SUMMARY

Digital simulation of distance-relay comparators and their response to primary-system d.c. transients
D.A. Bradley, B.Tech., Ph.D., C.B. Gray, M.Sc.Tech., C.Eng., M.I.E.E., and D. O'Kelly, M.Sc.Eng., D.I.C., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.E.E.

Indexing terms: Comparators, Power-system protection, Simulation

Abstract
Digital computer models of a selection of 2-input phaseand amplitude-comparator distance relays, generating mho and offset-mho characteristics in the steady state, are described and evaluated under transient conditions, necessitating interpretation of the criteria of operation in instantaneous terms. The primary system is simply represented by sinusoidal-voltage source and lumped impedances, comparator representation includes consideration of finite sensitivity and the provision of self polarisation. Dynamic performance is presented in the form of contoured distance.to-fault/system-impedance-ratio curves.

Introduction
Prior to the approval of any proposed relay comparator for distance relaying, substantial evidence is required of its acceptable behaviour under transient conditions. A programme of practical tests may be carried out by using heavycurrent test plant, or maybe simulated by laboratory bench testing. Conjunctive practical testing will remain an essential part of any relay-development procedure, but considerations of cost suggest that it is impracticable to simulate all system conditions likely to be encountered in service, and accurate predictions of relay behaviour from observations carried out on a model would be of value, particularly at the design stage. Recently, considerable thought has been given to the feasibility of computer modelling of existing or proposed relay comparators together with the essential components of a power-system network which influence its behaviour. A wide range of system conditions could then be the subject of theoretical study. Many alternative types of distance relay exist, displaying individual responses to transient components present in their input signals. The practical consequences of inaccurate distance measurement in the presence of transients, manifested as transient overreach or underreach, are well known, and techniques are available for preventing the unacceptable consequences of erroneous measurement, usually by inhibiting tripping during the transient period. It is likely, however, that certain comparator configurations are inherently better than others when judged on the basis of their transient behaviour, although, in the steady state, their performances are identical, with generation of the familiar impedance-plane characteristics of simple geometric form, resulting from the phase or amplitude comparison of sinusoidally time-variant input signals.
Summary M62 P* The manuscript of the complete paper, which was received on 5th April 1974, has been deposited in the IEE Library. A photocopy of the manuscript may be purchased at a price of 2.35. Dr. Bradley is with the Department of Engineering, University of Lancaster, Bailrigg, Lancaster, England. Dr. O'Kelly and Mr. Gray are with the School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, University of Bradford, Bradford, Yorks. BD71DP, England

Amplitude comparators assess the relative values of some measure of input-signal amplitudes and, since actual peak values do not generally occur simultaneously, storage or averaging of amplitude information is required. Displacement of the input waveforms by a d.c. component will affect the measurement. One group of phase comparators measures time intervals between zero crossing of input waveforms; another group examines the polarity of one input at the instant when the other attains its maximum, with the 90 characteristic angle inherently dependent upon the symmetry of the sinusoidal waveshape. Although the former phase comparator disregards the actual waveform, displacement of the input signals affects the instant of zerocrossing and makes the measurement subject to error with input transients present. Measurement accuracy under transient conditions may be maintained by the use of a dual-comparison process, in which sequential comparisons are carried out so that the effect of input transients causes alternative overreach and underreach. Since both comparators are required to indicate a measured impedance within the designated zone for trip initiation, relay operation is delayed under transient conditions for faults near the boundary of the protected section. Impedance-plane characteristic and comparator input signals The circular offset-mho characteristic was taken as the basis for study, including the relaying point within its zone of operation. Although the degree of offset is a variable in the computer models of the comparators investigated, results presented in the paper generally correspond to the simple mho characteristic, which locates the relaying point on the locus of marginal operation. Provision is made for modelling self polarisation of the mho relay by means of a resonant circuit. The relay inputs required for the production of the chosen steady-state characteristic are expressed in instantaneous form for both amplitude and 90 phase comparators. It is assumed that the voltage component of the input signal is derived via an ideal voltage transformer, and that the faultcurrent-derived component corresponds to the flow of system-fault current, perfectly transformed, through replica impedance.

Representation of system
To establish the techniques of modelling relays, the representation of system components is elementary, with sinusoidal voltage source and lumped primary impedance divided at the relaying point into source and line values. The consequence of assumed perfect current and voltage transformation is that the only transient components present at the comparator inputs are derived from the long timeconstant primary d.c. transient, related in initial amplitude to the instant of short-circuit application. System impedances on modelling are expressed in terms of the relay replica impedance, which is assigned the magnitude of 1 p.u., and the specified mho offset factor. 1577

PROC. IEE, Vol. 121, No. 12, DECEMBER 1974

Knowledge of the phase angle of replica impedance defines the characteristic circle and enables a value of impedance, having the phase angle of the protected line, to define the nominal length of line protected. Specification of the system impedance ratio (s.i.r.) determines the magnitude of source impedance for which relay operation is to be examined. 1 p.u. current is defined as that value of steady-state current which flows when a fault occurs at the far end of the protected section. Hence p.u. values of fault current and source voltage, giving rise to the comparator input signals, may be defined in terms of the system impedances. The limited sensitivity of practical comparators is simulated in the computer models by the definition of a sensitivity setting factor, which relates to system source voltage the minimum voltage level below which value input signals are not recognised by the comparator. Phase comparators The pulse or 'block-spike' 90 phase comparator effects an instantaneous comparison of the polarities of the input signals at the moment when one signal attains its peak value. An operate condition is indicated if both signals then have identical polarities and exceed the setting value. Two variants of the principle are considered in the paper: (a) The 'nominal'-maximum type, wherein the instant at which the reference signal passes through zero is first found, and the polarity comparison is made 1/4 cycle later in time. (b) The 'true'-maximum type, where the comparison is made at the instant when the time derivative of the reference signal is zero. In the modelling, dual-comparator configurations were employed, and sensitivity setting considerations were applied to the detection of zero crossings. The block instantaneous 90 phase comparator measures the duration of polarity coincidence of the input signals, and indicates a trip condition where this exceeds 1/4 cycle. For operation, dual comparators require the recognition of two consecutive coincidence periods associated with signals of opposite polarity, both being required to give operate indications. The block average 90 comparator is a development of the former block instantaneous comparator with an inherent dual-comparator function so that a positive-going ramp is generated during periods of signal coincidence and a negativegoing ramp is generated during noncoincidence. The negativegoing ramp terminates at zero voltage, so that only positive output is achieved, with relay operation occurring when this attains a level equal to that which would be reached by the continuous generation of the positive-going ramp for a halfcycle period. Fig. 1 shows distance-to-fault/system-impedance-ratio curves for the mho version, with and without self-polarisation, also incorporating setting-level compensation, which enhances the comparator sensitivity when the system impedance ratio is high. Amplitude comparators The mean-amplitude comparator compares the time during each halfcycle when the rectified operate signal exceeds the rectified restraint signal with a 1/4 cycle duration. The 1/4 cycle duration is exceeded when, regardless of phase difference, the amplitude of the operate signal in the steady state exceeds that of the restraint signal. A feature of this amplitude comparator is that the difference signal may be examined in a similar way to that of phase comparators employing polarity-coincidence measurement and, in the modelling, the block average comparator method was adopted. The peak-amplitude comparator compares successive maxima of the input signals. Two variations are possible, 1578

with significant consequences for the transient response, comparing successive peaks of either the same polarity only or of both polarities.
100

50

' boundary

4 10 40 system impedanoe ratio

100

a
100 .boundary

12 5-20ms\ <12-5ms> 50

4 10 40 system impedance ratio

100

Fig. 1

Distance to fault against system impedance ratio for mho version of block average 90 comparator with zero fault current transient
(a) Without self polarisation (6) With self polarisation

Conclusions Phase-and amplitude-comparator distance relays may readily be modelled on the digital computer, and their behaviour may be predicted under defined system conditions. Of the alternatives investigated, the block-average phase comparator and the mean-amplitude comparator appear to offer the best performance under the system conditions studied, providing operation within one cycle over a large percentage of the operating zone. With maximum direct transient-fault current the extent of the 12-5 ms zone is slightly decreased, and the 20 ms zone is slightly increased. The other types of comparator also indicate generally acceptable performance. With d.c. offset absent, a large area of high-speed tripping is obtained with the 'true'-maximum-pulse comparator, although 1-cycle operation is not achieved with the 'nominal'maximum version. The effect of full d.c. transient present in the fault current is, in each case, generally to create tripping times of about 17 ms. The effect of d.c. transients on the block instantaneous phase comparator is similarly to extend the region of highspeed tripping with operating times again about 17 ms. The peak-amplitude comparator offers an essentially rectangular distance-to-fault/system-impedance-ratio curve, with one cycle operation for dual comparison of peaks of either sign over the entire zone of operation. With transients present, the area of high-speed tripping is reduced. PROC. IEE, Vol. 121, No. 12, DECEMBER 1974