo reduce waLer loss
! Larller rlpenlng Lo sulL shorLer growlng season
! lmproved baklng quallLy
! lmproved yleld (gralns per head)
! 8eslsLance Lo fungal dlsease known as 8unL
Larly-rlpenlng lLallan toocb x good baklng Canadlan llfe " ooJlllo
'lederaLlon' varleLy was released for commerclal use ln 1901, comblnlng feaLures of early
rlpenlng and hlgh yleld, as lL had shorL sLraw and could be harvesLed wlLh a mechanlcal
sLrlpper

Ootlloe toles of 5ottoo ooJ 8ovetl lo lJeotlfyloq tbe cbemlcol ootote of cbtomosomes ooJ qeoes.
Sutton
SLudled chromosome behavlour ln melosls (LesLes of grasshoppers)
Cbserved chromosomes exlsL ln palrs and segregaLe lndependenLly durlng gameLe formaLlon
o noLed Lhe slmllarlLy of Lhls chromosome behavlour Lo Mendel's laws of segregaLlon
and lndependenL assorLmenL
SuggesLed LhaL genes/heredlLary unlLs are carrled on Lhese chromosomes
roposed LhaL separaLlon of homologous chromosomes palrs and Lhelr subsequenL
allocaLlon Lo daughLer cells explalned Lhe separaLlon of sorLlng of genes.
8over|
Worked wlLh sea urchlns, noLlced LhaL a compleLe seL of chromosomes ls necessary for
normal developmenL of an organlsm.
noLlced chromosomes Lransferred ln melosls Lo gameLes
Shane Weinberg

SuggesLed chromosomes are Lhe mechanlsm of lnherlLance
8easoned LhaL as Lhe number of LralLs lnherlLed far exceeds Lhe number of chromosomes ln
a cell, each chromosome musL carry many heredlLary unlLs (genes).
SuggesLed LhaL chromosomes exchanged facLors durlng cell dlvlslon (crosslng over)

1he conLrlbuLlons of boLh researchers led Lo modern undersLandlng of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween
chromosomes and genes as well as Lhelr role ln lnherlLance. 1hey are credlLed as belng Lhe founders
of Lhe SuLLon-8overl Lheory of lnherlLance.

uesctlbe tbe cbemlcol ootote of cbtomosomes ooJ qeoes.















unA ls Lhe geneLlc maLerlal whlch wlnds around hlsLone proLelns Lo make a chromosome,
carrylng Lhe geneLlc code
ChromaLln ls whaL ls seen ln Lhe resLlng phase of a nucleus, where Lhere ls Langles unA and
proLeln
PlsLone ls Lhe proLeln backbone of Lhe unA molecule, around whlch Lhe unA wlnds lLself
ChromaLld ls one of Lhe Lwo sLrucLures of a chromosome, wlLh each belng a copy of one
anoLher
CenLromere ls a granular molecule LhaL holds Lhe repllcaLed chromaLlds LogeLher


Chromosome Cene
- A chromosome ls a slngle molecule of
unA colled around a serles of proLelns
called hlsLones.
- Cne chromosome ls when Lhe enLlre
unA ls wrapped around Lhe hlsLone.
- Lach chromosome has a unlque bandlng
paLLern LhaL ls used Lo ldenLlfy speclflc
secLlons of each chromosome.
- ShorL lengLh of unA
- A sequence of unA LhaL ls locaLed on a
speclflc locaLlon of a chromosome and
deLermlnes a parLlcular characLerlsLlc.
Shane Weinberg

lJeotlfy tbot uNA ls o Jooble-sttooJeJ molecole twlsteJ loto o bellx wltb eocb sttooJ, comptlseJ of o
soqot-pbospbote bockbooe ooJ ottocbeJ boses, oJeoloe (A), tbymloe (1), cytosloe (c) ooJ qoooloe
(C), coooecteJ to o complemeototy sttooJ by poltloq tbe boses, A-1 ooJ C-c.










A splral of unA ls called a double hellx
1he long Lhln hellcal molecule of unA ls made up of bases represenLed by Lhe leLLers A
(adenoslne), 1 (Lhymlne), C (Cuanlne) and C (cyLoslne).
Adenoslne parLners wlLh 1hymlne (A + 1)
CyLoslne parLners wlLh Cuanlne (C + C)
unA ls also made up of sugar and phosphaLe molecules.
Cne base, one sugar and one phosphaLe make up a nucleoLlde
ln summary, unA ls a nuclelc acld ln Lhe shape of a double hellx. Lach sLrand of Lhe hellx
conslsLs of four dlfferenL nucleoLldes made up of deoxyrlbose sugar, a phosphaLe molecule
and a nlLrogen base. 1he hellx ls llke a LwlsLed ladder. 1he backbones of Lhe sLrucLure, or Lhe
sldes of Lhe ladder, conslsL of Lhe deoxyrlbose sugar and phosphaLe molecules. 1he bases
form Lhe rungs beLween Lhe sldes of deoxyrlbose sugar and phosphaLe molecules and are
complemenLary (only palr wlLh Lhelr maLchlng base). Adenlne palrs wlLh Lhymlne and
guanlne palrs wlLh cyLoslne.
xplolo tbe telotloosblp betweeo tbe sttoctote ooJ bebovloot of cbtomosomes Jotloq melosls ooJ
tbe lobetltooce of qeoes.

Chromosomes conslsL of unA. 1he unA carrles Lhe geneLlc code for Lhe lndlvldual ln Lhe
sequence of lLs nlLrogen bases
CameLes carry Lhe haplold number (n) of chromosomes so LhaL aL ferLlllsaLlon, Lhe dlplold
number (2n) ls resLored. 1he new lndlvldual Lherefore has half lLs geneLlc lnformaLlon
lnherlLed from each parenL.
Chromosomes are arranged ln homologous palrs (chromosomes slmllar ln sLrucLure and Lhe
gene Lhey carry). Cne of Lhe homologous palr ls lnherlLed from Lhe moLher, Lhe oLher from
Lhe faLher.
Melosls ls Lhe cell dlvlslon whlch produces gameLes
o Chromosomes are reduced from dlplold Lo haplold when repllcaLed chromosomes of
a homologous palr segregaLe Lo Lwo daughLer cells. Lach daughLer cell conLalns only
one of each palr of repllcaLed chromosomes (Mendel's Law of SegregaLlon).
o uurlng segregaLlon, Mendel's Law of lndependenL AssorLmenL ls evldenL when Lhe
palrs of chromosomes segregaLe Lhey do so lndependenLly of Lhelr orlgln Lhus
creaLlng geneLlc varleLy.
o Melosls ll produces Lhe gameLes when Lhe chromaLlds separaLe Lo opposlLe poles.
o Any parenL cell can produce 2
n
gameLes, where n equals Lhe number of chromosome
palrs.
One Nucleotide
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate group
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
Bases
Shane Weinberg

o lurLher geneLlc varlaLlon occurs Lhrough crosslng over
! Ad[acenL chromaLlds of homologous chromosomes exchange alleles whlch
comblnes Lwo ancesLral llnes of heredlLary onLo Lhe slngle chromosome ln a
new comblnaLlon.





















"#$%&'( )*+ ,-%+ -. /&0+)+ .-,0&)'-( &(1 2+#3&% ,+$,-134)'-( '( 5&,'&6'%')7 -. -..2$,'(/8

Gamete Iormat|on
lndependenL assorLmenL of homologous chromosomes Lo Lhe gameLes allows each gameLe
Lo conLaln a mlx of geneLlc lnformaLlon orlglnaLlng from boLh parenLs.
Crosslng over achleves varlaLlon as a slngle (daughLer) chromosomes wlll conLaln some
alleles from boLh parenLs. Crosslng over comblnes Lwo ancesLral llnes onLo a slngle
chromosome ln a new geneLlc comblnaLlon.
Sexua| keproduct|on
CreaLes a maLLer of chance whlch sperm unlLes wlLh an egg. 1hls allows for Lwo offsprlng
from Lhe same parenLs Lo have llLLle chance of havlng Lhe same genes.
Sexual reproducLlon lnvolves Lwo parenLs wlLh dlfferenL geneLlc lnformaLlon, Lherefore each
conLrlbuLes dlfferenL geneLlc lnformaLlon Lo Lhelr games whlch produces varlaLlon.
SponLaneous muLaLlons may also occur durlng gameLe formaLlon whlch brlng abouL change or
varlaLlons ln Lhe genoLype.

uesctlbe tbe lobetltooce of sex-llokeJ qeoes, ooJ olleles tbot exblblt co-Jomloooce ooJ explolo wby
tbese Jo oot ptoJoce slmple MeoJelloo totlos.



Sex L|nkage
Shane Weinberg

Sex llnkage refers Lo a gene for nonsexual characLerlsLlcs LhaL ls usually carrled on Lhe x
chromosome.
1here ls no full parLner Lo Lhe x chromosome ln a male, Lherefore recesslve sex llnked genes
ln Lhe males cannoL be masked as Lhere are no allellc palr of Lhe gene Lhus no domlnanL
gene Lo mask Lhe recesslve.
1he recesslve gene wlll only be expressed ln Lhe female lf Lhe gene ls homozygous recesslve.
Mendellan raLlos are noL produced as Lhe raLlos of lnherlLance for males and females dlffer
as males have a greaLer chance of dlsplaylng Lhe recesslve phenoLype.
Co-Dom|nance
8efers Lo where boLh alleles ln Lhe heLerozygoLe are domlnanL. 8oLh genes are fully, equally
and lndependenLly expressed.
Cffsprlng wlll express boLh alleles equally.
1he offsprlng wlll exhlblL a new phenoLype due Lo Lhe equal expresslon of boLh genes.
o Lg ln humans, Lhe gene for blood group A and 8 are boLh domlnanL, Lherefore Lhe
blood group A8 ls an example of Co-uomlnance formlng a new phenoLype.
Mendellan raLlos are noL expressed as nelLher gene ls masked and boLh are expressed whlch
creaLes a 3
rd
phenoLype, whlle ln Mendellan crosses Lhere were only 2 phenoLypes.

uesctlbe tbe wotk of Motqoo tbot leJ to tbe ooJetstooJloq of sex llokoqe.

Morgan was an Amerlcan geneLlclsL and zoologlsL
Worked wlLh frulL flles called urosophlla
1rled Lo repllcaLe Mendels work by crosslng a homozygous wlld (red) eyed female wlLh a
homozygous whlLe eyed male.
Morgan expecLed Lhe Lyplcal phenoLype raLlo 3:1, however he goL a raLlo of 1:2:1 (Wlld
males : wlld females : whlLe eyed males) and noLlced all Lhe whlLe eyed flles were male.
Morgan Lhen conducLed a LesL cross (l2 red eyed female - heLerozygous, and orlglnal whlLe
eyed male) whlch ylelded whlLe eyed females.
Morgan hypoLheslsed LhaL Lhe gene for eye colour musL be carrled on Lhe x chromosome
and Lhe ? chromosome has no gene for eye colour.
Concluded LhaL Lhe l2 females used ln Lhe LesL cross were heLerozygous for eye colour


xplolo tbe telotloosblp betweeo bomozyqoos ooJ betetozyqoos qeootypes ooJ tbe tesoltloq
pbeootypes lo exomples of co-Jomloooce.

usually lf an lndlvldual ls heLerozygous, one allele ls domlnanL and Lhe oLher recesslve.
ln some cases boLh alleles are domlnanL whlch ls known as co-domlnance
ln human blood Lhere are 3 alleles for blood Lype, A, 8 & C
C ls recesslve, however A and 8 are boLh domlnanL whlch Lhen forms a fourLh blood group
A8, whlch ls a LoLally new phenoLype expresslng boLh domlnanL alleles equally, fully and
lndependenLly.

Ootlloe woys lo wblcb tbe eovltoomeot moy offect tbe exptessloo of o qeoe lo oo loJlvlJool.

1he appearance of an lndlvldual ls noL based solely on Lhelr geneLlc lnformaLlon. 1he
envlronmenL of Lhe organlsm also plays a parL.
Shane Weinberg

1hls becomes Lhe lnfluence of boLh naLure and nurLure, where Lhe genoLype and Lhe
envlronmenL lnfluence Lhe phenoLype of an organlsm
lacLors LhaL lnfluence Lhe phenoLype LhaL consLlLuLe envlronmenLal lnfluences lnclude wlnd
speed, LemperaLure, alLlLude, llghL avallablllLy, nuLrlenL avallablllLy
Pydrangeas are planLs LhaL have dlfferenL flower colour (plnk or blue) dependlng on Lhe pP
of Lhe soll Lhey are grown ln. ln acld solls (less Lhan pP 3) Pydrangeas are blue. ln solls LhaL
have a pP greaLer Lhan 7 Pydrangeas are plnk. 1he pP has an effecL on Lhe avallablllLy of
oLher lons ln Lhe soll and lL ls Lhese lons LhaL are responslble for Lhe colour change.

uesctlbe tbe ptocess of uNA tepllcotloo ooJ explolo lts slqolflcooce.
unA ls a double-sLranded molecule LwlsLed lnLo a hellx wlLh each sLrand comprlsed of a
sugar-phosphaLe backbone and aLLached bases - adenlne (A), Lhymlne (1), cyLoslne (C) and
guanlne (C) - connecLed Lo a complemenLary sLrand by palrlng Lhe bases, A-1 and C-C.
A unlL made up of a deoxyrlbose sugar, a phosphaLe molecule and one of four nlLrogen
bases (adenlne, Lhymlne, guanlne and cyLoslne) ls called a oocleotlJe. 1hus, unA conslsLs of
nucleoLlde unlLs. 1he nlLrogen bases LhaL are parL of each nucleoLlde are Lhe rungs of Lhe
double hellx of unA. 1hey only comblne ln one way, adenlne blnds Lo Lhymlne and guanlne
blnds Lo cyLoslne.
Along Lhe unA molecule, Lhere are long sequences of geneLlc code made up of Lhese bases.
1he repllcaLlon of Lhese long sequences accounLs for Lhe repllcaLlon of Lhe geneLlc code of
an organlsm.
1he process of unA repllcaLlon conslsLs of Lhe followlng sLeps.


SLep 1:


1he unA double hellx ls unwound by an enzyme.
SLep 2: 1he unA unzlps formlng Lwo slngle sLrands
SLep 3:
Correspondlng nucleoLldes are added Lo Lhe slngle sLrands resulLlng ln Lwo ldenLlcal
sLrands of unA
1he Lwo double sLranded molecules are Lhe chromaLlds.
1he slgnlflcance
1he slgnlflcance of Lhls process ls Lhe geneLlc lnformaLlon ls passed on from generaLlon Lo
generaLlon. uurlng sexual reproducLlon, Lhe geneLlc code ls copled and Lhen half of Lhe
geneLlc lnformaLlon passes lnLo each of Lhe sex cells (ovum or sperm). When ferLlllsaLlon
occurs Lhe new organlsm has half Lhe geneLlc maLerlal from each parenL.
1he unA ln a cell conLalns Lhe geneLlc lnformaLlon Lo make an enLlre organlsm. When a cell
dlvldes lL Lakes wlLh lL an exacL copy of Lhe geneLlc code of LhaL organlsm.

Shane Weinberg































Ootlloe, osloq o slmple moJel, tbe ptocess by wblcb uNA coottols tbe ptoJoctloo of polypeptlJes.


roLelns are vlLal componenLs of a cell. lf Lhe unA sequences are changes by muLaLlon, proLeln
producLlon wlll change. lf no proLeln or a dlfferenL proLeln ls made, Lhen a cell's sLrucLure or
acLlvlLles may also change. ln Lhls way any varlaLlon ln Lhe geneLlc maLerlal wlll be expressed by Lhe
cell. varlaLlon shown by an organlsm ls Lhe basls upon whlch naLural selecLlon can acL.


DNA - a gene on Lhe unA provldes Lhe lnformaLlon requlred Lo make Lhe polypepLlde ln Lhe form of
a deslgnaLed sequence
mkNA - a Lype of rlbonuclelc acld LhaL carrles lnformaLlon from Lhe unA ln Lhe nucleus Lo rlbosomes
ln Lhe cyLoplasm
tkNA - a rlbonuclelc acld LhaL brlngs amlno aclds Lo Lhe rlbosome Lo be llnked LogeLher Lo bulld up
polypepLlde chalns. 1here are over 20 Lypes of L8nA - a dlfferenL Lype for each amlno acld. L8nA has
Shane Weinberg

a dlsLlncL clover-leaf shape. Lach Lype of L8nA conLalns an anLlcodon or LrlpleL of bases whlch
recognlses, and ls complemenLary Lo, a codon on Lhe m8nA.
k|bosomes - made up of Lwo sub-unlLs and acLs as Lhe acLlve slLe for polypepLlde synLhesls ln Lhe
cyLoplasm. lL conLalns 3 acLlve blndlng slLes, whlch hold Lhe m8nA sLrand and 2 L8nA molecules
LogeLher Lemporarlly durlng Lhe llnklng of amlno aclds Lo make polypepLlde chalns
Lnzymes - lnvolved ln caLalyslng Lhese reacLlons


18AnSC8l1lCn:
- A lengLh of unA conLalnlng Lhe lnformaLlon for one polypepLlde chaln ls unwound.
- A sLrand of m8nA ls made uslng Lhe slngle unwound sLrand as a LemplaLe for Lhe
correspondlng nlLrogen base molecules and free nucleoLldes consLrucL Lhe m8nA sLrand.
1hls ensures Lhe nlLrogen base code ls conserved.
- Cnce Lhe whole gene has been copled, Lhe m8nA sLrand modlfles Lo conLaln only Lhe exons,
and ellmlnaLes Lhe lnLrons. 1hls sLrand of m8nA now moves from Lhe cell nucleus lnLo Lhe
cyLoplasm.
- ln Lhe cyLoplasm, an enzyme aLLaches amlno aclds Lo L8nA molecules. Lach Lype of amlno
acld ls aLLached Lo lLs speclflc L8nA.

18AnSLA1lCn:
- 1he m8nA sLrand blnds onLo a rlbosome aL Lhe end wlLh Lhe 'sLarL' codon. L8nA carrylng Lhe
amlno acld aL one end and Lhe anLlcodon aL Lhe oLher end, blnds Lo Lhe 'sLarL' codon on Lhe
m8nA wlLhln Lhe rlbosome. A second L8nA blnds Lo Lhe nexL codon. lLs amlno acld llnks wlLh
a pepLlde bond, Lhrough dehydraLlon synLhesls, Lo Lhe flrsL amlno acld.
- 1he flrsL L8nA ls released from Lhe rlbosome. 1he rlbosome moves along Lhe m8nA sLrand
one codon aL a Llme. 1wo L8nA's aL a Llme are Lemporarlly bound wlLhln Lhe rlbosome and
Lhelr amlno aclds llnked LogeLher. A polypepLlde chaln forms.
- When a 'sLop' codon ls reached, Lhe polypepLlde chaln ls released from Lhe cyLoplasm.
- A polypepLlde chaln ls only Lhe prlmary sLrucLure of a proLeln. Lach proLeln has a parLlcular
conformaLlon or shape formed by Lhe LwlsLlng or foldlng of mulLlple polypepLlde chalns.
DNA kNA
Structure ueoxyrlbose nuclelc Acld
Adenlne - 1hymlne, Cuanlne-
CyLoslne
uouble hellx splral
Macro molecule
8lbose nuclelc Acld
Adenlne - uracll, Cuanlne - CyLoslne
Slngle llnear sLrand
ShorLer molecule Lhan unA, lengLh of one
gene
Locat|on lound ln nucleus of all cells
Small amounLs ln
mlLochondrla and chloroplasL
m8nA forms ln nucleus and moves lnLo
cyLoplasm carrylng Lhe geneLlc code ln Lhe
order of nlLrogen bases
L8nA ls found ln cyLoplasm and carrles
amlno aclds ln Lhe rlghL order Lo m8nA
Iunct|on ConLrols developmenL and
meLabollsm by produclng
proLelns
1ransmlLs heredlLary from
generaLlons
m8nA carrles geneLlc code for a proLeln
synLhesls from unA ln nucleus Lo rlbosome
ln cyLoplasm
L8nA Lransfers amlno aclds Lo m8nA
Shane Weinberg



xplolo tbe telotloosblp betweeo ptotelos ooJ polypeptlJes8

A proLeln ls made up of one or more polypepLlde chalns folded lnLo a 3u conflguraLlon.
A polypepLlde ls made p of a chaln of amlno aclds [olned by pepLlde bonds

xplolo bow mototloos lo uNA moy leoJ to tbe qeoetotloo of oew olleles.

MuLaLlons add, deleLe or rearrange geneLlc maLerlal.
Can happen sponLaneously, resulL of errors durlng unA repllcaLlon or lnduced by muLagens.
Cnly muLaLlons occurrlng ln reproducLlon cells can be passed onLo offsprlng
o 1hese muLaLlons add Lo Lhe varleLy of Lhe gene pool
MuLaLlons allow for Lhe varleLy whlch provldes an advanLage Lo Lhe selecLlon pressures.
MuLaLlons can be harmful, beneflclal or [usL neuLral.

ulscoss evlJeoce fot tbe motoqeolc ootote of toJlotloo.

MuLagen: a subsLance / agenL LhaL causes geneLlc muLaLlons
Cnly muLaLlons occurrlng ln cells whlch produce gameLes can be passed on Lo offsprlng. 1hese cells
are called germ-llne cells, as opposed Lo ordlnary body cells whlch are called somaLlc cells. Some
muLaLlons are neuLral, some harmful and oLhers advanLageous. All muLaLlons add varleLy Lo Lhe
gene pool, as Lhe varleLy of Lhls gene pool ls Lhe basls for evoluLlon. MuLaLlons provlde Lhe selecLlve
advanLages/dlsadvanLages LhaL allow for Lhe evoluLlon of a specles Lhrough survlval of Lhe flLLesL.

8adlaLlon
(x-rays)
1896 - 8ecquerel dlscovered nuclear radlaLlon from uranlum ore and goL severe
burns and skln lrrlLaLlon.
1901 - Marle Curle dlscovered radlaLlon from radlum and laLer dled from leukaemla
Many researchers who had been exposed Lo radlaLlon of sorLs dled of cancer
down Lhe Lrack
8adlaLlon from radloacLlve maLerlals of nuclear reacLlons and x-rays are
muLagens as Lhey break unA sLrands and even enLlre chromosomes
Cell deaLh can occur lf one's geneLlc maLerlal ls exposed Lo enough radlaLlon
x-rays have been reserved for use only by denLlsLs, docLors and sclenLlsLs due
Lo evldence of muLaLlons LhaL are harmful upon exposure
8adlaLlon
(nuclear
maLerlal)
1940s - 1esLlng of hydrogen bombs aL Marshall lsland lefL devasLaLlng affecLs years
laLer, wlLh 400 ouL of Lhe 300 people on Lhe lsland dylng of cancer

1943 - Plroshlma and nagasakl bomblngs. vlcLlms and Lhelr descendenLs have
suffered geneLlc defecLs, and many have dled from leukaemla, demonsLraLlng LhaL
geneLlc damage can appear years afLer exposure Lo radlaLlon.

1960s - 1he use of AgenL Crange ln vleLnam by Lhe Amerlcans Lo clear Lhe follage Lo
expose Lhe vleLnamese flghLers caused severe defecLs and reLardaLlons ln Lhe
developmenL of vleLnamese vlcLlms' offsprlng.

Shane Weinberg

1987 - nuclear accldenL aL Chernobyl caused many deaLhs, buL more recenLly lL has
been dlscovered LhaL Lhe radlaLlon has spread Lo food, soll, land and waLer-ways.
1wo ln every Lhree calves born ln Lhe flrsL 3 years afLer Lhe accldenL were sLlllborn,
and lL ls esLlmaLed LhaL half a mllllon people wlll dle premaLurely from radlaLlon-
lnduced cancers.

Culf War - Lhousands of shells Llpped wlLh depleLed uranlum (uu) were flred, whlch
has proven Lo cause defecLs ln one's unA. uu ls boLh radloacLlve and Loxlc.
8adlaLlon
(uv)
uv radlaLlon causes deleLlon of nlLrogenous bases ln a unA sLrand, or
Lhymlne bases wlll all llnk LogeLher Lo lnhlblL correcL repllcaLlon
Crape plckers goL skln cancer on back of necks
Campalgns such as for Lhe wearlng of sunscreen and cloLhlng as proLecLlons,
and sLaylng ouL of Lhe sun, have been lmplemenLed ln AusLralla Lo reduce
lncldences of skln cancer


xplolo bow oot ooJetstooJloq of tbe sootce of votlotloo lo otqoolsms bos ptovlJeJ soppott fot
uotwlos tbeoty of evolotloo by oototol selectloo.

Cne of Lhe foundaLlon plllars for Lhe Lheory of evoluLlon ls Lhe varlaLlon LhaL occurs among lndlvldual
members of a specles. 1he basls of Lhls varlaLlon ls Lhe geneLlc makeup of Lhe lndlvlduals ln a
specles. lL ls Lhls varlaLlon LhaL selecLlon acLs upon. MuLaLlon of unA provldes a source of new
varlaLlons Lhus supporLlng uarwln's Lheory of evoluLlon.

uesctlbe tbe coocept of pooctooteJ epolllbtlom lo evolotloo ooJ bow lt Jlffets ftom tbe qtoJool
ptocess ptoposeJ by uotwlo.

Accordlng Lo Lhe uarwln/Wallace Lheory of evoluLlon, Lhe fossll record would be expecLed Lo show a
gradual change from one specles Lo anoLher. Many LranslLlon fosslls would be expecLed. new
specles seem Lo appear suddenly ln Lhe fossll record, survlve for abouL 3-10 mllllon years on average
and Lhen dlsappear. 1hls suggesLs LhaL specles may evolve rapldly over Lhousands of years, raLher
Lhan over mllllons of years.
uncLuaLed equlllbrlum dlffers from uarwln's gradual evoluLlon ln LhaL evoluLlon ls seen as long
perlods where Lhere ls llLLle change ln organlsms, followed by a shorLer perlod where Lhere are rapld
changes. LvoluLlon ls a sudden process raLher Lhan slow gradual change. 1he evldence for Lhls comes
from Lhe fossll record where Lhere are mass exLlncLlons of organlsms followed by Lhe appearance of
new specles.

letfotm o fltst-booJ lovestlqotloo ot ptocess lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to Jevelop o slmple
moJel fot polypeptlJe syotbesls
1. CollecL Lhe unA cardboard sLrlp whlch represenLs Lhe orlglnal unA sLrand conLalnlng Lhe
geneLlc code LhaL has been unwound leavlng Lhe geneLlc code exposed.
2. CollecL a blank cardboard sLrlp and wrlLe Lhe nlLrogen bases ln palrs of 3's whlch represenL
Lhe codon. 1he nlLrogen bases of each codon ls Lo correspond Lo Lhe nlLrogen bases of Lhe
orlglnal geneLlc code on Lhe unA sLrand (Cuanlne Lo CyLoslne and vlce versa, Adenlne Lo
Shane Weinberg

1hymlne, and 1hymlne Lo urlcll). 1hls new sLrand ls Lo represenL Lhe M8nA and Lhls sLep of
Lhe meLhod models Lhe process of LranscrlpLlon.
3. 1he M8nA sLrlp ls Lo be moved away from Lhe orlglnal unA sLrlp represenLlng Lhe M8nA
movlng ouL Lhe nucleus and lnLo Lhe cyLoplasm.
4. CollecL llLLle red cardboard pleces each wlLh a papercllp whlch represenLs Lhe 18nA
molecule. Cn each 18nA molecule, wrlLe Lhe geneLlc code of each codon whlch ls
complemenLary Lo Lhe geneLlc code of each codon on Lhe M8nA molecule. 1hls ls Lo
represenL Lhe anLlcodon of Lhe 18nA.
3. 8y referrlng Lo a prepared charL, collecL Lhe approprlaLe beads LhaL correspond Lo Lhe
anLlcodons of Lhe M8nA molecules and aLLach Lhe beads Lo each 18nA uslng blueLac. Lach
bead ls Lo represenL a speclflc amlno acld.
6. CollecL a plasLlc conLalner lld whlch ls Lo represenL Lhe rlbosome molecule.
7. MaLch up each 18nA anLlcodon wlLh Lhe complemenLary maLch Lo Lhe codon on Lhe M8nA
sLrand and aLLach Lhe bead (amlno acld) Lo a sLralghLened ouL paper cllp whlch ls Lo
represenL Lhe pepLlde bonds beLween each amlno acld. 1he rlbosome moves along Lhe
M8nA sLrand one codon aL a Llme. 1wo 18nA molecules are Lemporarlly bound Lo Lhe
rlbosome and Lhelr amlno aclds llnked LogeLher.
8. 8epeaL sLep 7 unLll Lhe sLop codon ls reached. 1hls compleLed chaln of beads ls Lo represenL
Lhe polypepLlde chaln whlch ls released lnLo Lhe cyLoplasm (mlddle of desk).
9. 1he compleLed polypepLlde chaln ls Lhe maln sLrucLure of Lhe proLeln molecule.
10. CompleLe Lhe above sLeps however uslng a new unA cardboard sLrlp wlLh 2 changed codons
whlch represenLs a muLaLed unA sLrand.
11. Compare Lhe Lwo polypepLlde proLeln sLrands (orlglnal and muLaLed) Lo demonsLraLe Lhe
effecL of a muLaLlon on Lhe sequence and code of Lhe amlno aclds.
Conc|us|on
1he experlmenL managed Lo demonsLraLe Lhe process of polypepLlde creaLlon ln order Lo make a
proLeln whlch ls Lhe bulldlng blocks of llfe. 1he experlmenL deslgn ldenLlfled Lhe lmporLance of slngle
polnL deleLlon / lnserLlon as Lhls wlll change Lhe grouplng of Lhe codons resulLlng ln a compleLely
dlfferenL LranscrlpLlon from Lhe orlglnal and Lhen dlsLorLlng Lhe amlno acld sequence maklng Lhe
proLeln elLher lneffecLlve or LoLally rendered useless. 1hls ls known as a frameshlfL and ofLen resulLs ln
geneLlc dlsorders. Powever some muLaLlons LhaL are expressed by Lhe cell are noL faLal and acLually
provlde some sorL of beneflL whlch ls Lhe basls on whlch naLural selecLlon acLs allowlng evoluLlon Lo
occur.
Aoolyse lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to ootlloe tbe evlJeoce tbot leJ to 8eoJle ooJ 1otoms
ooe qeoe - ooe ptotelo bypotbesls ooJ to explolo wby tbls wos olteteJ to tbe ooe qeoe - ooe
polypeptlJe bypotbesls.

8eadle and 1aLum worked ln Lhe 30's and 40's
Worked wlLh neurospora - bread mould LhaL survlved on a baslc medlum, salL, vlLamln 8 and
sucrose (sugar)
Lxposed neurospora Lo radlaLlon Lo produce muLaLlons
Some muLanLs were sLlll able Lo grow, oLhers needed dlfferenL amlno aclds ln order Lo grow
and some only grew when glven arglnlne. 1hese were selecLed and furLher experlmenLed on.
1hese were denled arglnlne, however some sLlll grew when glven ornlLhlne and oLhers grew
when glven clLrullne.
Llnk beLween arglnlne, ornlLhlne and clLrullne LhaL Lhey could be converLed from one Lo
anoLher under progresslve enzyme conLrol.
Shane Weinberg

8eadle and 1aLum concluded LhaL Lhere musL have been 3 muLanL forms of neurospora,
where each muLanL had a defecLlve gene maklng one gene responslble for one proLeln
Powever sclenLlsLs learnL abouL more proLelns whlch aren'L enzymes llke sLrucLural proLelns,
hormones eLc. Powever all proLelns are produced by gene acLlon le formed from
polypepLldes
1hls creaLed Lhe one gene one polypepLlde hypoLhesls.

ltocess lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to Jesctlbe ooJ ooolyse tbe telotlve lmpottooce of tbe
wotk of.
- Iomes wotsoo
- ltoocls ctlck
- Mootlce wllklos
- kosolloJ ltookllo
lo Jetetmloloq tbe sttoctote of uNA ooJ tbe lmpoct of tbe poollty of collobototloo ooJ
commoolcotloo oo tbelt scleotlflc teseotcb.

Whlle WaLson and Crlck are recognlsed as Lhe founders and creaLors of Lhe model of unA as lL ls
known Loday, one musL undersLand LhaL Lhe daLa and evldence LhaL Lhey used Lo supporL Lhelr
Lheory was researched and developed prlmarlly by female sclenLlsL lranklln, and unbeknownsL Lo
her, passed on Lo WaLson and Crlck by her colleague Wllklns. lranklln was noL glven credlL or
acknowledgemenL for her lmperaLlve work - as Lhe oLher Lhree sclenLlsLs lnvolved all recelved nobel
rlzes, wlLh lranklln recelvlng no menLlon.
8osallnd lranklln's x-ray crysLallography work sLarLed Lhe ball rolllng ln Lhe declpherlng of Lhe
sLrucLure of Lhe unA molecule, wlLh her clearesL x-ray belng leaked Lo WaLson and Crlck. 1hls spelL
ouL everyLhlng Lhey needed Lo consLrucL Lhelr Lheory Lhe unA molecule. lL ls belleved LhaL WaLson
and Crlck may never have produced such a sclenLlflcally accuraLe model of unA lf Lhey had noL had
Lhe asslsLance of lranklln's work - as lL was so profound and deLalled. lL ls also belleved LhaL lranklln
would have easlly been able Lo complle an accuraLe model of Lhe unA molecule had she had more
Llme and noL been beaLen ln Lhe race Lo dlscover Lhe 'secreL of llfe'. 1hls can be seen Lhrough her
records of deLalled calculaLlons, measuremenLs and observaLlons. lranklln was noL recognlsed ln Lhe
publlc eye and ln Lhe sclenLlflc world as Lhe caLalysL for Lhe creaLlon of Lhe Lheory of Lhe unA
molecule's sLrucLure due Lo her gender and rellglon.
WaLson and Crlck esLabllshed someLhlng more Langlble and undersLandable ouL of lranklln's
research and evldence, afLer already falllng Lo compleLe an accuraLe model of Lhe unA molecule's
sLrucLure. 1hey uLlllsed Lhe foundaLlons whlch lranklln had seL up, and bullL upon Lhem Lhe model
whlch was laLer recognlsed as Lhe WaLson-Crlck Model, demonsLraLlng Lhe sLrucLure of unA. lL had
been sald LhaL Lhese Lwo sclenLlsLs could noL have made Lhe dlscovery Lhey dld nor publlshed Lhe
model LhaL Lhey dld had lL noL been for Lhe lnLrlcaLe and deLalled work of lranklln. Also, Maurlce noL
passed on Lhe cruclal daLa LhaL Lhese Lwo sclenLlsLs used Lo base Lhelr model upon, WaLson and Crlck
would noL have been able Lo develop Lhe currenL model of Lhe unA molecule.
Cverall, lL can be seen LhaL sclenLlflc developmenLs arlse Lhrough worklng as a group or a Leam - a
compllaLlon or collaboraLlon of efforL, experLlse and knowledge, ln order Lo achleve a rounded
Lheory, ldea or model.
Shane Weinberg

CollaboraLlon, ln Lhe worklng behlnd Lhe model of Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe unA molecule, was essenLlal
ln lLs formaLlon, however Lhe collaboraLlon LhaL occurred was nelLher of hlgh quallLy nor ln good
splrlLs. 1he process was based upon a race Lo dlscover Lhe 'secreL of llfe', raLher Lhan Lhe seeklng of
knowledge for one's own personal saLlsfacLlon and Lhe beLLermenL of sclence as a whole.
CollaboraLlon became compeLlLlon, as daLa was leaked and shared lnvolunLarlly or unbeknownsL Lo
Lhe researcher - ln Lhls case, lranklln. CommunlcaLlon, Loo, was poor beLween parLles worklng on
Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe unA molecule, wlLh a purposeful secrecy and sllence ln order Lo be Lhe flrsL Lo
devlse a Lheory.

lJeotlfy bow tbe cotteot teptoJoctlve tecbolpoes moy oltet tbe qeoetlc composltloo of o popolotloo.
- Attlflclol losemlootloo
- Attlflclol polllootloo
- clooloq

ArLlflclal lnsemlnaLlon:
Sperm ls collecLed from a male and lnserLed lnLo Lhe vaglna of a female. 1he sperm swlms Lo
Lhe egg, whlch ls ferLlllsed.
WhllsL lncreaslng Lhe chance of ferLlllsaLlon by Lhe Lwo parLles, Lhere ls a reducLlon ln Lhe
chance of random crosses wlLhln a populaLlon
8educes geneLlc varlablllLy ln a populaLlon
lf some sperm prove Lo be more geneLlcally deslrable Lhan oLhers, Lhen Lhe geneLlc dlverslLy
ln a populaLlon wlll decrease
Cholce of one sex over Lhe oLher reduces dlverslLy
8educLlon ln varlaLlon lnhlblLs Lhe process of evoluLlon, as lf a populaLlon ls all geneLlcally
less dlverse, upon a changlng envlronmenL survlval ls less llkely Lhan lf Lhe geneLlc varlaLlon
were much greaLer. 1hls ls because evoluLlon ls based on Lhe fundamenLal facL LhaL Lhere ls
varlaLlon wlLhln a populaLlon

ArLlflclal olllnaLlon:
lanL breeders use arLlflclal polllnaLlon Lo breed planLs wlLh selecLed characLerlsLlcs. 1he
pollen from a male ls brushed onLo Lhe female sLlgma, and ls Lhen covered Lo prevenL cross-
polllnaLlon.
Whlle produclng deslred genoLypes of planLs, Lhls procedure reduces geneLlc varlaLlon ln a
populaLlon
lf envlronmenLal change occurs, survlval ls lnhlblLed as so many planLs are geneLlcally
slmllar, so evoluLlon ls prevenLed

Clonlng:
roducLlon of geneLlcally ldenLlcal lndlvlduals wlLh no varlaLlon whaLsoever
Whlle recelvlng hlgher yleld or beLLer quallLy producLs, Lhe enLlre populaLlon ls geneLlcally
ldenLlcal
Whole populaLlon ls suscepLlble Lo Lhe same adverse condlLlons, meanlng lf envlronmenLal
condlLlons change survlval ls lnhlblLed and evoluLlon ceases
When dlsease sLrlkes, ofLen an enLlre populaLlon ls wlped ouL as Lhere ls no reslsLance aL all
no varlaLlon aL all, upon whlch varlaLlon relles

Shane Weinberg


Ootlloe tbe ptocesses oseJ to ptoJoce ttoosqeolc specles ooJ locloJe exomples of tbls ptocess ooJ
teosoos fot lts ose.
1ransgenlc organlsms conLaln a gene from anoLher specles. 1hls ls achleved Lhrough recomblnanL
unA Lechnology. 8ecomblnanL unA Lechnology manlpulaLes unA by Lhe use of resLrlcLlon enzymes,
and llgases. 8acLerla are used ln Lhls process as Lhey don'L have a nucleus, so Lhe unA resldes ln Lhe
cyLoplasm ln Lhe plasmld. 8esLrlcLlon enzymes are used Lo cuL unA ln speclflc places. ulfferenL
resLrlcLlon enzymes cuL unA ln speclflc parLs ln order Lo lsolaLe Lhe deslred gene, as well as Lhe
deslred poslLlon on Lhe plasmld lnLo whlch Lhe Lransgene wlll be aLLracLed. 1he cuL ends are known
as 'sLlcky ends' whlch are ends wlLh exposed nucleoLlde bases. Llgases are used Lo repalr and
sLrengLhen unA especlally afLer lL has been cuL by resLrlcLlon enzymes. Pydrogen bonds of Lhe
nlLrogen base palrs on Lhe plasmld aLLracL Lhelr complemenL from Lhe Lransgene. Cnce Lhe
recomblnanL unA ls produced Lhere are processes used Lo lnserL Lhe unA lnLo Lhe hosL specles.
1hese processes lnclude mlcroln[ecLlon, 1l plasmld lnserLlon, gene gun and elecLroporaLlon.
ln mlcroln[ecLlon a flne glass needle ls used Lo lnserL Lhe recomblnanL unA lnLo Lhe nucleus
of Lhe hosL cell.
1l (Lumour lnduclng) plasmld lnserLlon uses a bacLerlum called Aqtoboctetlom tomefocleos.
1hese bacLerla produce crown gall ln planLs by lnserLlng some of Lhelr own unA lnLo Lhe
hosL unA causlng Lhe planL Lo produce a gall ln whlch Lhe bacLerla llve. 1he ablllLy of Lhe
bacLerla Lo lnserL unA ls used Lo Lransfer unA lnLo Lhe hosL specles.
1he gene gun blasLs small meLal pleces coaLed wlLh unA lnLo Lhe nucleus of Lhe hosL cell.
LlecLroporaLlon uses elecLrlc pulses Lo creaLe small pores ln Lhe nuclear membrane Lhrough
whlch unA ls lnserLed.
Lxamples of Lransgenlc specles are geneLlcally englneered bacLerla LhaL have had Lhe human gene
for lnsulln lnserLed allowlng Lhe bacLerla Lo produce human lnsulln for dlabeLlcs whlch subsLlLuLes
Lhe prevlously used plg lnsulln.
ulscoss tbe poteotlol lmpoct of tbe ose of teptoJoctlve tecbooloqles oo tbe qeoetlc Jlvetslty of
specles osloq o oomeJ ploot ooJ oolmol exomple tbot bove beeo qeoetlcolly olteteJ.

8eproducLlve Lechnologles, such as clonlng, and Lhe englneerlng of Lransgenlc specles have
Lhe poLenLlal Lo boLh lncrease and decrease geneLlc dlverslLy. 8y movlng genes from specles
Lo specles, Lhe geneLlc dlverslLy ls belng lncreased. Crops, such as rlce, have been geneLlcally
englneered Lo sulL a parLlcular cllmaLe and Lopography, maklng Lhen reslsLanL Lo herblcldes
and pesLlcldes commonly used ln a parLlcular reglon. Powever, for Lhose populaLlons wlLh
decreased varlaLlon, evoluLlon becomes lmpalred as varlaLlon ls Lhe means for evoluLlon Lo
occur, meanlng LhaL ln adverse or changlng envlronmenLs, survlval becomes lmpeded as
ever lndlvldual ls geneLlcally slmllar, or ldenLlcal.
1ransgenlc anlmals presenL greaLer problems wlLh lower success raLes so far. Cne lmporLanL
use ls seen Lo be Lhe preservaLlon of numbers of endangered specles. 1he flrsL cloned
endangered mammal was a guar (an endangered wlld ox from SL Asla), buL unforLunaLely lL
dld noL survlve. lL ls hoped LhaL reproducLlve Lechnologles such as clonlng and sperm and
embryo banks can be used Lo preserve sLocks of LhreaLened specles.
ltocess lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to Jesctlbe o metboJoloqy oseJ to Jesctlbe o
metboJoloqy oseJ lo clooloq.

Shane Weinberg

1. uonor cells are Laken and culLured ln a low nuLrlenL medlum for a week, ensurlng Lhe cells
sLop dlvldlng, swlLch off Lhelr acLlve genes and become dormanL
2. unferLlllsed egg has nucleus removed, and uslng mlcromanlpulaLlon Lechnlques, Lhe nucleus
ls removed Lo allow for Lhe donor unA
3. Cells are fused as Lhey are placed nexL Lo each oLher and an elecLrlc pulse ls used Lo provoke
Lhe fuslon
4. Cell dlvlslon ls Lrlggered by anoLher elecLrlcal lmpulse. Cellular acLlvlLy beglns and mlLosls
Lakes place as an embryo ls produced. 1hls can also be Lrlggered by chemlcal means
3. AfLer a few days Lhe embryo ls surglcally lmplanLed lnLo Lhe surrogaLe moLher
6. A geneLlcally ldenLlcal lndlvldual Lo Lhe donor ls born
























Aoolyse lofotmotloo ftom secooJoty sootces to lJeotlfy exomples of tbe ose of ttoosqeolc specles ooJ
ose ovolloble evlJeoce to Jebote tbe etblcol lssoes otlsloq ftom tbe Jevelopmeot ooJ ose of
ttoosqeolc specles.

aLenLlng of genes ln uneLhlcal as genes are noL lnvenLed or creaLed by humans
8ellglon:
! uslng genes from plgs ln food LhaL may be eaLen by Lhose who observe
kashruL or Palal
! Appears as Lhough man ls 'playlng Cod' and assumlng undue power or
conLrol over llfe
LnvlronmenL:
! CMCs escaplng lnLo Lhe wlld, whlch ls remedled by maklng organlsms sLerlle
Shane Weinberg

! 8eslsLance Lo pesLlcldes beneflLs crop breeders, buL reslsLance Lo herblcldes
dlmlnlshes varlaLlon or dlverslLy of Lhe populaLlon of planLs ln Lhe area of
herblclde use, whlch lnhlblLs survlval and evoluLlon
! lncreased reslsLance of pesLs Lo herblcldes, lnsecLlcldes, funglcldes, eLc.
Anlmal Welfare:
! uo we have Lhe rlghL Lo meddle wlLh genes of anlmals?
! Man ls assumlng undue conLrol over anlmals wlLhouL conslderlng llfe
CorporaLe Monopolles:
! 1aklng ouL paLenLs excludes compeLlLlon
! ulsLrlbuLlon of lnferLlle seeds means growers need Lo come back Lo Lhe
same company every year for new seeds
Labelllng:
! lssue of lncorrecL or non-exlsLenL labelllng of CMC producLs for mass
consumpLlon
reservaLlon of 8lodlverslLy:
! 8esLrlcLlon of evoluLlon Lhrough Lhe decrease ln varlaLlon amongsL a
populaLlon, lnhlblLlng survlval upon envlronmenLal change


















Shane Weinberg

1he Search for 8etter nea|th
wbot ls o neoltby Otqoolsm?
ulscoss tbe Jlfflcoltles of Jefloloq tbe tetms beoltb ooJ Jlseose
PealLh ls dlfflculL Lo deflne as lL ls more Lhan [usL Lhe absence of a dlsease, Lhere are so many facLors
conLrlbuLe Lo Lhls one concepL of opLlmal body concepL of healLh. lL ls secondly dlfflculL Lo deflne as lL ls
vlewed and measured from dlfferenL vlew polnLs from dlfferenL professlons.
Medlcal sclenLlsLs would use physlcal feaLures Lo deLermlne healLh (blood pressure, hearL raLe eLc).
PealLh ls a sLaLe of compleLe physlcal, soclal and menLal wellbelng and noL merely Lhe absence of dlsease or
lnflrmlLy. 1hls ls useful because lL ls so broad.
ulsease ls any condlLlon whlch lmpalrs Lhe opLlmal funcLlonlng of Lhe body
MalfuncLlon of body parL
MalfuncLlon of lmmune sysLem
LnvlronmenLal eg Lxposure Lo harmful Loxlns
LnLry of paLhogens
Cells are Lhe baslc unlLs of llfe as LhaL ls where all meLabollc reacLlons occur. ulLlmaLely lLs Lhe healLh or
wellbelng of Lhe cells LhaL deLermlnes Lhe lssue. 1he healLh of Lhe cell ls governed by homeosLasls and Lhe
genes.
Ootlloe bow tbe fooctloo of qeoes, mltosls, cell Jlffeteotlotloo ooJ speclollsotloo osslst lo tbe moloteoooce of
beoltb
Cenes are responslble for Lhe producLlon of polypepLldes. lf Lhe genes are wrong, Lhen Lhey wlll produce
proLelns LhaL are noL able Lo perform Lhelr deslred funcLlon.
Lnzymes
Pormones
SLrucLural roLelns
AnLl-bodles
1ransporL roLelns
unA repalr genes produce enzymes Lo ensure LhaL unA ls accuraLely copled. 1hese enzymes are acLually able
Lo correcL some muLaLlons. 1he 33 gene ls on chromosome 17 and lLs normally LoLally lnacLlve (see LexL book
300-332), however lf oLher genes are damaged, Lhls gene produces a proLeln LhaL sLops cell dlvlslon ln Lhe C1
phase. 1he unA ls flxed by Lhe repalr genes and Lhen cell dlvlslon can commence. Powever lf Lhe 33 gene ls
damaged Lhen Lhe cell cycle can never be sLopped. 30 of human cancers are relaLed Lo Lhe fallure of Lhls
parLlcular gene ln a locaLlon ln Lhe body.
MlLosls produces cells for repalr and replacemenL. roLo-onco genes sLlmulaLe cell dlvlslon and suppress Lhe
genes whlch sLop cell dlvlslon. 1hey are compllmenLary and supplemenLary Lo Lhe suppresslve genes. Cne ls
swlLched on when Lhe oLher ls swlLched off. 1hese genes conLrol cell dlvlslon and lf Lhe raLe of mlLosls ls able
Lo meeL Lhe number of cells dylng, Lhen healLh can be malnLalned and a dlsorder can be avolded. lf Lhe raLe of
mlLosls exceeds Lhe number of cells dylng, Lhen you wlll geL a dlsorder (cancer) where Loo many cells are
produced.
cell Jlffeteotlotloo ls Lhe process undergone by Lhe cells LhaL are formed afLer mlLosls. Lach cell has Lhe
geneLlc lnformaLlon necessary Lo produce all Lypes of cells. Powever, each cell normally dlfferenLlaLes Lo
become a speclallsed cell, wlLh a speclallsed sLrucLure and funcLlon. undlfferenLlaLed cells form Lumours.
Shane Weinberg

cleoolloess lo looJ, wotet & letsoool nyqleoe
ulstloqolsb betweeo lofectloos ooJ ooo-lofectloos Jlseose
Infect|ous D|seases
Caused by a paLhogen and Lherefore are communlcable (one human belng dlrecLly affecLlon anoLher)
ulseases llke malarla need a vecLor Lo Lransfer Lhe dlsease
MosL paLhogens are llvlng organlsms alLhough vlruses and prlons are noL recognlsed as llvlng
organlsms.
Non-|nfect|ous D|seases
non communlcable and never lnvolve any paLhogens
LnvlronmenLal
o olslng from facLors ln Lhe envlronmenL
o Lg lead polsonlng and radlaLlon dlseases
MenLal
o Alzhelmer
ueflclency
o Caused by Lhe absence of someLhlng ln Lhe dleL
o 8lckeLs
AuLolmmune
o Lg ArLhrlLls
CeneLlc
uegeneraLlve dlsorders
o When Lhe number of cells dylng ls greaLer Lhan Lhe number of cells belng produced Lo
replace Lhem
Self lnfllcLed / llfesLyle
o Alcohollsm and drug abuse
xplolo wby cleoolloess lo fooJ, wotet ooJ petsoo byqleoe ptoctlces osslst lo coottol of Jlseose
Iood nyg|ene
lmporLanL as food ls lngesLed lnLo Lhe body and ls a meLhod for paLhogens Lo geL lnLo Lhe body
lood provldes a nourlshlng envlronmenL for paLhogens Lo mulLlply
Cleanllness removes paLhogens from hands Lherefore less paLhogens are Lransferred onLo food.
Water
Many paLhogens are waLer borne
WaLer ls essenLlal for dally llfe, Lherefore Lhere ls a hlgh frequency of conLacL wlLh waLer
WaLer ls easlly conLamlnaLed
ersona| nyg|ene
Washlng hands afLer golng Lo LolleL
Washlng body
Washlng hands before eaLlng
Cover mouLh when coughlng
ulsposal of used Llssues
lsolaLe yourself when slck
All Lhese prevenL Lransmlsslon of paLhogens from one lndlvldual Lo anoLher.
1ransm|ss|on of D|sease
Shane Weinberg

1he dlsease can be LransmlLLed by many dlfferenL ways eg alr, conLacL, food, waLer, vecLor.
Alr conLalns dropleLs of exhaled breaLh from sneezlng and coughlng of an lnfecLed lndlvldual. Alr
also conLalns dusL whlch conLalns fungal spores whlch can be spread from cloLhlng lnLo Lhe alr.
WaLer supplles were sewerage (anlmal supplles) conLamlnaLes domesLlc waLer supply or where
Lhe waLer supply ls noL LreaLed properly. 1hese are parLlcularly a problem ln 3
rd
world counLrles
and refugee camps
lood can LransmlL dlsease due Lo carless handllng (cross conLamlnaLlon) and lack of hyglene and
poor sLorage can LransmlL dlsease. 1here are legal requlremenLs ln mosL counclls for hyglenlc
food preparaLlons whlch are lnspecLed by Lhe auLhorlLles.
ulrecL ConLacL beLween lnfecLed and non lnfecLed organlsms can LransmlL Lhe dlsease. 1hls can
be done Lhrough sexual conLacL and conLacL of bodlly flulds eg Plv vlrus, genlLal herpes (any
S1us). Clandular fever LransmlLLed Lhrough conLacL of sallva.
lndlrecL conLacL ls a source of paLhogens whlch ls plcked up ln showers or change rooms where
Lhere are remalns of fungal spores. Also Lhe sharlng of cosmeLlcs, Lowels and llnen.
lnLermedlaLe PosLs - vecLors
lJeotlfy tbe cooJltloos ooJet wblcb oo otqoolsm ls JesctlbeJ os o potboqeo
CondlLlons when an organlsm ls consldered a paLhogen
MusL lnvade healLhy hosL and cause dlsease.
Wlll Lake some llfe requlremenL (usually food) however someLlmes also shelLer.
lL musL somehow damage Lhe cells or Lhe body of Lhe hosL ln some way. Lg by rupLurlng cells
of Lhe hosL, releaslng Loxlns lnLo Lhe hosL or deprlvlng Lhe hosL of nuLrlLlonal requlremenLs
A vecLor ls anoLher organlsm whlch LransmlLs Lhe paLhogen however ls noL a paLhogen lLself. Lg
mosqulLo ls Lhe vecLor and plasmodlum ls Lhe paLhogen and malarla ls Lhe dlsease.
letfotm o fltstbooJ lovestlqotloo to lJeotlfy mlctobes lo fooJ ot lo wotet
M|cro-Crgan|sms |n Water
1. SLerlllse bench Lop wlLh meLhylaLed splrlLs
2. CollecL 3 sLerlle peLrl-dlshes LhaL conLaln nuLrlenL rlch agar [elly
3. Leave one peLrl-dlsh unopened and unexposed and seal wlLh sLlcky Lape and use as conLrol
4. lor each waLer sample (Lap waLer, pond waLer, creek waLer and pool waLer), lnLroduce 0.3
mL of Lhe waLer uslng a new sLerlle mlcro-plpeLLe onLo Lhe agar plaLe.
3. Close Lhe lld and genLly rock Lhe waLer sample Lo ensure even dlsLrlbuLlon over Lhe agar
plaLe.
6. Seal wlLh sLlcky Lape and label
1. lncubaLe all peLrl-dlshes for 3 days aL 30C.
M|cro-Crgan|sms |n Iood
1. SLerlllse bench Lop wlLh meLhylaLed splrlLs
2. CollecL 3 sLerlle peLrl-dlshes LhaL conLaln nuLrlenL rlch agar [elly. lor mllk food producLs, use
nuLrlenL agar dlsh wlLh powdered mllk.
3. Leave one peLrl-dlsh unopened and unexposed and seal wlLh sLlcky Lape and use as conLrol.
4. CollecL an lnoculaLlng loop and sLerlllse by heaLlng unLll red hoL ln 8unsen flame.
3. CollecL small samples of food uslng lnoculaLlng probe and Lransfer Lo peLrl-dlsh ln crlsscross
paLLern. 8e-sLerlllse lnoculaLlng probe afLer each food sample LesL.
6. lncubaLe all peLrl-dlshes for 3 days aL 30C.
Shane Weinberg

AfLer lncubaLlon, remove dlshes and ldenLlfy, record and descrlbe Lhe colonles presenL and Lhelr
macroscoplc feaLures.
uesctlbe woys lo wblcb Jtlokloq wotet coo be tteoteJ ooJ ose evlJeoce to explolo bow tbese metboJs teJoce
tbe tlsk of lofectloo ftom potboqeos.
art|cu|ate 1reatment
8emoval of parLlcle maLLer
lnleL screens whlch prevenL flsh, eels and oLher aquaLlc llfe enLerlng Lhe waLer
CoagulaLlon / llocculaLlon
o Chemlcals are added such as polymers whlch causes organlc parLlcles (planL
maLerlals, algae eLc) Lo clump LogeLher whlch wlll lead Lo easy fllLerlng.
WaLer Lhen goes sedlmenLaLlon Lanks where suspended mlneral and parLlcle maLLer Lo seLLle
aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe Lank. 1hls lmproves LurbldlLy
Suspended parLlcles are removed by fllLraLlon
o hyslcal sleves
o Cravel and sand beads
Mlcro organlsms are LreaLed wlLh ozone and uv llghL whlch kllls mlcro organlsms
Chem|ca| 1reatment
ChlorlnaLlon where chlorlne gas ls bubbled Lhrough waLer
o kllls moulds, algae, bacLerla, dlsrupLs Lhe capsule of vlruses and removes bad gases
o SomeLlmes ammonla ls also added for beLLer effecL, known as chlorammlnaLlon
o rovldes resldual beneflLs where more chlorlne ls added Lhan needed Lo ensure
resldual chlorlne remalns ln waLer slLLlng ln plpes.
AlraLlon where oxygen ls bubbled Lhrough Lhe waLer Lo change Lhe LasLe of waLer.
llurodaLlon Lo lmprove Lhe quallLy of LooLh enamel
pP buffer Lo malnLaln Lhe pP of waLer as neuLral

1be wotk of losteot ooJ kocb stlmoloteJ tbe seotcb fot mlctobes os cooses of
Jlseose
uesctlbe tbe coottlbotloo of losteot ooJ kocb to oot ooJetstooJloq of lofectloos Jlseoses
asteur
Worked ln 1860's ln lrance
8ecognlsed as Lhe faLher of mlcro-blology
Approached by an lndusLrlallsL who produced wlnes LhaL Lurned sour
asLeur examlned Lhe wlne under a mlcroscope and found Lhe buddlng yeasL cells (he
expecLed Lo flnd Lhls as lL was Lhe fungus LhaL produced Lhe alcohol). Pe also dlscovered
smaller rod shaped bacLerla LhaL broke down Lhe sugars ln Lhe wlne for anaeroblc
resplraLlon and produced lacLlc acld.
Pe proved LhaL Lhe bacLerla Lhrough Lhe anaeroblc resplraLlon of Lhe sugars, produced sour
acld producLs.
Pe also dlscovered LhaL yeasLs Lhrough anaeroblc fermenLaLlon produced Lhe alcohol.
Shane Weinberg

Pe undersLood LhaL anaeroblc bacLerla exlsLed and had a meLabollsm.
uemonsLraLed LhaL anLhrax ln caLLle, sheep and horses was caused by a rod shaped bacLerla
called 8aclllus AnLhracls.
o ueveloped a weakened sLraln of Lhls bacLerla, and Look half of hls sheep and
ln[ecLed Lhls sLraln lnLo Lhem. Some days laLer, he ln[ecLed all hls sheep wlLh a
sLrong dose of Lhe bacLerla.
o 1he 23 sheep lnoculaLed wlLh Lhe weaker sLraln, survlved whereas Lhe oLher sheep
dled
o 1hls was Lhe sLarL of vacclnaLlon.
uld anoLher experlmenL Lo dlsprove sponLaneous generaLlon by provlng Lhere ls noL a
chemlcal ln Lhe alr whlch caused sponLaneous generaLlon. Pe proved LhaL lL ls mlcrobes ln
Lhe alr on dusL parLlcles whlch caused food spollage.
o Pad a goose neck flask whlch was fllled wlLh soup, one he removed Lhe goose neck
and Lhe oLher he kepL Lhe same.
Importance of asteur
eople belleved sponLaneous generaLlon and food decomposlLlon was due Lo a chemlcal ln
Lhe alr.
Pe demonsLraLed LhaL fermenLaLlon (yeasL and wlne) and decay were broughL abouL by
mlcro-organlsms and LhaL Lhey were noL purely chemlcal processes.
ulsproved Lheory of sponLaneous generaLlon and demonsLraLed LhaL llvlng organlsms are
presenL ln alr.
ulscovered LhaL lnfecLlous dlseases are caused by Lhese mlcrobes or germs" whlch was Lhe
phrase he colned. Pe called Lhls Lhe germ Lheory of dlsease.
Pe developed a Lechnlque of pasLeurlsaLlon for Lhe mllk, wlne and beer lndusLrles.
loneer Lhe Lechnlques of vacclnaLlons agalnsL anLhrax, chlcken pox, cholera and swlne fever
by ln[ecLlng a weaker sLrand of Lhe dlsease.
uemonsLraLed LhaL mlcrobes do noL need oxygen and can survlve ln Lhe absence of oxygen.
Pe colned Lhe word aeroblc and anaeroblc for needlng and noL needlng alr.
uemonsLraLed dlseases could be spread on hands and cloLhlng.
Pe lald Lhe foundaLlons for mlcro-blology.
Powever he dld noL esLabllsh Lhe assoclaLlon beLween one parLlcular paLhogen Lo one
parLlcular dlsease, merely [usL LhaL paLhogens cause dlsease.
kobert koch
Was a young man worklng aL Lhe same Llme as asLeur, Lhey were rlvals raLher Lhan frlends.
Pe worked wlLh anLhrax bacLerla from sheep and looklng aL Lhem under Lhe mlcroscope
esLabllshed LhaL Lhe anLhrax bacLerla could form spores (cell wlLh a hard reslsLanL, Lhlck
walled).
Pe Look Lhese spores and ln[ecLed Lhem lnLo sheep whlch resulLed ln Lhe lnfecLlon of Lhe
anlmals.
1hls demonsLraLed Lhe germ Lheory of dlsease, LhaL one parLlcular germ" caused a
parLlcular dlsease.
Pe developed Lhe procedure LhaL has sLeps Lo prove LhaL a parLlcular mlcrobe caused a
parLlcular dlsease
o All organlsms wlLh Lhe parLlcular dlsease musL have Lhe same paLhogen ln Lhem
Shane Weinberg

o 1he paLhogen ls lsolaLed and grown ln a pure culLure
o A proved healLhy anlmal musL show Lhe same sympLoms of Lhe dlsease when
lnoculaLed wlLh Lhe pure culLure
o 1he paLhogen from Lhe lnoculaLed anlmal ls lsolaLed and grown ln pure culLure and
ls proved Lo be Lhe same paLhogen as Lhe orlglnal culLure
SLudled 18 and dlscovered Lhe paLhogen dlscovered, and developed a LesL Lo lndlcaLe Lhe
presenL of Lhe dlsease ln sub[ecLs.
Pe developed a vasL varleLy of mlcro-blology Lechnlques.

ulstloqolsb betweeo ooJ qlve oo exomple of.
- ltloos - 8octetlo - Mocto lotosltes
- vltoses - ltotozooos - looql
8acter|a
Slngle celled prokaryoLe
Mlcroscoplc
nuclear maLerlal as naked clrcular chromosome and plasmld
Classlfled accordlng Lo shape:
o 8acllll - 8od Shaped
o Coccl - Spherlcal
o SplrochaeLes - Splral Shape
8eproduce by blnary flsslon
Causes dlsease by:
o 8eproduclng lnslde a hosL
o roduces Loxlns
Cram sLaln ldenLlfles bacLerla as:
o Cram poslLlve - LndoLoxlns
o Cram negaLlve - LxoLoxlns
Lg MycobacLerlum 1uberculosls (name of bacLerla) causes 1uberculosls (name of dlsease)
8acLerla can develop reslsLance such as Colden SLaph whlch ls reslsLanL Lo anLlbloLlcs
V|rus
Smaller Lhan a cell
ConslsLs of a sLrand of geneLlc maLerlal wlLhln a proLeln coaL
o unA
o 8nA
! 8eLro vlrus LhaL works by reverse LranscrlpLlon
8equlre a hosL Lo survlve
1he geneLlc maLerlal Lakes over Lhe hosL cell's process and makes new vlruses whlch are released Lo
Lake over oLher cells.
Some vlruses repllcanL wlLhln bacLerla - bacLerlophages
When culLured, Lhe vlrus needs Lo be culLured ln a speclal medlum as Lhe vlrus needs hosL cells
o usually human embryonlc lung flbroblasLs or monkey embryonlc kldney
vlruses are easlly LransmlLLed as Lhey have a crysLalllne sLage
vlral dlseases are more dlfflculL Lo LreaL compared Lo bacLerlal as vlruses are unaffecLed by anLlbloLlcs
o AnLlbloLlcs desLroys cells or dlsrupLs meLabollsm
o vlruses do noL have cells Lo desLroy or meLabollsms Lo dlsrupL
revenLaLlve measures llke vacclnes are besL defence agalnsL vlruses
Shane Weinberg

Lg Puman lmmuno-ueflclency vlrus (Plv) causes Acqulred lmmune ueflclency Syndrome (AluS)
Iung|
8lgld cell wall made from chlLln
non moLlle
no chloroplasLs
LlLher saprophyLes (llve on dead Llssue) or paraslLes (llve on llvlng Llssue)
Cellular or Lhread llke Lubes called hyphae
8eproduces by creaLlng mlcroscoplc spores, Lhe dlsease ls spread by comlng lnLo conLacL wlLh Lhe
spores
enecllllum ls a fungus whlch lnhlblLs Lhe growLh of bacLerla (allelopaLhy) and used as anLlbloLlcs
Lg 1lnea (lungus) causes ALhleLes looL (dlsease), Candlda alblcans (fungus) causes Lhrush (dlsease)
rotozoan
Slngle celled eukaryoLe
PeLeroLrophlc
MosL are aquaLlc and moLlle
Lg lasmodlum (proLozoan) causes Malarla (dlsease) however needs Lo be LransmlLLed by a vecLor
r|on
roLeln lnfecLlous parLlcles (rouge proLeln)
uoes noL conLaln unA
roduced by muLaLlon of a gene codlng for a normal cell proLeln
1he abnormal conformaLlon blnds onLo normal proLelns and alLernaLes Lhelr shape maklng Lhem
unable Lo perform Lhelr funcLlon
Lg rlon proLeln 8n (prlon) causes CreuLzfeldL-!acob ulsease (C!u)
Macro aras|tes
lleas
1lcks
Worms
o llaL worms (Lapeworms)
o 8ound worms (nemaLodes)
o Llve ln lnLesLlnes
lJeotlfy tbe tole of ootlblotlcs lo tbe moooqemeot of lofectloos Jlseose
AnLlsepLlcs are used on paLlenLs, whlle dlslnfecLanLs are used on surfaces
AnLlbloLlcs are chemlcals produced by chemlcals (usually fungl or someLlmes oLher
organlsms) LhaL lnhlblL Lhe growLh of bacLerla.
1hls ls an example of allopaLhlc
ulscovered by Alexander llemlng ln 1928 by serendlplLy when he noLlced LhaL hls culLured
bacLerla was no longer growlng unlformly where a fungus conLamlnaLed hls bacLerla plaLe
creaLed a clear clrcle around Lhe fungus where no bacLerla was growlng.
Poward llorey durlng WWll, worked wlLh a 8rlLlsh Lo brlng Lhese anLl-bloLlcs lnLo
commerclal use by reflnlng Lhem. 1hey were used on Lhe ln[ured durlng Lhe war and was
known as savlng many llves.
enlclllln ls known as a broad specLrum anLl-bloLlc whlch ls used agalnsL many Lypes of
bacLerla.
Shane Weinberg

AnLlbloLlcs do noL affecL vlruses because anLlbloLlcs dlsrupL cell meLabollsm and a vlrus does
noL have a meLabollsm
3 lmporLanL effecLs of anLlbloLlcs on socleLy
o Save llves and prevenL sufferlng
o lncreased agrlculLural yleld ln meaL producLlon
o WlLh anLlbloLlc reslsLance, new anLlbloLlcs wlll be needed Lo ensure humans sLay
lmmune Lo bacLerla.
Ant|-b|ot|c Act|on
AnLlbloLlc acLlon shows selecLlve LoxlclLy
o 1hey wlll harm one parLlcular organlsm (paLhogen) however do noL harm Lhe
organlsm whlch Lhey are admlnlsLered Lo.
o 1hey have a parLlcular specLrum of LoxlclLy acLlvlLy
! 8road specLrum LhaL covers many paLhogens
8road specLrums are glven Lo LreaL Lhe paLlenL as qulck as posslble
! narrow specLrum LhaL ls parLlcular Lo a Lype of paLhogen
narrow specLrum anLlbloLlcs are more favourable lf Lhe ldenLlLy of
Lhe paLhogen ls known, Lo prevenL anLlbloLlc reslsLance bulldlng up
ln oLher specles wlLh Lhe use of broad specLrum anLlbloLlcs.
AcLlon of anLlbloLlcs can elLher be:
o 8acLerlosLaLlc
! lnLerfere wlLh meLabollsm Lo sLop mulLlpllcaLlon and growlng
! ulsrupLs Lhe ouLer membrane whlch compromlses Lhe cell meLabollsm
! 1he anLlbloLlc prohlblLs proLeln synLhesls ln Lhe cyLoplasm Lo prevenL Lhe
nexL generaLlon of bacLerla havlng Lhe proLelns or enzymes
o 8acLerlocldal
! Wlll klll Lhe bacLerla by desLroylng Lhe cell membrane
Concerns of Ant| 8|ot|cs
klll beneflclal bacLerla
AnLl bloLlc reslsLance





MoJel losteots expetlmeot to lJeotlfy tbe tole of mlctobes lo Jecoy
Method
1. repare a soup broLh and boll for 1hr Lo klll any mlcrobes LhaL are conLamlnaLlng Lhe broLh
2. CollecL Lwo flasks and pour 300mL of Lhe broLh lnLo each flask whlle ensurlng mlnlmum
exposure of Lhe broLh Lo Lhe alr Lo prevenL mlcroblal conLamlnaLlon.
Shane Weinberg

3. lace a rubber sLopper lnLo Lhe mouLh of each flask wlLh rubber Lublng aLLached Lo Lhe
rubber sLopper.
4. PeaL Lhe flasks wlLh a 8unsen for a furLher 13 mlnuLes Lo klll any new mlcrobes LhaL
conLamlnaLed Lhe broLh durlng Lhe broLh Lransfer
3. Cnce Lhe broLhs have cooled, remove Lhe rubber Lublng from one of Lhe flasks and keep Lhe
oLher aLLached.
6. CreaLe an S" bend ln Lhe rubber Lublng of Lhe one flask by poslLlonlng lL wlLh a reLorL sLand
and boss head clamp.
7. 1he flask wlLh Lhe S" bend ls Lhe experlmenL whlle Lhe flask wlLhouL Lhe rubber Lublng S"
bend and exposed Lo dlrecL alr under gravlLy ls Lhe conLrol.
8. LeL Lhe flasks sLand for 2 weeks
9. AfLer Lhe 2 week perlod, compare and conLrasL Lhe mlcroblal colonles of Lhe experlmenL and
conLrol.
kesu|ts
I|ask Descr|pt|on after 2 week per|od
LxperlmenL (S" bend flask) no mlcroblal colonles have developed
ConLrol (no S" bend) vasL range of mlcroblal colonles on Lhe broLh
surface. All dlfferenL colours and Lypes. 1he
colour of Lhe broLh has also changed colour

Conc|us|on
1he resulLs from Lhe experlmenL showed LhaL mlcroblal colonles only developed ln Lhe conLrol flask
whlch was wlLhouL an S" bend and Lherefore exposed Lo alr. 1he flask wlLh an S" bend sLlll allowed
alr Lo reach Lhe broLh however prevenLed any dusL parLlcles reachlng Lhe broLh as Lhey would be
caughL ln Lhe S" bend as Lhe dusL parLlcles cannoL move up Lhe S" bend due Lo gravlLaLlonal forces.
1he flask wlLhouL Lhe S" bend was fully open Lo dusL parLlcles LhaL could fall lnLo Lhe broLh as pulled
down by gravlLy. 1hese resulLs prove and ldenLlfy LhaL Lhe germs" (mlcrobes) descrlbed by asLeur
were carrled on dusL parLlcles ln Lhe alr and only colonlsed when a nuLrlenL source ls avallable (le Lhe
broLh).







nlstotlcol Jevelopmeot of oot ooJetstooJloq of tbe coose ooJ pteveotloo of molotlo
Shane Weinberg

Date Deve|opment
18 8C llrsL descrlpLlon of Lhe dlsease malarla. 8omans
worklng ln swamps and marshlands became
lnfecLed wlLh Malarla. Malarla became known as
bad alr" and was assoclaLed wlLh marshes and
swamps.
1820 ulscovery of qulnlne as an effecLlve LreaLmenL
and prevenLaLlve of malarla.
1880 A lrench army docLor Charles Louls Alphonse
Laveran dlscovered Lhe cause of malarla was a
proLozoan. Pe observed paraslLes ln Lhe blood
smears Laken from people LhaL had [usL dled
from malarla. 1he malarla paraslLe was called
plasmodlum.

1883 Camlllo Colgl esLabllshed LhaL Lhere were Lwo
forms of Lhe malarla dlsease whlch caused fevers
occurrlng wlLh dlfferenL lnLervals. Pls dlscovery
lmplled LhaL Lhe Lwo dlfferenL forms of malarla
were caused by Lwo dlsLlncL paraslLes.
1897 8onald 8oss dlscovered LhaL lasmodlum was
Lhe proLozoan LhaL caused Lhe dlsease malarla.
1898 Clovannl Crassl dlscovered LhaL Lhe mosqulLo
was Lhe carrler of Lhe proLozoan lasmodlum
whlch caused malarla
1947 Chloroqulne was lnLroduced lnLo cllnlcal pracLlce
as Lhe prevenLaLlve LreaLmenL of malarla.




uesctlbe molotlo lo tetms of lts coose, ttoosmlssloo, bost tespoose, mojot symptoms, tteotmeot, pteveotloo
ooJ coottol
Cause
lasmodlum roLozoan
1ransm|ss|on
Shane Weinberg

Sporozolds are held ln Lhe sallva of mosqulLoes and ln[ecLed lnLo blood sLream of humans
CameoLocyLes remaln ln human blood unLll a new mosqulLo sucks up gameLocyLes whlch
are drawn lnLo Lhe sLomach of Lhe mosqulLo were ferLlllsaLlon occurs.
lerLlllsaLlon creaLes a cysL ln sLomach of mosqulLo, whlch bursLs and releases sporozolLes
whlch Lravel lnLo Lhe sallva
1hls makes Lhe human Lhe reservolr allowlng Lhe vecLor Lo plck up plasmodlum from human
nost kesponse
SporozolLs move lnLo llver where Lhey repllcaLe ln llver cells
1akes over llver cell whlch Lhen bursLs open and releases merozolLes
1he merozolLes repeaL Lhe cycle of relnvadlng llver cells, however also lnvade red blood cells
and reproduce lnslde Lhe red blood cell causlng Lhe red blood cell Lo bursL.
Some of Lhe merozolLes also form Lhe reproducLlve cells whlch are gameLocyLes (male and
female).
CameoLocyLes remaln ln Lhe blood unLll a new mosqulLo sucks up gameLocyLes whlch are
drawn lnLo Lhe sLomach of Lhe mosqulLo were ferLlllsaLlon occurs.
Symptoms
lever, shlverlng, [olnL paln, anaemla and headaches
Classlc dlsLlngulshable sympLom of malarla ls sudden coldness followed by rlgor and a hlgh
fever wlLh sweaLlng lasLlng for a few hours.
SympLoms occur every 2 days or every 3 days dependlng on Lhe Lype of malarla.
1reatment
Aotl-molotlol Jtoqs (most commooly Oololoe ooJ cblotopoloe).
Attemlslo Aoooo ls o type of wotmwooJ tbot ls ootlve to Aslo ooJ oseJ os o betbol temeJy
oqolost molotlo.
9,+5+()'-( : ;+%&)+2 )- <30&(
1okloq ootl-molotlol Jtoqs befote vlsltloq eoJemlc sltes
losect tepelleots to tepel mospoltoes,
Mospolto oets ooJ beJ clotbs to pteveot eotty of mospoltoes loto o cettolo oteo.
=-(),-% : ;+%&)+2 )- >-2?3')-
uesttoy tbe mospolto bteeJloq qtoooJs by Jtololoq swomps ooJ stlll wotet boJles
losectlclJes to klll mospoltoes
loJoot teslJool sptoyloq ooJ lotvlclJloq.

ulscoss ptoblems ossocloteJ wltb ootlblotlc teslstooce
Lach Llme an anLlbloLlc ls used, Lhere mlghL be lndlvldual paLhogens LhaL have a reslsLance Lo
Lhe anLlbloLlc. 1hese paLhogens survlve and produce slmllar offsprlng LhaL can survlve
anLlbloLlc LreaLmenL. 1he paLhogens wlLh non favourable genes wlll dle wlLhouL produclng
offsprlng Lhus removlng Lhelr genes from Lhe gene pool. Cver successlve generaLlons, Lhe
paLhogen wlll develop more reslsLance Lo anLlbloLlcs.
Shane Weinberg

LvenLually anLlbloLlcs become useless agalnsL bacLerla as Lhey become reslsLance
o 1here wlll be no LreaLmenL meLhod for some bacLerlal dlseases
o Colden SLaph ls a bacLerlal lnfecLlon LhaL ls reslsLanL Lo anLlbloLlcs and ls exLremely
dlfflculL Lo geL rld of.
o Many prevlously LreaLable bacLerlal dlseases may cause deaLhs.
lL ls lmporLanL Lo flnlsh an anLlbloLlc course even once Lhe sympLoms are gone Lo ensure all
Lhe bacLerla have been compleLely desLroyed. noL flnlshlng Lhe course may lead Lo sLralns of
bacLerla developlng anLlbloLlc reslsLance.
We are golng Lo have Lo keep on looklng for new anLlbloLlcs
Wlll have Lo flnd new vacclnes agalnsL bacLerla Lo make humans lmmune Lo Lhe bacLerla.

Ofteo we tecoqolse oo lofectloo by tbe symptoms lt cooses. 1be lmmooe
tespoose ls oot so obvloos, ootll we tecovet.
lJeotlfy Jefeoce bottlets to pteveot eotty of potboqeos lo bomoos. 5klo, mocoos membtooes, clllo,
cbemlcol bottlets ooJ otbet boJy sectetloos
I|st L|ne of Defence
A barrler LhaL proLecLs Lhe body aL posslble polnLs of enLry
hyslcal or chemlcal sLraLegles
non speclflc Lo Lypes of paLhogens
hyslcal barrler
o Skln
! ConLlnuous layer prevenLlng enLry
! CuLer layers are waLerproof
! Cll glands or sebaceous LhaL produce an oll LhaL feeds skln bacLerla LhaL
break down Lhe aclds, reduclng Lhe pP whlch prevenLs fungl from llvlng on
our skln.
! lf Lhe skln ls Lorn, Lhe blood wlll cloL
o Mucous membranes
! 1he llnlng of Lhe resplraLory, dlgesLlve and urogenlLal whlch communlcaLe
wlLh Lhe exLernal envlronmenL (le Lhey are open).
! Membranes produce mucous from glands whlch secreLe mucous conLalnlng
anLlbodles
! rlmary purpose ls a physlcal barrler whlch Lraps dusL and mlcro-organlsms
due Lo lLs sLlcklness.
o Cllla Palrs
! LocaLed ln Lhe resplraLory LracL
! 1hey pulsaLe ln synchrony and Lo sweep Lhe mucous wlLh any forelgn
parLlcles up Lhe Lrachea where lL ls elLher swallowed and dealL by sLomach
acld, or dlscharged by coughlng or blowlng nose.
Chemlcal barrlers
o Sallva
! Mlldly anLlsepLlc whlch proLecLs Lhe mouLh from lnfecLlon
o 1ears
Shane Weinberg

! llush ouL forelgn parLlcles
! ConLaln an enzyme whlch breaks down bacLerla
o SLomach Acld
! Pydrochlorlc acld ln sLomach
! kllls paLhogens ln sLomach
o Mlcro-organlsms
! vaglna conLalns mlcro-organlsms whlch produce aclds whlch compeLlLlvely
lnhlblL Lhe growLh of bacLerla and fungl.
xplolo wby otqoo ttoosploots sboolJ ttlqqet oo lmmooe tespoose
C|ona| Se|ect|on 1heory
Maclarlane 8urneLL developed Lhe clonal selecLlon Lheory
o SLaLes LhaL an anLlgen wlll selecL an agenL of lLs own desLrucLlon.
o le Lhe anLlgen wlll selecL Lhe Lype of 1 and 8 cells LhaL wlll cloned Lo brlng abouL Lhe
desLrucLlon.
Lxplalned how Lhe body dlfferenLlaLes beLween self cells and non self cells Lhrough Lhelr
unlque surface markers
o Markers of Class 1 are self markers and dlsLlngulsh Lhe cells of one lndlvldual from
all oLhers, so all Lhe cells ln LhaL lndlvldual wlll have Lhe cells of LhaL parLlcular klnd.
o Cells wlLh any markers LhaL are dlfferenL from class one markers are forelgn
1oxlns, vlruses, bacLerla and LransplanLed organs have non self markers whlch are Lherefore
anLlgens whlch wlll Lrlgger Lhe approprlaLe 1 and 8 lymphocyLes Lo brlng abouL Lhe lmmune
response.
lJeotlfy Jefeoce oJoptotloos, locloJloq. loflommotloo tespoose, lboqocytosls, lympb system ooJ cell
Jeotb to seol off potboqeo.
Second L|ne of Defence
CperaLes once Lhe paLhogens have galned enLry Lo Lhe blood or deep Llssues
Pas Lhe purpose Lo prevenL Lhe spread of Lhe paLhogens and desLroy Lhe paLhogens
non speclflc, as lL operaLes agalnsL all forelgn cells.
lnflammaLlon, fever, phagocyLosls, lymph sysLem and lnLerferon and complemenL proLelns
hagocyLosls
o non speclflc engulflng and desLrucLlon of lnvadlng mlcrobes by cells called
phagocyLes.
o 1wo Lypes of phagocyLes: neuLrophlls and macrophages
o Able Lo recognlse forelgn cells from self cells
o 1hey change Lhelr shape Lo surround Lhe forelgn cell and engulf lL lnLo a vacuole
called phagosomes
o hagosomes fuse wlLh lysosome LhaL dlgesL Lhe mlcrobe
o vlLal Lo conLaln paLhogens because lL Lakes Llme for Lhe Lhlrd llne of defence Lo
become acLlvaLed. 1herefore prevenLlng Lhe ouL of conLrol mulLlpllcaLlon.
LymphaLlc sysLem
o ConslsLs of lymph nodes connecLed by lymph vessels LhaL arlse as closed Lubes ln Lhe
Llssues
o 1lssue fluld moves lnLo Lhe vessels, once lnslde lLs known as lymph.
Shane Weinberg

o Lymph nodes are fllLers LhaL Lrap paLhogens where hagocyLosls can deal wlLh Lhem
o nodes manufacLure lymphocyLes (1 and 8)
lnflammaLlon
o Local proLecLlve response Lo ln[ury ln verLebraLes
o non speclflc
o CharacLerlsed by swelllng, redness, heaL (noL a fever) and paln
o Where Lhere ls a cuL or damage Lo Lhe skln, a chemlcal called hlsLamlne ls released
whlch seLs Lhe lnflammaLlon response lnLo acLlon.
o 1he hlsLamlnes cause Lhe blood vessels Lo dllaLe and become more permeable whlch
allows more fluld and blood Lo arrlve aL Lhe damaged area.
o WhlLe blood cells (neuLrophlls & macrophages) escape from blood vessels lnLo
damaged Llssue area
o 1he local lncrease of meLabollsm accounLs for Lhe local lncrease ln meLabollsm
o 1he swelllng conflnes Lhe paLhogens Lo Lhe locallsed area
o WlLh Lhe lncreased blood flow, more nuLrlenLs are broughL Lo malnLaln Lhe
meLabollsm and repalr of damaged Llssue.
lever
o Macrophages whlch have lngesLed and desLroyed a paLhogen, wlll release Lhe
chemlcal lnLerleukln whlch goes lnLo blood sLream Lo hypoLhalamus whlch wlll boosL
Lhe seL polnL of LhermoregulaLlon
o 1he sLlmulus response paLhway Lhrough homeosLasls wlll ralse Lhe core body
LemperaLure.
o 1he lncreased LemperaLure
! Could lnacLlvaLe Lhe paLhogens and reduce lLs repllcaLlon
! lncreases meLabollsm for repalr
! romoLes 1 cell producLlon
ComplemenL & lnLerferon roLelns
o lnLerferon ls an anLlvlral proLeln whlch laLches onLo vlruses or bacLerla and
lnacLlvaLes Lhem
o ComplemenL proLelns brlng abouL Lhe desLrucLlon of paLhogens LhaL have been
marked by anLlbodles.
Seallng off Lhe paLhogen
o Cccurs ln cases of 18 ln Lhe lung parLlcularly
o Cccurs when Lhe paLhogen canL be neuLrallsed, Lhe paLhogen ls lsolaLed
! Layer of macrophages surround Lhe paLhogen or lnfecLed lssue
! Second layer of lymphocyLes aLLaches Lo macrophages
! 1hlrd layer of flbre cells forms a Lough ouLer coaLlng of flbres.
! Any Llssue lnLernal Lo Lhls barrler wlll dle
! 1he sLrucLure ls called granuloma whlch ls common
5bow bow o oomeJ Jlseose tesolts ftom oo lmbolooce of mlctofloto lo bomoos.
Name of M|cro-organ|sm and Name of D|sease
Mlcro-organlsm ls Candlda Alblcans
ulsease ls Candldlasls, or more commonly, Lhrush
nab|tat and benef|t of m|cro-organ|sm
Shane Weinberg

normally presenL ln humans
1helr growLh ls kepL under conLrol by lmmune sysLem and bacLerla operaLlng Lhe same
locaLlon
Cause of the d|sease
normal Candlda ln guL ls kepL under conLrol by lnhablLanLs produced by bacLerla, and vlce
cersa, anLlbloLlcs klll good bacLerla whlch prevenLs Lhe bacLerla suppresslng Lhe mlcroflora
balance
Sexual lnLercourse wlLh an lnfecLed person
Low lmmunlLy caused by lmmune suppressanLs
Symptoms of d|sease
ulscharge
Colonles of whlLe fungal growLh
lLchlng
Soreness
Swelllng
paln
1reatment of d|sease
AnLl-fungal drugs - nysLalln
ConsumpLlon of yoghurLs and ?akulL Lo resLore good bacLerla levels.
Moclotlooe 8otoets wotk coottlboteJ to o bettet ooJetstooJloq of tbe
lmmooe tespoose ooJ tbe effectlveoess of lmmoolsotloo ptoqtoms
lJeotlfy tbe compooeots of tbe lmmooe tespoose. AotlboJles, 1 cells ooJ 8 cells
1h|rd L|ne of Defence
lmmunologlcal response lnvolvlng Lhe 1 & 8 lymphocyLes and Lhelr acLlons
Macrophages LhaL are Lhe heavy duLy
AnLlgen ls a chemlcal forelgn Lo an organlsm whlch Lrlggers an lmmune response
o usually carbohydraLe or proLeln molecules wlLh a dlsLlncLlve shape LhaL bonds wlLh
Lhe maLchlng class 2 markers of Lhe 1&8 lymphocyLe cells
o Wlll acLlvaLe 1&8 lymphocyLes by bondlng on Lo Lhelr shape
o AnLlgens musL have unlque shapes LhaL wlll only acLlvaLe Lhe lymphocyLes
correspondlng Lo lLs geomeLry.
AnLlbodles are lmmunoglobular proLelns (lmmunoglobullns) of a parLlcular geomeLry
produced by a parLlcular 8 cell LhaL has Lhe same surface geomeLry ln response Lo an
anLlgen of correspondlng shape.
o Plghly speclflc and can only comblne wlLh anLlgens of correspondlng shape
o ClrculaLe ln blood and Llssue fluld
o roduced durlng Lhe lmmune response by Lhe acLlvaLed 8 lymphocyLes
C|ona| Se|ect|on 1heory
Maclarlane 8urneLL developed Lhe clonal selecLlon Lheory
Shane Weinberg

o SLaLes LhaL an anLlgen wlll selecL an agenL of lLs own desLrucLlon.
o le Lhe anLlgen wlll selecL Lhe Lype of 1 and 8 cells LhaL wlll cloned Lo brlng abouL Lhe
desLrucLlon.
Lxplalned how Lhe body dlfferenLlaLes beLween self cells and non self cells Lhrough Lhelr
unlque surface markers
o Markers of Class 1 are self markers and dlsLlngulsh Lhe cells of one lndlvlduals from
all oLhers, so all Lhe cells ln LhaL lndlvldual wlll have Lhe cells of LhaL parLlcular klnd.
o Cells wlLh any markers LhaL are dlfferenL from class one markers are forelgn
1oxlns, vlruses, bacLerla and LransplanLed organs have non self markers whlch are Lherefore
anLlgens whlch wlll Lrlgger Lhe approprlaLe 1 and 8 lymphocyLes Lo brlng abouL Lhe lmmune
response.
1 & 8 ce||s
Pave Lhelr own self markers LhaL are class 1
Also bare a slngle Lype of class 2 markers LhaL are noL self markers
o 1hese class 2 markers ldenLlfy Lhe anLlgen LhaL wlll acLlvaLe Lhe 1 and 8 cell Lo clone
1 cells are produced ln lymph glands or bone marrow buL maLure ln Lhe Lhymus gland
8 cells also produced ln lymph glands or bone marrow, however remaln ln bone marrow
where Lhey maLure
uurlng embryo developmenL, 8 & 1 cells randomly develop a range of unlque dlfferenL 1 & 8
markers
o SLlll ln Lhe embryo, any 1 & 8 cell LhaL does noL lgnore self cells are desLroyed and
o Lhe oLhers wlll survlve and maLure
uesctlbe ooJ explolo tbe lmmooe tespoose lo tbe bomoo boJy lo tetms of. lotetoctloo betweeo 8 ooJ
1 lympbocytes, tbe mecboolsms tbot ollow lotetoctloo betweeo 8 ooJ 1 lympbocytes ooJ tbe tooqe
of 1 lympbocytes types ooJ tbe Jlffeteoce lo tbelt toles.
lmmooe tespoose lovolves two types of lympbocytes. 1 lympbocytes ooJ 8 lympbocytes
@ A70$*-47)+2
Otlqloote lo booe mottow ooJ lympb tlssoe
Motote lo tbymos qlooJ.
o cbllJbooJ qlooJ lo tbotox ot bose of oeck wbete tbey ote ptoqtommeJ to tecoqolse
self ftom ooo self ooJ Jevelop sotfoce teceptots
o kecoqolse mooy ootlqeos
o No mote moJe oftet eotly cbllJbooJ.
1 cells teqolote tbe lmmooe tespoose ooJ Jltectly ottock & Jesttoy fotelqo cells tbtooqb cell
to cell combot.
1ypes of 1 cells
o CyLoLoxlc cells whlch produce proLelns LhaL dlrecLly kllls Lhe cells wlLh Lhe speclflc
anLlgen on conLacL or hosL cells LhaL Lhe LargeL has lnvaded Lhrough cell Lo cell
combaL.
o Ampllfler Cells (Pelper cells) whlch acLlvaLe Lhe 1 & 8 cells are necessary for Lhe
lmmune response
o Suppressor Cells whlch regulaLe Lhe lmmune response by blocklng oLher 1 cells
when Lhe speclflc anLlgen ls no longer presenL
Shane Weinberg

o Memory cells wblcb temembet tbe ootlqeo ooJ tbetefote coo loltlote o fost lmmooe
tespoose pteveotloq symptoms of tbe Jlseose occottloq oext tlme tbe potleot ls te-
lofecteJ by potboqeo.
="AA >"BCD@"B ;"E9FGE"
H A70$*-47)+2
MoJe ooJ motote lo booe mottow
MoJe tbtooqboot llfe
8 cell clooes fotm octlve plosmo cells wblcb bove ptotelo syotbesls sttoctotes
ocb plosmo cell mooofoctotets lts speclflc ootlboJy wblcb cltcolotes lo blooJ ooJ tlssoe flolJ
8 cells Jevelop sotfoce teceptots wblcb ote ootlboJles ot lmmoooqlobollos.
AotlboJles bloJ to tbelt speclflc ootlqeo.
o Neottollsloq toxlo / vltos
o clomploq sollJ ootlqeos (socb os boctetlo)
o lteclpltotloq soloble ootlqeos
o Actlvotloq ootlqeo fot Jesttoctloo by complemeot ptotelos
1bls ls tbe <I>F;DA J DG@CHFBK ;"E9FGE"
C()+,&4)'-(2 6+)L++( @ M H A70$*-47)+2
1 nelpet cells teleose lotetleoklo cbemlcols wblcb.
o Asslst 8 cells to moke ootlboJles
o Asslst fotmotloo of octlve 1 cytotoxlc klllet cells
o 1tlqqet loflommotloo
o 1tlqqet moctopboqe lboqocytosls
9,-4+22
hagocyLe engulfs paLhogen
aLhogens are dlssolved and lngesLed by chemlcals
1he macrophage presenLs Lhe anLlbodles of Lhe desLroyed paLhogen on lLs surface
Lach cell has anLlgen markers on Lhe surface (class 1 meanlng lLs own ldenLlLy)
1he lmmune sysLem ls alerLed by forelgn anLlbodles
1he anLlbodles club LogeLher Lhe paLhogens where easy desLrucLlon ln one locallsed place
can Lake place


Ootlloe tbe woy lo wblcb vocclootloos pteveot lofectloo
Immun|ty and types of Immun|ty
lmmunlLy ls Lhe ablllLy of an organlsm Lo reslsL lnfecLlon by paLhogens
Achleved by prlor exposure of Lhe body Lo Lhe anLlgen whlch Lrlggered a speclflc lmmune
response.
1he Lerm lmmune response ls sLrlcLly ln reference Lo Lhe Lhlrd llne of defence only
1ypes of lmmunlLy
Shane Weinberg

AcLlve lmmunlLy
o AnLlbodles produced by Lhe person ln response Lo anLlgen enLerlng Lhe body
! naLurally acqulred by dlsease
! ArLlflclally acqulred by vacclnaLlon
! Long LasLlng
asslve lmmunlLy
o 8ecelvlng preformed anLlbodles
! erson blLLen by a splder/snake glven Lemporary lmmunlLy by ln[ecLlon of
lmmunoglobullns
! new born lnfanL recelved maLernal anLlbodles across placenLa and ln early
moLhers mllk
1he vlrus has very llmlLed geneLlc maLerlal whlch enables easy muLaLlons whlch changes Lhe enLlre
vlrus. 1hese muLaLlons change Lhe surface markers on Lhe vlrus, Lherefore when exposed Lo Lhls new
vlrus, lL ls forelgn Lo Lhe body as lL has new surface markers.
1lmellne of vacclnaLlon
Date Lvent
1800 Ldward !enner vacclnaLed a boy from smallpox
1823-1893 asLeur vacclnaLed agalnsL anLhrax, chlcken
cholera and swlne fever, also rables agalnsL
humans
1843-1910 8oberL koch worked on anLhrax
1923-1934 lnLroducLlon of vacclnes for dlseases.
1977 WPC declared Lhe ellmlnaLlon of smallpox

1ypes of vacclnes
Whole AgenL vacclne - conLalns whole mlcroorganlsms LhaL are unable Lo cause Lhe dlsease
o lnacLlvaLed
! lnacLlvaLed Lhrough chemlcal LreaLmenL
! Lg llu and ollo
o ALLenuaLed (weakened)
! 1hese organlsms have become weakened Lhrough naLural muLaLlons over
Llme whlch make Lhem less vlrulenL
! CauLlon ls Laken as Lhese organlsms can muLaLe back Lo a paLhogenlc form
! Lg Measles, Mumps & 8ebella
SubunlL vacclne
o 8ecomblnanL vacclnes
! non paLhogenlc mlcroorganlsms are geneLlcally englneered Lo produce a
deslred anLlgen. 1hey Lhemselves are harmless
! Lg PepaLlLls 8
Shane Weinberg

o 1oxolds
! venom or bacLerlal Loxln ls LreaLed wlLh heaL whlch denaLures Lhe Loxln
whlch becomes Lhe Loxold whlch ls unable Lo cause Lhe dlsease
o Con[ugaLed vacclne
! Some paLhogens LhaL have surface markers LhaL are poorly anLlgenlc, Lhese
are comblned wlLh oLher anLlgenlc whlch cause a sLrong lmmune response
! 1hls vacclnaLes Lhe body agalnsL boLh anLlgens
! Lg Paemophlllus lnfluenza 8
o Acellular vacclnes
! lragmenLs of Lhe paLhogen LhaL conLaln deslred anLlgenlc markers are
lnLroduced
! uoes noL produce lnfecLlon as only anLlgens are lnoculaLed noL Lhe acLual
mlcroorganlsm.
! Lg Whooplng Cough
Ootlloe tbe teosoos fot tbe sopptessloo of tbe lmmooe tespoose lo otqoo ttoosploot potleots
Otqoos tbot ote ttoosplooteJ bove closs 1 self motkets ftom tbe otqoo Jooot
lmmooe system of otqoo teclpleot wlll tecoqolse otqoo os fotelqo ooJ tbetefote wlll Jevelop
oo lmmooe tespoose to ottock ooJ Jesttoy lt.
1o ovetcome tbls, ttoosploot potleots ote qlveo lmmooosopptesslve Jtoqs tbot sopptess tbe
lmmooe system to lowet lts seosltlvlty towotJs fotelqo cells tbetefote pteveotloq tbe boJy
tejectloq tbe otqoo.
lmmooosopptesslve Jtoqs bove qteot loJltect slJe effects os tbe lmmooe system ls weokeoeJ
ooJ tbe teclpleot becomes mote sosceptlble to otbet lofectloos tbot woolJ bove osoolly beeo
oble to flqbt off.
voloote tbe effectlveoess of vocclootloo ptoqtoms lo pteveotloq tbe spteoJ ooJ occotteoce of ooce
commoo Jlseoses. smollpox, Jlpbtbetlo ooJ pollo
B+24,'$)'-( -. N+&)3,+2
uoes lmmoolsotloo sove llves, pteveot tbe spteoJ of Jlseose ooJ etoJlcote tbe tesetvolt fot tbe
potboqeo lo soclety
9-'()2 .-, &(1 &/&'(2) 5&44'(&)'-( ,+/&,1'(/ 4,')+,'&
5oves llves
o 5oves J mlllloo people eocb yeot
o lolflls motol obllqotloo of tokloq cote of voloetoble
cost of lmmoolsotloo
o lmmoolsotloo Joes cost mooey, bowevet tbe cost of pteveotloq tbe Jlseose ls
cbeopet tboo tbe cost of tteotloq tbe Jlseose os tbe pobllc beoltb system wlll be
loqqeJ wltb potleots wltb tteotoble Jlseoses
5ofety of vocclootloos
o osy to oJmlolstet
o vocclootloo Joes cootolo potboqeos tbot coo motote loto o oew potboqeo tbot tbe
vocclootloo Joes oot covet
Shane Weinberg

o 1be voccloe stlll ptovlJes lmmoolty oqolost tbe cotteot fotm of tbe potboqeo wblcb ls
sofet tboo tlskloq exposote to tbe potboqeo.
o 5lJe effects Jo occot bowevet tote, tbe slJe effect ls mocb weoket tboo tbe octool
symptoms of tbe Jlseose.
9,+5+()'-( -. -(4+ 4-00-( 1'2+&2+2
5mollpox
o lltst lottoJoceJ lo 1400s
o 1500s wos fltst tecotJeJ eoJemlc, bovloq JesttoyeJ
wbole towos lo 1600s
o lltst vocclootloo lo 1796 by Ieooot
o wnO loltloteJ wotlJ wlJe vocclootloo ptoqtom oqolost
smoll pox lo 1960.
o wnO JecloteJ smollpox etoJlcoteJ by 1980s
ulpbtbetlo
o voccloe JevelopeJ lo 192J
o 1925-19J5 7000 klJs JleJ
o 1940s boJ ootbteoks, bot oo looqet teqolot eoJemlcs
o 1974 wnO loltloteJ wotlJwlJe vocclootloo ptoqtom
o 1975-1985 50 klJs JleJ
lollo
o lo 1988 ptlot to wotlJwlJe vocclootloo, pollo wos
ptevoleot lo 125 cooottles
o lo 200J oftet wotlJwlJe vocclootloos, pollo wos coofloeJ
to ooly 6 cooottles.
o lo 200J tomoots spteoJ tbot vocclootloos wete o plot
oqolost Mosllms. Mooy Mosllms tefoseJ vocclootloos ooJ tbe Jlseose spteoJ to
oootbet 12 oelqbbootloq cooottles.
plJemloloqlcol stoJles lovolve tbe collectloo ooJ cotefol stotlstlcol ooolysls of
lotqe poootltles of Joto to osslst lo tbe lJeotlflcotloo of ooo-lofectloos Jlseoses
lJeotlfy ooJ Jesctlbe tbe molo feototes of eplJemloloqy osloq looq coocet os oo exomple
Lp|dem|o|ogy
Lpldemlology ls Lhe sLudy of Lhe lncldence of dlseases and facLors whlch deLermlne Lhelr
frequency and dlsLrlbuLlon.
1hls ls done Lo dlscover paLLerns whlch lead Lo Lhe cause of Lhe dlsease whlch wlll lead Lo Lhe
developmenL and conLrol of Lhe dlsease.
3 maln quesLlons drlve epldemlology
o Who geLs Lhe dlsease? - Age, gender, soclo-economlc sLaLus, eLhnlclLy, occupaLlon,
geographlc, llfesLyle, marlLal sLaLus.
o Why do Lhey geL Lhe dlsease?
o WhaL ls an effecLlve LreaLmenL or prevenLaLlve measure?
Va|ue of ep|dem|o|ogy Stud|es
Shane Weinberg

CovernmenL healLh deparLmenLs use Lo develop educaLlon prevenLlve programs
CovernmenL use Lo deLermlne effecLlve use of publlc healLh funds
used Lo ldenLlfy lndlvlduals who are aL hlgh rlsk of Lhe dlsease
used ln reLrospecL Lo evaluaLe Lhe effecLlveness of healLh awareness programs.
1ypes of Lp|dem|o|ogy Stud|es
PlsLorlcal uescrlpLlve sLudles
o uescrlbe Lhe lncldence of Lhe dlsease
o uescrlpLlon of Lhe facLors LhaL lnfluence Lhe dlsease
o Lg Lung Cancer
! Who geLs lL, age, sex, dleLary hablLs, smoklng hablLs, rural or urban
resldence, drlnklng hablLs
AnalyLlcal SLudy
o Analyses Lhe descrlpLlve daLa and proposes a hypoLhesls Lo accounL for Lhe daLa
obLalned.
o Seek furLher evldence le collecL resulLs and daLa Lo supporL or dlscounL Lhe
hypoLhesls.
o Lg Peavy smokers have a greaLer rlsk of developlng lung cancer Lhan non smokers
Ieatures of an Lp|dem|o|og|ca| Study
PypoLhesls
o Peavy smokers are aL greaLer rlsk of developlng lung cancer
ConLrol all varlables noL belng LesLed
o Smokers musL have same soclal hablLs, alcohol consumpLlon, geneLlc hlsLory, alr
quallLy ln envlronmenL, age, sex, geographlc locaLlon, socloeconomlc sLaLus.
Looks for a sLaLlsLlcal correlaLlon
o LlLher poslLlve (lf smoklng causes cancer) or negaLlve (smoklng doesn'L cause cancer)
Large sample slze (300-1000)
LsLabllsh conslsLency of any relaLlonshlp beLween cause and effecL
o MusL be consLanL among all people regardless of age, gender, geographlc locaLlon,
socloeconomlc sLaLus, occupaLlon.
1lme sequence musL be esLabllshed - Lhe cause musL be precedlng Lhe effecL however
wlLhln a reasonable Llme frame for Lhe effecL and cause Lo be llnked.
1he flndlngs should be Lhe same of an exLended perlod of Llme
o A snap shoL may be mlsleadlng
uose relaLed relaLlonshlps
o 1he greaLer Lhe exposure Lo Lhe cause, Lhe greaLer Lhe effecLs
8epeaLablllLy - same resulLs ln dlfferenL geographlc locaLlons uslng dlfferenL people.
ConflrmaLlon
o LaboraLory sLudles uslng anlmals such as raLs and rabblLs
See a consequence of behavloural change
o Lg 8emoval of causlng agenL, a deLecLlble lessenlng of Lhe effecL of Lhe dlsease belng
LesLed.
lJeotlfy cooses of ooo-lofectloos Jlseose osloq oo exomple ftom eocb of tbe followloq coteqotles.
lobetlteJ Jlseoses, oottltloool Jeflcleocles, eovltoomeotol Jlseoses.
Shane Weinberg

C(*+,')+1 B'2+&2+
uowo syoJtome ls an lnherlLed dlsease LhaL ls caused by Lhe non-dls[uncLlon of chromosome 21. 1hls
resulLs ln Lhree chromosomes and noL Lhe usual Lwo (Lrlsomy 21). eople wlLh uown syndrome have
a characLerlsLlc appearance and may have a shorLened llfe span. MoLhers who have chlldren laLer ln
llfe are more prone Lo produce uown syndrome chlldren.
Nutr|t|ona| D|sease
Scurvy ls caused by a deflclency ln vlLamln C. SympLoms lnclude bleedlng gums and LooLh loss. lL ls
LreaLed by lncreaslng Lhe lnLake of food and drlnks conLalnlng vlLamln C, such as clLrus frulL.
Lnv|ronmenta| D|sease
Lead o|son|ng
1he ma[orlLy of lead polsonlng occurs from Lhe plumblng flLLlng and flxLures made from lead.
lndlvlduals aL developlng counLrles are mosL aL rlsk Lhen compared Lo developed counLrles
due Lo Lhelr unregulaLed lndusLrlal emlsslons
lumblng sysLems prlor Lo 1930's lead plpes may have been used wlLh lead solderlng.
Lead fallouL from alr polluLlon.
rlor Lo Lhe 1930's palnL could conLaln up Lo 30 lead and serves as Lhe maln problem ln
developed properLles.
Lead peLrol resldues ln Lhe alr and soll.
Aoolyse lofotmotloo to lJeotlfy tbe coose ooJ effect telotloosblp of smokloq ooJ looq coocet
Aoolyse ooJ pteseot lofotmotloo oboot tbe occotteoce, symptoms, cooses ooJ tteotmeot of o oomeJ
ooo-lofectloos Jlseose. looq coocet & Melooomo
Me|anoma
1. Symptoms of Me|anoma
Changlng of shape or colour of exlsLlng moles ln Lerms of: AsymmeLry, lrregular 8order, uneven Colour,
ulameLer (usually over 6 mm), Lvolvlng (LhaL ls changlng and growlng). Can also cause dark areas under
nalls or on membranes llnlng Lhe mouLh, vaglna or anus
2. Cause of Me|anoma
1he maln cause of melanoma ls exposure Lo uv radlaLlon from Lhe sun and oLher sources, such as Lannlng
machlnes ln solarlums.
Lach Llme your unproLecLed skln ls exposed Lo uv radlaLlon, lL changes Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe cells and whaL
Lhey do. Cverexposure Lo uv radlaLlon permanenLly damages Lhe skln and Lhe damage wlll worsen wlLh
more uv radlaLlon.
3. 1hose more at r|sk of Me|anoma
Melanoma rlsk lncreases wlLh exposure Lo uv radlaLlon, parLlcularly wlLh eplsodes of sunburn, Also aL rlsk
are people who have: lncreased numbers of unusual moles, depressed lmmune sysLems, a famlly hlsLory
(ln 10, some havlng muLaLlons ln genes Cukn2A and Cuk4), falr skln and had a prevlous melanoma.
4. revent|on of Me|anoma
Shane Weinberg

Avoldlng sunburn by mlnlmlslng sun exposure when Lhe SunSmarL uv AlerL exceeds 3 and especlally
beLween Lhe hours of 10am and 3pm when uv levels reach Lhelr peak, le. seek shade, wear a haL LhaL
covers Lhe head, neck and ears, wear sun proLecLlve cloLhlng and close-flLLlng sunglasses, and wear an
Sl30+ sunscreen. Avold uslng Lannlng salons.
S. 1reatment of Me|anoma
Surgery can be curaLlve for Lhln melanomas and requlres LhaL Lhe melanoma be removed wlLh aL leasL 1-
2cm of normal skln around lL. lf Lhe dralnlng lymph nodes are lnvolved Lhey are removed.
lor Lhlck melanomas some cenLres offer hlgh dose lnLerferon afLer surgery, however many offer cllnlcal
Lrlals of vacclnes because Lhere ls no rouLlne Lherapy mandaLed. Surgery should be Lhe malnsLay of
LreaLlng relapsed melanoma lf lL ls posslble Lo remove all of Lhe dlsease.
lor wldespread dlsease, chemoLherapy ls borderllne effecLlve and drugs such as dacarbazlne can palllaLe
sympLoms, as can blologlcals llke lnLerferon or lnLerleukln 2. 8adloLherapy may palllaLe local sympLoms.

locteoseJ ooJetstooJloq bos leJ to tbe Jevelopmeot of o wlJe tooqe of
sttoteqles to pteveot ooJ coottol Jlseose
ulscoss tbe tole of pootootloe lo pteveotloq tbe spteoJ of Jlseose ooJ ploots ooJ oolmols loto
Aosttollo ot octoss teqloos of Aosttollo
ko|e of AIS
AClS ls responslble for quaranLlne operaLlons LhroughouL AusLralla.
lLs role ls Lo sLop Lhe enLry of dangerous pesLs and dlseases LhaL could affecL planL, anlmal
and human healLh as well as our envlronmenL.
AClS admlnlsLers Lhe quaranLlne acL Lo enforce Lhe law by lnspecLlng people and goods, Lhey
conflscaLe goods LhaL are noL permlsslble and desLroy conflscaLed goods. 1hey lmpose flnes
for breaklng Lhelr rules and regulaLlons
lf agrlculLure ls desLroyed lL desLablllses Lhe economlc slLuaLlon wlLh lmporLs and ouLporLs,
farmers lose Lhelr [obs.
Shlps comlng lnLo dock carry ballasL waLer whlch could desLroy local marlne organlsms (ln
Lurn damage coral reef and ruln Lourlsm), Lherefore ballasL waLer ls dumped ln lnLernaLlonal
waLers and new waLer ls plcked up whlch ls free from any organlsms local Lo any counLry.
ract|ces of AIS
8order conLrol
o AlrporLs, seaporLs and mall exchanges are requlred Lo undergo passenger and cargo
quaranLlne clearance
o lnLernaLlonal lnLeracLlons lncrease rlsk of desLrucLlve pesLs and dlseases, Lhus all
borders musL undergo sLrlcL quaranLlne conLrol.
Anlmal CuaranLlne
o All anlmals enLerlng lnLo AusLralla are sub[ecL Lo quaranLlne resLrlcLlons. 1hls
lnvolves Lhe anlmal belng ln quaranLlne for 40 days.
o CuaranLlne allows Llme for a dlsease Lo become presenL ln Lhe anlmal, Lhus
deLermlnlng lf Lhe anlmal ls carrylng a forelgn paLhogen. 1he 40 days ls Lhe
lncubaLlon perlod.
lanL CuaranLlne
Shane Weinberg

o All planLs enLerlng AusLralla musL be examlned and LreaLed Lo make sure Lhey carry
no pesLs or dlseases
o Llve planL maLerlal musL remaln ln quaranLlne for a perlod of Llme Lo make sure Lhey
are noL carrylng pesLs or dlseases
o uead planL maLerlal can be radlaLed aL a cosL Lo klll any organlsms or dlseases
presenL
Puman CuaranLlne
o All people are screened for dlseases
o lnsecLlcldes are sprayed on alrcrafLs Lo klll any lnsecL vecLors.
o Any cloLhlng LhaL was sub[ecL Lo susplclous behavlour (such as golng on a farm) musL
be declared and LreaLed.
LducaLlon
o under law, all arllnes flylng lnLo AusLralla musL dellver an approved ln-fllghL
quaranLlne regulaLlons announcemenL.
o ln many sLaLes, quaranLlne ls an lmporLanL parL of currlculum and AClS has
developed educaLlonal resources for sLudenLs.
8lsk AssessmenL
o 8lsk assessmenLs are carrled ouL Lo deLermlne Lhe feaslblllLy and danger of new
lmporLs
o 8lsk assessmenL wlll allow Lhe conLrol of dangerous lmporLs Lo sLop Lhe lmporLaLlon
before pesLs and dlseases have an opporLunlLy Lo break AClS securlLy.
xplolo bow ooe of tbe followloq sttoteqles bos coottolleJ ooJ/ot pteveoteJ Jlseose. pobllc beoltb
ptoqtoms, pestlclJes, qeoetlc eoqloeetloq to ptoJoce Jlseose teslstoot ploots ooJ oolmols
8ehav|our Mod|f|cat|on
Sllp, Slop, Slap, Seek & Sllde
AusLrallan ueparLmenL of PealLh
LducaLe AusLrallan Leenagers abouL serlousness and suscepLlblllLy Lo skln cancer
lncrease Lhe adopLlon and awareness of Lhe 3 key sun proLecLlon behavlours
o Sllp - wear sun proLecLlve cloLhlng LhaL proLecLs Lhe whole body
o Slop - uL on a broad brlmmed haL LhaL proLecLs enLlre face and neck
o Slap - Apply Sl 30+ waLer reslsLanL sunscreen every 2 hrs
o Seek - Seek shade
o Sllde - Wear wraparound sunglasses
Increas|ng Immun|ty of opu|at|on
lmmunlse AusLralla rogram
A lederal, sLaLe and LerrlLory governmenL lnlLlaLlve by ueparLmenL of PealLh
Alms aL lncreaslng naLlonal lmmunlsaLlon raLes for vacclne prevenLable dlseases
1he program lmplemenLs Lhe naLlonal lmmunlsaLlon rogram Schedule whlch currenLly
lncludes vacclnes agalnsL 16 dlseases:
o ulphLherla, noemopbllos lofloeozoe Lype 8 (Plb), PepaLlLls A, PepaLlLls 8, Puman
aplllomavlrus (Pv) lnfluenza (llu), Measles, Menlngococcal ulsease, Mumps,
Shane Weinberg

erLussls (Whooplng Cough), neumococcal ulsease, ollomyellLls (ollo), 8oLavlrus,
8ubella (Cerman Measles), 1eLanus (Lock[aw) and varlcella (Chlckenpox)
L|m|t|ng the Spread of athogens
CuaranLlne rograms
AusLrallan CuaranLlne and lnspecLlon Servlce (AClS)
Manages quaranLlne conLrols aL borders Lo mlnlmlse Lhe rlsk of exoLlc pesLs and dlseases
enLerlng Lhe counLry
rovldes lmporL and exporL lnspecLlon and cerLlflcaLlon Lo help reLaln AusLralla's flora and
fauna.
voloote tbe effectlveoess of pootootloe lo pteveotloq tbe spteoJ of ploot ooJ oolmol Jlseose loto
Aosttollo ot octoss teqloos of Aosttollo
SLaLlsLlcs
Land flora and fauna
Marlne blodlverslLy
Crops and llfesLock
Local economy (local [obs), lnLernaLlonal Lrade (planL and anlmal) regardlng lnLernaLlonal
repuLaLlon
8ables, fooL and mouLh, 8SL ln caLLle, free ln AusLralla. CLher counLrles have Lhese
however AClS have prevenLed Lhe enLry
4,000,000 people enLerlng AusLralla
o 230,000 lnLercepLlons per 10,000,000 Lravellers
o 30,000 posLal conflscaLlons per annum ouL of 130,000,000 lLems
11,000 vessels successfully lnLercepLed
CosLs
CosL effecLlve as cosLs of prevenLlon are cheaper Lhan LreaLmenL
8lodlverslLy
Cur lsland conLlnenL ls sLlll relaLlvely free of pesLs
uoes mean LhaL cerLaln goods aren'L allowed lnLo AusLralla.
Whlle we are parLlclpaLlng ln Lhe global economy, Lhe llne ls drawn somewhere by
allowlng whaL ls necessary Lo came and go Lhrough Lhe counLry
8epuLaLlon
Cur lnLernaLlonal Lrade repuLaLlon ls very good, people known LhaL all AusLrallan
producLs are quallLy due Lo Lhelr sLrlcL quaranLlne guldellnes
lood
We have food securlLles by havlng Lhe ablllLy of growlng our own food due Lo quaranLlne
prevenLlng crop devasLaLlon.
Slckness
revenLed sufferlng and slckness ln boLh people and anlmals
Shane Weinberg

Allows us Lo meeL our moral obllgaLlon Lo acL as cusLodlans of Lhe blodlverslLy for fuLure
generaLlons.
ulsadvanLages
Some cosLs
MlsLakes do occur - Lg Lqulne llu
AClS sLlfles Lhe lndusLry by provldlng resLrlcLlons LhaL can and canL be broughL lnLo Lhe
counLry.
CrlLerla
Clobal economy - we are sLlll ln lL, wlLh fanLasLlc global repuLaLlon,
CosLs - salarles, dogs, Lralnlng eLc
AgrlculLure - food securlLy (proLecLlng our crops)
8lodlverslLy - moral duLy
SLaLlsLlcs - acknowledge Lqulne llu

n5c 8loloqy
commoolcotloo Notes
nomoos ooJ otbet oolmols ote oble to Jetect o tooqe of stlmoll ftom tbe
extetool eovltoomeot
lJeotlfy tbe tole of teceptots lo Jetectloq stlmoll
A recepLor ls a cell LhaL ls speclallsed Lo deLecL a parLlcular sLlmulus and lnlLlaLe a response
8ecepLors are of dlfferenL klnds, each one senslLlve Lo a speclflc sLlmulus
When a sLlmulus ls of sufflclenL lnLenslLy, a proLeln molecule ln Lhe recepLor lnlLlaLes an
acLlon poLenLlal whlch ls LransmlLLed along Lhe afferenL nerve flbres Lo Lhe CnS
8ecepLors acL as Lransducers - converL sLlmulus lnLo elecLrochemlcal lmpulse
xplolo tbot tbe tespoose to o stlmolos lovolves. stlmolos, teceptot, messeoqet, effectot & tespoose
athway for An|ma| Commun|cat|on
1. SLlmulus - A physlcal or chemlcal change ln Lhe exLernal envlronmenL
2. 8ecepLor - Cells whlch deLecL sLlmulus and converLs lL lnLo an elecLrochemlcal nerve lmpulse
acLlng as Lhe Lransducer.
- AfferenL message from recepLor Lo conLrol cenLre
3. ConLrol CenLre- 8raln, cenLral nervous sysLem or gland
- LfferenL message along Lhe moLor neuron
4. LffecLor - Muscles or gland
3. 8esponse - 8eacLlon
Cotbet ooJ ptocess lofotmotloo to lJeotlfy tbe tooqe of seoses lovolveJ lo commoolcotloo
Stimulus Sense Organ
Visible Light Eye Rods and Cone cells as photoreceptors
Sound Organ of Corti hair cells as mechanoreceptors
Shane Weinberg

Taste Chemicals dissolved in
food and drinks
Tongue with taste buds as chemoreceptors as well as nose for smell with
nerve endings.
Touch / Pressure Nerve endings in skin as mechanoreceptors
Pain Naked and free nerve endings in skin
Temperature Change Skin with thermo receptors for external temperature change, hypothalamus
for internal temperature change.
Force - Gravity 3 semi circular cannals in inner ear, hair cells detect change in 3
dimensions of space from the moving liquid.

1he advanLage of Lhls ls enabllng anlmals Lo deLecL changes ln Lhe envlronmenL (exLernal and
lnLernal) and make an approprlaLe response whlch would enhance survlval or explolLaLlon of Lhe
envlronmenL.
vlsool commoolcotloo lovolves tbe eye teqlstetloq cbooqes lo tbe lmmeJlote
eovltoomeot
uesctlbe tbe oootomy ooJ fooctloo of tbe bomoo eye
arL uescrlpLlon luncLlon
Con[uncLlva 1hln membrane of eplLhellum cells
coverlng Lhe surface of Lhe eye
roLecL Lhe eye and reLalns
molsLure
Cornea 1ransparenL layer aL fronL of eye 8efracLlve medla LhaL bends llghL
waves
Sclera ConLlnuous parL of Lhe cornea, buL
noL LransparenL- forms Lhe Lough
whlLe ouLer back parL of Lhe eye
ball
roLecL Lhe eye and malnLaln
shape
Chorold Lles on Lhe lnslde of Lhe sclera and
ouLslde of reLlna plgmenLed layer
conLalnlng blood vessels.
revenLs refracLlon of sLray llghL
and llghL from scaLLerlng by
absorblng Lhe llghL. 8lood vessels
provlde eye wlLh oxygen and
nuLrlenLs
8eLlna 1he lnner mosL layer of Lhe eye,
llnes Lhe back of Lhe eye ball and
conLalns phoLorecepLors
8ecelves llghL and changes lL lnLo
elecLrlcal lmpulses LhaL Lravels Lo
Lhe braln vla Lhe opLlc nerve
lrls 1he coloured parL of Lhe fronL of
Lhe eye. Composed of muscles LhaL
conLracL and dllaLe
8egulaLes amounL of llghL enLerlng
Lhe eye by conLracLlons and
dllaLlons
Lens 1ransparenL blconvex proLeln dlsc
behlnd Lhe pupll
locuses llghL rays onLo Lhe reLlna
by refracLlon
Aqueous and vlrLuous humor Aqueous humor ls vlscous llquld
LhaL fllls Lhe fronL chamber of Lhe
eye beLween lens and cornea.
vlrLuous humor ls dense [elly
medlum llke and fllls Lhe back
chamber of Lhe eye beLween lens
and reLlna
Pelp keep Lhe eye ball ln shape
and refracLs llghLs as lL passes
Lhrough.
Clllary body 8ody of suspensory llgamenLs
(zonules)and cllllary muscle [olnlng
chorold wlLh lens
LlgmenLs hold Lhe lens ln poslLlon
and clllary muscles alLer Lhe shape
of Lhe lens
CpLlc nerve ConnecLs Lhe eye Lo Lhe braln- Lhe
reglon where Lhe opLlc never
leaves Lhe eye ls known as Lhe
Carrles nervous slgnals from Lhe
reLlna Lo Lhe vlsual corLex of Lhe
braln.
Shane Weinberg

bllnd spoL.

lJeotlfy tbe llmlteJ tooqe of woveleoqtbs of tbe electtomoqoetlc specttom JetecteJ by bomoos ooJ
compote tbls tooqe wltb tbose of otbet vettebtotes ooJ lovettebtotes
L|ectromagnet|c Spectrum
LlecLromagneLlc radlaLlon comprlses of waves of energy wlLh assoclaLed wlLh elecLrlcal and
magneLlc wave Lravelllng aL rlghL angles Lo each oLher and rlghL angles wlLh Lhe dlrecLlon of
wave movemenL.
1he naLure of Lhe radlaLlon depends on Lhe wave lengLh
o 8adlowaves, mlcrowaves, lnfrared, vlslble llghL, ulLra
vlslble llghL has a wavelengLh of 380-780 nanomeLers (10
-9
meLers).
1he human eye ls only able Lo deLecL vlslble llghL.
1he frequency of vlslble llghL ls from 4-8 x 10
14
Pz (one wave passlng a polnL per second)
1he speed of llghL ls 3x10
8
meLers/second
Shane Weinberg














CLher Anlmals
8aLLle Snakes
o Snakes have Lhe !acobson plLs lylng beLween Lhe eye and Lhe nosLrll deLecLlng
lnfrared radlaLlon.
o AdvanLageous as snakes have poor eyeslghL and Lherefore able Lo deLecL warm
blooded prey as Lhey can deLecL Lhe lnfrared radlaLlon form prey. 1hls provldes
added advanLage for flndlng food aL nlghL.
MosqulLoes
o 1hey have poor eyeslghL
o Can deLecL lnfrared from Lhermo recepLors on Lhe Llp of Lhe anLennas.
8lrds
o Pave four colour phoLorecepLors (red, green, blue, uv)
o 1roplcal frulL eaLlng blrds can deLecL uv llghL LhaL ls only reflecLed by rlpe frulLs and
noL non rlpe frulLs and Lherefore provldes Lhe besL nourlshmenL.
lnsecLs - 8uLLerflles & 8ees
o ueLecL uv llghL
SlghL ln Anlmals
8lrds
o Cenerally only has 2u vlslon excepL blrds of prey whlch have an overlap ln Lhe fleld
of vlslon.
o Pave colour vlslon enhanced by uv llghL due Lo Lhelr 4 cones
lnsecLs
o 8ees and buLLerflles have colour vlslon and uv
Shane Weinberg

o very senslLlve Lo movemenL
o 2u vlslon
o 1rlangle of slmple eyes whlch dlsLlngulsh shadows from llghL and used for close up
vlslon as Lhere ls no accommodaLlon.
o Compound eyes made of ommaLldlum used Lo deLecL colour and seL Lo deLecL vlslon
aL a dlsLance. very sulLed Lo deLecL movemenL due Lo hlgh number of faceLs.
o very rapld re-formaLlon of Lhe vlsual plgmenL enabllng lnsecLs Lo see very well
desplLe Lhe facL Lhey are movlng qulckly ln fllghL and llghL condlLlons change ofLen.
rlmaLes
o 1he chlmps, greaL apes and humans
o Pave 3u colour vlslon as Lhelr eyes are fronLal
Squld
o 2u as eyes are on opposlLe slde of head. 8lack and whlLe vlslon
o Pas a cup eye LhaL ls as complex as mammallan eye.
letfotm o flst booJ lovestlqotloo of o mommolloo eye to telote sttoctote to fooctloo

1be clotlty of tbe slqool ttoosfetteJ coo offect lotetptetotloo of tbe loteoJeJ
vlsool commoolcotloo
lJeotlfy tbe cooJltloos ooJet wblcb teftoctloo of llqbt occots
LlghL bends when lL moves from one medlum Lo anoLher medlum of dlfferenL denslLles
8endlng of llghL ls called refracLlon
1he change ln denslLy causes Lhe speed of Lhe llghL rays Lo change
As llghL passes lnLo Lhe eye, lL ls refracLed by four dlfferenL LransparenL medla:
- 1he cornea
- Aqueous humor
- Lens
- vlLreous humor
lJeotlfy occommoJotloo os tbe focosloq oo objects ot Jlffeteot Jlstooces, Jesctlbe lts ocblevemeot
tbtooqb tbe cbooqe lo cotvotote of tbe leos ooJ explolo lts lmpottooce
AccommodaLlon ls Lhe process by whlch Lhe verLebraLe eye changes opLlcal power Lo
malnLaln a clear lmage (focus) on an ob[ecL as lLs dlsLance changes.
1hls focuslng ls achleved by refracLlon of Lhe rays, maklng Lhem coverage preclsely on Lhe
reLlna.
1o ensure LhaL llghL rays are focused aL a polnL on Lhe reLlna, we need Lo be able Lo vary Lhe
degree of bendlng Lhe rays wlLhln Lhe eye. 1hls ls achleved by alLerlng Lhe degree of
convexlLy of Lhe lens.
1he clllary muscles conLaln boLh radlal and clrcular muscles LhaL are anLagonlsLlc.
When Lhe clllary muscles conLracL, Lhe llgamenLs loosen and Lhe lens bulges ouLwards and
becomes more rounded (curvaLure lncreases). 1hls focuses llghL from ob[ecLs LhaL are close
When Lhe clllary muscles relax, Lhe llgamenLs LlghLen and Lhe lens ls pulled lnwards and
flaLLens (curvaLure decreases) - Lhls focuses llghL from dlsLanL ob[ecLs
Shane Weinberg

AccommodaLlon ls lmporLanL Lo allow clear vlslon. lf Lhe lens could noL change curvaLure,
Lhe lmage would noL be focused properly, resulLlng ln a blurred lmage and hamperlng vlsual
communlcaLlon.
compote tbe cbooqe lo tbe teftoctlve powet of tbe leos ftom test to moxlmom occommoJotloo
D|stant V|s|on
1he curvaLure of Lhe lens musL be flaL
Clllary muscles are relaxed and suspensory llgamenLs are LauL whlch elongaLes Lhe lens
1hls focuses llghL rays from dlsLanL ob[ecLs onLo Lhe reLlna, as llghL rays from dlsLanL ob[ecLs
Lend Lo be parallel.
Near V|s|on
1he curvaLure of Lhe lens musL be lncreased as a Lhlcker lens has greaLer refracLlve power
1he clllary muscles conLracL and Lhe suspensory muscles slacken whlch lncreases Lhe
convexlLy of Lhe lens (curvaLure lncreases)
1herefore Lhe refracLlve power of Lhe lens changes from low (flaLLer lens) when aL resL, Lo hlgh
(rounder lens) aL maxlmum accommodaLlon.
ulstloqolsb betweeo myoplo ooJ bypetoplo ooJ ootlloe bow tecbooloqles coo be oseJ to cottect
tbese cooJltloos
Myop|a
CondlLlon whereby llghL ray focal polnL ls before Lhe reLlna
Cnce llghL rays reach Lhe reLlna, Lhey have spread aparL whlch caused a fuzzy lmage.
Caused by Lhe lens sysLem belng Loo sLrong (Loo convex) or Loo long axlal eye lengLh
known as shorL slghLed as myopes can see wlLh greaLer clarlLy aL near dlsLances.
CorrecLed by a concave lens sysLem
nyperop|a
CondlLlon whereby llghL ray focal polnL ls beyond Lhe reLlna
When llghL rays reach reLlna Lhey have defused Lherefore ob[ecLs aL near appear fuzzy
Caused by Lhe lens sysLem belng Loo weak (Loo concave) or Loo shorL axlal eye lengLh
known as far slghLed as hyperopes as Lhey can see wlLh greaLer clarlLy aL far dlsLances
CorrecLed by a convex lens sysLem
Cther techno|og|es to correct these v|sua| defects |nc|ude:
8adlal keraLecLomy: llne surglcal lnsLrumenLs shave small amounLs off Lhe corneal surface,
Lhus refracLlve power ls alLered
hoLo-refracLlve keraLecLomy: lnvolves Lhe remova| of the ep|the||um (ouLer membrane)
and Lhe surface of Lhe cornea. 1he laser ls used Lo shape Lhe uppermosL surface of Lhe
cornea.
Laser surgery: lasers are used Lo shave Lhe corneal surface, Lhus refracLlve power ls alLered.

xplolo bow tbe ptoJoctloo of two Jlffeteot lmoqes of o vlew coo tesolt lo Jeptb petceptloo
Shane Weinberg

Depth ercept|on
3 facLors come lnLo play wlLh depLh percepLlon (also known as 3u vlslon)
o 8lnocular vlslon has Lwo eyes on a flaL face Lhere ls overlap beLween Lhe fleld of
vlew beLween Lhe Lwo eyes. Any ob[ecL LhaL falls ln LhaL fleld of vlslon wlll be vlewed
from Lwo sllghLly dlfferenL angles as vlewed from Lhe Lwo eyes. 1he braln lnLerpreLs
Lhe percepLlon of Lhese dlfferences as 3u. 1he closer Lhe ob[ecL, Lhe more depLh ls
percelved.
o uurlng movemenL of Lhe head, close ob[ecLs appear Lo move more Lhan ob[ecLs aL a
dlsLance. 1he braln lnLerpreLs Lhls as Lhe greaLer Lhe apparenL movemenL, Lhe closer
lL ls percelved Lo be.
o We have learnL from experlence Lhe general dlmenslons of an ob[ecL. 1he larger Lhe
lmage ls percelved, Lhe closer we percelve Lhe lmage Lo be.

letfotm o fltst booJ lovestlqotloo to moJel tbe ptocess of occommoJotloo
uesctlbe cototocts ooJ tbe tecbooloqy tbot coo be oseJ to pteveot blloJoess ftom cototocts ooJ
Jlscoss tbe lmpllcotloos of tbls tecbooloqy oo soclety.
A caLaracL ls a cloudlng or opaclLy of Lhe crysLalllne lens of Lhe eye whlch prevenLs llghL from
enLerlng Lhe eye resulLlng ln blurred vlslon and evenLually bllndness.
1hey develop slowly and are more common ln older people
Caused by general wear and Lear, uv exposure, meLabollc dlsorders and smoklng
CurrenLly Lhe only LreaLmenL avallable ls surgery where Lhe whole lens or parL of lL ls
removed and replaced wlLh an arLlflclal lens.
1here are 3 dlfferenL Lypes of caLaracLs surgery:
o hacoemulslflcaLlon
! ulLrasound waves are LransmlLLed whlch break up Lhe caLaracL and lens
whlch ls sucked ouL as fragmenLs
! Lens capsule remalns ln place Lo provlde supporL for lens lmplanLs
o LxLra-Capsular Surgery
! Surgery conslsL of removlng Lhe lens buL leavlng Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe lens
capsule lnLacL Lo provlde supporL and poslLlon Lhe arLlflclal lens
! hacoemulslflcaLlon ls ofLen used Lo break up Lhe lens before exLracLlng
! MosL common caLaracL surgery
o lnLra-Capsular Surgery
! Surgery conslsLs of Lhe compleLe removal of Lhe caLaracL, lens and
surroundlng capsule
! 8arely performed
ln boLh surgerles, Lhe lens ls removed and replaced wlLh a plasLlc lens whlch remalns ln Lhe
eye permanenLly.

1be llqbt slqool teocbloq tbe tetloo ls ttoosfotmeJ loto oo electtlcol lmpolse
Shane Weinberg

lJeotlfy pbototeceptot cells os tbose cootololoq llqbt seosltlve plqmeots ooJ explolo tbot tbese cells
coovett llqbt lmoqes loto electtocbemlcol slqools tbot tbe btolo coo lotetptet
hoLorecepLor cells conLaln llghL senslLlve plgmenLs. 1hese cells converL llghL lnLo
elecLrochemlcal slgnals LhaL Lhe braln can lnLerpreL
1here are four maln layers of nerve cells (neurons) LhaL are dlrecLly lnvolved ln Lhe
Lransmlsslon of lmpulses ln Lhe reLlna.
o hoLorecepLor Cells - 8ods and Cones
! Absorb llghL energy
! ConverL llghL energy lnLo elecLrochemlcal energy, generaLlng a nerve
lmpulse
! 1ransmlL Lhe lmpulse Lowards Lhe blpolar layer
o PorlzonLal Cell Layer- Cccurs aL Lhe [uncLlon beLween phoLorecepLors and blpolar
cells. 1hey connecL one group of rod and cone cells wlLh anoLher and Lhen llnk Lhem
Lo blpolar cells.
o 8lpolar Cells - Sensory neurons whlch recelve elecLrochemlcal slgnals from
phoLorecepLors and LransmlL Lhe slgnal Lo nexL laLer
o Cangllon Cell Layer - Layer of neurons LhaL recelve elecLrochemlcal slgnals from
blpolar cells. 1hese neurons carry Lhe slgnals from Lhe reLlna Lo Lhe braln.
uesctlbe tbe Jlffeteoces lo Jlsttlbotloo, sttoctote ooJ fooctloo of tbe pbototeceptot cells lo tbe
bomoo eye
Rods Cones
Structure Rod like shape
Folded Lamella membranes in outer
segment (closest to the choroid) to
accommodate more Rhodopsin
Contains Rhodopsin pigment
Retinal convergence
Cone like shape
Folded Lamella membranes in outer
segment (closest to the choroid) to
accommodate more Iodopsin
Contains Iodopsin pigment
3 different Iodopsin pigments red,
green & blue that respond to different
wavelengths of light
No retinal convergence

Function Used for black and white vision
Used where light intensity is low
Used for sensitivity towards light
Used for high intensity light (bright)
Used to perceive colour
Used for visual acuity
Distribution Located only in the peripheral parts of
the retina
None located in the fovea
High density in fovea
Density diminishes towards the
peripheral parts of retina

Shane Weinberg














Ootlloe tbe tole of tboJopslo lo toJs
8hodopsln ls comprlsed of 8eLlnlne (vlLamln A) and Cpsln (a proLeln) bonded LogeLher
LlghL senslLlve plgmenL ln rods and also known as vlsual purple
under low lllumlnaLlon
o 8hodopsln ls desLablllsed whlch causes Lhe breakup of Lhe plgmenL lnLo 8eLlnlne and
Cpsln whlch changes Lhe charge on Lhe membrane (de-polarlsed) whlch creaLes a
nerve lmpulse whlch ls senL Lo Lhe braln. 1hls ls called bleachlng.
ln darkness
o Cpsln and 8eLlnlne are resynLheslsed lnLo rhodopsln
o Lnergy from Lhe mlLochondrla are used ln Lhe resynLhesls.
o 1he mlLochondrla are locaLed ln Lhe lnner segmenL of Lhe rod.
1he rods have greaL senslLlvlLy Lo due:
o 1he convergence as many conLrlbuLlng rods provlde collecLlvely sufflclenL charge Lo
creaLe a nerve lmpulse.
o 1he rhodopsln ls easlly broken down under low levels of llghL.
1he ouLer segmenL of Lhe rods has exLenslve foldlng (lamellae) whlch lncreases Lhe surface
area Lo accommodaLe more rhodopsln
1here are many mlLochondrla ln Lhe lnner segmenL so as plgmenL ls qulckly reformed ln Lhe
absence of llghL.
1he maln funcLlon of Lhe phoLochemlcal rhodopsln ls Lo absorb llghL ln order Lo seL off a
serles of blochemlcal sLeps Lo carry an elecLrochemlcal lmpulse Lo Lhe braln.

Shane Weinberg

lJeotlfy tbot tbete ote tbtee types of cooes, eocb cootololoq o sepotote plqmeot seosltlve to eltbet
bloe, teJ ot qteeo llqbt
Lach cone conLalns one of Lhree Lypes of lodopsln plgmenLs and Lherefore ls senslLlve Lo
dlfferenL wavelengLhs of llghL
o 8ed llghL - Long wavelengLhs
o Creen llghL - Medlum wavelengLhs
o 8lue llghL - ShorL wavelengLhs
8y comparlng Lhe raLe aL whlch varlous recepLors respond, as well as Lhe overlap ln colours
deLecLed, Lhe braln ls able Lo lnLerpreL Lhese slgnals as lnLermedlaLe colours.
1he 1rl-ChromaLlc Lheory sLaLes LhaL each Lype of cone responds Lo dlfferenL colours of llghL
(8ed, green and blue). All oLher colours are percelved by comblned sLlmulaLlon of Lhese
Lhree.
xplolo tbot coloot blloJoess lo bomoos tesolts ftom tbe lock of ooe ot mote of tbe coloot seosltlve
plqmeots lo tbe cooes
uue Lo cones deLecLlng colour, any defecLs or damage Lo Lhe cones wlll affecL Lhe ablllLy for
Lhe eye Lo percelve colour.
Lach of Lhe dlfferenL forms of opsln presenL ln Lhe cones ls coded for by a gene. A muLaLlon
ln Lhls gene wlll produce a malfuncLlonlng plgmenL or no plgmenL aL all.
As a resulL, a person ls unable eLo percelve colour ln Lhe normal LrlchromaLlc manner and ls
sald Lo be elLher colour deflclenL or colour bllnd.
ln humans, Lhe gene for codlng for red and green plgmenLs are locaLed on Lhe x
chromosome, whlle Lhe gene for Lhe blue plgmenL ls found on an auLosomal chromosome.
A person LhaL ls colour bllnd" ls usually able Lo see Lwo of Lhe Lhree prlmary colours and
Lherefore percelve colour dlfferenLly and lnLerpreL all colours based on comblnaLlons of Lhe
Lwo prlmary colours Lhey are able Lo see.
compote ooJ Jesctlbe tbe ootote ooJ fooctlooloq of pbototeceptots cells lo mommols, losects ooJ lo
ooe otbet oolmol
'Lyes' ln anlmals range from really slmple sLrucLures Lo exLremely complex ones.
Slmple eyes are made up of slngle phoLorecepLors cells whose funcLlon ls llmlLed Lo
dlsLlngulsh llghL from dark.
Complex eyes form a refracLlon and focuslng sysLem lnvolvlng lenses, speclallsed areas of
aculLy, and recepLors LhaL can dlsLlngulsh beLween a varleLy of colours.
Mammals, lncludlng humans, have evolved complex sloqle-leos eyes.
o 1he reLlna of complex eyes conLalns rods and cones, whlch conLaln Lhe vlsual
plgmenLs LhaL absorb llghL. 1hls lnlLlaLes changes ln Lhe Lransmlsslon of
neuroLransmlLLers LhaL pass messages across synapses. 1hese changes pass vla
blpolar cells Lo gangllon cells, whlch LransmlL a nerve lmpulse vla Lhe opLlc nerve Lo
Lhe braln.
uependlng on Lhe phoLorecepLors whlch are found wlLhln Lhe eye, Lhe ablllLy Lo deLecL
colour may vary. lor example, humans have Lhree Lypes of cones and are able Lo deLecL
Lhree Lypes of colour: blue, red and green. Powever, dogs have only Lwo Lypes of cones,
lacklng Lhe red phoLorecepLor, and Lherefore are unable Lo deLecL red-green llghL.
Shane Weinberg


AnoLher Lype of eye ls Lhe compoooJ eye, found ln lnsecLs. A compound eye conLalns
Lhousands of llghL-deLecLlng unlLs called ommat|d|a.
Lach ommaLldlum has lLs own lens, whlch focuses llghL onLo llghL-absorblng plgmenLs.
AlLered plgmenLs lnlLlaLe a nerve lmpulse LhaL ls LransmlLLed Lo nerve flbres (axons) whlch
are conLlnuous wlLh Lhe recepLor cells.
Lach ommaLldlum reglsLers vlslons from a dlfferenL parL of Lhe envlronmenL, resulLlng ln an
lmage LhaL ls a paLLern of doLs. vlsual plgmenLs can reLurn Lo Lhelr orlglnal sLaLe very qulckly,
meanlng Lhey can absorb more llghL aL a fasLer raLe.
1he bee, for example, ls able Lo deLecL Lhree colours: blue, green and ulLravloleL llghL. lL
cannoL see red llghL.
Cne of Lhe slmplesL llghL recepLor arrangemenLs ls ln Lhe planarlan worm (or Lhe flaL worm).
1he sLrucLure ls called an eye cop, whlch holds cells conLalnlng phoLorecepLors. When Lhese
phoLorecepLors are sLlmulaLed by llghL, Lhey alLer so LhaL a nerve lmpulse ls senL Lo Lhe
braln. 1here are Lwo eye cups, Lhus when Lhe braln reglsLers llghL lnLenslLy and dlrecLlon (lL
cannoL form an lmage) Lhe anlmal moves around and away from Lhe llghL source, Lowards
and area of low llghL lnLenslLy.1he flaL worm cannoL deLecL any colour, only dlrecLlonal
lnformaLlon.

uesctlbe ooJ ooolyse tbe ose of coloot fot commoolcotloo lo oolmols ooJ telote tbls to tbe
occotteoce of coloot vlsloo lo oolmols
Colour plays an exLremely lmporLanL role ln communlcaLlon for many anlmals, lncludlng
humans. 1hree forms of colour communlcaLlon lnclude:
o A fotm of possloq oo lofotmotloo - Colours are commonly used ln specles as a form
of lnformaLlon, asslsLlng oLher anlmals (boLh Lhe same and dlfferenL specles) Lo
undersLand whaL ls belng expressed. Anlmals whlch use Lhls form of communlcaLlon
lnclude:
! Pumans: for colour-codlng ob[ecLs, and Lypes of lnformaLlon such as LargeLs
and dangerous ob[ecLs.
! 8lue-rlnged ocLopus: alLers lLs colour when readylng lLself for an aLLack, and
also Lo warn lLs prey.
lood recognlLlon: used by many anlmals Lo deLermlne food supplles, parLlcularly blrds and
lnsecLs, who use Lhe colour of flowers Lo ldenLlfy pollen levels.
coottsblp ooJ motloq - Colours are ofLen used by many specles Lo slgnal when Lhey are
ready for maLlng, as well as ln Lhe aLLracLlon of a maLe. Lxamples lnclude:
o Male saLln bowerblrd: consLrucLs a nesL of grass and Lwlgs, decoraLed wlLh flowers
and shlny ob[ecLs, parLlcularly blue ob[ecLs. When a female ls aLLracLed Lo Lhe nesL,
Lhe male compleLes Lhe maLlng rlLual wlLh a dance.
o Male frlgaLe blrd: puffs up hls red neck pouch ln an aLLempL Lo aLLracL females
o Male angler flsh: are brlghLly coloured Lo aLLracL females.
! uefeoce mecboolsm - Many creaLures use colour as some form of defence mechanlsm.
Lxamples lnclude:
o Camouflage: lnvolves an anlmal becomlng almosL lndlsLlngulshable from Lhelr
surroundlngs, such as Lhe chameleon (whlch has Lhe ablllLy Lo alLer lLs colour) and
Shane Weinberg

Lhe peppered moLh (whlch has evolved Lo become almosL lnvlslble ln Lhe London
smog).
o Warnlng mechanlsms: lnvolves colours belng dlsplayed when an anlmals feels
LhreaLened. An example ls Lhe peacock whlch noL only uses lLs vlbranL Lall Lo aLLracL
a maLe, buL also Lo slgnal when lL feels LhreaLened, warnlng oLher peacocks.


! Many animals use colour to communicate a variety of types of information. The
effectiveness of this communication depends on the animals that they are sending this
information to, having colour vision to detect it. Fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds
have well-developed colour vision, but humans and other primates are among the
minority of mammals that can see colour.
! Animals may use colour to signal their availability to mate, to indicate their suitability
as a potential parent, to hide from predators or to warn of their palatability as prey.
Some species mimic other unpalatable or poisonous species by using colour.
! Humans have 10,000 cones per square millimetre compared to some birds that have
up to 120,000 per square millimetre. Birds who feed in the daylight see colours very
clearly, for example hummingbirds can spot red flowers from over a kilometre away.
Shane Weinberg



5oooJ ls olso o vety lmpottoot commoolcotloo meJlom fot bomoos ooJ otbet
oolmols
xplolo wby soooJ ls o osefol ooJ vetsotlle fotm of commoolcotloo
Many anlmals can hear, however few communlcaLe uslng sound
Sound does noL requlre conLacL or llne of slghL, or even close proxlmlLy, so messages can be
communlcaLed aL a dlsLance.
Sound ls able Lo pass Lhrough ob[ecLs.
8adlo waves bend round ob[ecLs
All anlmals are surrounded by alr or waLer whlch acLs as a medlum whlch LransmlLs sounds
1hls has survlval value as anlmals can become aware of changes ln Lhe envlronmenL as many
changes creaLe sounds.
A slmple sound can be varled (duraLlon, lnLenslLy, plLch/frequency, pauses beLween Lhe
sounds and Lhe Lone) whlch communlcaLes Lhe ldea LhaL Lhe anlmal can code many dlfferenL
messages from Lhe one Lype of sound.
Many anlmals, buL parLlcularly humans, produce a range of many sounds and Lherefore can
efforLlessly consLrucL complex messages. 1hls has enabled people Lo have deflnlLe soclal
messages and enables us Lo have developed a very complex language.
1he chlmps have a form of verbal communlcaLlon whlch enables evoluLlon
Sounds are used Lo deLecL dlrecLlon and Lhe dlsLance of Lhe sound source
ulrecLlon
o ulrecLlon ls percelved by Lhe dlfferenL of Lhe arrlval of Lhe sound wave aL each ear.
o 1he Lonal quallLy (le more muffled), Lhen lLs ln Lhe ear LhaL ls noL faclng Lhe sound.
ulsLance
o 1he louder Lhe sound, Lhe closer Lhe orlgln of Lhe sound ls.
o lf Lhe sound ls advanclng, lLs a hlgher frequency Lhen lf lL were recedlng

xplolo tbot soooJ ls ptoJoceJ by vlbtotloq objects ooJ tbot tbe ftepoeocy of tbe soooJ ls tbe some
os tbe ftepoeocy of tbe vlbtotloo of tbe sootce of tbe soooJ.
Sound ls produced when an ob[ecL vlbraLes rapldly enough Lo creaLe a compresslon wave of
surroundlng alr molecules.
1he wave ls only able Lo Lravel Lhrough medla whlch conLaln parLlcles, Lherefore allowlng
compresslon and rarefacLlon (spread)
1he parLlcles move forwards and backwards ln Lhe same dlrecLlon as Lhe flow of energy
lL ls Lhe energy LhaL ls Lransferred, noL Lhe molecules.
1he frequency of Lhe sound ls Lhe same as Lhe frequency of Lhe vlbraLlon of source of sound.
1he frequency of Lhe vlbraLlons ls Lhe number of waves LhaL pass a glven polnL ln one
second. 1hls ls expressed ln cycles per second known as PerLz (Pz).
Low frequency sounds have long wavelengLhs and Lravel furLher, whlle hlgh frequency sound
waves have shorL wavelengLhs.
Shane Weinberg

1he ampllLude of Lhe sound ls Lhe maxlmum dlsplacemenL of Lhe parLlcle from Lhe orlgln.
1he ampllLude deLermlnes Lhe volume of Lhe sound, measured ln ueclbels (d8).
Ootlloe tbe sttoctote of tbe bomoo lotyox ooJ tbe ossocloteJ sttoctotes tbot osslst tbe ptoJoctloo of
soooJ
known as Lhe volce box.
1he longer a vlbraLlng ob[ecL, Lhe lower Lhe frequency whlch ls why males have a lower and
deeper volces
Made from carLllage whlch arLlculaLe LogeLher
o 1hyrold carLllage
! Large sLrucLure LhaL ls open aL Lhe back and has llLLle horns aL Lhe back
o 1racheal carLllage
o Crlcold CarLllage
! 8lng shaped and wldens aL Lhe back.
! 1rlangular shaped carLllage resLs on Lhe rlm of aryLenolds carLllages
! Peld ln poslLlon by llgamenLs
o AryLenold CarLllage
! Moved by muscles
lf moved backwards, Lhe vocal cords are LlghLened whlch creaLes a
hlgher frequency sound
lf moved forwards Lhe vocal chords wldens whlch allows more alr Lo
pass creaLlng a lower plLch sound and louder plLch.
1he LaughLness of Lhe vocal cords deLermlnes Lhe frequencles of Lhe volce.
1he eplgloLLls ls Lhe flap of carLllage whlch covers Lhe gloLLls prevenLlng food and drlnk from
golng down Lhe gloLLls and lnLo Lhe Lrachea.
1he flap whlch llnes Lhe larynx forms Lhe vocal chords. 1here ls a palr of vocal chords.
Movlng Lhe carLllages back and forward wlll change Lhe LlghLness of Lhe vocal cords.
Movlng Lhe carLllage ouLwards lL wlll wlden Lhe vocal chords allowlng a greaLer volume of alr
Lo move Lhrough Lhe vocal cord.
LplgloLLls of Lhe larynx guards Lhe enLrance of Lhe Lrachea durlng swallowlng.
1he llnlng of Lhe larynx folds lnwards Lo creaLe a palr of folds
o 1he boLLom fold ls relnforced wlLh llgamenLs whlch are aLLached LogeLher aL Lhe
back of Lhe larynx and Lhe oLher end ls aLLached Lo Lhe aryLenold.
honaLlon (for speech) ls achleved by Lhe muscles of Lhe cheeks, LhroaL, Longue and llps whlch forms
very parLlcular llps.
1one of a volce ls provlded by Lhe echos of Lhe hollow slnuses, LhaL why when you are slck your
slnuses are fllled wlLh mucus and prevenL Lhe echo whlch changes your volce.
letfotm o fltst booJ lovestlqotloo to lJeotlfy tbe telotloosblp betweeo woveleoqtb, ftepoeocy ooJ
pltcb of o soooJ
polpmeot. ! CaLhode 8ay Cscllloscope (C8C) ! Audlo Cscllloscope

Shane Weinberg

MetboJ. " Audlo oscllloscope produces sounds of dlfferenL frequencles (plLch).
1he frequency ls measured ln herLz.
" 1he C8C dlsplays Lhe sound waves on a screen. 1he wavelengLh can be
measured on Lhe screen.

kesolts.
Frequency (Hz) Pitch Wavelength (cm)
5 No sound heard 1 400
50 Low sound 140
500 Medium sound 14
5 000 High sound 1.4
50 000 No sound heard 0.14

cooclosloo. 1he lower Lhe frequency, Lhe longer Lhe wavelengLh and Lhe lower Lhe plLch of
sound. 1he hlgher Lhe frequency, Lhe shorLer Lhe wavelengLh and a hlgh plLch sound.

Ootlloe ooJ compote some of tbe sttoctotes oseJ by oolmols otbet tboo bomoos to ptoJoce soooJ
8aLs
1000-20,000 Pz
navlgaLe by echolocaLlon, allowlng Lhem Lo have perfecL vlslon ln pure darkness. 1hey are
nocLurnal and Lherefore can see when Lhey fly.
When baLs fly, Lhey emlL a sLeady sLream of dlscreLe ulLrasonlc cry. Lach cry descends are
ascends a range of frequencles.
8eflecLlons of Lhese sounds by surroundlng ob[ecLs wlll be capLured by Lhe very large ears
and wlll be lnLerpreLed Lo locaLe obsLacles. ulsLance wlll percelved by Lhe Llme delay
beLween Lhe producLlon of Lhe sound and Lhe recelpL of Lhe echo.
ulrecLlon of Lhe echo ls percelved by Lhe vlrLue of Lhe Llme delay beLween arrlvlng aL Lhe Lwo
ears. 1he second ear wlll also recelve a more muLed Lone due Lhe sonlc shadow.
1he anlmal wlll llsLen durlng Lhe Llme delay beLween crles, Lherefore Lhelr hearlng aL LhaL
frequency lsn'L damaged.
As lL approaches an ob[ecL, lL produces Lhe sounds more frequenLly. As lL approaches Lhe
ob[ecL lL has less Llme Lo reacL and Lherefore Lhe more feedback lL geLs, Lhe beLLer Lhe baL
can [udge and acL approprlaLely.
orpolse / uolphln
130-130,000 Pz
1he dolphln wlll use Lhe low frequency sounds waves for long dlsLances as Lhe waves don'L
dlsslpaLe Lhe energy qulckly. AL close dlsLance, ulLrasounds are used.
1he ulLrasound frequency ls an adapLaLlon Lo Lhe envlronmenL, as Lhey llve ln an aquaLlc
envlronmenL and Lherefore llghL doesn'L peneLraLe deep.
Shane Weinberg

lL has Lhe Lyplcal mammallan ear, however wlLhouL an exLernal ear (plnna).
1he [aw bone ls Lhe Lransducer of Lhe sound. 1herefore Lhe vlbraLlng ear drum has llLLle
lmporLance.

Aolmols tbot ptoJoce vlbtotloos olso bove otqoos to Jetect vlbtotloos
Ootlloe ooJ compote tbe Jetectloo of vlbtotloos by losects, flsb ooJ mommols
CLher Anlmals
Anlmals ln general can hear a wlder range of frequencles Lhan Lhey can produce. 1here ls a
greaL range of frequencles LhaL anlmals use alLogeLher.
lnsecLs
o kaLydlds and CrlckeLs
! 4 wlngs, Lhe Lwo back wlngs lle over one anoLher.
! Cne of Lhe wlngs have a scraper and Lhe oLher a flle.
! As wlngs slld over one anoLher, Lhe scraper makes conLacLs wlLh Lhe flle and
produces a sound of a cerLaln frequency.
! CrlckeLs also llfL Lhelr wlngs and Louch Lhem Lo Lhe roof of Lhe burrow whlch
lnLroduces an overlay of sound
o Clcadas
! 1he male clcadas wlll call from Lrees
! Sound produclng sLrucLures are called Lymbals (palr), locaLed on Lhe upper
slde of Lhe abdomen. 1hey are convex ouLer bludglng drums locaLed above
an alr chamber.
! 1here ls an aLLached muscle on Lhe lnslde whlch causes Lhe drum Lo bend
lnwards. When dolng so, lL makes a cllck
! When reLurnlng Lo lLs normal shape, lL cllcks ouL.
! 1hese vlbraLlng cllcks are echoed by Lhe alr chambers beneaLh.
! ln order Lo prevenL deafness, Lhey make Lhe eardrum LaughL whlch prevenLs
vlbraLlons.
o 8ees
! 1he buzzlng of Lhe bees ls due Lo Lhe vlbraLlons of Lhelr wlngs.
o Crasshoppers & LocusLs
! Make sounds by sLrldulaLlon
! 1hey rub Lhe splkes on Lhe hlnd legs agalnsL Lhe edge of Lhe wlngs.
o llsh
! 8ub Lhelr gllls or pecLoral LogeLher
! Also drum on Lhelr swlm bladder wlLh speclal muscles and bones (bag of alr)
whlch allows Lhem Lo produce slmple schoollng calls.
o lrogs
! ass alr back and forLh of Lhe vocal chords ln Lhe larynx
! Lcholng ls achleved by passlng alr Lhrough Lhe expanded mouLh
o 8lrds
! 1he larynx ls noL used ln producLlon of sound and only guards Lhe Lrachea
Shane Weinberg

! 1he syrlnx aL Lhe base of Lhe Lrachea ls Lhe volce box. LocaLed aL Lhe [uncLlon
of Lhe 8ronchl Lubes. Lach ls composed of an enlarged volume wlLh a palr of
membranes moved by muscles and alr currenLs comlng from each lung.
! ln effecL, Lhls makes a Lwln larynx whlch explalns Lhe complexlLy of blrd song
Detect|on of V|brat|ons |n An|ma|s
lnsecLs
o ln grasshoppers / locusLs, Lhere ls a Lympanlc membrane locaLed on Lhe flrsL
segmenL of Lhe abdomen.
o ln kaLydlds and CrlckeLs, Lhe membrane ls sLreLched across a sllL on Lhe fronL palr of
legs.
o 1he eardrum ls a LaughL membrane (drum) sLreLched across a Lracheal cavlLy. 1he
membrane wlll vlbraLe ln response Lo a sound sLlmulus and underneaLh lL, lL wlll
sLlmulaLe mechanorecepLors whlch wlll converL Lhe vlbraLlons lnLo a nerve lmpulse.
1hese are Lhe Lransducers.
o very llLLle frequency dlscrlmlnaLlon, however very senslLlve Lo frequency LhaL can be
heard.
o LocallsaLlon of sound ls also posslble
o lnsecLs respond Lo hlgh frequencles LhaL exLend lnLo Lhe ulLrasonlc.
llsh
o llsh have poor hearlng, respondlng Lo only low frequencles LhaL musL be loud
o 1hey have Lwo lnner ears essenLlally for balance, buL also wlLh some audlLory
mechanorecepLors.
o 1here ls no exLernal mlddle ear or cochlear
o 1he swlm bladder plcks up vlbraLlons from Lhe waLer and Lhese vlbraLlons are
LransmlLLed Lo Lhe fluld fllled lnner ear vla Lhe verLebral bones and someLlmes also
by Lhe osslcle chaln
o 1he alr bladder ls fllled wlLh alr and can be compressed, Lherefore can deLecL
vlbraLlons ln Lhe surroundlng envlronmenL.
o 1he flsh skull bones are also used Lo deLecL sound vlbraLlons.
o Slngle recepLor, Lherefore no dlscrlmlnaLlon of sound source. 1he laLeral llne sysLem
Lherefore conducLs locallsaLlon.
Latera| L|ne System
used Lo deLecL mechanlcal vlbraLlons ln Lhe waLer (waLer currenLs, dlsLurbances by prey)
Canals open Lo Lhe envlronmenL vla a serles of ducLs LhaL open aL Lhe surface as a laLeral llne
pore
varlaLlons ln waLer pressure beLween dlfferenL pores along Lhe canal causes a dlrecLlonal
movemenL of waLer Lhrough Lhe canal
Speclallsed sensory organs ln Lhe canal deLecL Lhe dlrecLlon and lnLenslLy of Lhls flow
1he sense organs conslsL of a base of cells wlLh sensory halrs (cllla) LhaL pro[ecL lnLo Lhe
canal. 1hese halrs are capped wlLh a gel-llke capula.
WaLer movlng Lhrough Lhe canal dlsLurbs Lhe cupula whlch ln Lurn sLlmulaLes Lhe halr cells
and lnlLlaLes a nerve lmpulse Lo Lhe braln.
1he laLeral llne sysLem ls parLlcularly good aL deLecLlng large dlsLurbances ln Lhe waLer.

Shane Weinberg

uesctlbe tbe oootomy ooJ fooctloo of tbe bomoo eot
Part of Ear Structure Function
Pinna The ears either side of the head,
made from cartilage.
Channels sounds waves to ear
drum
Tympanic membrane Taut membrane with three layers,
the outer layer is continuous with
the outer layer of the auditory
canal
Converts and magnifies sound
waves into mechanical vibrations
Ear ossicles Three small bones of the middle
ear stirrup, anvil & hammer
Transfer mechanical vibrations
from ear drum to oval window
and amplifies them.
Oval window Membrane covering an opening in
the bony case of the cochlear at
the upper canal of the cochlear
between middle- inner ear
Transfers vibrations from the
stirrup to the fluid in the cochlear
Round window A membrane located at the base
end of the lower canal of the
cochlear
Equalizes fluid pressure in
cochlear when oval window
vibrates.
Cochlea Snailed shaped. Oval window
connects to upper canal. Upper
and lower canals are filled with
perilymph, the lowest canal ends
at the round window. The middle
canal contains endolymph.
The sensory organ of hearing.
Coil shape increases SA:V,
therefore increasing the amount of
hair cells present for hearing.
Organ of Corti Middle canal. Has tectorial
membrane covering the inner and
outer air cells, basilar membrane
separating the middle canal from
lowest canal. Tapers with the
broader, stiffer ends near the oval
window.
Receptor cells detect vibrations in
the fluid
Auditory nerve Neurons lead from the cochlear
and the sense organ of balance to
the correct perception centre of
the brain
It occupies the spiral canal of the
cochlea and conducts sensory
stimuli from the ear to the brain
Eustachain tube Equalizes air pressure on both
sides of the eardrum and also
drains mucus from the middle ear

Ootlloe tbe tole of tbe ostocbloo tobe
ConnecLs Lhe mlddle ear wlLh Lhe nose and LhroaL
Shane Weinberg

usually Lhe openlng ls closed, buL lL opens when we yawn or
swallow
8y permlLLlng alr Lo leave or enLer Lhe mlddle ear, Lhe Lube
equallses alr pressure on elLher slde of Lhe eardrum (mlddle and ouLer ear).
1he popplng nolse heard ln an aeroplane ls Lhe rapld ad[usLmenL
of Lhls pressure.
Ootlloe tbe potb of o soooJ wove tbtooqb tbe extetool, mlJJle ooJ looet eot ooJ lJeotlfy tbe eoetqy
ttoosfotmotloos tbot occot
Sound waves collecLed by Lhe plnna and channelled Lhrough audlLory canal
Sound waves reach Lympanlc membrane and are converLed lnLo mechanlcal movemenLs
Lhrough Lhe vlbraLlons of Lhe membrane
Mechanlcal energy causes ear osslcles Lo vlbraLe and Lransfer Lhe mechanlcal movemenLs
lnLo mechanlcal energy Lo Lhe oval wlndow.
Cval wlndow vlbraLes causlng pressure waves ln Lhe perllymph fllled cochlear
Palr cells locaLed ln dlfferenL reglons of Lhe organ of corLl respond Lo dlfferenL sound
frequencles. Plgh frequencles aL boLLom of organ, whlle low frequencles aL Lop
ressure waves of fluld are converLed lnLo elecLrochemlcal energy ln form of nerve lmpulses
when correspondlng halr cells are sLlmulaLed.
uesctlbe tbe telotloosblp betweeo tbe Jlsttlbotloo of bolt cells lo tbe otqoo of cottl ooJ tbe Jetectloo
of soooJs of Jlffeteot ftepoeocles
1he cochlear ls a long, narrow, colled Lube LhaL ls separaLed lnLo Lhree parLs by Lwo
membranes.
1he organ of CorLl, whlch conLalns Lhe sound recepLor halr cells, ls on Lhe basllar membrane.
1he organ of CorLl has Lhree maln componenLs: Lhe basllar membrane, halr cells (sLerocllla)
and Lhe LecLorlal membrane.
1he halr cells Louch Lhe LecLorlal membrane when Lhe basllar membrane flexes.
Sound waves cause Lhe basllar membrane Lo flex and dlfferenL frequencles cause movemenL
of Lhe membrane aL dlfferenL locaLlons.
Plgh frequency sound waves
Ootlloe tbe tole of tbe soooJ sboJow cost by tbe beoJ lo tbe locotloo of soooJ
Pumans and oLher anlmals use Lwo meLhods Lo locaLe Lhe source of sound:
o 1he dlfference ln Llme beLween Lhe sound arrlvlng aL each ear
o 1he dlfference ln lnLenslLy of Lhe sound arrlvlng aL each ear
1hese dlfferences occur because Lhe head casLs a sound shadow LhaL causes one ear Lo
recelve less lnLense sound Lhan Lhe oLher.
Pumans usually Lrace Lhe locaLlon of Lhe sound by Lurnlng Lhelr heads unLll Lhe lnLenslLy of
Lhe sound ls equal ln boLh ears. AL Lhls polnL, people should be looklng ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe
source of sound.
CLher anlmals have more moblle ears and wlll Lurn Lhelr ears lnsLead of Lhe ears.
Aoolyse lofotmotloo oo tbe sttoctote of o mommolloo eot to telote sttoctotes to fooctloos
Component Structure to funct|on
Shane Weinberg

lnna WlLh lLs funnel llke shape, Lhe sound can easlly be
collecLed and dlrecLed Lo Lhe ear canal
1ympanlc membrane Alr fllled cavlLy can easlly LransmlL large amounL of
sound
Lar osslcles Shape and pressure of Lhe muscles help Lo change
Lhe sounds revleved and LransmlLLer. 1lny bones Lo
ampllfy Lhe sound
Cval wlndow 1he oval shape vlbraLes when sLruck and moves Lhe
fluld back and forLh. Access lnLo hearlng organ
8ound wlndow 1he round shape moves ouL when Lhe oval wlndow
moves ln, allowlng for Lhe movemenL of Lhe fluld
lnLo Lhe cochlea for hearlng
Cochlea lLs colled shaped lncreases SA Lo v raLlo, Lherefore
lncreaslng Lhe amounL of halr llke cells presenL for
hearlng
Crgan of CorLl Pas hlghly speclallzed sLrucLures LhaL responds Lo
fluld-borne vlbraLlons ln Lhe cochlea wlLh a
shearlng vecLor ln Lhe halrs of Lhe same cochlear
halr cells
AudlLory nerve lL branches ouL lnLo numerous fllamenLs, Lherefore
occupylng more of Lhe splral canal of Lhe cochlea
and conducLlng sensory sLlmull from Lhe ear Lo Lhe
braln
LusLachlan Lube uue Lo Lhe large dlameLer of Lhe Lube, alr ls able Lo
pass beLween Lhe Lympanlc cavlLy and Lhe ouLslde
of Lhe body by way of Lhe LhroaL and mouLh and
Lhls helps Lo malnLaln Lhe equal alr pressure on
boLh sldes of Lhe ear drum whlch ls necessary for
normal hearlng.

Ootlloe tbe tooqe of ftepoeocles JetecteJ by bomoos os soooJ ooJ compote tbls tooqe wltb two
otbet mommols, Jlscossloq posslble teosoos fot tbe Jlffeteoces lJeotlfleJ.
Puman range of frequency ls 20-20,000 Pz, wlLh greaLesL senslLlvlLy around 1,000 Pz
MosL people cannoL hear sound frequencles bellow 20 Pz, Lhls frequency ls known as Lhe
lower llmlL of audlblllLy.
1here ls also an upper llmlL of audlblllLy as Lhe vlbraLlons are so rapld LhaL Lhe audlLory nerve
does noL respond Lo Lhem.
1here ls conslderable varlaLlon beLween lndlvlduals ablllLy Lo hear sounds of hlgh and low
frequency.
ltocess lofotmotloo to evoloote o beotloq olJ ooJ o cocbleot lmploot lo tetms of.
- 1be posltloo ooJ type of eoetqy ttoosfet occottloq
- cooJltloos ooJet wblcb tbe tecbooloqy wlll osslst beotloq
- llmltotloos of eocb tecbooloqy
leaLures Pearlng ald Cochlear lmplanL
uescrlpLlon of Ald LlecLronlc devlce wlLh
mlcrophone and ampllfler LhaL
lncreases loudness of sounds
LxLernal mlcrophone and speech
processor wlLh elecLrodes
embedded ln cochlea Lo
sLlmulaLe audlLory nerve
oslLlon of ald Ald ls worm ln a chassls or shell
behlnd or lnslde Lhe ear or ln
frames of specLacles
PeadseL ls worn exLernally and
lmplanL ls surglcally placed lnslde
skull
Shane Weinberg

1ype of energy Lransfer occurrlng uses a mlcrophone Lo converL
sound energy Lo elecLrlcal
energy, an ampllfler ampllfles
elecLrlcal energy, earphone
converLs ampllfled elecLrlcal
energy back lnLo sound energy of
greaLer lnLenslLy Lhan orlglnal
sound
Mlcrophone ln Lhe ear plcks up
sound slgnals and sends Lhem Lo
a mlcroprocessor LhaL converLs
Lhem lnLo elecLrlcal slgnals.
1hese are senL Lo a LransmlLLer,
Lhen a recelver lmplanLed
beneaLh Lhe skln of Lhe skull.
Slgnals are senL Lo Lhe cochlea
where Lhey sLlmulaLe audlLory
nerve endlngs.
CondlLlons under whlch Lhe
Lechnology wlll asslsL hearlng
eople wlLh some hearlng loss or
lmpalrmenL buL are noL
compleLely deaf
eople who are profoundly dead,
wlLh funcLlonal audlLory nerve
LlmlLaLlons of Lechnology Cnly works for people wlLh
adequaLe resldual hearlng and
noL for people wlLh some defecL
ln Lhe lnner ear or audlLory nerve
needs surgery Lo place lmplanL ln
poslLlon and Lune Lo dlfferenL
frequencles and Lhls lnvolves
cosLs.
AdvanLages hearlng ald
no surgery requlred

rovldes hearlng Lo
sensory deaf people
8esLores hearlng afLer
ln[ury


5lqools ftom tbe eye ooJ eot ote ttoosmltteJ os electtocbemlcol cbooqes lo tbe
membtooes of tbe optlc ooJ ooJltoty oetve
lJeotlfy tbot o oetve ls o booJle of oeotoool flbtes
A nerve ls a bundle of axons or neuronal flbres bound LogeLher llke wlres ln a cable.
A nerve cell Lyplcally conslsLs of:
o A cell body
o uendrlLes - branched proLoplasmlc exLenslons of a nerve cell LhaL conducLs lmpulses
from ad[acenL cells lnward Loward Lhe cell body.
o Axon - Long halrllke exLenslon
o Myelln SheaLh - lnsulaLes Lhe axon and helps lncrease Lhe speed by whlch
lnformaLlon Lravels along Lhe nerve
1he dendrlLes of one neurone are separaLed from Lhe axon of anoLher by a small gap called
Lhe synapse.
1he dlrecLlon of a nerve lmpulse ls: dendrlLes " cell body " nerve flbre " axon




lJeotlfy oeotooes os oetve cells tbot ote tbe ttoosmlttets of slqools by electto-cbemlcol cbooqes lo
tbelt membtooes
Shane Weinberg

neurone ls a nerve cell LhaL LransmlLs an elecLrochemlcal lmpulse from one parL of Lhe body
Lo anoLher.
A lmpulse can be deLecLed as a change ln volLage on Lhe membrane surface. 1he lmpulse
Lravels along Lhe cell membrane of Lhe neurone
1he lnLernal of Lhe neuron cell ls negaLlve due Lo a large number of organlc lons presenL.
ln addlLlon, Lhere are some poslLlve poLasslum lons. Powever noL enough Lo cancel ouL Lhe
charge of Lhe presenL organlc lons.
1he axon membrane aL resL ln lmpermeable Lo sodlum lons
AL resLlng poLenLlal some poLasslum leak channels are open buL Lhe gaLed poLasslum and
sodlum channels are closed. oLasslum dlffuslng down Lhe poLasslum concenLraLlon gradlenL
moves ouLslde Lhe neuron and creaLes a negaLlve lnslde membrane poLenLlal.
1he resLlng poLenLlal exlsLs aL -70 mv (lnLernal). 1hls ls due Lo Lhe many lnorganlc negaLlve
lons alLhough Lhere are some poLasslum lons presenL. 1he poslLlve ouLslde ls due Lo Lhe vasL
number of poslLlve sodlum lons.
1he membrane ls LoLally lmpermeable Lo Lhe negaLlve lons. 1here ls a poLasslum leak
channel and poLasslum and sodlum gaLed pores whlch are open and closed by volLage
change.
A local membrane depolarlsaLlon caused by a sLlmulus causes some volLage gaLed sodlum
channels ln Lhe neuron cell surface membrane Lo open and sodlum lons dlffuse ln Lhrough
Lhe channels, along Lhelr elecLrochemlcal gradlenL. 8elng poslLlvely charged, Lhey begln a
reversal ln Lhe poLenLlal dlfference across Lhe membrane from negaLlve Lo poslLlve lnslde
Lhe axon.
lnlLlally, Lhe lnward movemenL of sodlum lons ls also favoured by Lhe negaLlve lnslde
membrane poLenLlal.
As sodlum lons enLer and Lhe membrane poLenLlal becomes less negaLlve, more sodlum
channels open, causlng an even greaLer lnflux of sodlum lons. 1hls ls an example of poslLlve
feedback.
AS more sodlum channels open, Lhe sodlum currenL domlnaLes over Lhe poLasslum leak
currenL and Lhe membrane poLenLlal becomes poslLlve lnslde, generaLlng Lhe acLlon
poLenLlal.
A Lhreshold value exlsLs aL -30 mv, whlch means Lhls ls Lhe polnL aL whlch a full acLlon
poLenLlal wlll be generaLed. 1hls ls known as Lhe all or noLhlng rule. 1he Lhreshold exlsLs
because Lhe lnlLlal lmpulse of sodlum whlch ls balanced by Lhe ouLer leakage of poLasslum
lons. unless Lhere ls a speclflc lnflux of sodlum, no acLlon poLenLlal wlll be generaLed.
1he purpose of Lhe Lhreshold ls Lo prevenL random dlsLurbances whlch would cause an
acLlon poLenLlal.
Cnce Lhe acLlon poLenLlal has been esLabllshed, Lhe volLage senslLlve gaLes of Lhe sodlum
channels, close so furLher lnflux of sodlum ls prevenLed. Whlle Lhls occurs, Lhe volLage
senslLlve gaLes on Lhe volLage gaLed poLasslum channels begln Lo open.
As Lhese poLasslum channels open Lhere ls a large ouLward movemenL of poLasslum lons
whlch beglns repolarlsaLlon of Lhe neuron back Lowards Lhe large negaLlve lnslde resLlng
poLenLlal.
1he large ouLward currenL of poLasslum lons Lhrough Lhe volLage gaLed poLasslum channels
causes Lhe Lemporary undershooL of Lhe elecLrlcal gradlenL, wlLh Lhe lnslde of Lhe neuron
belng eve more negaLlve (relaLlve Lo Lhe ouLslde) Lhan Lhe usual resLlng poLenLlal. 1hls ls
Shane Weinberg

called hyperpolarlsaLlon and serves Lo prevenL depolarlsaLlon of Lhe membrane for a shorL
whlle.
1he gaLes of Lhe volLage gaLed poLasslum channels now close and Lhe conLlnual movemenL
of poLasslum Lhrough poLasslum leak channels agaln domlnaLes Lhe membrane poLenLlal.
Sodlum-poLasslum pumps conLlnue Lo pump sodlum lons ouL and poLasslum lons ln,
prevenLlng any long Lerm loss of Lhe lon gradlenLs. 1he resLlng poLenLlal of -70 mv ls re-
esLabllshed and Lhe neuron ls sald Lo be repolarlsed

lJeotlfy tbose oteos of tbe cetebtom lovolveJ lo tbe petceptloo ooJ lotetptetotloo of llqbt ooJ soooJ

1he funcLlonal areas of Lhe cerebrum, and Lhe reglons lnvolved ln speech, slghL and sound
percepLlon:


1be cetebtom. ls dlvlded lnLo two hem|spheres, Lhe lefL and rlghL. Lach hemlsphere recelves
lmpulses from and exerLs conLrol over Lhe opposlLe slde of Lhe body. Lach hemlsphere ls dlvlded lnLo
flve dlfferenL lobes:
# lronLal # lnsular # CcclplLal # arleLal # 1emporal

1he cerebrum's surface ls drawn up lnLo folds called convo|ut|ons, Lrlpllng Lhe braln's
surface area. MosL acLlvlLy occurs on Lhe ouLslde surface and flL lnLo Lhree general caLegorles:
# MoLor (movemenL)
# Sensory (senses)
# AssoclaLlve (Lhls corLex accounLs for abouL 93 of Lhe cerebral corLex and ls Lhe slLe of
reasonlng and loglc)

llqbt. 1he opt|c nerves are Lhe sensory nerves of vlslon. CpLlc nerves from each of Lhe eyes
parLly cross over Lo form Lhe opt|c ch|asma, provldlng each vlsual corLex wlLh Lhe same lmage as
Shane Weinberg

vlewed by boLh eyes (LhoughL from a sllghLly dlfferenL angle). lmpulses are recelved from Lhe reLlna
vla Lhe opLlc nerve.

5oooJ. 1he aud|tory nerves arlse from Lhe cochlea and vesLlbule apparaLus wlLhln Lhe lnner
ear. 1he audlLory corLex ls found on Lhe Lemporal nerve of each cerebral hemlsphere. ulfferenL slLes
on Lhls corLex recelve and lnLerpreL dlfferenL sound frequencles.
xplolo, osloq speclflc exomples, tbe lmpottooce of cottect lotetptetotloo of seosoty slqools by tbe
btolo fot tbe cootJlootloo of oolmol bebovloot.

1he envlronmenL ln whlch an organlsm llves ls consLanLly changlng. Sense organs such as Lhe ear
and Lhe eye deLecL Lhese changes and send lnformaLlon Lo Lhe braln. 1he braln Lhen lnLerpreLs Lhe
lnformaLlon and sends an lmpulse Lo an effecLor organ such as a muscle. lL ls essenLlal LhaL Lhe braln
lnLerpreL slgnals from Lhe sense organs correcLly so LhaL Lhe organlsm can reacL approprlaLely.

1he cerebral corLex ls Lhe mosL lmporLanL assoclaLlon cenLre of Lhe braln. lnformaLlon comes Lo
Lhls area from our senses and Lhe braln sorLs lL ouL ln Lhe llghL of pasL experlences. As a resulL, moLor
lmpulses are senL along Lhe nerves Lo cause an approprlaLe acLlon Lo Lake place.

lor example, Lhe eyes and ears, recepLors ln muscles and Lendons, pressure sensors on Lhe feeL
all provlde slgnals abouL Lhe poslLlon of Lhe body ln space. 1he cerebrum of Lhe braln lnLerpreLs all of
Lhese slgnals and sends messages Lo varlous effecLors Lo ba|ance Lhe body ln space.
Wa|k|ng lnvolves several recepLors, lncludlng Lhe eyes, gravlLy recepLors ln Lhe ears, pressure
sensors ln Lhe feeL and poslLlon recepLors ln Lhe [olnLs. 1hese recepLors are connecLed Lo Lhe braln
by neurones and Lhe braln lnLerpreLs Lhe slgnals lL recelves. 1he braln sends messages Lo Lhe
muscles and oLher effecLors Lo coordlnaLe Lhe process of walklng.

1he lmporLance of Lhe braln ln Lhe coordlnaLlon of anlmal behavlour ls hlghllghLed when parLs of
lL are damaged. 1he para|ys|s LhaL follows a sLroke, or Lhe shaklng movemenLs of people wlLh
ark|nson's d|sease, are slgns of damage Lo Lhe braln. ln people wlLh Lhese condlLlons, muscular
conLracLlons are no longer coordlnaLed by Lhe braln.

letfotm o fltst-booJ lovestlqotloo osloq ptepoteJ stoloeJ sllJes to qotbet lofotmotloo oboot tbe
sttoctote of oeotooes ooJ oetves.

1) SeL up a llghL mlcroscope and a number of slldes, e.g. splnal chord, neurone.
Shane Weinberg

2) Cbserve neurones and nerve cells, drawlng a dlagram of each.

Shane Weinberg

erform a flrsL-hand lnvesLlgaLlon Lo examlne an approprlaLe mammallan braln or model of a human
braln Lo gaLher lnformaLlon Lo dlsLlngulsh Lhe cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongaLa and
locaLe Lhe reglons lnvolved ln speech, slghL and sound percepLlon.


lteseot lofotmotloo to qtopblcolly tepteseot o typlcol octloo poteotlol.



When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action
potential. This is the threshold. If the neuron does not reach this critical threshold level,
then no action potential will fire.

Shane Weinberg