Tattoos: AMarkedHistory

By AudreyPorcella Advisedby ProfessorWilliamPreston SocS461,462 SeniorProject SocialSciencesDepartment CollegeofLiberalArts CALIFORNIAPOLYTECHNICSTATEUNIVERSITY Fall,2009

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TableofContents
ResearchProposal iii v

AnnotatedBibliography Outline Text Introduction

xiii

TattoosThroughHistory OriginsofTattooing

2 8

DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld TattoosinAmerica TheCircus

11 14 16 18

NegativityintheFortiesandFifties TattooRenaissance

TattoosToday TattoosintheMedia 20 24 28 29 34 35 38

CommodificationofTattoos TattoosandBodyImage

ModernPerceptionsofTattoos

Conclusion

WorksCited

FigureCredits

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ResearchProposal
Ididnotknowanyonewhohadatattooinhighschool.ThenwhenIcametocollegeoneofmy roommatesgotatattoowithinthefirstweeksofschool.Istarteddatingaguywhohadatattoo.And fromtheexposureofjustthosetwopeople,tattoosstartedpoppingoutatme;Ibegannoticingthat tattooswereembeddedintheskinofmoreandmorepeoplearoundcampus.Ihadalwaysbeen opposedtotattoosanopinionIhadadoptedfrommyparents.Butwiththeinfiltrationoftattoosinto mylifethroughthepeopleIchosetosurroundmyselfwithandthroughthepeopleIsharedmycollege campuswithIwasforcedtoreevaluatemyopinion.Aretattoosreallyasbadasmyparentsmade themouttobe? Ichosetattoosasmytopicforwhatbecameseveraldifferentprojectsoverthecourseofmy collegecareer.EachtimeIexploredthetopicnewquestionsarosethatpropelledmetoinvestigatea newdimensionoftattoos.Andeachtime,myinvestigationgrewbothinbreadthanddepth.Ihaveyet tosatisfymycuriosity.Thereforemyseniorprojectwillinvestigatethelatestdimensionofinterestto meandsummarizemypreviousfindingsinhopesoffindingathoroughanswertomyoriginalquestion. Specificallymyseniorprojectwillfocusonsocietyschangingperceptionoftattoosovertime.At itsintroductiontoWesternculture,tattooswerereservedtotheeliteandthoughttobesymbolsofthe bearersworldliness.Thisperceptionchangedwiththeadvancementoftechnologywhichmade tattoosavailabletoawiderrangeofsocialclassesandtattoosassociationwithmarginalized, subculturalgroups.Todaytrendshaveonceagainchanged.Tattoosarearguablythemostpopularthey haveeverbeen.Myseniorprojectwillexaminethefactorsbehindthisresurgenceofpopularityand seektoexplainwhy,despitetheoutwardlyapparentacceptanceoftattoosasalegitimatefashion statement,societyasaninstitutionstillstigmatizestattoos.

Porcellaiv Mydiscussionoftattoosisnotintendedtoportraytattooingaseitheranacceptableor unacceptablebehavior.NorwillIeverattempttopersuadereaderstoadoptanyopinionsImayhave regardingtattoos.Infact,thepurposeofmyseniorprojectistomakestudentsawareoftheeffect externalinfluenceshaveonpeoplesopinions.Theexaggerationsofthemedia,thefindingsofboth methodologicallyflawedandsoundcasestudies,andtheassociationoftattooswithbothcelebritiesand deviantgroupshaveallinfluencedsocietysperceptionsoftattoosaseitheracceptablebehavioror unacceptablebehavior(dependingontheprevailinginfluenceatthetime).Ihopemyseniorproject encouragesstudentstoapproachwidelyacceptedperceptionswithskepticism,toconducttheirown investigationswhenperceptionsappeartobebasedoninvalidorunreliableinformation,andingeneral, toformopinionsontheirownaccordfreeofanyexternalinfluencesotherthanthesubstantiated facts.

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AnnotatedBibliography
Adams,Josh.MarkedDifference:TattooinganditsAssociationwithDevianceintheUnitedStates. DeviantBehavior.30.3(2009):266292.SociologicalAbstracts.GaleGroup.CalPolyState UniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.31Aug.2009.<http://find.galegroup.com>. Adamsapproacheshisinvestigationontheassociationoftattooinganddeviancebyfirststating thatdevianceistemporallyandspatiallycontextual.Withthatstatementhegivesanoverview oftheassociationbetweentattooinganddeviancestartingwiththeworkofcriminologist Lombroso.Lombrosoclaimedthatcriminalitycouldbediscernedthroughtheobservationof physicaltraits,(p.269).Onesuchtrait,havinglittlesensitivitytopainexplainedwhycriminals hadahighertendencytobetattooed(p.270).Theassociationbetweentattooinganddeviance remainedevenafterLombrososclaimsweredisproved.Despitethisandotherexamplesofthe stigmatizationoftattooing,Adamsbelievesthattodaytattooinghasbrokenfreefromits previousnegativestigmaasevidentbythewidesocialspectrumoftattooedindividuals.He attemptstoprovethedisassociationbetweentattooinganddeviancethroughquantitative analysis.Unlikequalitativestudiesthatfocusonperceivedacceptability,Adamsanalysis examinessocialcharacteristicsoftattooedindividualstodeterminethestatusoftattooingasa practice.Hemakeselevenhypotheseswhichincludecharacteristicssuchasgender, educationalattainment,druguse,religiousaffiliationandhavingfriendsorfamilymemberswith tattoosthatpredictthelikelihoodofanindividualtohaveatattoo.Thoughhisfindingsprove someofhishypothesescorrect,overall,theresultsconcludethattattooingisstillassociated withmarginalityanddeviance.

Porcellavi Atkinson,Michael.TattooingandCivilizingProcesses:BodyModificationasSelfControl.Canadian ReviewofSociology&Anthropology.41.2(2004):125146.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost. CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.16May2009.<http://web.ebscohost.com>. Inanattempttoprovideanalternativetotattooingslongstandingstigma,Atkinsonboth providesanunderstandingoftattooingsstigma,perceivedasapathologicalinstanceofself injury,anddetailsanewwaveofperception,makingtheclaimoftattooingasaprosocialact ofcommunication,(Abstract).Thusthissourceprovesusefulinarguingthedualityofsocietys perceptionoftattooing.Tosupporthisargumentthattattooingisrationalandprosocial, AtkinsondrawsfrominterviewsheconductedhimselfofCanadiantattooartistsandtattoo enthusiasts.Atkinsonclaimsthattattooingisaphysicalexpressionofindividuality.Inadditionto demonstratingthedualityofsocietysperception,Atkinsonalsohighlightsthedualityoftattoos significance.Tattooingsdualitymimicsthedualityofitsperception.Tattooscanbeboth symbolsofexclusionandofinclusion.Atkinsonarguesthattattoosseparatetheindividualfrom societybyprovidinghim/herauniqueidentityandatthesametimeunitestheindividualwitha subculturethroughsharedvalues. DeMello,Margo.BodiesofInscription:aculturalhistoryofthemoderntattoocommunity.Durham: DukeUniversityPress,2000. Thisbookcorrelatesperfectlywiththeintentofmypaper.Itprovidestheculturaland anthropologicalcomponentthatiskeyininvestigatinghowsocietysperceptionoftattooshas changedovertime.ThissourceprovidesahistoricaltimelineoftattooinginAmericafromthe firsttattooparlorinNewYorkin1846tothepopularityoftattoostoday.Shedescribes

Porcellavii AmericansvaryingreceptivenessoftattooingateachsignificanteventintattooingsAmerican historysuchaswhencircusesandfreakshowswerepopularorbeforeandaftertheWorld Wars.AnexampleoftheconnectionDeMellomakesbetweenhistoricaleventsandthestatusof tattoosatthetimeofthoseeventsisthezootsuitriotsoftheforties.Theriotsbroughtnegative mediaattentiontothetattooedpachucoculture.AccordingtoDeMello,theeventalongwith theemergenceoftattooedoutlawbikersasasubculturalgroup,alsointheforties,solidified postwarsocietysnegativeviewsoftattooing,(p.67).DeMelloalsoemphasizesthesignificance ofclasswithintattooingshistoricaltimeline.Forexample,whenSamuelOReillyinventedthe firstelectrictattoomachinein1891,thetypeofpeoplegettingtattoosshiftedfromtheupper classtothelowerclass.Themachinemadetattooinglesspainful,cheaperandfasterto administerthusmakingtattooingavailableandmoreappealingtothelowerclass. Gay,KathlynandChristineWhittington.BodyMarks:tattooing,piercing,andscarification.Brookfield: TwentyFirstCenturyBooks,2002. Theuniquelayoutofthisbookmakesitseemmoreofanencyclopediathansimplyaliterary source.Itprovidesconciseinformationonanarrayoftopicsconcerningtattoos.Itgivesabrief backgroundonthehistoryoftattooing,highlightingtheevidenceofitsexistenceinprehistoric cultures.GayandWhittingtondiscusstattooingpracticesoftheancientEgyptians,Greeks,and Romans;andhighlightthepossibilitythatthesepracticesmayhaveservedmedicalpurposes. Parallelingthedescriptionofculturalpractices,thissourcedescribesdifferingperceptionsof tattoosincludingreligiousviews,socialviewsduringthecircusandfreakshowyears,andsocial viewstoday.Thissourcealsoprovidesdescriptionsofdifferenttypesoftattoossuchasgang tattoos,traditionaltattoosortattoosthatdrawfromJapaneseculture.Iammostexcited

Porcellaviii aboutthesectionsthatdiscussthepossiblemedicalconsequencesoftattooingandvariouslaws restrictingtattoos.Themilitaryespeciallyhasrestrictionsoncontentandquantityoftattooson itspersonnel. Kosut,Mary.AnIronicFad:thecommodificationandconsumptionoftattoos.TheJournalofPopular Culture.39.6(2006):10351048.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost.CalPolyStateUniversityLib., SanLuisObispo,CA.30May2009.<http://web.ebscohost.com>. Kosutdiscussestattoostransitionfromfringetomainstream.Shefocusesontheinfluenceof themediaontattoospopularitywithinsociety.Tattoosarepresentinthemovies;onactors, musicians,andathletes;andevenwithinthechildrenstoymarket.AnexampleKosutgivesof theimpactmediacoveragehasonsocietysperceptionoftattoosisthe2002blockbustermovie XXX.InXXXactorVinDieselscharacter,asociallydetachedthrillseeker,hasaheavilytattooed torsoandneck.Eventhoughthecharacterfitswhatcouldbeconsideredatattooedstereotype Kosutarguesthatratherthanreinforcingthatstereotype,thecharacterelevatestattoosinthe eyesofsociety.Thecoolappealoftheheromaketeenageaudiencesthinktattoosalsoare cool.OtherexamplesoftheproliferationoftattoosinthemediaincludeatattooableBarbie andaVISAcommercialthatnotesthecapabilityofusingthecreditcardatalocaltattooparlor. Withtheseexamplesandothers,Kosutarguesthattheyouthofthisgenerationaregrowingup inanincreasinglytattoofriendlyenvironment.

Porcellaix Kosut,Mary.MadArtistsandTattooedPerverts:DeviantDiscourseandtheSocialConstructionof CulturalCategories.DeviantBehavior.27.1(2006):7395.AcademicSearchElite.EBSCOhost. CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.16May2009.<http://web.ebscohost.com>. InthisarticleKosutdiscussessocietysperceptionoftattoosovertime.Shestatesthat academicshaveindecadespastlabeledtattooingasdeviantbehaviorandindicationsof pathologicalbehavioraswell.However,shenotesthatinrecentyearsthisperceptionmaybe changing.Tattooscanbeseentohavemoremeaning,specificallyasauniqueculturalform.A particularquotefromthisarticlethatstoodouttomewasoneinwhichKosutcontrastedthe evolvingacceptanceoftattooingtothejazzmovement.Sheclaimsthatunlikeotheraesthetic culturalformslikejazz,tattooinghasfailedtomakethetransitionfrommarginalityto mainstreamlegitimacybecauseofalongestablishedandpowerfulpublicaversiontothe practice,(p.90).Thisunderlyingpublicaversionseemstothwartanyprogressoftoleranceby youngergenerations. Langman,Lauren.Punk,PornandResistance:CarnivalizationoftheBodyinPopularCulture.Current Sociology.56.4(2008):657677.PsycINFO.EBSCOhost.CalPolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuis Obispo,CA.16May2009.<http://web.ebscohost.com>. Thissourceservesasalinkbetweenthelabelingoftattooingasdeviantbehaviorandthe applicationoftheconceptofalienationtoanindividualsdecisiontogettattooed.Langman providesanexplanationapossiblemotivefortherecenttattooingphenomena.Sheclaims thatanincreasinglyimpersonalsocietyhasdrivenindividualsintoareversiontowardscarnival likebehavior.Inmedievalsocietiescarnivalsservedasanenvironmentwhererepressed peasantscouldunleashtheircreativity,participateinculturalrituals,ridiculetherulingeliteand

Porcellax engageinpromiscuousbehavior.Langmanassociatestattooingwithmodernday carnivalization.Additionallyshearguesthattattooingisalsoanactofrebellionagainsttheideal bodytype.Tattoosthencebecomefashionstatements,amethodbywhichanindividualcan reclaimcontrolofhis/herbody,andsymbolsofinclusioninalternativeidentitygranting communities,(p.664). Polhemus,Ted.HotBodies,CoolStyles:newtechniquesinselfadornment.NewYork:Thames& Hudson,2004. Despitesocietyshabitofnormalizingthem,Pohlemusexamineshairstylesandmakeupasbody adornmentsamongotherappearancealteringtechniquessuchastattooingandpiercing.Of mostrelevanceforthisprojectishisinsightontattooing.However,Pohlemusdecisiontobe broadinhisexaminationallowsforuniqueobservationsIhavenotseeninotherwritingsonthe topic.FromthestartofhisbookPohlemusarguesthathumanshaveaninnatedesiretobeautify theirbodies.Hecontrastshumansagainstsuchanimalsaszebras,parrotsandtropicalfishall ofwhichhaveuniquepatternsorcolorings.Humans,accordingtoPohlemus,werecursedwith blandness.Yethealsoarguesthatthissamecurseisahiddenblessing.Humanskinbecomesa perfectmediumforadornmentablankcanvas.Pohlemuscontinueshisdiscussionon tattooingbyfocusingonhumanslonghistoryoffascinationwiththetechniqueandonthe sociologicalmotivesandsociologicalsignificancesurroundingtattooing.

Porcellaxi Ritzer,George.SociologicalTheory.7thed.NewYork:McGrawHill,2008. Iwillbeusingthistextbookasareferencetothesociologicaltheoriesapplicabletomypaper.In particular,IwilluseGeorgSimmelstheoryonfashiontoexplainthedualityoftattooingevident byitsassociationwithbothmarginalityandpopularity.Simmelclaimsthatfashionallowsthose whowishtoconformtothedemandsofthegrouptodosoandthosewhowishtobe individualistic[to]deviate,(p.162).Iftattooscanbeconsideredaformoffashion,Simmels theorycanexplainhowconflictingperceptionsoftattooingcanexistsimultaneously.Iwillalso attempttouseKarlMarxstheoryofalienationtoprovideanexplanationoffactorsmotivating anindividualtogettattooed.Inhistheoryofalienation,Marxclaimsthatanalienatedindividual doesnotdevelopfreelyhisphysicalandmentalenergybutmortifieshisbodyandruinshis mind,(p.54).Tattooingcanbeviewedasonesuchmortificationofthebody.Alsobecause alienatedindividualsnolongerfindselfworththroughtheirjobs,tattooingcanbeseenasa creativeoutletusedtoestablishasenseofidentity. Wohlrab,Silke.,etal.DifferencesinPersonalityAttributionsTowardTattooedandNontattooedVirtual HumanCharacters.JournalofIndividualDifferences.30.1(2009):15.PsycINFO.EBSCOhost.Cal PolyStateUniversityLib.,SanLuisObispo,CA.26May2009.<http://web.ebscohost.com>. ThisarticlereportsthefindingsofastudyconductedinGermanyattheUniversityofGttingen testingthegeneralperceptionoftattooedindividuals.Thefindingsconcludedthatdespite increasingpopularityoftattoos,anegativeperceptionoftattoosstillremained.Participantsin thestudywereeithergivenanimageofamanandwomanbothtattooedoranimageofaman andwomanbothnottattooed.Theparticipantswerethenaskedtoratethemanandwomanon

Porcellaxii arangeofpersonalityattributes.Resultsshowedthatparticipantsbelievedthetattooedman andwomanweremorelikelytoseekthrillandadventure,tobesusceptibletoboredom,tohave hadagreaternumberofsexualpartners,andwerelesslikelytobeinhibitedcomparedtothe nontattooedmanandwoman.

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Outline
I. Introduction

II. TattoosthroughHistory A. OriginsofTattooing 1. Europeandiscoveryoftattooing 2. Perceptionsshapedbytattoosfunctioninsociety a. TongansandSamoans b. NorthAmericans c. GreeksandthestoryofOliveOatman B. DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld 1. Displayoftattooedcaptives 2. Popularityamongthearistocracy C. TattoosinAmerica 1. Inventionoftheelectrictattoomachine 2. Associationwiththearmedforcesandpatriotism D. TheCircus 1. DisplayoftattooedWesterners 2. StoryofHoraceRidler E. NegativityintheFortiesandFifties 1. Unsanitaryconditions 2. Sociobiologicalperspectives

Porcellaxiv 3. Linkstomarginalizedgroups a. Motorcyclegangs b. Pachucoculture F. TattooRenaissance 1. InfluenceofJapanesetattooing 2. Adoptionoftattooingbycounterculturerevolutionists III. TattoosToday A. TattoosintheMedia 1.Reframingoftattoosbymediasources 2.Tattooedmoviecharacters 3.Tattooedcelebrities B. CommodificationofTattoos 1.Tattoosinchildrenstoys 2.Useoftattoosinadvertisement C. TattoosandBodyImage 1.Conformingtobodyidealsthroughbodymodification 2.Rejectionofbodyideals D. ModernPerceptionsofTattoos E. Conclusion

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Introduction
Societysperceptionoftattooinghasfluctuatedovertheyearssincetattooingwasfirstexecuted intheUnitedStates.Atitsinceptiontattooingwasprimarilyreservedtotheupperclass.Tattoos becamesymbolsofhighstatusandindicatedthebearersworldlinessorappreciationofculture. Tattooswerealsopopularamongservicemen,whousedtattoosasbadgesofhonor,indicatorsof patriotism,ordocumentationoftheirtravels.Later,however,technicaladvancementsmadetattooing lessexpensiveandtattoosbecamethefashionofthelowerclasses.Withthisshift,societysperception oftattoosalsoshifted.Tattooingwasseenassavagelike,immoral,orunclean.Aroundthesametime, tattoosenteredthecarnivalscene.Tattooedindividualsweredisplayedatfreakshowsandsideshows asobjectsatwhichaudiencesgawked.Muchlater,inthe1950sand60s,tattooswerelinkedtosuch marginalizedgroupsasbikers(motorcyclists)andgangbangers(AdamsMarkedDifference285). Todaytrendsseemtohaveshiftedagain.Ratherthanbeingassociatedwithaparticulargroup,however, todaythetypesofpeoplegettingtattoosareconstantlydiversifying.Tattooscanbefoundmarkingthe skinofcollegestudents,soccermoms,andbusinessmenalike. Thechangesinsocietysperceptionoftattooscanbeexplainedbytheshiftingpopularityof tattoosfromonesocialsubgrouptoanother.Theparticularsocialsubgroupengagingintattooingata giventimeperiodhasinfluencedwhethersocietyheldafavorablevieworunfavorableviewoftattoos duringthatsametimeperiod.Forexample,whentattooswerepopularamongelitistsubgroups,society perceivedtattooingasanacceptablesocialpractice.Inaddition,theprevailingopinionoftattooswithin societyhasinfluencedtattoospopularityamongsubgroups.Forexample,anunfavorableattitude towardtattoosencouragedindividualsassociatedwithadeviantsubgrouptoacquiretattoos.Therefore, tattoospopularityamongaparticularsubgroupandsocietysperceptionoftattoosformapositive feedbackloop.Theparticularsocialsubgroupengagingintattooingaffectshowsocietyperceivesthe

Porcella2 practice.Societysperceptionoftattooing,inturn,increasestheamountofindividualsbelongingtothat particularsocialsubgrouptoacquiretattoos,whichreinforcessocietysperceptionoftattooing(See Figure1). Figure1:TattoosPositiveFeedbackLoopformedbytherelationshipbetweensubculturalgroupsof tattooedindividualsandsocietysperceptionoftattooing

Thetypeofpeoplegettingtattooshasvariedovertimeandfromculturetoculture.Duringone timeperiodtattooswerepopularamongthehigherclassandinasubsequenttimeperiodtattooswere popularamongamarginalizedgroup.Inoneculturetattoossymbolizehonorandprestigewhereasin anotherculturetattoosarethemarkofslaves.Byexaminingthetrendsintattoopopularityincertain socialgroupsovertime,thisresearchpaperseekstoanalyzethecorrespondingtrendsinsocietys perceptionoftattoos.Inadditiontopopularitytrends,otherfactorsinfluencingsocietysperceptionof tattooswillbeexplored.Finally,thisresearchprojectwillinvestigatethegeneralperceptionoftattoos todayandexplainthisperceptioninasociologicalcontext.

TattoosThroughHistory
OriginsofTattooing
Tattooingsprehistoricoriginshavehadanaffectonhowthepracticewasperceivedforages proceedingitsdiscoverybyEuropeanexplorers.Europeansgenerallyviewedtattooingasapractice

Porcella3 executedbyprimitive 1 people.Naturally,theculturalpracticesofcivilizationsclassifiedasprimitive havealsobeenviewedasprimitive.Itisinthiscontextthattattooshaveoftenbeenclassified.Records reflectingsocietysattitudetowardstattoosareminimalduringtheageofexploration,however,itis easytounderstandwhysocietyatthetimemightviewtattooingascrudeorbarbaric.Assumingthat mostEuropeansbelongedtooneoftheAbrahamicfaiths(Christianity,Judaism,orIslam),Europeans probablyreveredthebodyasholyorprecious.ThesefaithsholdthatGodcreatedthehumanbodyin Hisownimage;therefore,anyunnaturalmarksonthebodywouldbeseenasdefacingGodscreation. Someofthecivilizationsthatpracticedtattooingalsopracticedhumansacrifice.Europeansviewed humansacrificenotonlyasimmoralbutalsogrotesque.Inscribinginkintothefleshandcuttingouta humanhearttosacrificetothegods(aspracticedamongtheAztecs)mayhavebeenperceivedas equivalentinthemindsofEuropeans.Thus,tattooingwasviewedasagrotesqueandmorallyrepugnant practice. NotallEuropeans,feltrepulsedoroffendedbythepracticeupondiscoveringit.Infact,themost famoustattoodiscoverer,Josephbanks,hadanoppositeinitialreaction.Hewasintrigued.JosephBanks workedunderthecommandofBritishCaptain(thenLieutenant)JamesCookasnaturalistaboardthe

PrimitiveisatermusedbyearlyEuropeananthropologistindescribingnonWesterncivilizations, typicallythosethatcameintocontactwithEuropeanexplorers.Thetermreferstoacivilizationslackof socialoreconomicdevelopment,butoftenthetermwasappliedtothemembersofacivilizationaswell. Whenappliedtopeople,thetermtakesonanegativeconnotation.Primitivedescribesanindividualas beingunsophisticated,simple(asinsimpleminded)orcrude(Primitive).ManyEuropean explorersviewedthecivilizationstheyencounteredasinferior.Thisviewwasprimarilyinfluencedby religion.NonWesterncivilizationspracticedanimism(beliefthatnaturalobjectshavespirits)orother paganreligionswhereasmostEuropeanexplorerswereChristianandinsomecasesmayhavebeen allowedtoexploreundertheguiseofevangelism.Modernanthropologistscriticizeearlyanthropologists forusingthetermnotonlybecauseitisderogatory,butalsobecauseitisinvalid.SomenonWestern civilizationsparticularlytheAztecandIncancivilizationswereextremelycomplex.Thesocialand economicdevelopmentofthesecivilizationsrivaledthoseofEuropeancivilizations.

Porcella4 EndeavourduringitsfirstvoyagetothePacificbetween1768and1771.Thoughhisjournalentriesare mostlydescriptive,Banksdoesprovideinsightintohisopinionsregardingthetattooingheobserved.In

Figure2 Figure3

ANewZealandchief(Figure2)andwarrior(Figure3),engravedafterdrawingsbySydneyParkinson,1770

TheEndeavour:JournalofJosephBanksheexpresseshiscuriositywhenhewrites,Whatcanbea sufficientinducementtosuffersomuchpainisdifficulttosay;notoneIndian(thoughIaskedhundreds) wouldevergivemetheleastreasonforit(qtd.inGilbert37).Banksshowsgenuineinterestinthe motivesbehindtattooing.Hisconfusionintryingtounderstandthepracticeismerelybasedonthefact thattattooingwasapracticecompletelynewtohim.Tattooingdidnotexistinhisideaofculture.His tone,apparenteveninjustthisonesentence,indicatesthathisinquiryisnotdrivenbyabhorrencebut bygenuinecuriosityanddesireforunderstanding.Banksdoesnotseekanexplanationinordertoprove thattattooingisadetestablepracticeortousetheinformationforanyotherreasonthanknowledge acquisition.Bankscontinuesbyspeculating,possiblysuperstitionmayhavesomethingtodowithit,

Porcella5 nothingelseinmyopinioncouldbeasufficientcauseforsoapparentlyabsurdacustom(qtd.inGilbert 37).Banksadmitsthathethinkstattooingisabsurd.Eveninhisadmittance,however,Banksdoesnot passjudgmentonthepractice.Theperceptionofacustombeingabsurdisnotinherentlyanegative perception.Absurdmeansillogicalorcontrarytoallreasonorcommonsense(Absurd).The practiceoftattooingisabsurdtoBanksbecausehecouldnotcomprehendthemotivesorpurposes. Hiscomprehensionwaslimitedtohisknowledgeandhisconceptsofculture.Byrememberingthat BanksencounterwithPacificIslanders(inthequotereferredtoasIndians)wasacollisionofextremely contrastingcultures,absurdcanbeunderstoodnotasalabelindicatingpointlessness,butasalabel acknowledgingthecomprehensiongapthatexistsbetweentwodifferingcultures.Banksdoesnot choosetolabeltattooingaseitherasociallyacceptableorsociallyunacceptablebehavior.Thisdecision, regardlessifitwasmadeconsciously,indicatestherespectBankshadfortheculturesheobserved. Theperceptionoftattooingwithintheprehistoricsocietiesthatpracticedtheartisevidentin thefunctionstattooingplayedintheirculture.Formanysocietiestattooingplayedanintegralrolein socialization,religion,andwarfare.InboththeancientTonganandtheancientSamoansocietiesof Polynesia,tattooartistwasahighlyprivilegedposition.FortheTongans,priestswelltrainedand followingstrictritualsexecutedthe tattooing(Gilbert22).Theideaofcurrent priestsadministeringtattoosasapartofa religiousritualwouldlikelybecontroversial. ThefactthatintheTongansocietypriests weretheonestoadministertattoos indicatestheextentoftattooings significancewithintheculture.Forthe
Traditional Tongan male tattoo. Drawing by dUrville, early 1800s. Areas that appear to be solid black are actuallyfineandcloselyspacedpatterns. Figure4

Porcella6 Samoans,tattooingheldsimilarreligioussignificance.InSamoanculture,tattooingoccurredduringa ceremonyinwhichthetattooartisttattooedgroupsofsixtoeightyoungmen.Asapartofthetattooing ritual,friendsandrelativeswouldattendtheceremonyandparticipateinspecialprayersand celebrations(Gilbert23). AmongtheindigenoustribesofNorthAmerica,tattooingwasusedasvisualindicatorsofan individualsplacewithinthetribe.FortheOsageandtheOmahatattoosheldsignificanceinwarfare.A skulltattooedonthebackofanOsagewarrior,forexample,indicatedthathehadbeensuccessfulin battle.Likewise,thesuccessesofOmahamenonthebattlefieldwerehonoredbytattoosontheir daughtersbacksorbreasts(Gay26).TheInuitpracticedtattooingaswell.Inuitmentattooedmarkson theirbodiesasatallysystemtokeeptrackofhowmanywhalestheykilled.Inuitwomenweretypically tattooedontheirchinsasanindicationofmaritalstatus(Gay26).Inallofthesecases,tattooswere usedasawaytocommunicate.AmericananthropologistTedPolhemusrecognizestheimportanceof tattooingespeciallyinsocietiesthatlackwrittenlanguage.Hestates,contrastingtattoostylesof particularindividualswithinagroupoftenarticulateandunderlinedifferencesinroleandstatus immediatelyidentifyingthechief[and]thosewhohaveshowncourageinbattleorprowessinthe hunt(Polhemus40).IndigenousNorthAmericansperfectlyexemplifythetattooingusageoutlinedby Polhemus.Tattooingfortheseandothertribeswasusedtosetindividualsaparttovisually communicateanindividualsplaceinsociety.Tattoosrepresentedprideandexactedhonorandrespect. Asastatussymbol,tattooswerealsousedtosubjugatevariousmembersofsociety.Incertain

societiestattooingwasusedasaformofpunishmentandasawaytodistinguishslavesfromfree membersofsociety.Figure5picturesOliveOatman,awomanwhowascapturedbyNativeAmericansin 1851attheageofthirteen.HerfamilyhadbeentravelingwithasectoftheMormonChurchthatwas movingfromMissouritoCaliforniawhentheirwagonwasattackedbyNativeAmericansnearwhatis

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Figure5

nowYuma,Arizona.ShewaslatersoldtotheMohavetribe,who despitetreatingherwell,tattooedherchinwiththetraditionalmark ofaslavefiveparallellinesonthechinwiththeoutermostlines havingadifferingdesignadjoiningthem.TheancientGreeksalso practicedtattooingslavesstartinginthefifthcentury.TheGreeks adoptedthepracticefromtheirenemy,thePersians,whoallegedly tattooedGreekprisonersofwar.Beyondsimplydistinguishingthem fromlawabidingcitizens,Greeksmarkedslavesandcriminalswith descriptionsoftheircrimestattooedontheirforeheads,includingin

StudyportraitofOliveOatman, circa1860.

onecasethewords,Stopme,Imarunaway(Gay24).Though tattoosinthesesocietieswereusedtostigmatizecertaingroups

(slavesandcriminals),thesocietiesdidnotnecessarilystigmatizetattooingingeneral.Infacttattooing wasauniversalcustomwithintheMohavetribe.TheMohavebelievedthatmenandwomenalikehad tohaveatattooinordertobegrantedentranceintotheafterlifeupondeath.Mohavetribemembers thatdidnotgettattoosduringtheirlifetimewereoftentattooedpostmortemtoadheretothebelief (TattooArchive). Regardlessofwhatfunctiontattooingplayswithinparticularsocieties,thephenomenon

revealedthroughthisexaminationisthattattooingwasaverycommonpracticewithinprehistoric societies.AnintroductorystatementforabodyartexhibitatNewYorksAmericanMuseumofNatural Historyin2000stated,Thereisnoknowncultureinwhichpeopledonotpaint,pierce,tattoo,reshape, orsimplyadorntheirbodies(Gay14).Bodydecorationappearstobeauniversalpracticeamong peopleofallsocieties.Anthropologists,psychologists,andsociologistshaveallattemptedtoexplain whythisissowhyhumansdecoratetheirbodyandwhybodydecorationseemstobeahuman

Porcella8 universal.Butexplanationaside,thefactthatitispresentinallculturessuggeststhatsocietiesshould perceivebodyadornmentasanacceptablepracticeoratleastasanintegralpartofculture. Tattooingisthoughttobeindependentlyinvented. 2 Tattooingwithintheislandculturesof Polynesialendssupporttothistheory.InhisjournalVoyagesandTravelsinVariousPartsoftheWorld, GeorgH.vonLangsdorffnotes,Itisundoubtedlystriking,thatnationsperfectlyremotefromeach other,whohavenomeansofintercoursewhatever,andaccordingtowhatappearstousnevercould haveany,shouldyetbeallagreedinthispractice(qtd.inGilbert26).Thepracticetowhichvon Langsdorffrefersistattooing.ThedistancebetweenthePolynesianislandswerefartoogreattomake culturalexchangecommon.Thereforeitcanbeassumedthatratherthanonecultureinventingthe practiceoftattooingandsharingitwithotherislandcultures,tattooingwasinventedbyseveralcultures independentfromoneanother.Thisisfurthersupportedbythefactthattattooingwaspresentinthe AfricancivilizationsaswellcivilizationsthathadnoknowncontactwithPolynesians.Tattooingasan independentinventionexpandsupontheconceptofubiquity.Iftattooingwasindependentlyinvented, thentattooingcouldnothavebeenunwillinglyforceduponaculturebyanother.Tattooingwithinthose civilizationsthatinventedthepracticeexistednotasaforcedhabit,butasacustominthatitwasas muchapartofthecivilizationscultureasreligiousrituals.Tattooingwasapartoflife.

DiffusionofTattoostotheWesternWorld
TattooswerebroughttotheWesternWorldbytheEuropeanexplorerswhohaddiscoveredthe practiceamongnativePolynesians.Notonlydidmanyofthesailorsreturnhomebrandishingtattoos
2

Independentinventionreferstothephenomenonwhenaparticularcustomappearswithinseveral differentsocietiesthataregeographicallyisolatedfromeachother.Independentinventioncountersthe suspicionthatthecustominquestionemergedfromonecultureandspreadtoothercultureswith succeedingculturesadoptingthecustomfromtheoriginalinventingculture.

Porcella9 (havingacquiredtattoosassouvenirsoftheirvoyages),buttheyalsobroughtwiththemtattooed natives.Onhissecondvoyagein1774CaptainCookbroughtbacktwotattooedTahitians,Omaiand Tupia(DeMello48).TheseTahitianshadoriginallyservedasguidesandinterpretersforCookduringhis voyage,butuponreturntoEnglandtheyquicklybecameobjectsdisplayedatpubs,museums,andfairs (DeMello4748).Omai,Tupia,andothercaptiveslikethemwereheldasspecimensofnativepeoples. TheframingoftattoosinthecontextofentertainmentshapedhowEuropeansperceivedtattooingin theseventeenthtonineteenthcenturies.AnthropologistTedPolhemusstatesthatduringthistime period,forEuropeans,tattooingbecameinexorablylinkedwiththeexoticsomethingthatstrange peopleinverydistantlandsdidtotheirbodies"(Polhemus42).Europeanswerefascinatedwiththe exoticandeagerlypaidmoneytoseetattooedattractions,makingthecaptureanddisplayoftattooed nativesanextremelylucrativebusiness.Buttheassociationwiththeexotic,consequentlyresultedinthe additionalassociationoftattooswithinferiority.Duringtheseventeenthtonineteenthcenturies, Europeansviewedtattoosasmarksofsavageryandasahallmarkoftheprimitive(DeMello49,47). Tattooattractionsatworldfairsinparticularexemplifytheextenttowhichtattoosexistedasan indicatorofprimitiveness.Atworldfairs,tattooattractionsweredisplayedalongsideexhibitsof Westernachievement.Bycontrastingachievementssuchastechnologicaladvancementswithprimitive activitiessuchastattooing,worldfairsnotonlyhighlightedWesternprogress,butalsoeffectively constructedanarrativeabouttattooedpeopleassavages(DeMello47).Becausetattoosstoodatthe heartofwhatdistinguishedtheindigenousindividualsfromtheEuropeansandmoreimportantlywhat distinguishedbetweenprimitiveandcivilizedclassificationstattoos,moresothananyothercultural practices,wereviewedassignsofinferiority.Itisthisperceptionofinferioritythatgaverisetothe stigmatizationoftattooedindividualsregardlessofculturalbackground. Thesameassociationwithexoticismthatrenderedtattooingasavagepracticealsoservedasa lurefortheiracquisition.InparticularEuropeanroyaltyandmembersoftheupperclasssoughtto

Porcella10 obtainthedistinctivemarks.Howthesetwodifferingattitudestowardtattoosduringtheseventeenth tonineteenthcenturiescouldexistinsuchparadoxhasyettobeexplained.However,inferencescanbe madebyexamininganthropologistMargoDeMellosinsightontheroleofsailorsinpopularizingtattoos. DeMellobelievesthatsailorsactedasmiddlemenintattooingstransitionfrombeingperceivedas primitivetobecominganintegralpartofworkingclasslife.Thisexplanationfailstoexplainthe popularitytattooingexperiencedamongtheupperclassthatoccurredbeforeitexperiencedpopularity amongthemasses.YetDeMellosinsightmaybeabletoexplainbothsurgesinpopularity.Asan explanationtotheincreaseintattooingspopularityamongworkingclassmen,DeMellostatesthat tattooingstransitionfromtaboototrendoriginatedinthelifestyleofsailorsandwhatthisrepresented toworkingclassmenbackhome:adventure,travel,exoticlandsandpeople,andafreespirit(49). AppliedtoupperclassEuropeans,itcanbespeculatedthattheytooweredrawntothesenseof adventureandexcitementthattattoospresented.Infact,someEuropeanroyaltyembarkedonactual adventuressimplytoacquireatattoo.BritainsKingGeorgeVandRussiasTsarNicholasIIjourneyed toJapan,afteritwasreopenedtotheworldin1854,specificallytoacquiretattoos(Polhemus42). Tattoosassociationwiththeexoticappealedtotheupperclassandtransformedtattoosinto socialcapital.Tattoosbecameindicatorsofstatus.Whiletheupperclassviewedtattoosasindicatorsof culturalknowledge(tattooedEuropeanswerethoughttobecultured),themiddleandlowerclasses viewedtattoosassimplyindicatorsofwealth.Specifically,tattoosindicatedthatthebearerhadenough wealthtotraveltoexoticlocationsaroundtheworldorhireanemergingtattooartisttoacquirethe tattoos.Theupperclassalsocouldaffordthetimerequiredfortattooing.Untilthelatenineteenth century,tattooingwasstillperformedmanuallyusingasetofneedlesattachedtoawoodenhandle. BorrowingtechniquesfromthePolynesians,atattooartistdippedtheneedlesininkandmovedhis handupanddownrhythmically,puncturingtheskintwoorthreetimesasecond(Gilbert126).This techniquewasextremelytimeconsuming.Priortothenineteenthcentury,themajorityofthelower

Porcella11 classesworkedinagricultureandcouldnotaffordanytimebeyondearningalivingwage.Therefore, fromtheseventeenthtothenineteenthcenturytattoosservedtodistinguishtheupperclassfromthe massesandconsequentlybecameassociatedwithwealthandstatus.

TattoosinAmerica
ThearrivaloftattooingtotheUnitedStatesduringthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenth

centuriesbroughtrevolutionarychangetothepractice.In1891,NewYorktattooartistSamuelOReilly patentedthefirstelectrictattoomachine.ThemachinewasdesignedafterThomasEdisonsperforating pen 3 andallowedtattooartiststouseseveralneedlessimultaneously(DeMello50).Usingthetattoo Figure6 (a) (b)

UnitedStatesPatentdocument(a)anddrawing(b)ofthefirstelectrictattoomachine.Inventedby SamuelOReilly.PatentedonDecember8,1891.UnitedStatesPatentNo.464,801

3 ThomasEdisonpatentedtheperforatingpen(Figure6)in1876and1877.Theinventiondevelopedasa
byproductofEdisonstelegraphyresearch.ThepenofEdisonsprintingtelegraphleftachemicalresidue asitpuncturedthepaper.ThisobservationledEdisontobelievethattheperforatedpapercouldbeused asastencilformakingcopies.ThusEdisoninventedtheelectricpenasaperforatingdevice(Burns). SamuelOReillymodifiedEdisonsdesignininventingthefirstelectrictattoomachine.

Porcella12 machine,tattooscouldbeadministeredfasterandforlessmoney,makingthemavailabletothelower classes.Tattooingsensuingpopularityamongthemassesresultedintheabandonmentofthepractice bytheupperclassbothintheUnitedStatesandinEurope.Tattooingnolongerrepresentednoveltynor indicatedstatus.Thustattooinglosttheexoticismandprestigethathadluredtheelitetothepractice. Amongtheelite,perceptionsoftattooingrevertedbacktoitsassociationwiththeconceptof primitiveness.Inthiswaytheelitecontinuedtoseparatethemselvesfromthelowerclasses. Theeffectofanewenvironmentontattooingwasareinventionofitsappearanceinsociety. TattooingasaculturalpracticeunderwentwhatanthropologistMargoDeMellocallsAmericanization (49).Shestates,Tattooingwas[]modifiedbyearlyUStattooisttofitalocalsensibilityemphasizing patriotismratherthanexoticism(DeMello49).Tattooingsassociationwithpatriotismdeveloped primarilyasaresultofitspopularityamongmilitarypersonnel.InhisNewYorkshop,Martin HildebrandtthefirstknownprofessionaltattooartistintheUnitedStatestattooedmostlysailors andsoldiers.HistattooworkonsoldiersfrombothsidesoftheCivilWarhascausedmanytattoo historianstorecognizeHildebrandtasbeinginstrumentalinestablishingtheUStraditionoftattooed servicemen(DeMello49).Indeedtattooinghasbeenextremelypopularamongthearmedforces throughoutAmericanhistory.DuringtheperiodbetweenthetwoWorldWars,thelinkbetween soldiersandsailorsandtattooingwassostrong[]thatitwasassumedamanwithtattooswasserving inthearmedforcesorhadbeenatonetime(DeMello63).Consequently,tattooingduringthattime experiencedthehighestlevelofsocialapprovalandtheerabecameknownastheGoldenAgeof Tattooing(DeMello63).PopularityamongservicemenbuiltuptattooingsrapportamongAmericans.It appearedthatAmericansocietywillinglyextendedtherespectitgrantedtoservicementothe servicemenstattoos.Inaddition,tattooinghadbecomesynonymouswithpatriotismandnationalism. Individualseagerlyacquiredtattoosinordertoexpresstheirnationalpride.

Porcella13 Despiteitspositiveassociationwithpatriotism,tattooingstillcarriedastigmaintheUnited

Statespriortothetwentiethcentury.Sinceitsintroductiontothecountry,tattooinghadbecome extremelypopular,buthadnotnecessarilyexperiencedwidespreadacceptance.Thestrongestevidence oftattooingsstigmaistheabsenceofwomenamongthosewhoacquiredtattoosduringthattime.Not onlywerewomensimplynotpartakinginthepractice,tattooartistswereactivelypreventingwomen fromacquiringtattoos.Itwasnotuncommonforatattooartisttohaveapolicyofrefusingtotattooa woman.Theperceptionofwomenduringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesexplainsthe motivationbehindtheseprohibitivepolicies.Duringthistimeperiod,knowninhistoryastheVictorian era 4 ,womenwereseenaspoisedandpure.Inkeepingwiththisperception,womendressedinmodest clothinganddidnotwearanyadornmentsorjewelry.Tattoosonwomenduringthisera,therefore, corruptedthefeminineimageofpurityandmayhaveevenbeenlinkedtopromiscuity.Anthropologist MargoDeMellodescribestattooartistsduringthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesas guardiansofthefemaleimage.Shestates,Thetattooist,likethewomansothermalekeepers,tookit uponhimselftokeepnicegirls(i.e.attractive,middleclass,heterosexualwomen)fromtransgressing theclassandsexualbordersofthetimeandofturningintotramps(DeMello61).Societysconcernof tattooscorruptiveinfluenceonwomensuggeststhatsocietyperceivedtattoosascorrupt,immoralor unclean.Tattoosmayhavebeenacceptableforsoldiersandsailors,roughenedbythegravityofwar, buttattoosamongthenonmilitarysocietywasseenastransgressiveviolatingtheparticularmorals definingappearanceatthattime.

TheVictorianera,whichlastedfrom1819to1901,drewitsnamefromthereigningQueenofEnglandat thetimeQueenVictoria.Amongmedical,technologicalandeconomicadvances,theperiodisknownfor thefamilyvaluesandworkethicitfostered.TheidealVictorianwomanpossessedsocialdeference, chastity,andrespectability(Shepherd).IntheUnitedStatesthefeminineidealofthetimewasoutlined bythecartooncharacterknownastheGibsonGirl.Shepossessedsimilarqualitiesofsophisticationand modesty.

Porcella14

TheCircus
Tattooednativescontinuedtobedisplayedpubliclyasentertainmentthroughoutthe

eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Abolitionistmovementsduringthetwentiethcentury,however, causedsuchdisplaystolosepublicfavor.Thetattooednatives,receivingnopayfortheirentertainment, wereviewedbythepublicasbeingessentiallyslaves.Itisatthistimethattattooedattractions transitionedfromdisplayingtattooedindigenouspeopletotattooedWesterners.Regardlessofthis change,anthropologistMargoDeMelloarguesthatthecontinuationoftattooedattractionsreliedon thecontinuingassociationbetweentattooingandsavageryinordertoselltickets(53).Simplythe existenceoftattooedattractionsestablishedtheperceptionoftattooingassavagelike.Tattooed westernerswerepromotedashumanodditiesorfreaksandweredisplayedinwhatappropriately becameknownasfreakshows.Labelingthesetattooedindividualsasfreaksnecessarilyostracizedthem fromsocietyandportrayedtattoosasfreakishorabnormal.Inmanycases,tattooedindividualson displayconcoctederroneoustalesthatdetailedtheircaptureandforcedtattooingbysavages. 5 For example,thefirsttattooedwhitemanexhibitedintheUnitedStates,JamesOConnell,claimedtohave beenshipwreckedinMicronesiawherehemarriedoneofthechiefsdaughtersandwastattooedby Micronesiannatives(DeMello56).Westernershadembracedtattooing,yetplacedtheguiltof committingsuchatransgressiveactonpeopleconsideredinthosetimestobeprimitive.Thisdeferralof accountabilitysuggeststhepersistingviewoftattooingasbeingbarbaricoruncivilized.Society collectivelydeniedanypossibilityofWesternersintentionalacquisitionoftattoosespeciallysuch dramatictattoosasthosedisplayedatcircusshows.However,inthelatenineteenthcenturycircus 5 ThestoryofOliveOatman(previouslymentionedinthesectionOriginsofTattooing)wasoneoftherare
casesofatattooedWesternerduringthenineteenthcenturywhohadactuallybeencapturedand tattooedbyanindigenousgroup.

Porcella15

Figure7

The Circus
EdithBurchett.Tattooedbyher husbandfamoustattooartist GeorgeBurchett.

ArtoriaGibbons.Tattooedbyher husbandRedGibbonsinthe1920s.

Selfnamed The Great Omi, Horace Ridler was tattooed by George Burchett in the 1930s during 500 sittings. Ridler got the tattoos purposely to become a showattraction.Hewasdisplayed atRipleysBelieveItOrNot Odditorium(TattooArchive).

Charles Wagner (seated), the most talented and prolific of the early American tattoo artists, and tattooed circus people in Chatham Square, circa 1930. The woman seated is tattoo artistMildredHull(Gilbert127,130).

Prince Costentenus, the most remarkable tattooed man of the 1800s was put on exhibition by P.T. Barnum. The only part of his body not tattooed was the soles of hisfeet(TheHumanMarvel).

Satisfiedcustomer. Tattooedbyfamous tattooartistGeorge Burchett.

Porcella16 entertainmentthrivedontheambitionsofWesternerstoundergointensetattooinganddisplay themselvesaslivingattractions. ThestoryofHoraceRidler,selfproclaimedTheGreatOmi,illustratesthesuccess,eccentricity andevencompetitivenessoftattooedattractionsduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.Shortlyafter enteringtheprofession,Ridlerbecameunsatisfiedwithhiswages.Intensecompetitionwithinthe sideshowbusinesshadlessenedthegrandeurofhistattoos.TattoohistorianSteveGilbertreportsthat by1920,overthreehundredcompletelytattooedpeoplewereemployedincircusandsideshows (138).Committedtotheprofession,Ridlerdecidedtotransformhimselfintoahumanzebra.Inthe 1930shehiredLondonstoptattooist,GeorgeBurchett,totattooaheavycurvilineardesignoverhis entirebodyincludinghisface(DeMello56). Circusperformersembodimentoftattoosatatimewhensocietyheldanegativeperceptionof tattooingestablishedtattooingslongstandingmarginality.Duetotheireccentriclifestyle,circus performerswereostracizedfrommainstreamsociety.Whereasopinionleadersmayhavebeenableto influencesocietysperceptionoftattoos,circusperformersreducedtattoostoamarginalstatus.In succeedingeras,tattooingsmarginalnaturepersistedanddevelopedintoapatterninwhichdiffering timesmerelysawachangeintheparticularmarginalizedgroupbearingtattoos.

NegativityintheFortiesandFifties
Midtwentiethcenturymarkstheperiodwhentattooingsassociationwithdeviancefirsttook

root.AnthropologistMargoDeMellodescribesthetimeperiodastheperiodthatsolidifiedpostwar societysnegativeviewsoftattooing(67).ThoughlawshadbeenestablishedbeforeWorldWarIIthat setalegalminimumagerequirementfortattooing,stategovernmentsstruggledtoenforcethemduring thewar.Afterthewar,however,thegovernmentbeganrigorouslyregulatingtattooingpractices.Not

Porcella17 onlywereagelimitsstrictlyenforced,butmunicipalauthoritiesconductedhealthinspectionsoftattoo parlorstoensurethattattooartistswerefollowingsafetyprocedures,suchasusingcleanneedles. Outbreaksofhepatitisthoughttobecausedbyunsafetattooingproceduresfurtherpropelledthese inspectionsandevenresultedinthebanningoftattooingalltogetherinseveralstatesduringthe1960s (DeMello66).Theheightenedregulationsduringthistimeperiodreflectedsocietysgeneralperception oftattooing.Tattooinghadgonebeyondbreakingsocialcomfortbarriersthreateningsocietyshealth. Societyperceivedtattoostobedangerousonaccountofitshealthrisksaswellasthedeviantbehavior thatseemedtodevelopinconjunctionwithtattooing.Prevailingsociobiologicalperspectives particularlythoseofcriminologistCesareLombrosoinfluencedthedevelopmentofassociations betweentattooinganddeviantbehavior.Lombrosoarguedthatcriminality(anindividualspropensityto beacriminal)couldbedeterminedbyanindividualsphysicalattributes.Amongthephysicaltraits Lombrosoclaimedindicatedinherentdeviancewastheattributeofhavinglittlesensitivitytopain (qtd.inAdamsMarkedDifference270).Thoughexplicitmentionoftattooswasabsentfrom Lombrososreport,societyinterpretedhightoleranceforpainasanexplanationforthetendencyof criminalstobetattooed.Thislogicledsocietytobelievethatatattooonanindividualwastheexternal signofinwardmoralobtuseness(GibsonqtdinAdamsMarkedDifference270).Tattooingnolonger appearedtobeanactofsavagerybutanactofimmorality. Linksbetweentattooingandmarginalizedgroupsduringthelate1940stolate1950salso contributedtosocietyadoptinganegativeviewoftattoos.Inthe1940soutlawmotorcyclistgangs (morecommonlyknownasbikers)beganemergingasasubculturalgroup.Inadditiontotheir commoninterestinmotorcycles,bikersunitedaroundtheirattractiontotattoos.Bikertattoosoften expressedantisocialsentiment.Becausebikerslivedonthemarginsofsociety,tattoosbecame associatedwithsocialdetachmentanddeviance.Tattooswerecommonamongcriminalgangsaswell. Tattoosplayedamajorroleingangsbeforethe1940s,butitisthemediaattentionthatthesetattooed

Porcella18 gangsreceivedduringthattimethathadanimpactontattoossocialacceptance.Forexample,riots betweenservicemenandChicanogangsinLosAngelesduringthe1940shighlightedthetattooingthat existedinthePachucoculture(DeMello67).Inreportingtheeventnewspapersandothermedia sourcesstirredupantiMexicanAmericansentiments 6 wronglyfocusingthenegativepublicityon Figure8 youngChicanovictims(Pagn224).Regardlessoftruthor impartialreporting,thepublicityoftattoosonreported gangmemberslinkedtattooswithcriminalbehaviorinthe publicsmind.Inaddition,anthropologistMargoDeMello arguesthatknowledgeabouttheNazipracticeoftattooing Jewsintheconcentrationcampsprobablycontributedto tattooingsdownfallintheUnitedStates(SeeFigure14)(67). 1

TattooRenaissance
Theliberationmovementsinthe1960sand1970s

broughtimprovementstothetattooingprofessionand 2
July 15, 1945: Jewish youth who survived Nazi concentration camps show their tattooed identification numbers. 2 December 9, 2004: Holocaust survivor Leon Greenman (age 93) displays his tattooed number at the Jewish Museum inLondon.
1

broadenedtheperceptionsoftattoosintheUnitedStates. ThoughthestylewaspresentintheUnitedStatesbeforethis time,Japanesetattooingbecameparticularlypopularamong Americansinthe1970s.Japanesetattooingdifferedfrom Americantattooinginitsfluidityanduseofthebodyasa

OnJune3,1943approximatelyfiftysailorsstationedattheNavalReserveTrainingSchoolinLosAngeles stormedthroughMexicanAmericanneighborhoodsstrippingzootsuitsoffofChicanoteenagers(Pagn 223).(ZootsuitshadbeenthecurrentfashionamongChicanomales.)Aweekofriotingensued predominatelyinwhichmilitarypersonnelterrorizedMexicanAmericanswithlittletonointerventionby LosAngelespolice.TheHearstPress,ownedbyWilliamRandolphHearst,stoodattheheadofthemedias antiMexicanAmericancampaign(Pagn224).

Porcella19 threedimensionalobjectratherthanatwodimensionalsurface.Comparedtotattoosexecutedby Japanesetattooists,Americantattoosappearedtobeaseriesofsmall,independent,badgelikedesigns placedhaphazardlyonthebody(DeMello74).TheJapaneseavoidedawkwardpiecesofblankskin betweentattoosbyintegratingtattoosintoathematicbackground,typicallyconsistingofwindor water,andcreatingmovementwithintheoverallartwork.AccordingtoanthropologistMargoDeMello, Japanesetattoosatthattimewerethoughttobemodern,sophisticatedandlinkedtothemore spiritualandrefinedEast(DeMello75).Itisthisspirituality,vibrancyandillusionofmovementthat mostlikelyattractedthefreespiritsofthesixtiesandseventiestotheJapanesestyleoftattooing.The adoptionofJapanesetechniquesusheredAmericantattooingintotheartworld.Tattooingsuddenly heldaestheticvalue.Infact,tattooingslegitimacyasanartformwasfurthersolidifiedbythedramatic increaseinthenumberofuniversitytrainedartistsinthe1970sand1980s(KosutMadArtists87). SociologistMaryKosutarguesthatthediscoursesandtechniquesacquiredinvariousartprograms thatenteredthetattooingworldinthe1970sinfluencedthecreationofnewtattoostyles[]aswellas acommitmenttoinnovationandexperimentation(MadArtists88).Influencesfromtheartworld causedsocietytoviewtattooingmoreasanartformthanadestructiveordeviantpractice.Thus attitudestowardtattoosimproved.Inaddition,startinginthe1970s,thetattooingindustrybegan improvingthesanitaryconditionswithintattooshopsafterreceivingcriticismforhepatitisoutbreaks decadesearlier.Theseimprovementsestablishedtattooingasaprofessionalbusiness.Individualswho hadbeenpreviouslyturnedoffbytattooingsgriminessasentimentmostlikelyfoundedontattooings circustiesnowrecognizedtattooingasalegitimatepractice. Ofgreatersignificancetotattooingstransformationduringthe1960sand1970swasits

adoptionbytherevolutioncrazedyouth.AnthropologistTedPolhemusbelievesthatthetattoo renaissancemaywellhaveremainedconfinedtotheexperimentsofahandfulofenthusiastswereitnot fortheyouthquakeandcounterculturerevolutionsthatshooktheworldinthesecondhalfofthe

Porcella20 1960s(48).Ironically,astattooinggainedlegitimacyduringthistime,itsprevalenceamongtheyouth existedprimarilyasanactofdeviance.Asprominentproponentsoftheculturalrevolution,theyouthof thesixtiesandseventiesembracedtattooingasameanstorebelagainsttheestablishment.Like rippedjeans,barefeet,andlovebeads,tattoosbecamethegarbsportedbyindividualspromoting peaceandfreedominaperiodmarkedbytheVietnamWarandtheCivilRightsmovement(Gay37). Thereforedespitegreateracceptanceoftattooingasaprofessionalindustry,tattooingcontinuedtobe associatedwithdevianceandmarginalizedgroups.

TattoosToday
Nowinthetwentyfirstcenturytattooingisexperiencingwidespreadacceptance.Morepeople

andamorediversegroupofpeoplearegettingtattooed.In2003aHarrispollreportedthat approximately16%ofAmericanshaveatleastonetattoo.In2005,justtwoyearslater,theAmerican SocietyofDermatologicalSurgeryreportedthatthepercentageofAmericansthathaveatleastone tattoohadincreasedto24%nearlyoneineveryfourAmericans(Keel18).Thesestatisticsseemto suggestthattattoosarenolongerexclusivetotheparticularsubculturalgroupstheyhavebeen associatedwithinthepast.Whiletattoosstillremainprominentwithinthesegroups,manyindividuals gettingtattoostodaydonotfallunderthestereotypesofbikers,inmates,gangmembersormilitary personnel.Adefinitionofthetattooedindividualnolongerexists.

TattoosintheMedia
Explanationsvaryonwhysomanypeoplearegettingtattoosaswellashowsocietynow

perceivestattoosconsideringitsgrowingpopularity.Themediahasanenormousinfluenceinpropelling thetattooedtrendanddeterminingsocialresponsetoincreasedtattooing.Themediahasthepower toregulatehowmuchattentionisgiventotattoosandhowaudiencesprocessandevaluatethe

Porcella21 information.Startinginthe1990s,tattoosappearedineveryfacetofthemediaincludingmagazines, popularandscholarlyliterature,movies,andtheentertainmentindustryatlarge.Simplytheprevalence oftattoosinthemediahasaffectedsocietysperceptionoftattoosbyincreasingsocietysexposureto tattoos.Increasedexposureiscriticalinnormalizing 7 thepractice.Themoreawaresocietyisof tattooing,themoretattooingisacceptedintosociety.TelevisionshowssuchasLAInkandMiamiInkgo beyondnormalexposuretoshowaudiencesthebehindthescenesactivitiesoftwofamoustattoo parlors.InhisarticleTattooed:BodyArtgoesMainstreamTimKeelhighlightstheuniquemannerin whichLAInkandMiamiInkpresenttattooing.Hestates,Theseshowsallowpeoplewhomightnever enterthetattooworldtotakeafrontrowseatinthesafetyandcomfortoftheirlivingrooms,(Keel 18).MoreandmoreAmericansarepartakinginwhatKeelnicknamesthetattooworldbysimply reading,watchingorhearingabouttattooingthroughmediaoutlets.Thoughtheseindividualsmayjust bespectators,theirinterestintattooingadvancestheprevalenceandpopularityoftattoosinsociety. Ingeneralthemediasfocushasbeentocultivateinterestintattoos.Themediahasnomotive

topersuadetheiraudiencetoacquiretattoos.Ratherthemediaismotivatedbywhatsells.Tattoossell. Regardlessofpersonalperceptions,societyingeneralisinterestedinlearningmoreinformationabout thetattooing.Inseekingtoprovidesocietywiththisinformation,themediahasmanipulatedsocietys perceptionoftattooing.CulturalanthropologistMargoDeMellonotesthatmediatodayhasreframed tattooinginordertostrengthenitsappeal.UponanalyzingacollectionofarticlesontattoosDeMello 7 Oneofthedefinitionsfornormalizeistoremovestrainsandreducecoursecrystallinestructuresin

metal(Normative).Whilethisdefinitionpertainstometallurgy,itprovidesinsightintoitssociological usehere.Theprocessofnormalizingtattooscanbeunderstoodasremovingstrainsorrather removingthestigmaassociatedwiththepractice.Amoreappropriatedefinitionofnormalizefor sociologicalpurposesisthedefinitiontomakenormal,especiallytocausetoconformtoastandardor norm,(Normative).Inconjunctionwiththefirstdefinition,anewnormvalidatingtattooingappearsto replacethepreviousstigma.

Porcella22 foundthatwritersgenerallytendtoemphasizethedifferencesbetweenthosewhogottattoosinthe pastandthosewhogettattoostoday.Throughthistechnique,themediahassuccessfullyconveyedthat tattooingisnolongeradisreputableenterpriseandhasreframedtattooingasapracticeforanew tattooedgeneration(DeMello98;DeMelloqtd.inAdamsBodiesofChange106).Thisnewtattooed generationdoesnotnecessarilyreflectreality.Itisinsteadaconceptdesignedbythemedia.DeMello notesthatarticlesontattoostendtoportraythosegettingtattooedasbeinghighlyeducatedand holdingwhitecollarjobs.Byfocusingonthesecharacteristicsoftattooedindividuals,themediahas replacedtheimagesocietytypicallyconceptualizesasatattooedindividualwithanewimage.The imageofatattooedindividualisnolongerofarebelliousperhapsimmoraldeviant,butofan upstanding,respectablecitizen.Themediahasfurthersucceededinreframingtheperceptionof tattooedindividualsbybeingselectiveinthetypesofindividualschosentobefeaturedinaparticular article.Forexample,DeMellonotesthatmainstreamarticlesontattoosdonotinterviewbikersand othernonmiddleclasstattoowearersthosetypesofindividualsthathavebeenassociatedwith tattoosinpastdecades.Insteadthemediainterviewstattooedindividualsfallingwithinthecategories ofstudents,secretaries,artists,teachers[]andothermembersofthemiddleclassconsidered respectable(DeMello100).Thiscategorizationnarrowstherangeoftattooedindividualstomiddle classprofessionals.Tattoosmaystillbepresentamongmarginalized,subculturalgroups,butthemedia haschosentoexcludethosegroupsfromitsfocus.Theintentofsuchanexclusionistoinfluence audiencesperceptionoftheissuebeingstudied.Middleclassprofessionalsaregenerallyperceivedas havingmoralsanddemonstratingacceptablesocialbehavior.Therefore,drawingonthisperception,the mediahasportrayedtattoosasanacceptablesocialpractice. Thetransformationofmovierolesplayedbytattooedcharactersservesasanexampleofhow

themediahasredefinedtheconceptualizationoftattooedindividuals.InherarticleAnIronicFad:The CommodificationandConsumptionofTattoosMaryKosutfocusesontheroleoftheentertainment

Porcella23 industryinpopularizing tattoos.The2002 blockbustermoviexXx servesasherprimary example.Thevisualfocus ofthemoviesadvertising campaigncentered aroundtheimageofthe maincharactersheavily tattooedbody.Theintent wastoemphasizethe characterssocial detachmentandrebelliousnature.However,thecampaigninadvertentlyelevatedthestatusoftattoos. Themaincharacter,XanderCage(playedbyVinDiesel),perfectlyexemplifiesthetattooedstereotype. Heisananarchist,anextremesportenthusiastandingeneral,anoutcastofsociety.Yetheisalsothe hero.Therefore,insteadofreinforcingthestigmaassociatedwithtattoos,tattoosareportrayedina positivelight.Thefactthatthemovieglorifiesatattooedprotagonistpresentstattoosasacceptable cooleven(KosutAnIronicFad1037). Similarlytattooedcelebritiesandathleteshaveenhancedtattoosappeal.Celebritiesdidnot reallystartgettingtattoosuntilthe1990s.The1990smarkedtheheightoftattooingspopularityinthe UnitedStates.Thefactthatcelebritiesweregettingtattooedatthistimecouldbeinterpretedasmerely membersofsocietyfollowingasocialtrend.Thoughtheirfameoftensetsthemapart,celebritiesareas muchamemberofsocietyasanyindividual,andassuch,arejustaslikelytoconcedetoacurrent fashion.However,itisbecauseoftheirfamethattheirinterestintattoosisnotseenasanexampleof
Figure9 Movieposterpromotingthe 2002blockbusterxXx.ThexXx tattooprominentlyplacedon thebackofactorVinDiesels neckwasthefocusofmanyof thebillboardsalsousedinthe moviesadvertisingcampaign.

Porcella24 concedingtoatrendbutasonegivingrisetoatrend.Whenviewedinthismanner,whycelebrities startedgettingtattoosbecomesunimportant.Theimportanceistheirinfluenceinfurtherpopularizing tattoos.InAmericanculture,celebritiesrolesextendbeyondtheirjobtitlestoincludefashionicon,role modelandallaroundpublicfigure.Society,inessence,lookstocelebritiestosetsocialnorms.When celebritiesbegancomingoutinpublicwithtattoosontheirbodies,societyacceptedtattoosasanew socialnorm.Itisthissocialnormthatsomesociologistsbelievespurredtattoospopularityamongnon celebrityindividualsinthe1990s.Moresothanafashionstatement,celebritiesdisplayoftheirtattoos servedasastatementofacceptance.Tattoosbecamepermissible.Celebritiesdebunkedthe stereotypicaltattooedindividualandelevatedtattoostoahigherstatus.Thosewishingtoexpress themselvesthroughtattoosfeltthattheycoulddosoafterseeingcelebritiesproudlywearingtattoos. Beforetheriseoftattoopopularityamongcelebrities,theseindividualsmayhavefeltthattheywould beostracized,marginalizedorinsomewayscornedfortheirtattoos.

CommodificationofTattoos
Increasingprevalenceoftattoosinthemediahascausedsomesociologiststolookatthe

increasingpopularityoftattoosascommodificationofthepractice.Manyindividualsbelievethat commodificationoftattoosonlyconsistsofcasesinwhichtattoosarebeingadvertised,bought,orsold asacommodity.However,theconceptofthecommodificationoftattoosencompassesallcasesin whichtattoosarepresentinthecommercialworld.Tattoosincommercemaynotpromotetheactual, physicalconsumptionoftattoos(thatis,gettingatattoo)atall.Thepresenceoftattoosinthechildrens toymarketisanexcellentexamplewheretattoosdonotdirectlybenefitthetattooindustry economically.Toydolls,includingarguablythemostfamousdoll:Barbie,nowhavetattoosasoptional accessories(SeeFigure10).Tattoodollscomewithinstructionsshowingchildrenhowtotattoothe dollthemselvesandoftenincludeatemporarytattoochildrencanwear.Itcanbegenerallyunderstood

Porcella25 thattattooartistsandstudiosdonotusetoysasamediumforproductplacement.However,tattoos presenceinthetoymarketisusefulinhighlightingtheextenttattooshavepermeatedsociety.Atan earlyagechildrenareinstilledwiththeideathattattoosareacceptable.Studiesshowthatitismuch easierforchildrentolearnandretainasecondlanguagethanitisforadults.Inthesameway,social normsandbehaviorslearnedasachildhavea greaterinfluenceandahigherretentionratethan thoselearnedasanadult.Whenthesechildren mature,tattooswillmostlikelybeevenmore popularthantheyaretoday,simplyduetotheir earlyexposure. Inrecentyears,advertisershaveturnedto

tattooartforinspiration;however,tattoosin advertisementremainedtabooforyearspasttheir breakoutpopularityinthe1990s.Advertisements hesitationinembracingtattoosasadesignscheme suggeststhecontinuedpresenceofastigma plaguingtattoos.Particularlyinfashion,tattooson modelswereconsideredtaboo.Ifmodelshappened tohavetattoos,themarkswerecreativelycovered

Figure10 BARBIE Totally STYLIN' TATTOOS Doll by Mattel. The description found below the product on Mattels online store is as follows: Your daughter will love getting creative with these superstylish tattoos! Using the tattoo stamper, she can design and decorate her dolls awesome outfits and even apply temporarytattoostoherself.Howhipandtrendy!

byclothingorsimplyairbrushedforphotographs. Thoughtattoosarestillrarelyseenonrunway models,printadstodaydisplaytattooedmodels.In somecases,tattoosappeartohavebeendigitally addedtophotographsusingPhotoshop.Figure11

Porcella26 showsprintadsinwhichtheactualphysicalexistenceoftattoosonthemodelsskinisdebatable.Thead promotingIdpanemasandals(Figure11:3)featuresaheavilytattooedGisele,afamousBrazilianmodel. ImagesofGiselefromothermediasources,includinglivefootage,indicatethatGisele,infact,doesnot haveafullbodytattoo.Thedigitalplacementoftattoosinphotographscanbeseenastoolsadvertisers usetoinsomewayenhancetheircampaign.IntheadpromotingRushchocolatemilk(Figure11:1), marketerscapitalizedontheassociationoftattooswithrebelliontoreinforcetheirslogan:JustaLittle Naughty.Incontrast,tattoosinspiredtheactualproductdesignofaConverseshoe.Theuseofafacial tattoointheConversead(Figure11:5)furtherpromotesthatdesign. Regardlessoftheintent,tattoosinadvertisementhasbecomecommonplaceandhaseven transcendedthecognizanttothesubliminal.InhisarticleTattooArtFlowsintoMainstreamAdsAzam Ahmedstates,Marketersaredoingmorethanshowcasingtattoocoveredmodels.Theyrealso applyingtattooculturesaesthetictographicimagesandtypefaces.Evenifsubtlythroughtheuseof fontsmimickingtattooinkonproductlabelscompaniesareincreasinglytappingintotattoos popularityinanattempttoappealtoayoungeraudience.Thesecompaniesbelievethattheirproducts associationwithagrowingdesigntrendwilllurenewbuyersandreinvigorateloyalcustomerstobuy theirproduct.Tohelpwithstyling,advertisersareactuallyhiringtattooartiststosketchartworkfor productlabels(Ahmed).Notonlydoesthisauthenticatethedesigns,theemploymentoftattooartistsin themarketingworldfurtherlegitimizestattooingasanartform.Tattoosappearanceinadvertisement hasbeenavitalfrontierintattoosexpandingpopularityduetoadvertisementsenormousinfluencein shapingsocietysperceptionofculture.Tattooedmodelssendthemessagethattattoosdonotdestroy beautybutcanservetoenhanceit.Tattoosusedinprintadsshowcasethecreativitycultivatedthrough theartoftattooing.Tattoosinadvertisementingeneralserveasanindicatoroftattooingsprominence inAmericancultureandfurtherelevatesitsstatuswithinsociety.

Porcella27

TATTOOS

4 Figure11
AROUNDTHEWORLD:AUSTRALIA: 1 RushchocolatemilkbyParmalat Ltd.FRANCE:2ChanelEyewear. BRAZIL:3IpanemaGiseleBundchen Sandals.UNITEDSTATES:4PostIt by3M.5Converseshoes.6Captain MorganTattoospicedrum.

IN

ADVERTISING

Porcella28

TattoosandBodyImage
RisingtattoopopularitycanalsobeattributedtoAmericansincreasingpreoccupationwithbody

image.ThemediaisagaintheculpritinAmericasobsessionwithbodyappearances.ThePsychological Bulletinreportsthatrepeatedexposuretomediacontentleadviewerstobegintoacceptmedia portrayalsasrepresentationsofreality(Grabeetal.460).Thisengineeredperceptionofrealityresults inwhatiscalledtheidealbodytype.Typicallypsychologistsandsociologisthavestudiedtheideal bodytypeasitpertainstoindividualsselfviewofbodyweight.Yettheidealbodytypedefinestheideal appearanceofmorephysicalaspectsthansimplyweight.Forexample,theidealbodytypealsoincludes smooth,unblemishedskinanidealthatdirectlyrelatestotattooacquisition. Individualsgenerallystrivetoachievetheidealbodyoutlinedbythemediaoratleastfeelthat theyneedtoachievetheidealbodytobesociallyaccepted. Thus,bodyidealscreatedbythemedia havetheaffectofeitherencouragingordiscouragingindividualsfromparticipatinginbodymodification. Infactatrendthathasgrownparalleltopreoccupationwithbodyimageistheattractiontowardsbody modification.Magazines,celebrities,andtelevisionshows(suchasExtremeMakeover)havenotonly popularizedbeautyattainment;theyhavepopularizedbeautyattainmentthroughdrastic,often surgical,means.Tattooingisnotexcludedfromthesebodymodificationpractices.SociologistMichael Atkinsoncomparestattooingtootherformsofbodymodificationintendedforbeautyattainment.He states,Justascosmeticsurgery,dieting,andexercisingempowerpractitionersbygeneratingculturally reveredbodyshapes,tattooingproducesaestheticallyenhancedandsociallyacknowledgedbodies,
8

Thenotionthatindividualsstrivetoachievetheidealbodytypestemsfromsocialcomparisontheory. AccordingtoanarticlepublishedbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,Socialcomparisontheory statesthatweseektocompareourselveswithothers(Bessenoff239).Oneparticulartypeofsocial comparison,upwardsocialcomparison,pertainstotheaffecttheidealbodytypehasinmotivating individualstoaltertheirbody.Inupwardsocialcomparison,individualscomparethemselvestoothers [they]perceivetobesociallybetterthan[them]selves(Bessenoff240).Whentherearediscrepancies betweenanindividualsbodyandthebodytowhichitiscompared(heretheidealbodytype),individuals aremotivatedtochangetheselftobemorelikethecomparisonstandard(Bessenoff240).

Porcella29 (Atkinson133).Withtheirrisingpopularity,tattoosarenowconsideredonewayinwhichindividuals canimprovetheirappearance. Incontrast,pressuretofitanidealbodytypemaypropelindividualstoacquiretattoosnotout

ofadesiretoconformbutoutofadesiretorebel.Tattooingasanactofdefiancesuggeststhat tattooingspopularitytodaymaynotbeduetoincreasedacceptance.Rather,tattooingasanactof defianceplaysonthesocialperceptionoftattooingasbeingimmoralorunclean.Inthiscontexttattoos signifyanindividualsrejectionoftheidealbodytypeandtheinstitutionthatdictatesnormsdefining appearance.Acquiringtattoosmayalsobeseenasamethodinwhichindividualscanreclaimcontrol overtheirbodies.SociologistLaurenLangmandescribestheidealbodytypeasamassproduced selfhood(664).Langmansdictionpaintsapictureofaconveyorbeltofhumanbeingsthatappear morelikemannequinsthanlivingcreatures.Theeffectoftherepetitionofcertainphysicalattributesin themediasportrayalofbeautyisaminimizationofindividualityandanemphasisonconformity. Externalpressurestoconformstripindividualsofcontrolovertheirownbodies.Bytakinganactiverole inthecreationofappearance,anindividualschoicetoacquireatattoocanbeseenasestablishinga senseofself.SociologistMichaelAtkinsondescribestattooingascustomizingthebodyinpursuitof individualityorliterallyillustratingindividuality(134135).Tattooshavetheabilitytosetindividuals apartfromoneanotherfargreaterthanclothingstyles.Becauseindividualshavecompletediscretionin choosingadesign,itishighlyunlikelythatanyothermarkedindividualwillsportthesametattoo.Thus tattooedindividualshavetheabilitytocreateanappearancethatstandsoutfromthecrowd.In addition,tattoostakeonpersonalmeaningsthatreaffirmanindividualsuniqueidentity.

ModernPerceptionsofTattoos
Tattooinginmodernsocietyexistsinastateofcomplexity.Increasedpopularityoftattoosas

evidentbyitsprevalenceinthemediaandthegrowingnumbersoftattooedindividualsseemsto

Porcella30 suggestsocietysacceptanceoftattooingasasocialnorm.However,sociologistJoshAdamsarguesthat thepracticeoftattooingstillappearstoretainsomeofitsmarginalcharacteristics(Marked Difference285).Adamsattemptstoprovethecontinuedassociationoftattooingwithdeviancenotby investigatingsocietysattitudetowardstattoos,butbyinvestigatingtheextenttowhichtattooinghas becomeamainstreampractice.Forthisinvestigation,Adamsperformssecondaryanalysisondata 9 collectedviaatelephonesurveybythePublicOpinionLaboratoryatNorthernIllinoisUniversity.Five hundredpeople(ranginginagefrom18to50yearsandlivinginthecontiguousUnitedStates)were selectedusingrandomdigitdialingtoensurethateveryindividualwithinthepopulationhadanequal probabilityofbeingselected(AdamsMarkedDifference277). 10 Usingarandomselectionmethod allowsresearcherstotesttheirhypothesisamongasamplethatisrepresentativeofthepopulation.The results,therefore,appearmoreapplicabletothepopulationasawhole.Adamsdifferentiatesbetween hisresearchmethodsandthoseofsociologistsinthepastclaimingthathisdatacomesfroma nationallyrepresentativedatasetwhereaspriorsociologicalworkontattooingtypicallyused institutionalizedpopulations,ormorecommonly,collegestudents(AdamsMarkedDifference269). Indeed,priorsociologicalworkontattooinghasbeencriticizedforexhibitingbiasedselection methods.Associationsbetweentattooing,criminality,andinsanitymayhaveresultedfromhow sociologicalstudiesframedthetopic.SociologistMaryKosutclaimsthatresearchersfrom1960to1990 exhibitedbiasinselectingsamplepopulations.Shestates,Onecharacteristicthesearticlesshareis theirunsoundmethodologicalpracticesandthesubjectivebiasesoftheresearchers.Forexample,some
9

Thedata,collectedbetweenFebruaryandAprilof2004,wasoriginallyusedforhealthorientedresearch studyingtheprevalenceoftattooingintheUnitedStatesandcorrespondingmedicalconsequences (AdamsMarkedDifference277).

10

Note:Thesamplefailstobe100%representativeofthepopulationduetothepollingmethod employed.NoteverypersonlivingintheUnitedStateshasaregisteredtelephone.Thestudyexcludes thoseindividualsthatdonotownaphoneorthosewhorelysolelyoncellphones.

Porcella31 focusexclusivelyontattooedmalepsychiatricpatientsimprisonedwithinstatehospitalsandprisons (KosutMadArtists81).Thesebiaseshaveframedtattooingasapotentialindicator,orsymptom,ofa mentalhealthproblem(AdamsBodiesofChange106).Analysisofpriorsociologicalworkon tattooingandthesubsequentdiscoveryofmethodologicalerrorssuchasselectionbiaseshavefurther propelledresearcherstodaytoinvestigatethephenomenondeeperandtodevelopnewmethodsto studysocietysperceptionoftattoos. Whilepriorsociologicalworkontattooingmainlyconsistedofqualitativedata,Adamsseeksto

measuretheextenttowhichtattooinghasbecomemainstreamusingquantitativedata.Adams developsseveralhypothesesthattogetherformameasureoftattooingsmarginality.Ofparticular relevancearethehypothesesthatexaminewhetherornottattooinghastranscendedage,genderand socioeconomiclines.Thesehypothesesare: H1:Highereducationalattainmentwillbepositivelyrelatedtohavingatattoointhe contemporaryera. H2:Higherincomelevelswillbepositivelyrelatedtohavingatattoointhe contemporaryera. H3:Agewillbenegativelyrelatedtohavingatattoo.[] H4:Thereshouldnolongerbeasignificantrelationshipbetweengenderandwhether onehasatattoo(AdamsMarkedDifference276).

Adamsresultsshowthattattooinghasinfactovercomesomeofthebarriersithasfacedinthepast. However,thecontinuedpresenceofotherbarrierspreventstattooingfromreceivingfullsocial acceptance.Oftheabovehypothesestested,theonetestingtherelationshipbetweenanindividuals genderandhavingatattoowassupported.Adamsfoundthatmalesandfemaleshadtattoosinsimilar numbers(MarkedDifference279).ThroughitshistoryintheUnitedStates,tattooinghasexistedas primarilyamasculinepractice.Tattooedwomeninthecircuswereextremelysuccessfulnotonly becausedisplayingtheirtattoossometimesrequiredthemtoexposetheirlegsandthighs(anact consideredracyduringtheVictorianera)butalsobecausetattoosuntilthattimehadonlybeenseenon

Porcella32 men(DeMello58).Tattooedwomentrulywereanoddityduringtheeighteenthandnineteenth centuries.Adamsarguesthatthedecliningrelevanceofgendertowhetheronehasatattooseemsto beindicativeofbothitsgrowthasapracticeandtheweakeningofnormativeprohibitionsagainst tattooing(MarkedDifference286).Duringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,tattooingwas thoughttobesuchavilepracticethatitwasthoughttocorruptthepurityofwomen.Societysgeneral acceptanceoftattooedfemalestodaysuggestsadeparturefromaperceptionofrepugnance. Thoughtattooingseemstohavebrokenthroughgenderbarriers,tattooinghasnotseen

widespreadacceptanceacrosssocioeconomiclevels.Adamsfoundthathishypothesisthatsuggesteda positiverelationshipbetweenanindividualslevelofeducationandhavingatattoowasnot substantiatedbythedata.Prevalenceamongthehighlyeducated,Adamsargued,wouldindicatethat societynolongerperceivedtheacquisitionoftattoosasanirresponsibleorrashdecision.However,as Figure12indicates,thepercentagesofindividualswhohavetattoosascomparedtothosewhodonot havetattoosdecreasesasanindividualslevelofeducationincreases.Similarly,thereisanegative relationshipbetweenanindividualsincomelevelandhavingatattoo.Ingeneral,individualswhohave higherincomesarelesslikelytohaveatattoothanindividualswhohavelowerincomes.Collectively,the resultsfromthesetwohypothesessuggestthattattooingremainsmorepopularamongthelower classesthantheupperclasses.Therefore,itwouldseemthattattooingtodayremainsontheoutskirtsof societyandthattheaversionfromtattoosbytheupperclassindicatesacontinuedassociationwith uncivilizedorunrefinedbehaviors.However,Adamspointsoutthatthetrendmaybebetterexplained bynormativeexpectationsintheworkplace(MarkedDifference285).Individualseducationallevel oftencorrelatestotheiranticipatedcareertrajectory(AdamsMarkedDifference285).Typicallyjobs atthemiddleandhighincomelevelsprohibitemployeesfromhavingtattoos.Therefore,thosewho wishtoenterintoamoderatetohighpayingcareertypicallythosewhohaveattainedahigherlevel ofeducationwouldabstainfromacquiringatattootomaximizetheiremployability.Tattoosasa

Porcella33 potentialoccupationalconstraintstillindicatesadegreeofitsstigmatizationinsociety.Thefactthat tattooinghasfailedtocrossoverintotheprofessionalworldimpliesthattattoosareconsidered aestheticallyoffensiveorindicativeofunprofessionalism. Thenegativerelationshipthatexistsbetweenageandhavingatattoobestexemplifiesthe complexityoftattooingsexistenceintodayssociety.Adamsfoundthattattoosweremuchmore prevalentamongindividualsofyoungergenerationsthantheywereamongindividualsofolder generations.Thisfindingillustratesbothtattooingsgrowingpopularityanditsfailuretogainfullsocial acceptance.Indeed,tattooinghasbecomeincreasinglyprevalentsinceitsadvancementduringthe tattoorenaissance.Yetthisgrowingpopularityappearstohaveonlyoccurredamongtheyouth.Youth havealwaysbeenconsideredthevehiclesthroughwhichsocialandculturalchangetakeplace.The tattooingphenomenonhasemployedtheyouthtoexpanditsacceptanceaswell.Thecommodification oftattooinghasbeenprimarilyfocusedonayoungeraudiencewiththemediaemphasizingtattoos inherentcoolnessandassociationwithrebellion.Rebellion,despitetypicallyinterpretedasbeing negative,appealstotheyoungergenerationswhoseektobreakfreefromauthoritativefigures.Older generationsgeneralaversiontotattooingcanbeexplainedbytheirretentionoftraditional characterizationsoftattooing.Whenindividualsoftheoldergenerationswerethesameageastodays youth,tattooingwasinstinctivelyperceivedasadeviantpractice.Unliketoday,devianceinthosedays wasneitherdesirednoracceptedinsociety.SociologistMaryKosutarguesthattheperceptionof tattoossharedbyoldergenerationshassuppressedtattooingfromeverattainingsocialacceptance.She states,Unlikeotheraestheticculturalformsthatmadethetransitionfrommarginalitytomainstream legitimacy,suchasjazz,folkartandphotography,tattooinghasbeenuniquelybeleagueredbyalong establishedandpowerfulpublicaversiontothepractice(KosutMadArtists90).Therefore,the capacityoftodaysyouthtobemoretolerantandacceptingofculturalchangethanpreceding

Porcella34 generationshasnotbeenenoughtoovercomethenegativitysurroundingthepracticethroughoutits history.

Conclusion
Peoplemakejudgmentsbecausetheyneedtomakesenseoftheirworld.Tattooingdidnot makesensetotheEuropeanexplorerswhodiscoveredthepracticeamongPacificIslanders.Society thereforeneededtoconstructaperceptioninordertojustifytheabsurdpractice.Withitsreligious backgroundandsocialconservatismactingasinfluences,Europeansocietyadoptedtheperceptionthat tattooingwasanactofprimitivenessapracticeonlyuncivilizedpeopleperformed.Yettattooings exoticismluredmanyEuropeanstoengageintheverypracticethatsocietyscorned.Monarchs, upperclassmanandcircusandsideshowperformersinEuropeandinAmericaneagerlyacquiredtattoos. Participationbytheelitetemporarilyelevatedsocietysopinionoftattooing.However,theburgeoning entertainmentindustrycausedperceptionsoftattoostoretrogress.Thedisplayofheavilytattooed freakishlookingpeoplelessonedtattooingsappealtomainstreamsocietywhilesimultaneously attractingmarginalizedindividualstotattooingseccentricsandlucrativebenefits.Associationwithan exclusiveandeccentricsocialgroupsentencedtattooingtomarginality.Intheyearsprecedingcircuss heyday,tattoosasaunifyingritualshiftedfromonemarginalizedsubculturalgrouptoanotherand increasinglybecameassociatedwithdeviance.Devianceevolvedintoselfexpressionwiththehelpof counterculturerevolutionistsinthesixtiesandseventies.Todaytattooinghasbecomesoprevalent despiteitsretentionofmarginalcharacteristicsthatsocietyisbeingforcedtodevelopanewperhaps conflictedperceptionoftattooing.Themedia,consumerism,andarebelliousyouthhaveattemptedto paintanimageoftattooingasaprosocialandselfexpressiveartformapplicabletoeverymemberof society.Yetasquicklyasjudgmentsaremade,theyarenotquicklyforgotten.Modernsocietyhasbeen unabletogranttattooingacceptancebecauseofitslonghistoryofstigmatization.

Porcella35

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nsw.gov.au/>.

Figure4 dUrville,JulesDumont.TonganTatatau.Drawing.TatatauTonganTattoo.29Oct.2009.<http:// tongan_tattoo.tripod.com> Figure5 OliveOatman.Photo.WordPress.com.27July2009.29Oct.2009.<http://rosemarymaccabe. wordpress.com/2009/07/27/captivityliteratureepic/ Figure6 (a) UnitedStatesPatentOffice.TattooMachinePatentDocument.Image.UnitedStatesPatent andTrademarkOffice.8Dec.1981.16Nov.2009. (b) UnitedStatesPatentOffice.TattooMachinePatentDrawing.Image.UnitedStatesPatentand TrademarkOffice.8Dec.1981.16Nov.2009.

Porcella39 Figure7 1. Artoria.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009.<http://www.originaltattoostudio.com>. 2. EdithBurchett.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009.<http://www.originaltattoo studio.com>. 3. TheGreatOmi.Photograph.ProdigiesbyJamesG.Mundie.27Sept.2009.29Oct.2009.<http: //www.missioncreep.com/mundie/images/index.htm>. 4. CharlesWagnerandCircusFriends.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009.<http://www. originaltattoostudio.com.br/historia2.htm>. 5. CaptainConstentenus.PictureCard.TheHumanMarvel.29Oct.2009.<http://thehuman marvels.com>. 6. SatisfiedCustomer.Photo.CircodaTatuagem.29Oct.2009.<http://www.originaltattoo studio.com>. Figure8 1. GPO/GettyImages.JewishYouth.Photo.Life.15July1945.19Nov.2009.<www.life.com>. 2. Waldie,Ian.98288.Photo.Life.4Dec.2004.19Nov.2009.<www.life.com>. Figure9 BLT&Associates.xXx.MoviePoster.TheChronicle.7April2009.6Nov.2009.<http://bigblog.duke chronicle.com>. CloseuponXanderCagesNeck.Image.MovieForums.30Sept.2009.6Nov.2009.<http://www. movieforums.com>.

Porcella40 Figure10 BarbieTotallyStylinTattoosTMDoll.Productimage.Mattel,Inc.2009.31Oct.2009.<http://shop. mattel.com>. TwoGirlsPlayingWithBarbie.Productimage.Mattel,Inc.2009.31Oct.2009.<http://shop.mattel. com>. Figure11 1. Gifford,Amy.Rush.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.InventorSpot. 2009.12Nov.2009.<http://inventorspot.com/articles/skin_tattoos_best_ads_7495>. 2. Gifford,Amy.Chanel.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor Spot.2009.12Nov.2009.<http://inventorspot.com/articles/skin_tattoos_best_ads_ 7495>. 3. Gifford,Amy.IpanemaGiseleBundchenSandals.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattoo Advertising.InventorSpot.2009.12Nov.2009.<http://inventorspot.com/articles/ skin_tattoos_best_ads_7495>. 4. Gifford,Amy.PostIt.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor Spot.2009.12Nov.2009.<http://inventorspot.com/articles/skin_tattoos_best_ads_ 7495>. 5. Gifford,Amy.Converse.ImageinSellingonSkinTheBestofTattooAdvertising.Inventor Spot.2009.12Nov.2009.<http://inventorspot.com/articles/skin_tattoos_best_ads_ 7495>. 6. CaptainMorganTattoo.ProductImage.CaptainMorgan.2009.12Nov.2009.<http:// www.captainmorgan.com>.