Compression Fundamentals

INTRODUCTION TO GAS PLANT

Compression and treatment of gaseous hydrocarbons for an oil and gas process facility will depend upon the requirements and export specification for that site. In order to maximise the recovery of these hydrocarbons various processes of gas compression, dehydration and natural gas liquefaction are employed. Also where applicable, a fuel gas system is installed and made available to the various users. Throughout the training module your understanding will be checked as you progress through the units. This will be managed by asking questions and by prompting you to highlight various areas within the schematics. inally at the end of the module you will be requested to answer a set of multiple choice!multiple selection questions aimed at assessing the underpinning knowledge gained.

TRAINING AIM
The aim of this training module is to provide you with the necessary information and knowledge required in understanding hydrocarbon gas compression systems. The specific knowledge gained from studying the theoretical principles and practical applications involved can then be used towards developing an overall understanding of process operation and control. This in turn will lead towards safe, efficient and economic operation of plant and equipment

TRAINING OBJECTIVES
"n completion of the module, participants will be able to# $nderstand the principles of Compressor %esign Criteria &xplain how compressors are

designed and si'ed for the duty required &xplain how compression ratios are calculated based on absolute temperature and pressure

1.0 INTRODUCTION
(efore we discuss gas compression and the different types of compressors in detail, we need to consider some of the necessary design fundamentals. The design of compressor equipment used in the oil and gas industry is based upon the fact that hydrocarbon liquids and gases possess behaviour patterns that remain constant. That is to say, for a given temperature, methane gas will generate a given pressure under all known processing systems.

2.0 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

Almost all calculations in the processing of natural gas require the use of pressure and temperature readings measured in absolute terms. In the case of pressure readings we must take into consideration the pressure imposed by the atmosphere, which we know is ).*) bar +),.lbs per square inch +psi... A normal pressure gauge fitted to a vessel, records only the pressure contained within the vessel. To obtain absolute pressure readings we must add the pressure imposed by the air surrounding the vessel, which is ).*) bar +),.-psi. As an example, assuming a gauge reading of )* bar +),- psi., to gain an absolute reading we must add ) bar +),.- psi., which gives an absolute reading of )) bar +)/).- psi.. "ne more example to test your knowledge. Assuming that a vessel is reading * on the pressure gauge, what would be its pressure reading in absolute terms0 The answer of course is# * 1 ) bar +),.- psi. 2 1 bar (14.7 psi)

3auge readings are indicated thus# barg. +gauge. Absolute readings are indicated thus# bara. +absolute.

3.0 ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

Absolute 'ero is the minimum temperature that can be achieved. It is the temperature at which the motion of particles constituting matter would be at rest. In the case of the temperature scale that we refer to as Centigrade or Celsius, we are aware that the free'ing point of water is * degrees and the boiling point is )** degrees, but clearly, temperatures exist well below and above this range. "ur normal temperature gauges will record reasonably low temperatures and also very high upper range temperature, but what is absolute temperature0 In order to account for the extremes of temperature that are possible, an additional scale, relating to the centigrade scale, has been devised. This scale, which is called the 4elvin scale, records temperatures down to absolute 'ero. (y reference to the 4elvin scale on the right you will observe that the free'ing point of water is 5-64, compared to * degrees on the centigrade scale.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
7atural gas is defined as a mixture of hydrocarbon gases and associated impurities. There is no one mixture or composition that can be referred to as natural gas. &ach gas stream produced has its own composition. &ven two gas wells from the same field may have different compositions. 7atural gas sold to the normal consumer will consist mainly of a pure gas called methane and small amounts of ethane and propane mixed with it.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
7atural gas is defined as a mixture of hydrocarbon gases and associated impurities. There is no one mixture or composition that can be referred to as natural gas. &ach gas stream produced has its own composition. &ven two gas wells from the same field may have different compositions. 7atural gas sold to the normal consumer will consist mainly of a pure gas called methane and small amounts of ethane and propane mixed with it.

2.0 THREE STATES OF MATTER 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Almost all matter can exist in one of three states namely Solid, Liquid or Gaseous.

8e are all aware that water can and does exist as ice, water and vapour, with the state +or phase. dependent upon the temperature that exists. At normal room temperature water exists as a liquid and will remain so unless the temperature is raised to 100C ( 1 F) or lowered to 0C (! F), at which points the liquid will "#ange p#ase to eit#er $apour or i"e respe"ti$el%. Temperature therefore plays an important part in the phase change operation, but what of the pressure effect in this operation0

3.0 MOLECULAR WEIGHT 3.1 DEFINITION

9olecular weight +98. is the sum of the individual atomic weights in a molecule. or example, the molecular weight of water +: 5". is ); because the atomic weight of each of the hydrogen atoms is ) and the atomic weight of oxygen is )/. i.e. 1& ' ( 1).

The hydrocarbon gases that we will be discussing throughout this presentation are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, which have atomic weights of 1 and 1 respectively.

It therefore follows that methane, having four hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom, will have a molecular weight of )/. The second gas is of course ethane, which is made up of two carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms. The molecular weight is therefore +/ x ). 1 + * 1 . 2 6*.

<imilarly for propane +C!:;. and butane +C4:)*. the molecular weights are respectively ,, and =;. >entane, which can be in vapour form at appropriate temperatures and pressures, will have a molecular weight of + + * 1 . 1 +)5 x ). 2 -5. 8e can see that methane, having fewer atoms of carbon and hydrogen than ethane will therefore be lighter in actual weight and, in turn, we accept that propane and butane are again, in turn, heavier. It is reasonable therefore to refer to light and heavy gases, with methane being the lightest and butane being the heaviest. <o far, we have looked at pure gases, but what of mixed gases0 ?egardless of whether a gas exists in pure form or as a component of a mixture, its molecular weight will remain constant@ but we must, in the case of mixed gases, calculate the percentage of each component in the mixture and from that arrive at a true molecular weight of the mixture.

4.0 VAPOUR PRESSURE 4.1 DEFINITION

Aapour pressure is the pressure e*erted by the vapour of a substance when both its liquid and its $apour are in equilibrium . &quilibrium is established when the rate of evaporation of the liquid is equal to the rate of condensation of the vapour. 8hen a liquid enclosed within a vessel or other container is heated to its boiling point, the vapours given off will occupy all the available space. As vaporisation or boiling continues, the number of molecules in the vapour space will increase and cause an increase in pressure. The pressure exerted by the vapour or gas is due to the impact of its component molecules against the confining walls of the container. <ince the liquid at the bottom of the vessel forms one of the confining walls, there will be a continual series of impacts against the liquid surface by the fast moving molecules of the substance.

5.0 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

%ynamic equilibrium is established when the rate of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation. If conditions of temperature within the substance are changed, then either evaporation or condensation will increase, but eventually equilibrium will again be established at that new temperature.

All materials exhibit a definite vapour pressure to a greater or lesser degree at any temperature above absolute 'ero. "ne additional fact# The magnitude of the vapour pressure within an enclosed vessel does not depend upon the amount of liquid contained in the vessel. As long as some liquid is present, a true vapour pressure will result. The surface area of the liquid also plays little or no part in the formation of a vapour pressure, but is dependent entirely upon the maximum potential energies of attraction, which must be overcome in vaporisation.

.0 PARTIAL PRESSURE
%altonBs law of partial pressures states that# The total vapour pressure for mixtures is the sum of the vapour pressures of each individual component.

Aapour pressure created by one pure liquid will not affect the vapour pressure of a second pure liquid when the liquids are nonCreacting, and the liquids and!or vapours are mixed within the same system. 8hen behaving ideally, there is complete indifference on the part of each component to the existence of the others. %uring the compression of any gas other than a pure gas, the principles of partial pressure are at work. This is true even in normal /.;D barg air compression for power purposes, because there is always some water vapour mixed with the intake air and the compressor must handle both components. Actually, air is itself a mixture of a number of components, including oxygen, nitrogen, argon etc, and its total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each of those components. :owever, because of the negligible variation in the composition of dry air throughout the world, it is considered as, and will hereafter be treated as, a single gas with specific properties of its own.

!.0 BOILING POINT

The boiling points of the various gases are given in the >hysical Constants Charts as follows and we can see that there is a wide variation between them.

The boiling point of our lightest gas, methane, is given as C)/).=)EC +C 5=;./DE ., while butane at the same pressure will boil at a temperature of C*.=)EC +6)E .. The boiling points shown in the tables are for pure liquid gases.

(oiling point temperatures of mixtures occur over a range of values, which depend on the concentration of the mixture components, as well as the pressure.The boiling point of each liquid is related to the pressure applied to the liquid. Any increase in applied pressure will increase the boiling point of the liquid.

Fet us look at the boiling point of water, which we know to be )**EC +5)5E . at ).*) bara +),.-psia.. If we increase the pressure above the liquid phase to /.;D bara +)**psia., then a temperature of )/,EC +65;E . would be required to boil the water. Conversely, if we lower the pressure below atmospheric, then a lower temperature would be required to boil the water. This principle is applied in crude oil refineries, where atmospheric residue from the crude distillation units is passed to a vacuum distillation unit, where it can be boiled at very low temperatures.

".0 FREE#ING POINT OF HYDROCARBONS

All substances, including natural gases, can exist in any one of three forms@ solids, liquids or vapours. 8e accept the simple fact that butane can exist as a liquid or a vapour because we are able to see this on any normal gas plant, but to imagine that it can exist in the solid state stretches our imagination somewhat. It is true nevertheless and our >hysical Constants Charts show that this can and will happen, if the temperature is reduced to C)6;.6=EC +C5)-.*=E . at atmospheric pressure.

9ethane, on the other hand, will need a temperature reduction to C);5.,=EC +C 5D/.,/E . to change phase to solid at atmospheric pressure. 8e can see from the above that changing phase from the solid form to the liquid or vapour form requires an input of heat.

Changing phase from the vapour form to a liquid can be achieved either by a temperature reduction or indeed a pressure increase.

.0 PRESSURE$ VOLUME$ TEMPERATURE AND POWER RELATIONSHIP

In any compressor, a predictable pressure, volume, temperature and power change occurs. A working knowledge of how each relates to the other is necessary in order to understand compressor operations. The following general statements apply to a gas being compressed# >ressure ?ises Aolume %ecreases Temperature ?ises >ower is required

APPENDI% A& THE GAS LAWS

An awareness of the gas laws which govern the changes in state of gases must be thoroughly appreciated if a clear understanding of gas compression and gas processing is to be obtained. %uring this course a great deal is discussed on the question of energy and its uses, and an understanding of the first law of thermodynamics will prove useful later. 8hen you click on the next button you will see the various gas laws shown, click on each one to view it in more detail. 8hen you are finished, click on the next button to move onto the assessment.

Gas Compression

TRAINING AIM
The aim of this training module is to provide you with the necessary information and knowledge required in understanding hydrocarbon gas compression systems. The specific knowledge gained from studying the theoretical principles and practical applications involved can then be used towards developing an overall understanding of process operation and control. This in turn will lead towards safe, efficient and economic operation of plant and equipment.

TRAINING OBJECTIVES
"n completion of the 3as Compression module, participants will be able to# $nderstand the principles of Compressor %esign Criteria Accurately describe compressor types, their function and control <tate the potential ha'ards involved with rotating machinery and the need for safe operating control systems &xplain how compressors are designed and si'ed for the duty required Fist the control equipment utilised to provide safe operation of the plant &xplain how compression ratios are calculated based on absolute temperature and pressure Fist the main component parts of both reciprocating and centrifugal machines $nderstand the operation and control of the equipment involved (e conversant with startCup, shut down and emergency shutdown of gas compression systems Fist the considerations and sequence of operation in preparing rotating machinery for maintenance $nderstand the terminology and abbreviations used within gas compression systems

.0 INTRODUCTION
9odern gas compressors used in the oil and gas industry are designed and constructed in order to provide high standards of performance and reliability.

<afety, reliability and optimisation along with the minimum of production downtime are the key obGectives in maintaining production operations. The need to supply gas at increased pressure is usually to fulfil one or more of the following operating criteria#

3as export pipeline requirements Dehydration and liquid recovery operations Calorific value and gas specification requirements lared gas limitations To meet fuel gas and utility requirements.

.0 INTRODUCTION
9odern gas compressors used in the oil and gas industry are designed and constructed in order to provide high standards of performance and reliability. <afety, reliability and optimisation along with the minimum of production downtime are the key obGectives in maintaining production operations. The need to supply gas at increased pressure is usually to fulfil one or more of the following operating criteria#

3as export pipeline requirements Dehydration and liquid recovery operations Calorific value and gas specification requirements lared gas limitations To meet fuel gas and utility requirements.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

This category of compressor utilises the effects of centrifugal force to increase gas pressure. These machines operate at relatively high speed. Centrifugal compressors have fewer moving parts than the reciprocating type and have proved to be very reliable throughout the industry. The advantages, disadvantages and operating parameters of each type of compressor will be dealt with later in the training module. "ther types include#

of

compressor

<crew Axial flow Fobe vane <lide vane

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS C'()*+,,'* A))-./01.'2,

The most frequent applications of the reciprocating pistonCtype compressor found in the oil industry are#

To provide high pressure gas for gas +artificial. lift systems The compression of sales gas before pipelining To provide additional production from wells by reCinGecting high pressure gas back into the reservoir.

Typical rameCtype Compressor.

"ther applications include#

The compression of propane or freon gases in refrigeration systems Instrument and plant air compressors

.0 THE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

?eciprocating Compressor :eads comprise five maGor components as follows#

The cylinder The piston and piston rings The piston rod The suction and discharge valves The packing

These maGor compressor assembly components are shown in the diagram below, move your mouse over the diagram to highlight the components and click on the highlighted component to see more information.

1.0 THE MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

?eciprocating Compressor :eads comprise five maGor components as follows#

The cylinder The piston and piston rings The piston rod The suction and discharge valves The packing

These maGor compressor assembly components are shown in the diagram below, move your mouse over the diagram to highlight the components and click on the highlighted component to see more information.

2.0 COMPRESSOR ELEMENTS

?eciprocating Compressors elements and stages &very compressor is made up of one or more basic elements. A singleCstage compressor comprises a single element or a group of elements in parallel.

9any compression problems involve conditions beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great a compression ratio causes excessive discharge temperature and other design problems. It may therefore become necessary to combine elements or groups of elements in series to form a multistage unit, in which there will be two or more stages of compression.

In order to avoid excessive temperature rise the gas is frequently cooled between stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the next stage. Hou should note that each stage is an individual basic compressor within itself. It is si'ed to operate in series with one or more additional basic compressors and even though they may operate from the same power source, each unit is a separate compressor.

3.0 INTERSTAGE COOLING

The principles of interstage cooling apply to both centrifugal and reciprocating compressors.

In both types of compressor it is necessary to introduce stages of compression in order to gain the necessary compression ratio without exceeding the design limits of discharge temperature.

(y staging the flow of gas through a number of compressor units, we can divert the gas flow through a cooling section to rid ourselves of unwanted heat. There are additional advantages to be gained from interstage cooling, namely a reduction in gas volume, which in turn reduces the amount of horsepower required.

(y reference to the compression ratio chart, ratio and the amount of gas being compressed determine horsepower requirements.

4.0 CAPACITY AND POWER

Hou may recall that a reciprocating compressor consists of a driver and one or more compression cylinders, with the driver being the energy input device

D'34-+5A/1.26 C'()*+,,'* 7.18 F.9+: V'-3(+ C-+0*02/+ P'/;+1,

The main purpose of the compressor is to raise the pressure of the gas, but nature decrees that heat is also transferred. As we know, there are a number of different formats in use with positive displacement compressors, such as singleCacting, doubleCacting etc, but the most commonly used machine in the industry today is in the doubleCacting machine. This type of unit compresses gas on both strokes of the piston.

5.0 SUCTION PRESSURE CONTROL

The control of gas suction pressure to the machine is the key to steady state operating conditions, and a number of different methods are used to achieve this.

S)++: C'21*'-

7ot all machines are fitted with a means of controlling the speed, but those that are have a definite advantage. Capacity, as we have said before, relates to a number of factors, not least is the number of strokes the machine makes per minute. 8ith strokes relating to speed, it follows that if we reduce the speed, we reduce the strokes and thus, reduce the capacity required.

C-+0*02/+ P'/;+1 A:<3,1(+21

8ith compressors that are operating at fixed speeds, it is now common to fit other means of control of suction pressure or capacity. "ne of these systems is the use of clearance pockets. (y opening a clearance pocket we are effectively reducing the capacity of the machine to match available capacity, and thereby balancing the machine.

B=)0,, C'21*'The most common method of suction pressure control is where a portion of the discharge gas is returned to the suction. Almost all machines are fitted with a return or recycle line, which can, by fitting the necessary pressure control instrumentation, effectively control suction pressure to any required figure. These recycle lines are used extensively for startCup purposes as well as a means of maintaining suction pressure.

V0->+ L.?1+*,
Aalve lifters are an accepted method of controlling the capacity of a reciprocating compressor, and modern machines are usually fitted with this type of control.

Aalve lifters or unloaders are used, in the main, to unload the machine for starting and stopping purposes. This will ensure that undue stress is not placed upon the machine during these critical periods.

.0 METHODS OF COMPRESSOR LOADING

There are four main methods of loading reciprocating compressors. The loading procedures adopted by operators will fall into one of the four methods described in this section, or a combination of them. :owever the best procedure for one system may not be the best for another due to the different designs. The simplest, most reliable and safest method of loading a compressor is @B=)0,, 02: D.,/80*6+ C8+/; V0->+ M+18': '? L'0:.26@ . :ere there is no danger of exceeding the rated piston rod loads and no danger of excessive horsepower peaks above the normal operating horsepower. It can be used for any application and the rate of loading can be established by the rate of closing of the bypass valve. In addition to this, method is the simplest for automatic sequence loading or manual operation, as each block valve is opened or closed individually.

!.0 COMPRESSOR LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Corre"t lubri"ation o, t#e "ompressor "omponents, su"# as t#e pa"-ing and t#e piston, is possibl% t#e most important parameter in t#e operation o, a "ompressor. If these and other items are not lubricated then they will become hot and ultimately sei'e, distort or fail. %ue to advances in lubricants and material technologies the amount of lubricating oil that a compressor consumes has significantly decreased in recent times. or example, piston rings and packing are often constructed from plastics. A solid substance, molybdenum disulphide, which has very good lubricating properties, is used to impregnate the materials, which in turn reduces wear.

".0 THE CONNECTING ROD AND CROSSHEAD

The next consideration is how the piston is made to move. The compressor cylinders may be supported in one of two ways#

They can be fixed directly on an engine or electric motor They can be fixed to a frame and then driven by an engine or motor

8hichever method is employed, a crosshead and connecting rod are required to transfer motion to the compressor piston from the driver shaft. The piston rod is fixed to one end of the crosshead and to the other end is fixed one end of the connecting rod. The other end of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft of the drive unit.

7ote that the crosshead and crankshaft are lubricated utilising a separate lubrication system to that employed for the compressor cylinder. To provide the necessary straight line piston and rod motion the crosshead components must be manufactured to fine tolerances and correctly installed.

A.0 THE FRAME5TYPE COMPRESSOR

8hen the cylinder section of a compressor is fixed on a frame, the frame constitutes a part of the overall compressor.

The graphic above shows the principal components of a frameCtype compressor. The frame housing is usually constructed from steel or cast iron and is equipped with ribs to adequately strengthen the unit against the stresses and strains imposed during the compression process. The compressor cylinders are attached to the frame, which also incorporates hatches for maintenance purposes. rameCtype compressors are available in a large range of si'es from singleC cylinder lowCpower units to )*Ccylinder highCpower units of more than )*,***k8 +)6,)* :>.. The crankshaft is located in the centre of the frame which is supported along its length by bearings to ensure that it is kept as straight as possible.

10.0 MAINTENANCE PROGRAMMES

The primary obGective of any maintenance programme is to minimise maintenance expenses and to maximise gas throughput. The three different types of maintenance programmes are# Failure .aintenan"e /re$enti$e .aintenan"e /redi"ti$e .aintenan"e &quipment is repaired or replaced when the unit ceases to perform its assigned function. (ased on experience, repairs at assigned intervals may be considered in order to avoid more expensive failures. ?epairs are initiated as predicted by equipment such as the compressor vibration analysis and by collection of operating data on each unit.

The following are some areas where these operating parameters are reviewed to determine when a maGor overhaul or repairs are required#

Crankcase pressure 9anifold pressure Compression pressure Condition of oil Crankcase oil consumption Crankcase inspection Total hours run

11.0 COMPRESSOR VALVE FAILURE

Aalve failure can generally be classified as resulting from the following causes#

8ear and fatigue oreign materials Abnormal mechanical action

12.0 OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE RECORDS

The economical operation of a gas compressor unit depends to a great extent upon routine operational checks and adequate recording of the data for performance evaluation. A report of compressor performance showing typical operational data should be recorded for each unit on a regular basis. "perating personnel should implement routine checks for observation of the compressor unit. Adequate operating records are most valuable in pinpointing sources of mechanical problems and malfunctions. %ayCtoCday changes in operating conditions can be so gradual that they go unnoticed unless operating records are maintained for comparison. 9aintenance records should be complete, accurate and up to date. A description of any failure or broken part should be made in sufficient detail to pinpoint possible causes and thus avoid recurring failure.

13.0 ROUTINE OPERATING PROCEDURES

The inspection routine should include regular checks on the operation of each compressor unit. The routine checks should include# "bserve critical temperatures and pressures involved in cooling and lubrication of the compressor cylinders. 7ote unusual noises in the reciprocating and rotating parts. Check for proper operating levels of fluid in the crankcase and forceCfed lubricator reservoir and surge tank. Check for leaks in lube oil and water lines. Check for gas leaks in the compressor cylinder packing gland vent stack, compressor cylinder suction and discharge valve caps, relief valves and block valves. Check the temperature of the compressor cylinder suction valve caps @ a hot cap indicates a leaking suction valve. A leaking suction valve can be detected by an increase in discharge gas temperature. Check the liquids in the compressor cylinder suction surge drums.

14.0 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

8e must always remain alert to the possibility of inGury to personnel engaged in the monitoring and repair of gas compressor units. (efore maintenance programmes are commenced, full and proper isolation of the system should be implemented and documented. 9aintenance work should only proceed under the appropriate permit to work and company isolation practice. >oints to note are as follows# 1. The compressor should be electrically isolated following established procedures. 2. >ressure should be vented from the compressor cylinders. If extremely flammable or poisonous gas is being compressed, the compressor cylinder should be purged with nitrogen and then depressurised. 3. All compressor pipework should be isolated as required by company isolation practices and procedures. %uring recommissioning of the equipment# All compressor pipework and cylinders in service should be purged t#oroug#l% 0it# nitrogen and lea- tested prior to restarting the equipment. A serious explosion could result from mixing hydrocarbons and air which has been left in the system.

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 C+21*.?360- C'()*+,,'*,

Centrifugal compression equipment can be typified by the use of the following general systems#

Fans

1lo0ers

Compressors

The difference between the various systems lies in the degree of compression achieved by each type of unit. Typicaly these are #

ans usually compress large volumes of gas to low discharge pressures in the order of only 0.07 barg (1 psig) (lowers or boosters discharge at pressures up to about .+ barg (!& psig) Compressors discharge at pressures above + barg (!& psig)

2.0 THE MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR 2.1 THE CASING

There are two types of casings used to house centrifugal compressors#

The hori'ontal split casing The vertical split casing or the barrel casing.

234563789L S/L58 C9S57G 8#e #ori:ontal split "asing is made in two halves and bolted together. This type of casing is used where the pressures involved are from low to mid range. This type of compressor is comparatively easy to strip down for maintenance purposes and they are in common use throughout the industry.

82; 1944;L C3./4;SS34 The barrel compressor or vertical split compressor is rather more complex in design. They consist of a barrel with no hori'ontal Goints, into which is positioned the impeller housing. The impeller is held in position by a series of bolts at both ends of the barrel. To remove the impeller, the bolts at both ends of the barrel must be removed and the impeller withdrawn from the barrel, before any work can take place on the impeller housing. The vertical split compressor is a #ig#<pressure ma"#ine, but their use is also quite common in medium pressure service.

3.0 AN INTRODUCTION TO SEAL TYPES

There are a number of different seal systems that can be fitted to centrifugal compressors, the most common being#

Fabyrinth 9echanical %ry gas seals ?estrictive carbon rings Fiquid film

<election of which seal to use in a particular compressor will depend upon the service required of that compressor. In this section, we will discuss three types of seals@ Lab%rint#, Liquid Film and =r% Gas Seals.

5.0 LUBRICATION
All rotating machinery will have a lubrication system installed for protection of the equipment. In the case of compressors, however, the lubrication system may well be combined with the seal oil system that we have Gust examined. 8hat is certain, however, is that operating pressures within each system will vary to some degree and we should look at the systems as individual components. Fubricants perform many functions as follows#

<eparate the contacting parts ?educe metal wear >rovide a degree of sealing action ?emove the heat generated from friction ?emove wear material, dirt and debris >rotect the metal surfaces from corrosion

9ost lubricants are refined from crude oil, but many have additives added in order to meet the needs of rust prevention and corrosion control. All of the above means, of course, that selection of a lubricating oil for a particular Gob must be precise. 8e cannot throw any type or grade of oil into our machines and expect good, longClasting results. The lubricating oil selected for a machine is the one that best suits the needs of that machine and should be used exclusively for it. Certain oils are not refined from crude oil, but are made from synthetic materials. These synthetic oils are used in very highCpressure machines where operating conditions may be such that normal oils would degrade.

C9>8537 5t is $ital t#at t#e "orre"t oil ,or t#e s%stem is al0a%s used.

.0 COMPRESSOR OPERATING CURVES

&ach compressor will have been designed to deliver a given amount of gas at a given discharge pressure, providing certain conditions are met. These conditions relate to a constant suction pressure and temperature, and feed gas that has a reasonably constant density. Another important factor applying to centrifugal compressors is that of constant speed of rotation. 7ote that the two main types of compressor drive are#

ixed speed electric drive +which can be fitted with a variable speed coupling. 3as turbine variable speed units

8hen the conditions of pressure, temperature, gas density and speed changes, then the conditions through the compressor unit will change and the design output will not be achieved.

If the conditions change drastically, then the stability of the compressor is at risk.

The capacity characteristics of the compressor therefore relate to suction pressure, temperature and flowrate, desired discharge conditions of pressure, temperature and flowrate, the density of the gas and the compression ratio across the machine.

!.0 GAS DENSITY

8e have already said that gas density is an important factor in compressor design and is therefore a factor, which can upset all our calculations if it should change to any great degree. The compression ratio, which we have discussed in detail, is dependent upon a number of factors@ among them being the density of the gas that we wish to compress. or example, air is approximately =*I heavier than natural gas.

If we fed air into our compressor instead of natural gas at the same conditions of pressure and temperature, the compression ratio would be =*I higher than for natural gas. The compressor driver would also require =*I more power to compress the air. :owever in most compression situations, the density will not change to any marked degree, and should it be expected to do so, a control system can be introduced to control the density at any given point. Circumstances have arisen where gas from a ,irst stage of separation +lighter gas. has been fed directly into the low pressure compressors which normally take gas from a t#ird stage of separation +heavier gas. The result of the above has been a great deal of surging in the lo0<pressure ma"#ines. If unexplained surging arises and investigation reveals that suction pressure and temperature are normal, then a quick analysis of suction gas might well reveal that the gas density has changed.

".0 COMPRESSOR PRE5COMMISSIONING AND START UP LOGIC

Centrifugal compressors are normally controlled and started following unit!site specific control logic. <tages of compressor preCstart preparations are organised sequentially as follows# 1. 2%dro"arbon /urge Stage This stage is necessary to purge inert gas from the compressor system following leak tests and to ensure that no air +oxygen. is present in the compressor case. This stage is completed when the compressor loop is cold and where there is the chance of high levels of condensate being produced within the loop. It involves flowing warm feedCgas through the loop and compressor casing to flare at the compressor discharge. This stage is usually mandatory before startCup. It ensures the removal of condensate from the compressor casing prior to startCup. This involves flowing warm gas through the compressor casing drain valves to flare. There is normally a time period in which the compressor must be started following this drain stage, typically in the region of 6* minutes.

. ?arm<up Stage

!. Casing =rain Stage

A.0 LIQUID BNOCBOUT AND SALT REMOVAL L.C3.: B2'/;'31 V+,,+-,

It is very important that liquids are prevented from entering centrifugal gas compressors where they could cause serious damage to the impellers, diaphragms and casing. Fiquids, carried forward in the gas stream, can be in the form of vapour mist, small droplets or indeed larger liquid slugs. The situation can be aggravated during plant startCup, shutdown or upset conditions when the likelihood of liquids being carried forward in the gas stream is even greater. &rosion of the compressor components due to liquid bombardment will result in a loss of efficiency and vibration problems, as the impellers become unbalanced. In extreme cases, this could result in failure of the impeller unit and the casing. Fiquid slugs, due to their density and virtual incompressibility may produce sudden and severe effects such as#

A reduction in compressor speed, causing the driver unit to labour or even stall &xcessive strain on the gearbox of the unit (ending of the compressor shaft with resultant casing failure, due to the sudden and uneven forces which are set up <eal oil system failure, due to changing differential pressures within the system

10.0 S3((0*=
Hou have now finished the training sections on 3as Compression for module 5 3as >lant. In it you have learned about the construction and mechanical components of both main types of compressor, namely#

?eciprocating Compressors and

Centrifugal Compressors

Hou have also learned about the various control systems installed to ensure safe operating parameters for both types of machine. Hou should now appreciate the importance of gas compressor sealing systems, both BwetB and BdryB along with the subCsystems required to operate them safely. Hou should now understand why lubrication and cooling of the moving parts is vital to continued operation of the units. Above all never forget the importance of, and the need for, properly designed plant and equipment so that production of oil and gas is conducted safely and efficiently. inally, we hope that you have enGoyed this module and in order to finish it you are required to complete a set of questions that are designed to assess and underpin the knowledge you have gained.
Gas =e#%dration

1.0 TRAINING AIM

The aim of this training module is to provide you with the necessary information and knowledge required to understand gas dehydration systems. The specific knowledge gained from studying the theoretical principles and practical applications involved can then be used towards developing an overall comprehension of process operation and control. This in turn will lead towards safe, efficient and economic operation of plant and equipment.

1.2 TRAINING OBJECTIVES

"n completion of the 3as Compression module participants will be able to#

$nderstand the principles of %ehydration <ystems Accurately describe Absorption and Adsorption techniques <tate the potential ha'ards involved in dealing with high temperature chemicals and the need for safe operating control systems &xplain how dehydration systems are designed and si'ed for the duty required Fist the main component parts of dehydration regeneration systems $nderstand the operation and control of the equipment involved $nderstand the terminology and abbreviations used within gas dehydration systems.

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO GAS DEHYDRATION

:ydrocarbon gases produced from a reservoir consists of two groups which are referred as Associated 3as or 7on Associated 3as. 9sso"iated gas is produced along with hydrocarbon liquids from the reservoir and is released and separated from the liquids during subsequent processing. 7on<asso"iated gas is produced independently of hydrocarbon liquids, typically from reservoirs containing only gas. (oth types of produced gas will, however, contain water in the form of vapour or liquid. In order to meet export specifications and to avoid the possibility of hydrate conditions being realised, the water content of the gas is reduced to within

acceptable levels. 8ater removal is achieved by dr%ing or de#%drating the produced gas stream. The term =e#%dration describes the process for removing water from gas or hydrocarbon liquid in order to meet the specifications mentioned above. Another factor in deciding the amount of water to be removed is determined by that stipulated in the sales spe"i,i"ation of the contract.

2.0 GAS DEHYDRATION

%ehydration of hydrocarbon gas requires a Jdriving forceJ which will cause water to leave the vapour phase and condense as a liquid so that it can be removed from the gas. 8ithin our industry, the following methods have been used to accomplish condensation of water vapour within the saturated gas. 1. 9bsorption with liquid desiccants such as gl%"ol or met#anol. 2. 9dsorption with solid desiccants such as alumina, sili"a gel, "al"ium "#loride or mole"ular sie$e. 3. Cooling below initial dewpoint by either expansion or external refrigeration. 4. Compression followed by cooling. 5. Chemical reaction. "f the above methods the first two namely Absorption and Adsorption are the ones most commonly used and therefore we will examine both of these methods in detail. The first thing we need to learn is the difference between Absorption and Adsorption techniques

2.1 THE ABSORPTION PROCESS

The mechanism of 0ater $apour absorption in a liquid desiccant involves a driving force, which causes the vapour to leave the gas and condense. This driving force must be greater than the opposing force, which tends to make the condensed liquid vaporise, otherwise absorption will not occur.

%ehydration is accomplished by redu"ing t#e tenden"% o, a liquid to $aporise or by in"reasing t#e dri$ing ,or"e, which causes vapour condensation. In gas dehydration the main driving force is the di,,eren"e in t#e partial pressure o, 0ater in t#e gas p#ase and the partial pressure o, 0ater in t#e liquid p#ase. This technique of Absorption %ehydration is used extensively to remove water vapour from a gas stream.

2.2 THE ADSORPTION PROCESS

The term 9dsorption describes any process wherein molecules from a gas are held on the surface of a solid by surface forces. The exact mechanism of adsorption is difficult to define. "ne theory is that adsorption occurs due to liquefaction of a component in the vapour phase and its retention by "apillar% a"tion in the exceedingly fine pores of an adsorbing solid. Another theory advanced is that adsorption is due to "#emi"al "ombination of a component in the vapour phase with the ,ree balan"e o, atoms on the surface of the solid. A combination of both phenomena is most likely. The adsorption process then, is one in which a solid material will selectively remove a particular component from a fluid and retain that component on its surface.

2.3 THE FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS

In time the dessicant itself will become saturated with water which reduces its capacity for further adsorption. Therefore the dessicant bed will require to be BregeneratedB by BvaporisingB the water which has condensed on the dessicant granules. This is normally achieved by causing hot dry +regeneration. gas to flow upwards through the bed. This enables the removal of contaminants adsorbed near the inlet without flushing them through the entire bed.

The regeneration gas is heated to about 5=KC above final regeneration bed temperature desired +normally in the region of 6)*KC.. In order to maintain continuous process operation, this type of system usually has at least two beds of dessicant, one being used to dry the gas, while the other is being regenerated. The cycle bed temperature profile can be seen in the accompanying schematic.

7ote# The adsorption cycle will be discussed in detail later in this training module.

3.0 GLYCOL DEHYDRATION

3lycol dehydration is usually the most economic process to meet a given dewpoint specification and therefore is commonly used within the industry. 3lycol equipment is not difficult to operate and maintain and can easily be automated for virtually unattended operations. A common way of stating the quantit% o, 0ater $apour in a natural gas stream is in terms of its 0ater de0point. %ewpoint is defined as the temperature at which vapour begins to condense into liquid.

&xport specifications will be stipulated, but in general terms 7atural gas pipeline specifications require that the gas contains no more than /*ppm +parts per million. of water. This corresponds to a water dewpoint of approximately *EC at /Dbara. %ewpoint depression is the difference in EC between the inlet gas temperature and the water dewpoint temperature of the outlet gas. Therefore, a gas at 6;EC and /Dbara must have a dewpoint depression of 6;EC to meet pipeline specifications. %ewpoint depression is accomplished by dehydration. 3lycols can be used with sour or acid gases but obviously certain precautions must be taken since the gases are absorbed into the glycol.

3.1 ABSORPTION AND REGENERATION PROCESS

Fets now examine the absorption and regeneration processes in detail.

A4,'*)1.'2

3lycol +usually T&3. and wet gas are brought into intimate contact in a contactor vessel or tower, often referred to as the B3lycol ContactorB. The contactor may consist of a series of trays housing bubble caps, or in other cases contain structured packing internals within the column depending on design requirements. The pure @lean@ gl%"ol is allowed to enter the contactor column at the top and cascades over the structured packing, or down through the glycol trays, absorbing water vapour from the gas as it passes down through the column. The wet gas enters near the base of the column and as it rises up through the vessel, more and more water is absorbed by the counterC flowing glycol until at the top of the vessel the gas exits at the correct specification of water content.

The amount of dehydration achieved is dependent on#

glycol circulation rate +litres per kilogram of water in the gas. lean glycol concentration number of trays or depth of packing in the contactor and contact temperature.

3.2 FOAMING
"ne of the most serious problems encountered is ,oaming o, t#e gl%"ol.

oaming increases glycol losses and reduces plant capacity and hence efficiency. &ntrained glycol will carry over the top of the contactor with the gas, and the foaming will cause poor contact between the gas and the glycol, decreasing the drying efficiency. 3lycol may foam with light hydrocarbon liquids, some corrosion inhibitors and corrosion products, salt and finely divided suspended solids. 3lycol may also foam due to excessive turbulence and high liquid to vapour contact velocities. Although defoamers may in some cases be effective, they do not solve the basic problem. oaming problems require individual attention, the best cure being the proper care of the glycol solution. The most important measures to reduce these problems are effective gas cleaning upstream of the glycol system and good filtration of the circulating glycol solution. 9onitoring p: content will provide information on whether the glycol is too a"idi" ("orrosion problems) or to al-aline (s"aling problems).

4.0 GLYCOL DEHYDRATION PLANT

The maGor pieces of equipment in a glycol dehydration plant are as follows#

Contactor lash tank ilters ?egenerator

&ach of these items of process equipment is discussed separately prior to considering an overall dehydration system.

4.1 THE CONTACTOR

Contactors will normally contain between , and )5 bubble cap trays +although some manufacturers prefer valve type trays.. 3ood contactor design with respect to tray spacing, tray liquid levels etc is imperative for efficient operation. (ubble caps provide a high degree of gas to liquid contact. The wet gas stream flows upward through the vessel JcontactingJ the glycol solution flowing downwards. 8ater present in the gas is absorbed by the glycol. %ry gas passes out of the top of the contactor through a heat exchanger. The gas cools the incoming hot glycol stream which in turn increases its absorption efficiency. <ome of the gas present in the wet gas stream may liquefy and dissolve in the glycol solution. The amount of gas collected in the glycol depends upon the composition of the gas stream and the operating pressure +high pressure promotes liquefaction. of the contactor. The Jwet glycolJ solution in the bottom of the contactor is referred to as rich glycol, which then passes to the flash tank. low from the vessel is regulated by level control.

.2 THE FLASH TANB

The flash tank is installed in the process to recover gases dissolved in the glycol.

The rich glycol solution enters the flash tank, which operates usually in a pressure range of 6 to =bar. The operating pressure is kept as low as possible to promote flashing of the gas. <ince the contactor will normally operate upwards of )*barg, a pressure drop is induced and thus dissolved gases are released. >ressure in the flash tank is regulated and controlled by a dedicated pressure control system. Fiquid hydrocarbons removed from the contactor with the rich glycol stream will then separate out in a layer above the rich glycol in the flash tank and may be removed under level control. ?ich glycol accumulated in the base of the flash tank passes to the filters.

4.3 THE FILTERS

ilters are used to remove solid impurities present or created in the process.

>roduced solids cause fouling, foaming and plugging and are best removed by filters placed in the rich glycol stream. 3lycol filtration generally consists of two stages# 1. Solids remo$al, these filters are designed to accomodate for full flow on a duty!standby basis. 2. Gl%"ol Carbon ,ilters remove contaminants by adsorption. The contaminants may include glycol degradation products, chemicals and lubricants etc. These filters normally operate on a Bside stream principleB.

4.4 THE GLYCOL REGENERATOR DRECONCENTRATORE

In the regenerator the water absorbed by the glycol is removed by boiling at relatively high temperatures in the region of 5*= KC.

The regenerator unit is made up of the following main components#

<till Column! ?eflux Coil ?eboiler unit

?ich glycol from the contactor flows through a coil +heat exchanger. sometimes referred to as the Bre,lu* "ondenser "oilB in the upper portion of the still column section of the regenerator. This is where the rich glycol receives initial heating and its temperature is raised from approximately !0 AC to 4+ AC. The reflux coil also serves a second purpose of cooling the glycol vapour within the still column. This action promotes improved separation of glycol from water vapour within the column, and also reduces glycol losses from the column.

4.5 THE CIRCULATING PUMPDSE

Fean 3lycol in the surge tank provides suction to the circulating pump!s. The pumps raise the glycol stream pressure to that required for entry to the inlet of the contactor tower.

>ositive displacement pumps are normally used and it must be remembered that the pumps handle a fluid that is frequently dirty and corrosive. Cylinder corrosion, pump cup or ring wear and sticking or plugged valves must be detected as early as possible and corrected to maintain process efficiency. The pump rates should be commensurate with the gas volume being processed. In general, glycol flowrates of 1+ to 40 litres per -ilogram o, 0ater to be removed are required. "ne of the most common sources of glycol loss is at the circulating pump packing glands. If a pump leaks upwards of 1 litre per da%, the packing needs replacing.

. GLYCOL TO GAS HEAT E%CHANGER

Fean glycol from the circulating pump!s (temperature )0C to 1 0C) flows to the contactor tower through a glycol to gas heat exchanger where the heat is passed to the dry gas stream from the contactor.

The glycol to gas heat exchanger may be in coil form as depicted in the schematic. <ince the gas flowrate relative to the glycol flowrate is very high only a small temperature increase in the region of !C to 4C of the gas takes place. The temperature differential at this point is important. If it is too high i.e. greater than !C to 4C, then there can be a tendency to carry excess glycol forward in the dry gas stream and possible foaming in the tower. If the temperature differential is too low, there can be a tendency towards producing condensate in the contactor tower.

4.! GLYCOL PLANT CALCULATIONS

The following examples are provided to show circulation rates and also to determine the purity of the lean glycol required for a given duty. ). A glycol dehydration plant is designed to remove =5**kg of water per day from a wet gas stream. The glycol to water ratio required is 5= litres!kg. BuestionC Calculate the glycol circulation rate required. 8ater removed from the gas 3lycol pickup rate =5** kg!d 5= litres!kg

3lycol required per day

=5** x 5= 2 1!0000 litres or 1!0 m! )6* ! 5, 2 +.417m! D #our

Gl%"ol "ir"ulation rate

5. Fet us assume that a hot dry stripping gas is required in a regeneration system to produce a lean glycol purity in excess of D;.=I.

Buestion# %etermine if stripping gas will be required to achieve an outlet gas dewpoint of <10C at an inlet wet gas temperature of !0C.

9ns0erC At C)*EC dewpoint temperature and 6*EC inlet gas temperature the lean glycol concentration required is E).7!F. Therefore this value exceeds D;.=I and hence stripping gas is required.

5.0 ADSORPTION BY A DRY DESICCANT

8here the highest possible dewpoint depression is required an adsorption process using a solid or dry desiccant may be the most effective method. (y far the most widely used adsorbent in service at present is known as a molecular sieve. 8ith the molecular sieve a large surface area is presented for adsorption which, because of the si'e and structure of the molecular pores, holds the water on its surface. There are a number of commercially available desiccants used for gas dehydration. These desiccants can be reactivated or regenerated so that they can be used through many cycles of adsorption and reCactivation. 8ith dry desiccant dehydration very low dewpoints can be obtained, and it is not uncommon to achieve a resultant residual water vapour in the outlet gas of less than )-g per ..m! by this method. In a normal application this may well correspond to a dewpoint of < 40C.

5.1 REGENERATION CYCLE

8hen the desiccant bed is completely saturated with water the gas stream is switched to the second tower and the desiccant in the first tower is regenerated.

A split stream +about )*I of the total. from the main gas flow passes through a heater and flows +opposite to the normal flow direction. through the waterC saturated desiccant bed. The gas heats up the bed and vaporises the water. ?egenerator gas and water enter the gas cooler where the water condenses and is separated from the gas stream in the separator. The gas from the separator is then recombined with the main gas stream. ollowing the regenerating cycle the bed has to be cooled down before it can be switched back to adsorption@ this is termed as conditioning the bed. Conditioning of the bed is achieved by continuing to flow the splitCstream to the first tower, but byCpassing the heater and flowing the unheated regeneration gas through the bed.

.0 SEPARATION OF HEAVY HYDROCARBONS

%epending on the composition of the gas in question, cooling it for the purpose of dehydration, could possibly bring the pressure and temperature of the gas within the twoCphase region of the phase envelope.

This could result in the condensation not only of water, but also of a stream consisting mainly of heavy hydrocarbons. 8here this does occur it is necessary to separate and recover the liquid hydrocarbons. The reasons for separating out liquid hydrocarbons can be summarised as follows#

8o a$oid "ondensation o, t#ese liquids during subsequent #andling o, t#e gas 8o meet a sales gas (or users) #%dro"arbon de0point spe"i,i"ation 8o upgrade t#e produ"t $alue o, t#e gas b% separating premium "omponents su"# as liquid petroleum gas (L/G)

8hatever the reason for condensing and separating liquid hydrocarbons simultaneously with water, this must be considered when selecting a combined system.

!.0 RETROGRADE CONDENSATION

Instead of following the usual pattern of liquid changing into gas while reducing the pressure, at certain temperature ranges heavier hydrocarbons will condense out of natural gas during pressure reduction and may, depending on the temperature bracket, evaporate again during further pressure reduction. This phenomenon, common to most composite natural gases, is called retrograde "ondensation . An explanation of this phenomenon can be seen in the phase diagram of a hydrocarbon mixture, sometimes called Jphase envelopeJ.

The Bbubble point "ur$eB is represented by the line AC and the B de0point "ur$e@ by the line (C. The point where these curves meet is known as the critical point. 9t t#is point t#e properties o, t#e liquid and t#e $apour #a$e be"ome identi"al and t#e% are no longer distinguis#able . At any combination of pressure and temperature within the envelope AC( the system consists of two phases. At conditions to the right of the dewpoint curve the system will be all vapour and to the left of the bubble point curve all liquid. The diagram indicates the phase changes that must occur when the pressure and the temperature of a system are varied.

".0 HYDRATES
A hydrate is a solid formed by the physical combination of water molecules and hydrocarbon gas molecules contained +particularly those of methane.. :ydrates are members of a group of chemical compounds called clathrates, a term used to describe compounds which exist in a stable condition but are not the result of the chemical combination of all the molecules present. :ydrates resemble snow in appearance although they can vary from extremes of a GellyClike mush to solid ice. %epending on the physical conditions prevailing, hydrates may form at temperatures 0ell abo$e t#e ,ree:ing point o, 0ater. ?emember that ice is a crystalline structure made up of only water molecules and forms at * oC.

".1 PREDICTION OF HYDRATE FORMATION

9ost of the gas produced in the offshore oil and gas industry is saturated with water vapour. 7atural gas systems being primarily methane are therefore prone to hydrate formation. :ydrates will form at temperatures well above the free'ing point of water and the temperature at which a hydrate forms depends upon the pressure in the stream. As pressure in"reases, the temperature at 0#i"# #%drates ,orm also in"reases.

The graph illustrated shows, in the presence of free water, the temperatures at which hydrates form in natural gas as a function of pressure.

It should be noted that composition of the gas can significantly affect the hydrate temperature and that this curve is an approximation for a common gas. As already mentioned nonChydrocarbon impurities such as #%drogen sulp#ide and "arbon dio*ide will tend to accelerate hydrate formation.

".2 PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF HYDRATES

:ydrates can be prevented or minimised, by using two basic methods as follows#

4emo$e t#e 0ater from the gas stream using some form of M+18': dehydration procedure. This is usually carried out by contacting the 1 gas with a glycol liquid that will absorb the water from the gas stream. >se a #%drate in#ibitor C methanol +methyl alcohol. or glycol can be inGected into a gas stream to suppress hydrates and also to lower M+18': the free'ing point of the water present. This approach is analogous 2 to the use of antifree'e in a car radiator. In this approach the water is not absorbed and removed, it is merely protected from free'ing and inhibited from forming hydrates. =e0point "onditioning, mentioned in section -, is another method of preventing hydrate formation. :ere the process stream is subGected to conditions of temperature and pressure beyond those that will be met during normal operations. This will condense out free water +and unwanted hydrocarbon liquids. in a controlled situation. Assume as an example that a gas pipeline may operate at a minimum temperature of ' C. Then by subGecting the gas to a temperature of say C)EC, it is assured that all liquid JknockoutJ that could occur at 15EC will have been achieved under controlled conditions prior to the gas entering the pipeline. Therefore the risk of dewpoint being reached during normal operations of the pipeline has been removed.

".3 INJECTION OF HYDRATE INHIBITOR

A hydrate inhibitor will be ine,,e"ti$e if it is not mixed with the water at the precise moment water condensation occurs.If an inhibitor is flowing along the bottom of a pipeline and condensation of water is occurring on the walls of the line, hydrate formation will not be prevented. 8hen methanol is used as a hydrate inhibitor, it vaporises and becomes an integral part of the gas. As the gas cools the methanol condenses and mixes with the water as it also condenses, thus providing protection. 8hen glycol is used as the hydrate inhibitor only a very small amount of glycol will actually go into the vapour phase. To be effective it is essential that

turbulent flow conditions exist to ensure the presence of glycol at the point where wet gas is cooled to its hydrate forming temperature.

It is therefore of vital importance that good mixing occurs at the point of inhibitor inGection. InGection upstream of a choke or pressure control valve will cause the inhibitor to be thoroughly mixed as pressure reduction and violent agitation occur. <hould such a facility not be available, a high quality spray no''le inGection quill is required.

".4 METHANOL OR GLYCOLF

In purely technical terms methanol is a better inhibitor than glycol. It will flow more readily than glycol because it has a lower relative density +specific gravity. and since it readily vaporises into the gas it will be present, as condensation of water occurs. The maGor drawback with methanol is caused by exactly the property that makes it so effective. The quantity of methanol that vaporises into the gas is totally lost. <eparators installed to recover methanol will at best recover 40 to &0F of the total amount inGected. 9ethanol can also cause problems in downstream processing plants. "n the other hand, very little glycol vaporisation occurs when it is inGected and glycol can be recovered by a separator installed at the end of the pipeline. In deciding which inhibitor to use other issues must also be considered. If the gas contains high levels of hydrogen sulphide and!or carbon dioxide, corrosivity may be a maGor concern. In such instances, dehydration by glycol absorption is usually carried out at the well site.

This is often the case with offshore operations where concern for corrosivity and hydrate formation in subsea pipelines is of paramount importance. 8hen you click on the next button you will be able to answer a question relating to this section of the course. 8hen you have answered this question, click on the next button to move onto the assessment.

7GL 4e"o$er% G 4e,rigeration

NGL R+/'>+*= 02: R+?*.6+*01.'2 T*0.2.26 A.(

The aim of this training module is to provide you with the necessary information and knowledge required in understanding 73F +7atural 3as Fiquid. recovery systems and industrial refrigeration systems. The specific knowledge gained from understanding the theoretical principles and practical applications involved can then be used toward developing an overall understanding of process operation and control. This in turn will lead towards safe, efficient and economic operation of plant and equipment.

NGL R+/'>+*= 02: R+?*.6+*01.'2 T*0.2.26 O4<+/1.>+,

"n completion of the 73F!?efrigeration 9odule participants will be able to# $nderstand the principles of 73F ?ecovery &xplain the operation of a Turbo &xpander %escribe the turbo expander process Accurately describe the principles of refrigeration <tate the properties of refrigerants Fist the main components of a refrigeration system

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS DNGLE RECOVERY

The components of 7atural 3as Fiquids +73F. consist primarily of the alkanes ethane, propane and butane. ?arely does 73F contain alkanes greater in molecular mass than decane +C)*. and when it does, it is minimal.

>rocesses employed to extract 73F usually concentrate the composition in the ethane!propane!butane component range. The 73F product may be further fractionated at the onshore terminal to produce ethane and propane rich products. The propane rich fraction, when

mixed with butanes, is sold as Liquid /etroleum Gases (L/G). Two main processes are used for the recovery of 73F#
The absorption process. The condensation process.

2.0 REFRIGERATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION

9echanical refrigeration is the process of lowering the temperature of a substance, either in the solid, liquid or gaseous state, below that of its surroundings. In practical terms, most commercial refrigeration systems are generally required to cool the substance below ambient temperature. The refrigeration process is essentially a physical mechanism. This mechanism embodies special aspects of heat transfer, the conversion of work into heat +or the reverse. and the operation of heat engines for energy conservation and energy transfer. ?efrigeration technology is extensively used in the oil refining, petrochemical and natural gas industries. In these industries hydrocarbon liquids and gases are chilled in processes used for product purification, separation at low temperature fractionation and very low temperature liquefaction of natural gas for storage and shipment in liquid form to overseas marketing areas.

3 S3((0*=
Hou have now finished the trining section of this moduel on %ehydration, 7atural 3as Fiquefaction +73F. and ?efrigeration. In it you have learned about the processes involved and the principle of operation. Hou have also learned where each of the systems is employed within the overall process and how they are used to maximise production.

8ithe regard to dehydration systems, you now have the knowledge to appreciate the difference between A(<"?>TI"7 and A%<"?>TI"7 techniques as well as their associated regeneration methods. Hou should now understand the main features of 73F recovery with respect to absorption and condensing processes, which involve refrigeration and turbo expanders. Above all never forget the importance of, and the need for, properly designed plant and equipment in order to ensure that production of oil and gas is conducted safely and efficiently. inally, we hope that you have enGoyed this module on dehydration and 73F recovery. In order to finish it you are now required to complete a set of questions that are designed to assess and underpin the knowledge you have gained.