FUEL TECHNOLOGY-SOLID FUELS UNIT III

 FUEL COMBUSTION OF FUEL CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL CALORIFIC VALUE CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL

FUEL
The combustible substances which on burning in air produces large amount of heat that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes are called fuels. Eg. Wood , Coal etc
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COMBUSTION OF FUEL
The term combustion refers to the exothermal oxidation of a fuel, by air or oxygen occurring at a sufficiently rapid rate to produce a high temperature, usually with the appearance of a flame.

As most of the fuels contain carbon or carbon and hydrogen, the combustion involves the oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water. Sulphur, if present, is oxidised to sulphur dioxide while the mineral matter forms the ash. Complex fuels like coal undergo thermal decomposition during combustion to give simpler products which are then oxidised to carbon dioxide, water etc.
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e.g.: Coke on combustion gives carbon dioxide Coal Coke + Coal gas C (coke) + O2 CO2

CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL
FUEL

OCCURENCE

PHYSICAL STATE
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On the basis of occurrence

FUEL

PRIMARY OR NATURAL FUEL

SECONDARY OR ARTIFICIAL FUEL

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CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL Fuels are classified as Primary fuels Fuels which occur naturally such as coal, crude petroleum and natural gas. Coal and crude petroleum, formed from organic matter many millions of years ago, are referred to as fossil fuels. Secondary fuels Fuels which are derived from naturally occurring ones by a treatment process such as coke, gasoline, coal gas etc.
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On basis of physical state

FUEL

SOLID

LIQUID

GAS
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FUEL

Primary Fuels

Secondary fuels

Solid Eg. Wood,peat

Liquid Eg.crude oil

Solid EgCoke,charcoal

Liquid Eg. Petrol ,LPG

Gas Eg.Natural gas

Gas Eg.coal gas ,water gas

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL

1.HIGH CALORIFIC VALUE: A good fuel should have high calorific value i.e. it should produce large amount of heat on burning.
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CALORIFIC VALUE
The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat (expressed in calories or kilo calories) liberated by the complete combustion of unit weight (1gm or 1kg) of the fuel in air or oxygen, with subsequent cooling of the products of combustion to the initial temperature of the fuel.
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contd
The calorific value of a fuel depends upon the nature of the fuel and the relative proportions of the elements present, increasing with increasing amounts of hydrogen. Moisture if present, considerably reduces the calorific value of a fuel. The calorific value may be theoretically calculated from the chemical composition of the fuel.
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contd
If both hydrogen and oxygen are present, it may be assumed that all the oxygen are already combined with 1/8 of its weight of hydrogen to form water. This fraction is then deducted from the hydrogen content of the fuel in the calculation. Thus for a fuel containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, the calorific value of the fuel is given by DULONG FORMULA
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Determination of calorific value from Dulong formula Calorific value = 1/100[8080 C + 34500 {H O/8 } +2240 S] kcal/kg where C, H, O, S refer to % of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur respectively.
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GROSS AND NET CALORIFIC VALUE

With fuels containing hydrogen, two calorific values are distinguished, the gross and the net calorific value.

GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE The gross calorific value refers to the heat evolved when the water produced by combustion is condensed as a liquid. The net value gives the heat liberated when water is in the form of steam or water vapour.
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contd
Thus the gross calorific value (or the higher heating value) is the quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of unit weight of the fuel with subsequent cooling of the products of combustion to the initial temperature of the fuel.
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NET CALORIFIC VALUE

Under normal working conditions, water vapours produced during combustion are not condensed and escape as such along with the hot gases.Hence lesser amount of heat is available, which is called Lower or net calorific value.

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Contd.

Net calorific value is the heat produced when unit mass of fuel is burnt completely and products of combustion are allowed to escape.

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contd
The net calorific value (or the lower heating value) is defined as the gross calorific value minus the latent heat of condensation of water (at the initial temperature of the fuel), formed by the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel.The latent heat of steam at ordinary temperature may be taken as 587cal/g

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contd
Net calorific value=Gross calorific value-Latent heat of water vapours NCV=GCV-weight of hydrogen x 9 x Latent heat of water vapours Latent heat of water vapours is 587 kcal/kg
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Calculation of Net calorific value

Hydrogen in the fuel reacts with oxygen to give water H2 + 1/2 O2 H2O 2H = 1/2O2 = H2O 2parts = 16parts = 18parts 1parts = 8parts = 9parts

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Contd Let H is the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel Amount of water produced by burning unit mass of fuel=9H/100 g Latent heat of steam=587cal/g Amount of heat produced by condensation of steam=9H/100 x587 cal NCV=[GCV-9H/100 x 587] =[GCV-0.09 x 587] cal/g
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Energy Units
Need to distinguish between energy and power Common energy units:
Btu (British Thermal Unit)- energy required to heat one lbm of water one degree Fahrenheit
1 Btu = 778.16 ft-lbf = 1.055 kJ = 0.252 Cal Commonly used measure of fuel energy, heating and cooling quantities 1 MBtu = 1000 BTU; 1 MMBtu = 106 Btu 1 Quad = 1015 Btu (billion 109, trillion 1012, quadrillion) 1 Q = 1018 Btu

Energy Units
kJ- standard SI-mks energy unit
1 kJ = 1000 J = 1000 N-m kJ used to measure fuel energy and heating and cooling quantities

kWh- used to measure electrical energy

1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 3600 kJ = 860 Cal

Calorie- used to measure food energy, technically should be called a kilocalorie.

Chemists calorie (lower case c) is the energy needed to raise 1 g of water 1 degree C. 1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4.186 kJ = 3.968 Btu

Power Units
Horsepower- used to measure rate of mechanical work
1 hp = 2545 Btu/hr = 0.746 kW

kW- SI power unit used for both work and heat transfer. Sometimes see kWth for thermal kW.
1 kW = 3412 Btu/hr = 1.34 hp = 0.2843 Tons

Ton- American unit of cooling rate commonly employed to measure air conditioning capacity
1 Ton = 12,000 Btu/hr = 3.517 kWth

2. MODERATE IGNITION

TEMPERATURE:
Ignition temperature: the lowest temperature to which fuel must be preheated so that it starts burning smoothly. If ignition temp. is low, the fuel catches fire easily. Low ignition temperature is dangerous for storage and transportation of fuel. High temperature causes difficulty in kindling. So ,a good fuel should have moderate ignition temperature.

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3.LOW MOISTURE CONTENT:A

good fuel should have low moisture content as moisture content reduces the calorific value.

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4.LOW NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATTER CONTENT

A good fuel should have low contents of non-combustible material as non-combustible matter is left in form of ash which decreases the calorific value of fuel

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5.MODERATE RATE OF COMBUSTION: The temperature of combustion of fuel depends upon the rate of combustion . If the rate of combustion is low ,then required high temperature may not be reached soon. On the other hand ,too high combustion rate causes high temperature very quickly.
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6.MINIMUM SMOKE AND NONPOISONOUS GASES

On burning, Fuel should not give out objectionable and poisonous gases. In other words, gaseous products should not pollute the atmosphere. Gases like CO,SO2,H2S etc. are some of harmful gases.
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7.CHEAP: A good fuel should be

cheap and readily available. 8.EASY TRANSPORTATION : A good fuel should be easy to handle and transport at low cost

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9.CONTROLLABLE
COMBUSTION: Combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop when required. 10.NON SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION: Combustion of fuel should be non-spontaneous otherwise it can cause fire hazards.
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Contd.

11.LOW STORAGE COST:A

good fuel should be easily stored at low cost.

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The substance to be burned is massed into the bomb, which is fitted with a device that can deliver a spark and with a tube that can deliver oxygen under pressure. The bomb is then sealed and immersed in a well-insulated vat of water. Oxygen is let into the bomb, the spark generated, the reaction occurs, and no products escape as the heat is generated.

The heat warms the bomb and thus the water surrounding it. The stuff absorbing the heat is not only the water, but also anything immersed in it. It includes the thermometer and the stirrer which ensures that any heat is uniformly distributed before the final temperature is read.

Bomb Calorimetry
To obtain precise heat measurements, you must know or find out the heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter Heat capacity takes into account all the parts of the calorimeter that can lose or gain. ctotal= cwater + cthermometer + cstirrer + ccontainer

Bomb Calorimetry
Since mass of the other parts are constant, there is no need for the mass units in the heat capacity value. Manufacturers include the heat capacity (C) of a calorimeter when it is purchased. Therefore, qcal= CT C= heat capacity of the calorimeter

Coal in truth stands not beside but entirely above all other commodities. It is the material energy of the country- the universal aid, the factor in everything we do with coal, almost any feat is possible; without it we are thrown back into the laborious poverty of early times (DiCiccio, 1996).

What is Coal?
Coal:
A sedimentary rock that burns Mineralized vegetative material deposited over a long period of time (although miniscule geologically) altered chemical composition Formed by increased T and P Partial decay resulting from restricted access to oxygen

Coal Composition
Carbon > 50% Impurities
Volatile Matter Sulphur Chlorine Phosphorus Nitrogen

Trace amounts
Dirt Other elements

Classification of coal
Classification means classifying or categorizing objects as per their characteristics or property. Objective is to place like things together and separate things that differs. Coal is a naturally available heterogeneous organic mass. So very difficult to classify. Hence for last 150 years many attempts have been made according to different classification basis.

Classification by visual characters

Category Brown coal/lignite

Attributes Brown colour, woody structure Black and banded Black and lustrous

Flame ----------------

Bituminous coal Anthracite

Smoky yellow flame Burns without flame

Changes in the average composition from wood to anthracite

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Where Does The Carbon Come From?

Coke: pure carbon obtained from heating wood at high temperatures. This heating evaporates volatile organic compounds and leaves essentially pure carbon. Coke was the originally used source of carbon in iron smelting. However, population growth and rapid industrial development caused an increase in price and resulted in a declining source of supply (trees) created need for a cheaper substitute for the charcoal.

Welcome to Coke-Land
Coke = charcoal made from coal Heating value 25million BTUs/ton Process of coke-making discovered in Sixteenth Century England:. Originally called (charking). Obtained by heating coal at high temperatures (900-1150 C) in the absence of oxygen; much the same way as charcoal was made from wood.

Beehive Coke Ovens

First Beehive coke oven was made in Connellsville, Fayette County, PA during the 1830s. Widespread use of these ovens was delayed until the 1850s. These ovens proved much more efficient, producing coke with carbon contents of up to 67%.

Beehive oven: A fire brick chamber shaped like a dome is used. It is 4 m wide and 2.5 m high. The roof has a hole for charging the coal from the top. The discharging hole is provided in the circumference of the lower part of the wall. Number of ovens is built in a row with common walls between neighboring ovens. Coal is introduced from the top and produces an even layer about 60-90 cm deep. Air is supplied initially to ignite the coal. Carbonization starts and volatile matter burns inside the partially closed side door. Carbonization proceeds from top to bottom and is completed in 2-3 days. Heat is supplied by burning of volatile matter and hence no by-products recovered. The exhaust gases are allowed to escape to the atmosphere. The hot coke is quenched with water and discharged, manually through the side door. The walls and roof retain enough heat to initiate, carbonization of the next charge. The yield of coke is about 60-80%.

Beehive Coke Ovens

Demerits: No recovery of by-products Lower coke yield due to partial combustion Lack of flexibility in operation

Otto Hoffmann oven or by product oven

Otto Hoffmann oven or by product oven

Construction: A number of narrow rectangular chambers made of silica bricks 12-14 m in length, 4-5 m in height, 0.5 m width ire used. It is tightly closed so that no air can enter. Each chamber at the top has three holes for charging coal, a gas take off and refractory lined cast iron door for discharging the coke. The carbonization chambers are erected side by side with vertical flues or interspaced for combustion in between them. 10-100 ovens are set together. One oven is capable of holding 16-24 tones of coal.

Recovery of byproducts