A

CLASS

ROOM

LOGIC

DEDUCTIVE

AND

INDUCTIVE

WITH

SPECIAL
AND

APPLICATION
ART OF

TO

THE

SCIENCE

TEACHING

BY

GEORGE
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SCHOOL
FOR

HASTINGS
OF

McNAIR,
AND

Ph.
CITY

D.
TRAINING

LOGIC

MATHEMATICS,
NEW YORK

TEACHERS.

JAMAICA.

CITY

THE
FIVE NORTH

ETHLAS
BROADWAY.

PRESS
NYACK. NEW YORK

BC

101

.Ms

COPTRIGHT,
George

1914,

BY

Hastings

McNaib

DEC 15 1914

"C1A391484

5fa

MY

WIFE.

PREFACE.

This in

treatise

is

an

outgrowth

of

our

class

room

work

logic.
It has been

published
which

in the

hope
the is and

of

removing

some

of

the
We

difficulties
trust

handicap
language
exercises
some

average and

student. definite may and

that

the

simple

that

the in

illustrative
clear review that followed be the

diagrams
more

be

ful help-

making
a

of

the

abstruse

topics.
it is page

If

speedy

for

examination
course
as

is necessary,
outlined
on

recommended 493 be

the
and

briefer that

the

summaries

closing

each

chapter Only
have

carefully

read.
of

fundamentals

deductive

and

inductive has

logic
been selves them-

received
to

attention.

Moreover
which
appear

emphasis
to

given

those

phases
of their
we

commend

because Further
some

practical value.
trust

than way

this the
in

that

the

book
of

may

fulfill in better
more

small

larger

mission of

inspiring
to
a

thinking
serviceable

and,

consequence,

leading

citizenship.
as

Surely
of
man

civilization greater

advances

it is with
the

the

tion expecta"that

giving
a

significance to

assumption

is I
am

rational
indebted

animal."
to
a

number

of

writers

on

logic,notably

to

Mill, Lotze, Keynes,

and

Hibben,
I
am

Fowler,

Aikins, Hyslop, obligation

to

Creighton

Jevons.

likewise

under

Vlll

PREFACE

that

large

body

of

students

who,

by
different

frankly point

revealing
of view.

their

difficulties,
constructive

have

given
criticism

me

For

and

definite

encouragement Charles
Frank

owe

personal
of New

debt

of

gratitude
University,
Normal

to

Prof.

Gray
D.

Shaw

York

to

Prof.

Blodgett
A. C.

of

the

Oneonta

School

and

to

Prin.

MacLachlan

of

the

Jamaica

Training

School

for

Teachers.

G.

H.

McN.

City

Training Jamaica,
October

School

for

Teachers,

N.

Y.

City.

3,

1914.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter

1.
"

The

Scope

and

Nature

of

Logic
...

The

Mind, Defined,

1. 3. 7.

Logic
The

Related Value 7. of

to

Other
to

Subjects,
the

2.

Logic
5.

Logic
Review and

Student,
8. 9.

Outline,
for

Summary,

Questions,

Questions

Original

Thought

Investigation,

Chapter

2.

"

Thought

and

Its

Operation
....

10

The

Knowing
10.

Mind

Compared by Intuition,
Individual
as

with 11. and

to

the The

Thinking Thinking
14.

Mind,
Process,

Knowing
12. and of 16.

Notions,
Idea the

General, Notion,
Involved and 19.

Knowledge
The the 18.

Related

the

15.
in

Logic
Notion,
Evolution
as a

Psychological
in

Terms Sensation

Thought
and the

the

Percept,
The cept Conas
a

Thinking
21.

Mind,
The
as
a

Thought Product, Thinking

25. 29.

Product,
22. and

Judgment Thought
24. 27.

Thought
24.

Inference

uct, Prodin

Apprehension,
26. for

Stages
Review

Thinking,
Questions,

Outline, Questions

Summary, Original

Thought

and

Investigation, 30.

Chapter

3.

"

The

Primary

Laws

of

Thought
...

32

Two 32. The

Fundamental Law of

Laws,

32.

The 35. of

Law The

of Law

Identity,
of cluded Ex-

Contradiction,
39. The Laws Law of

Middle,
40. 41.

Sufficient 40. 43.

Reason, Outline,
Review and

Unity

of

Primary
42.

Thought,
Exercises,

Summary,
44.

Illustrative for

Questions,

Questions

Original

Thought

Investigation, 45.
ix

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter

4.
"

Logical

Terms and 47. 48.

47

Logical Meaning gorematic Terms,

Concrete

Thought
of

Language

Inseparable, 47.
and 49.

Term,

Categorematic Singular Terms,

and Distributive 51.

SyncateGeneral 50. and

Words,
and

49.

Collective Abstract

Terms,
and

Terms,
52. and

Connotative

Non-connotative

Terms,

Positive

Negative
Terms,
53. and trative Illus-

Terms,
Privative Relative

53. and

Contradictory
56.

Opposite
55.

Nego-positive Terms,
Outline, 57.
Review and

Absolute 57. 59.

Terms,

Summary, Questions,

Exercises, 58.
for

tions Ques-

Original Thought

Investigation,60.

Chapter

5.
"

The

Extension Function Intension Extension Terms Forms Law of

and

Intension

of

Terms 62.

62

Two-fold and of Connotative 65. Other

Connotative

Terms,
Extended A

tension Exparison Com-

Defined,
and

63.

Intension, 63.
in Extension for and

List

of

Used of of

Intension,
and
tension, In-

Expression
Variation Facts in Law

Extension and

Intension, 66.
66.

in Extension of

Important Summary,

Variation, 69.

Law

of

Variation

Diagrammatically
72. 75. Illustrative

Illustrated, 70. Exercises, 73.

for

Outline, 72.
Review

Questions,
and

Questions

Original

Thought

Investigation,76.

Chapter

6.
"

Definition The

77

Importance, 77.
of 84. Kinds of
a

Predicables, 77.
and Division When

The

Nature

Definition, 82.
The
of

Definition

Compared,
the The Cannot Three Rules be cational Edutrative Illus-

Kinds

of

Definitions, 85.
are

Definitions

Serviceable, 87.
Terms Which of Definitions

Logical

Definition, 88.
94.

Defined

Logically, 93.
Terms, Exercises, 100.

Common
98.

Outline, 97.
Review and

Summary,

Questions, 102.

tions Ques-

for

Original Thought

Investigation,103.

CONTENTS

XI

Page

Chapter

7.
"

Logical of

Division

and

Classification
.

105
.

Nature

Logical Division, 105.

Enumeration,
Four

Logical
of

Division

Distinguished from
as

106.

sion Logical Divi-

Partition, 107. Dichotomy,

Kinds

Rules

Logical

sion, Divi-

108. with Rules

110. of

Classification

Compared
Two and view Re-

Division, 112.
of

113. Classification, Use of Division 116.

Classification, 114. Outline, 115.

Classification,114. Questions,
and

Summary

117.

Questions for Original Thought

Investigation,118.
8.
"

Chapter

Logical Nature of

Propositions

120
Kinds of of
a

The

Logical Propositions, 120.

The Four

Logical Propositions, 121.

Elements

Categorical Proposition, 122. Logical and Grammatical Four Subject and Predicate Distinguished, 125. The
Kinds which of do
not

Categorical Propositions, 126.

not

Propositions
129. The

Conform

to

Logical Type,

sitions PropoRelation

Necessarily
and

Illogical,138. Predicate, 140.

between

Subject
151.

Outline, 150.
154. Review and

Summary,

Illustrative

Exercises,

Questions, 156.

Questions for

Original Thought

Investigation,157.
Chapter
9.
"

Immediate Nature of

Inference

"

Opposition
. .

.159
and

The

Inference, 159.
The Forms

Immediate of

ate Medience, Infer-

Inference,
161.

159.

Immediate

(1) Opposition, 161.

Immediate Inference Inference

Chapter

10.

"

(Continued)
170.

170
.

Immediate Inference

by

Obversion,
176. the

Immediate

by Conversion,

Immediate of

Inference
Four

by

Contraversion, 181.
of Immediate 183.

Epitome Summary,

Processes

Inference, 182.
Review and

Inference 183.

by Inversion,
cises, Exerfor Problems

Outline, 183.
185.

Illustrative

Questions,

189.

Original Thought

Investigation,190.

Xll

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter

11.

"

Mediate and of the

Inference

"

The

Syllogism
.

192
.

Inference The Rules

Reasoning, 192.
Syllogism, 193.
Aristotle's Mathematical 211.

The Rules

Syllogism, 192.
of

Syllogism
Canons 210. of line, Out-

Explained,
the 210. Review and

194.

Dictum,
Illustrative

208.

Syllogism, 209.
Summary,

Axioms,

Exercises, 213.

Questions, 215.

Questions

for Original Thought

Investigation, 216.
12.
"

Chapter
The of

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
.

218 Moods

Four

Figures of the Syllogism, 218.

The

the

Moods,
226. 234.

Syllogism, 221. Testing the Validity of the 223. of the Four Figures, Special Canons
Related, 233.
of the Four 241. Mnemonic

Special Canons
Relative 240. Value

Lines,
line, Out-

Figures, 239.

Summary,

Illustrative

Exercises, 243.

Review
and

Questions, 245.

Questions for Original Thought

Investigation,245.
13.
"

Chapter

Incomplete Arguments

Syllogisms
.

and

Irregular 247
. . . . .

Enthymeme, Prosyllogism
Review and Chapter
"

247.

Epicheirema, 249.
258.

Polysyllogisms.
regular Ir-

Episyllogism, 250. Questions

Sorites, 251. Summary,

for

Arguments,

Outline, 259.

260.

Questions, 261.

Original Thought

Investigation,261.
14.
"

Categorical
to

Arguments

Tested

According

Form
Form

263
and

Arguments
in
a

of

Matter, 263.
of

Order

of Procedure 263.
lustrative Ilare

Formal

Testing
in

Arguments, Arguments

Exercise

Testing

which

Complete
both
and of

and

whose

Premises

are

Logical, 265. Arguments,

Common

trative Illusone

Exercise
or

in Testing Premises

Completed
are

of

whose

Illogical,269.
277.

plete Incom-

Irregular
the

Arguments,
281.

takes Mis-

Student,

Outline, 281. Questions

for

Summary, Original

282.

Review
and

Questions, 283.

Thought

Investigation,285.

CONTENTS

XI

11

Page

Chapter

15.
"

Hypothetical Including

and the

Disjunctive
Dilemma 288. and

Arguments
. . .

288

Three

Kinds 288. of

of

Arguments,

Hypothetical
289. and 291. 290. Rule

Arguments,
Two Two Kinds

Antecedent

Consequent, Argument,

Hypothetical Arguments,
of

Fallacies

Hypothetical
Reduced
to

Hypothetical Arguments
293. Illustrative of Two Kinds All Exercises

Categorical Form,
302. junctive Dis-

Testing Hypothetical Arguments

Disjunctive Arguments, Arguments,
302. First

Kinds, 297.
303.

of Disjunctive

Rule,
Reduction 308. 309. The
of

Second

Disjunctive

Rule, 306.
The lemma, Di-

Disjunctive
Four of Forms

Argument,
of Dilemmatic 311.

307.

Arguments,
cises Exer-

Rule

Dilemma,

Illustrative

Testing Disjunctive and

311.

Dilemmatic
Related
to

Argument,
Disjunctive

Ordinary
315.

Experiences

Proposition and

313. line, OutHypothetical Argument, 316. Review Summary, Questions, 318. and

Questions for Original Thought

Investigation, 320.

Chapter

16.

"

The

Logical Reasoning

Fallacies

of

Deductive 322

A 322.

Negative Aspect, 322.

A Division of the Divisions

Paralogism
Fallacies

and

Sophism,
eral Gen-

Deductive

323. Fallacies, of

Explained, 325.
Fallacies in in

Immediate

Inference, 326.
328. Fallacies 344.

Thought
345.

Language (Equivocation), line, (Assumption), 334. OutIllustrative Exercises in

Summary,

in Both Form and 349. Testing Arguments Meaning, Review Questions, 350. Questions for Original Thought and

353. Investigation,

Chapter

17.
"

Inductive and

Reasoning Deductive

355

Inductive 355. The

Reasoning

Distinguished,

"Inductive of

Hazard," 356.

Problem

Induction, 358.

Complexity of the Various Conceptions of

XIV

CONTENTS

Page

Induction, 359. Processes,

Inductive
of 360.

Induction Induction
361.

and
an

Deduction

Contiguous
361.

Assumption,
of

versal Uni362.

Causation,
Inductive

Uniformity

Nature,
Three

Assumptions Research,
367.
373.

Justified,364.
365. Induction

Forms

by
368.

Simple
tion Inducduction, Tra-

Enumeration,
377.

Induction

by Analogy, Summary,
for

by Analysis, Questions,
383.

Perfect

Induction, 375.
380.

Outline, 379.
Questions

Review
and

Original Thought

Investigation,384.

Chapter

18.

"

Mill's

Five

Special
and

Methods

of

vation Obser386

Experiment

....

Aim 387.

of Method

Five of
and

Methods, 386. Difference, 393.

Difference, 397.
The

Method The The Method of

of

Agreement,
of comitant Conof

Joint Method
Method of Five Review

Agreement
406. 409.

Variations, 402.
General

Residues, Methods, tions, Quesand vestigation, In-

Purpose
411.

and

Unity

Outline,
414. 416.

Summary,
for

412.

Questions

Original Thought

Chapter

19.

"

Auxiliary
"

Elements Experiment

in
"

Induction. Hypothesis

vation Obser418
.

Foundation 419. Observation

of

of

Inductive

Generalizations, 418.
419. 420. Rules Common The for

servation, Ob-

Experiment, Experiment,
and and

Logical
Errors

and

Observation Induction
and of
a

Experiment, 423. Hypothesis

Hypothesis,
426.
quirements Re-

425.

Distinguished,
The Uses 427.

Hypothesis Hypothesis,

Theory

Distinguished, 427. Hypothesis,

Needed

Permissible

of

429.

Characteristics

by

Scientific
433. view Re-

Investigators, 431.

Outline, 432.
Questions

Summary,
for

Questions, 435.
and

Original Thought

Investigation, 435.

CONTENTS

XV

Page

Chapter

20.

"

Logic

in

the

Class 437. 438.

Room
....

437 of tion Induc438. coverer, Disin

Thought
and

is King,

Special Functions
Two

Deduction,
in

Types
The Method

of

Minds,
of

Conservatism 440. Class Room

School, 439.
Inductive 444. As

Method
not

the

Real

in Vogue

Work,
447.

Method
not

of

Instruction,
the

Deduction

Superior, 446.
Discoverer's

Conquest,
as

Knowledge,
to

Desideratum,
Room

Motivation

Related

Spirit of
to

Discovery, 449. Work,

459.

Method and

Adapted
457.

Class
not

450. One

Question
of

Answer

Method

Necessarily Summary,

Discovery,

Outline, 458. Questions for

Review and

Questions, 461.
Investigation, 462.

Original Thought

Chapter

21.

"

Logic Given

and

Life Place Due

to

463 in

Logic
Man's

Secondary
of

Course,

463.
portance Im-

Supremacy
of

Power

Thought, 463.
Careless of

Progressive Thinking, 465.

Indifferent
and

Necessity of Thought, tries, SophisToward

Right Thinking, 466.

467. The The Rationalization 470. 471. The A

Rationalization of

of the World Business

and

Chance, 468.

Political

Rationalization Rationalization of

of

the

of ProgSpirit' ress,

the

Attitude

Work,

474.

The 478.

Logic of Success, 475.

Review and

Outline, 477.
Questions
for

Summary,

Questions, 479.
480. Investigation,

Original Thought

General
General

Exercises Exercises

in

Testing Testing

Categorical

Arguments

481
.

in and

Hypothetical,
arguments

Disjunctive
484
. .

dllemmatic
for

Examination

Questions
leges

Training

Schools

and'Col486 492

Bibliography
Outline Index
of

Briefer

Course

493 495

CHAPTER

1.

THE

SCOPE

AND

NATURE

OF

LOGIC.

1.

THE

MIND.

As

to

the

true

conception
asked, "What
matter

of

matter

the
matter

world

is

rant. igno-

Yet

when
moves,
nature

does

do ?" the

reply

is, "Matter
to

vibrates."

Moreover,
is likewise do?" the mind three
to

relative

the exact
to

of

mind, the world

"What does the mind mind

ignorant.
response

But
comes,

the

question,
Mind has
ever

"The mind
of
as

knows,

feels,the

wills.''
ways.

The

manifested

itself in these it is easy distinct

Because the each

mind

this

three-fold

function into

think

of

being separated
an

compartments,
This is sides knows To
neous. erro-

constituting
The mind
one

independent
is
a

activity. having
the

living
a

unit

three mind

but

never

acting
feels in
:

side
way

at

time. wills
one

When
to
some

it

also

some

and
and

extent.

trate illus-

Music in F.

is heard The

knows

it

to

be Rubinstein's
one

Melody

execution

being good
state

ure. feels pleasone

That wills
a

the

pleasurable
attitude.
a

may

be

augmented
purposes

listening
have

For
of

analytical
the

the mind

psychologists
from the

way

naming

state

of

predominating
RELATED TO

manifestation.

2.

LOGIC

OTHER

SUBJECTS.

What

the

mind

is

may

in what the
a

time the mind

be

answered

factorily satisis scribed de-

by

philosophy;
; what
as

mind knows furnishes

does

by psychology logic. Again:

the

is treated the

by

mind

whole

subject

The

Scope

and

Nature

of Logic logic is
the

matter

for

psychology,
the mind

whereas

concerned

with

the mind ethics with the

knowing,

aesthetics

with

mind

and feeling,
to
answer

willing.
is

Ethics

attempts

question,"What
and both

"What right?" aesthetics,

is true?" and

tiful?" is beau-

"What logic,

Though
former

psychology

logic treat of the knowing

are

aspect of the mind, yet the fields

deals with the the process
latter of

not

identical. mind with To

The
as a

the

knowing mainly

whole, while

is concerned mind when when

the

product

of the

knowing
knows

it thinks.
aware

be specific: of
thing, anyin

The

mind

it becomes
of
awareness

moreover, two

this condition
or

appears

ways

first, immediately
or
or

by intuition;second, after
example,
one

deliberation

by thinking. by
intuition
when

For

may

know is

immediately
a

that the

object in
to

the hand

lead

pencil,but

requested

state

the

length of
of

the

pencil there is deliberation

involving a comparison
measure.

the unknown

length with
asserted

definite the

It may inches

now

finallybe
When
we

that

pencil

is six

long.
is

know

without when

hesitation the

the process
comes

involved after
some

whereas intuition,
sort

knowledge
act

of

comparison
and

the mental the business

is called

thinking. It,
deal with its attention work of
are

therefore, becomes
both intuition
to

of

psychologyto
logic devotes

thinking while
and
even

thinking only,
more or

in this field the The

of

logicis
is the

less indirect.

specific scope
What

logic
the

product
Sometimes

of

thinking
thinking
and
"

or

thought.*
thought
"

"Note. This is

are

used
a

interchangeably.
process process,

confusing.
mind flour of while the

Properly,
"

thinking
"

is

always
of the

of

the

knowing
as

thought
is

is

the

product
of

this

just

the

gristmill

the

product

grinding

process.

The

Scope
Likewise

and

Nature

of Logic logicacquaints us thought shapes

rules which
of
a

elements,"
with

etc.

as

science
to

certain
as

universal

forms

which

itself,such

ductions inductions, dedefinitions,classifications,

down

Further, logic lays

lead
to

definite Because

right thinking.
a

To
not

wit:

it is true

part of
the
an

class it should
of

be assumed
in

that it is true
do
not

of

whole

that

class:

or,

short,

distribute

undistributed A

term.

possibleprofitto
authentic is the

the student definitions science

may

result from

study

of certain

herewith of the

subjoined:
laws of

(i) "Logic Jevons. (2) "Logic

process of

thought."

is

the

science

which

investigates the

thinking." Creighton.
as
a

(3) "Logic
laws the
of

science
an

aims

to

ascertain
to

what

are

the
to

thought;
of

as

art

it aims
or

apply these

laws

detection

fallacies

for

the

determination

of

correct

reasoning." Hyslop.
is the art

(4) "Logic (5) "Logic Whateley. (6) "Logic

laws of

of

thinking."
and

Watts. of

is the science

also the art

thinking."

is the

science

of the

formal

and

necessary

thought."
is the

Hamilton. science of the

(7) "Logic
human

regulativelaws

of the

understanding." Ueberweg.
treats

(8) "Logic thought."

of

the

nature

and

of

the

laws

of

Hibben. be defined
as

(9) "Logic may

on

the science and

of the conditions of

which
correct

correct

thoughts depend,

the art

attaining

to

and

avoiding incorrect thoughts." Fowler.

Logic Defined (10) "Logic understanding

evidence." Mill.
may

is the which
are

science

of

the
to

operations
the

of

the of

subservient

estimation

(n)
doctrines

"Logic
and
seem are

be

briefly described
reference
were as

as

body
Bain.

of

rules
as

having
if there
on

to

truth."

It would
as

many

different This is due

tions defini-

there

books

the older

subject.

partly
the
a

to

the

of disposition

the
to

of

logic and
a

partly
of

the

logiciansto ignore of giving in difficulty

a

art

few In

words

descriptionof satisfactory
doctrine logical

broad

subject.

the fundamentals

ties present-day authori-

virtually agree.
4. THE VALUE
OF

LOGIC

TO

THE

STUDENT.

Logic
the

is

rapidly coming
devoted for this
to

into

favor

as

major subject
Some of herewith

in institutions
reasons

educational
of

theory.
are

change

attitude

subjoined: (i) Logic

is the age the
man

should

stimulate

the

thought powers.
thinker. who who
to

This

of the

survival

of the
man

The thinks

fact that much

and

who

thinks

best is the

carefullywill
makes
commuter

be accepted "One

by

those

believe observe

that practice the

age averour

perfect.
to

needs that and the

only
a

conclude
too

large percent,
too
a

of

business readee asked

men

read
no

much
was

think

little." "Much Chinaman when

and

thinkee"
of
are

replyof

his
as

opinion
people
seldom

the

doings

of the average

American.
tainment, enter-

"We

newspaper

mad, reading for

for mental
to
secure

improvement."
correct

(2) Logic

aims

thought.

Are

not

The

Scope

and

Nature

of Logic
failures in this world

many due
to

of

the

sins and

most

of

the

incorrect

thinking?
train
to

(3) Logic

should

clear

thinking.
to

It would

be

difficult to estimate because he has

not

the loss of energy

the power
to
a

the brain

worker mum MaxiHow

think

clearly.
brain.
to

is impossible with efficiency

befogged
attempt

discouraging
the
to

it is the

to

the

student of the

to

get from
in

paragraph
be

thought

author, who

trying

profound
is when
a

succeeds

in for

being profoundly
book should

abstruse.

There these
a

probable need placed

in
a

broad, deep thoughts, but

be

text

sharpened

to

point. (4) Logic

and should aid
one

to

estimate This
to

aright the

ments state-

arguments
who Because it is true.

of

others.

is of
teach
a
we

especialvalue largely from

is
not

to

the

teacher

is constrained it is found

text

books.

in

book
assume man

proof

positivethat
book book

Why
we

should

that the

is infallible when

know

that the

behind

the

is fallible? insists
to
on

(5) Logic
be
no
as

definite, systematicprocedure.
A and

To

logicalis

be

businesslike.
our

study

of

logic would,
orders

doubt, benefit
well
as our

churches

parliamentary

schools. demands

(6) Logic
How but
manner. we

lucid, pointed,accurate
our

expression.
we

would
our

increase

could working efficiency

an

express

thoughts
to
are

in

attractive
of
some

and of

interesting
our

To

listen who

the

speeches
in

great

and

good

men

concerned

directingthe "ship of
the American schools

state"

is sufficient
more

argument

that

need

logic.

The

Value

of Logic

to

the Student

(7) Logic

is

especiallyadapted
the

to

general
of

mental

training. Despite opinion

are

swing

of

the

pendulum
side that of

public
of

toward

the

bread-and-butter who claim

life,there

many

of

high repute
acumen

for the sake the

to

that from

mental his

which
we

distinguished
cannot

Greek sacrifice

contemporaries
the altar of
at

afford

everything on

commercialism. the shrine

(8) Logic worships

our

of

truth

and

adds
more

to

store

of knowledge.
onward has

What
.

has

aided

the world

in its march truth

wanton

than

this it

deep-seated passion for

more

and

what

impeded
to

than

that
to

vain

and

indifference

truth

which

brought

the world

its darkest

age?

5.

OUTLINE" The

Scope

and

Nature

of

Logic.

(1) The

Mind. Three aspects.

of
to

Unity

(2) Logic

Related

Other

Subjects.

Mental

philosophy, psychology, logic. ethics. Psychology, logic, aesthetics,

ways

Two

of knowing.

Special province of logic. Logic and

A science Defined.

language.
of sciences.

(3) Logic
A A

general definition.
more

satisfactory definition.
authentic

list of Value of
reasons

definitions.
the Student.

(4) The

Logic
for

to

Eight
6.

its study.

SUMMARY.

(1) The

aspects

of the

mind

are

knowing,

feeling and

willing.

The

Scope

and

Nature

of Logic
knows without

The
some

mind
way

is and

living unit
to
some

and

never

feeling in
what

willing
the mind

extent.

(2) What
the mind

is

must

be

answered
what

by philosophy;
the mind
knows

does

by

psychology
of
of

and

by
mind mind

logic. Psychology knowing,

What The
of
treats

the the

mind mind

as

whole, logic of the

ethics is right ? of the

aesthetics
answers

feeling and
is true? identical with

willing. Ethics

the question, What

Aesthetics,

is beautiful?

Logic, What
is not

standpoint of logic psychology.

mind
knows in two
a

any

particular

tion por-

The

ways
"

ing. (a) by intuition, (b) by thinka

Thinking
with

is

process

thought
is

product.
the

Logic

deals

directly in-

the

former

and

directly with
a

latter. For and

Generally speaking, logic

the

systematic study of thought.

sources
:

logician thought
or

has

two

(a)

his

own

mind

(b) spoken
Because

written the

language.
of

of
a

ambiguity
of

language

logic has

much

to

do

with

it

as

faulty vehicle
as as a an

thought.
known conditions
the laws and
must

(3) Logic thought

to

science
art

makes

forms
be

of

and

suggests

which

fulfilled

think

rightly. Author.
may

"Logic
correct

be

defined

as

the science the

art

of the conditions
of

on

which

thoughts
the

depend,
of

and

attaining to
present

correct

and

avoiding incorrect
In

thoughts."

Fowler.

fundamentals

logical doctrine

day

logicians

virtually agree. (4) Logic should

and

stimulate
in

the thought
estimation

powers;

secure

correct

clear

thinking; aid
and
to

the

of

arguments;

inspire
accurate

definite, systematic procedure; expresssion Logic

for adds be
our

demand
to

lucid, pointed, general

and mental

especially adapted
store

discipline.
a

of

knowledge

develops

passion

the

truth.

7.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.
and illustrate

(1)
may

Explain
Illustrate

the

three

ways

in

which

the

mind

manifest

itself. the fact that the mind

acts

(2)

in unity.

Review

Questions
to

(3)
(4)

Show

briefly how
the

logic is related
and
grammar.

mental

philosophy,

psychology, aesthetics, ethics

Illustrate
two ways

of knowing.

(5) (6) (7) (8)

(9)

Distinguish
Give
a

between

thinking and
of logic.

thought.
Why
is this definition

general definition
the

unsatisfactory?
What
are
are

two

sources

of thought?
so

Why
Give

logic and
definition the

language
which

closely related?
best satisfies you.
to

that

of logic which
you

(10) Summarize
your

benefits

hope

derive

from

study of logic.
should should teachers teachers of all kinds? be clear
be

(11) Why (12) Why

incorrect

thinkers?
on

especially
of

guard
the

against
business

statements

(13) Show
man.

how

logic might

be

assistance

to

8.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

GATION. INVESTI-

(1)
mind

Prove itself.

that

there

is

nothing

real

in

the

world

save

the

(2) "Logic and only in

Explain
this
Prove

is concerned
a

primarily with
way

how
we

we

ought

to

think

secondary
there is

with

how

actually think." knowing.

quotation.
that
any
no

(3) (4) (5) (6)

survival

such

thing

as

intuitive
and

Is there

difference

between

knowledge

thoughts?
is ambiguous.

Illustrate. Show

by illustrations that the English language by

illustration that this is the

Prove
of

concrete

age

of

the

the

thinker. is the
more

(7)
or

Which

harmful: Give
of

falsehood
reasons.

mixed

with

truth

unadulterated

falsehood?
concrete

(8) (9)
value ?

Give Show

example
while

incorrect
to

thinking. doing.
a

that wrong be worth

thinking leads
must every

wrong

(10) To (11) "The

the truth

subject have

practical
Prove

20th

century

virtue

is

passion for truth."

of this.

CHAPTER

2.

THOUGHT

AND

ITS

OPERATION.

1.

THE

KNOWING
MIND.

MIND

COMPARED

WITH

THE

ING THINK-

In may

the know

preceding
in two

chapter

we

were

told
and

that

the

mind ing. think-

ways

(i) by
that

intuition the

(2) by
mind

It is thus
the

implied

knowing

includes

thinking

mind
but

plus intuition.

Thinking
not

always

volves in-

knowing,
and
one

knowing

need

involve
to

thinking,
a

when
must

some

logicians
it, there
in is

maintain

that of

know misled.
in
a

thing They

think

danger
to

being

mean

by this that
and

order

know way
one

anything
must
as

nent perma-

highly
know,
would

serviceable
such
a

think
the

it.

All and

animals

even

stupid
an

one

oyster,
for

yet

one

hardly give
orders of

oyster

credit

thinking.
argue

Only
that

the

higher
power

animal

life think.
to

Some
human
means

the This

is confined

exclusively
If

the

ily. fam-

opinion

is debatable. then
to

the

claimant taken.

by
But
if

thinking, reasoning
he
has
a

his

ground
a

is well

is

willing

to

give
for

thinking

broader

content,
attach of the
than and
as

then

he

little defense
to
even

his stand.
as

However,
derivation
term

broad will

meaning
and

thinking
then

the
a

word

permit

it is

narrower

knowing.
intuition

Thinking
there is

plus intuition

equals knowing,

in

probably

no

thinking.
10

12

Thought
The

and

Its

Operation
and the basis of ail

intuitions
and

are

the

beginning gained by

knowledge,
of all

knowledge

intuition

is the basis

thinking.
THINKING PROCESS.

3.

THE

It is claimed thick. From

that

think
would

comes

from

the

same

root

as

this

one

conclude of

that the process

of
as

thinking is virtually a
one

process
or

thickening.
his

Surely
As

thinks

he

enriches

thickens
and

knowledge.
into

one

thinks

percepts

into concepts in is

concepts
various of

judgments
cerned. con-

he

makes

richer

meaning largely a

the

notions

Thinking
into of
one:

matter

pressing

many

of

linking together
field.

the

disconnected

fragments

the

conscious

Definition

Thinking denying
The
as

is

the

deliberative

process

of affirming or variety of
of

connections.

same

idea

may

be

expressed

in

ways

the

following indicate. "Thinking

end in "To
or

( i)
to
an

is the conscious

adjustment
Miller.
an

means

problematic situations."
think
or
a

(2)
mark
a

is to

designate
is the
same

object through thing,to

of

attribute

what

determine

subjectthrough (3) "Thought

or

predicate." Bowen. comprehension

Wm.
clear
a

is the

thing

under

general notion

attribute." is to
make

Hamilton.

(4)
In is
a

"To

think

through concepts

the

perceived objects." Dressier.

the

foregoing
or

definitions

it is

implied that thinking

In all forms of

connecting

thickeningprocess.

The

Thinking

Process

13

thinking from
mind

the

simplestto
some

the most

complex

ing the knowand

hunts

for the

basis

of connection
a

having
of the the food

found The mind.

it thinks

into relationship is the

unified

whole.

thinking
Much
as

process

digestive process
assimilate the

the

digestiveorgans
so

stuff of the the

physical world,

thinking organ
world.

ilates assim-

food stuff of the mental

Illustrations

of

the

Thinking

Process

(1)

The

child
as

is unable it
occurs

to

explain
is unable

the

meaning

of

"hocus-pocus"
pocus

in the

question,"What
to

hocusany

is this ?"

The

child mind the think word into

establish

connection

between
to

and it
a

its real

meaning.

In

short, is unable
becomes of
as

meaning;
to

it therefore
some

necessary

for the teacher this he does

establish

basis

connection
a

and

by suggesting

nonsense

synonym.

(2)
house

The

teacher and

holds

before is it?" has

seen

the

class
a

an

Egyptian
moment

god

asks, "What
child who that the

After

of

hesitation

some

picturesof
a

"his satanic Thus and

majesty"
has
a

avers

object

is

"little devil." between the

connection
satan.

been

established

idol

pictures of

(3)
he the what Data.
can

John
discern

is unable
no

to

solve

the

following problem
the
my

as

connection Problem.

between 3/4 of

data

given
is

and

data

required. salary?
:

salary

$900,

is my Given
:

3/4 of

salary
=

$900.

Required

4/4 of

salary

14

Thought
In order that
to

and

Its

Operation
a

John
see

may

think

solution between is

the

teacher 4/4.

must

lead him

some

connection

3/4 and
to

With

this in mind Given:

the

form
=

of the data

changed

3-fourths

$900
=

Required:
or

4- fourths

Given:

parts
4

$900
=

Required: John
now

parts

notes

that 4 parts is 4/3 times 4/3 of

3 parts and

sequently conswer. an-

writes Or
4 parts.

$900,

which of

is
1

$1,200

as

the then

he

may

find the

value

part and

of

4.

NOTIONS,

INDIVIDUAL

AND

GENERAL.

notion which

is any

product of
notes
or

the

knowing
aware

mind

"

thing any-

the mind knows

becomes
ways,

of.
and

But

the mind
In

in two

by

intuition
two

by
of

thinking.

consequence

the

mind
or

has

kinds

notions, those
and

which

are

intuitive

individual from

notions
or

those

which

originallyresult

thinking

general notions.
An

individual notion is
Here
an

notion notion

is

a
a

notion class

of

one

thing.

eral gen-

of

of things.
to

Note.

it is necessary An
a

distinguishbetween
a

thing and
space such
broader

object.
a

object is
book.
"A

thing which

occupies
has

as

pencil or

"Thing"

is,therefore, a

term

than

"object."
From

thing
the

is that which of

individual

existence." includes

viewpoint

logic

"thing"

objects, qualities,relations, spiritual

Notions, Individual
entities.
tree

and

General

15

Gravitation
an

is

a a

thing

but

not

an

object.

is both

object and
of

thing.

Illustrations

Notions.

My
is

notion

of the

pencil with
my

which of

am

writing is
a

an

individual

notion, but

notion

pencil as
of

class

name

general. My

yellow dog, the honesty City,are

determine individual
are city,

Lincoln, Albert

White, New

York

notions,while
the notion

dog,

honesty, man,
A
sure or

general notions.
whether
to

way

to

is individual

general

is to attempt
may

divide

it into its kinds.

Only general
5.

notions

be

subdivided.

KNOWLEDGE NOTION.

AND

IDEA

AS

RELATED

TO

THE

Knowledge
the mind bits of Notions thinks mental be
a

is

anything known,
aware

while

anything
Notions
are

of which

becomes

is

notion.

always
a

knowledge,
are

but

knowledge

is not
to

always
it must
not
are

notion. which
a

mental

products belonging knowledge, though

someone's
or

the mind

them, while

first be

product

of

mind,

may

necessarily
found but

product

of yours

mine.

Notions
may

always
in

in the
not

mind, while

knowledge
some

be found mind.

books,

necessarily in
for The of

individual the

Knowledge
edge knowlMuch of

stands

everything knoivn, Egyptians

we

notion, for everything

noted.

may
never

have

possessed much
aware.

which

may
never

become become

their

knozvledge may
A
may

notions

of the American

people.
Said notion
to

notion

is

an

existingstate
to

of consciousness. and then it may

no-

be committed notion. It

paper,
ceases

give way

another

now

to be

your

Thought
on

and

Its

Operation
bit of know!

tion, but remains

the

printed page,

as

edge. "Idea," because

of its is

ambiguity, reallyhas
to
a

no

place in

logic.
percept.
mental

The
To

term

frequently restricted
:

reproduced
me

illustrate
a

When

the

pencil is
the have

before

the drawn withof

product is
and

percept, but when

think idea of is To

pencil is
I
an

I try to

it,then
most

idea

"pencil." Probably
with idea ideas

commonly
What What

associated is your
are

meaning
as

and

belief.
of

illustrate:
or

to

the

meaning

homogeny?

your

on

the tariff?

6.

THE

LOGIC VOLVED

OF IN

THE THE

PSYCHOLOGICAL NOTION.

TERMS

IN-

Concerning

the

knowing
their

mind

the
as

psychologistclassifies
follows:

its activities and

products

The

notion the six

as

any

product of the knowing

as

mind

cludes in-

products
notion
and

indicated which
; the

by the psychologist.
includes
which

The

individual

is intuitive

the is

sensation,percept

image

general notion

The

Logic of

the

Psychological
for the

Terms

17

thought product
To

stands

concept,
"

judgment

and

inference.

put it mathematically
'sensation^

Individual

notion=

percept

intuitive
J
^

products
Ynotion

image
"
-

[concept
General

judgment j"=thought products notion=*{

[inference]
As
we

shall have

occasion it may

frequently to
to

refer

to

these

terms psychological

be well

define

them.

Psychological Definition.
A

Logical Definition.
A sensation is
a

sensation

is the mental

first result

vague,

and of

simplest
the

unlocalized of the

mental

product

stimulation

of

an

knowing

mind.

incarrying nerve.
A

percept

is

mental from

percept is a consciously
group

product which
a

results of

localized

of

tions. sensa-

consciousness material

lar particu-

things present
is mental from An

to

the
An

sense.

image

image

is

reproduced

product which

results

percept.

particular material
not

things
sense.

present
A

to

the is
a

concept
in
to
a our

entation re-presswering anname.

concept

is

mental ing thinkone

minds

product arising from

many

general
is the

notions

into

class. A
of
or

judgment

result

judgment

is the mental

asserting an agreement disagreement between

ideas.

joining conproduct arising from tions. or disjoining no-

two

Thought

and

Its

Operation
Logical
An

Psychological Definitions" Con. An

ment

Definitions" Con. is from

a

inference derived

is

judgper-

inference derived

judg- I
ante-

from

ment

ceiving
other

relations

between

cedent

judgments,
the material. that
a
a a

judgments.
seen

It is

that

the sensations

furnish
may

raw

Ignoring
is
a

the

few

exceptions we
group of

then

say

cept pera

made-over group

of

sensations;
a

concept

thought-made
made
from group

percepts;
an

judgment
a

thoughtderived

of concepts;

inference

judgment

other

judgments.
first found
in the concept,

Developed thinking is
we

and

as

study

the

thought products, "concept," "judgment"

upon
us

and
as

"inference," the truth is forced

a

that
one.

thinking
From

process percepts
the
one

aims

to

group
one

the

many

into

many

is built the

concept, from
and

two

concepts
is

is built built the

one

judgment

from

two

judgments

inference.* is
a

Speaking figuratively, thinking

up

matter

of

picking
and

the

fragments along
into bundles.
in the

the

shore

of

consciousness

tying them
7.

Thought

Sensation

and

Percept.
been
or

So
no are

far

in

this

discussion in the

it has

assumed

that percept.

there There

is

thinking good

involved

sensation who of

the
on

authorities,however,
even

insist

dignifying
To mind
is

the

sensation,
One
may

with

a
an

crude

form

thinking.
The of

illustrate:

be

reading
and

interesting novel.
the the activities mind
of is dead

being

entertained yet
There
we

ignores
say

the
to

objective world,
world without. mind outside. These able
to

cannot

that

the

is

dim

consciousness
are

certain
but

noises

unlocalized

sounds
as

sensations;
or

how
To

is the

recognize them
Mediate

sounds

noises?

interpret the noises

is

Inference.

20

Thought
orders
In

and

Its

Operation
structure
a

lower

of

life

are

simple in
animate
needed If

and

tion. funcorgan

the

one-celled the work

form
to

single

performs
perpetuate
cut

all of

maintain

life and
are

the

species.

these

simple
two

life- forms
as

in two,

life continues Aside

of from

in the their

parts

if

nothing
is little

had

happened.

simplicity there
and

of

interdependence
of organs

function
lowest
; "each

little of
In

tion co-ordinashort
there

in the of labor

life-forms. cell is is
a

is

no

division

world
in

unto

itself."

An

analogous development
The little child thinks
linked only faultily

seen

the

thinking
lumps
in

mind.
are

in lumps, and
the

these

together,but
the

adult

thinks

terms

of

the

grains
it
must
as

of

lump,

each

grain having

its

place, which

occupy

for the sake

of all the other child's

grains

as

well

the
and

entire

lump.

The

thinking
ing thinking Thinkand
very

is vague, should in

general
be

inaccurate, while

the adult's
accurate.

definite, specialized and

means

the

lump

little discrimination

faulty integrationor
the

unity, while

thinking

in
and

terms

of

grains

means

detailed illustrate
:

discrimination The child

to
sees a

perfect

integration. To along
the

dog trotting

side walk
he and

which, according
to

the

suggestion of
Later
he

his mother,
a

learns
at
once

call "bow-wow."
says

serves ob-

cat

"bow-wow,"
with

because

all that
a

the

child notes

is that
the
a

something

legs,ears
which

and

tail

is

trotting along

side walk.

Anything

fits these
a

general marks
first observes
a

is

"bow-wow."

Similarly when
on
a

child
to

robin
the

perched
two
"

gate post he
from

fails

between distinguish
the

it is all bird of the

the top of

robin's

head

to

the

bottom

gate post.

The

Logic of
in

the

Psychological Terms by
divides these
more

21

Progress

thinking
The

is measured thinker

progress

in discriminat unit

skilled

the

large
each

into and

very

small reunites First

units,
them is
power

compares

with

other unified

then

into
an

perfect and
then works
a

whole. Like
a

there the

analysis and
of

synthesis.
out;

shuttle in to

thought
out

in and

it goes There life of

separate,

it

comes

to

unify.
between the in Somewhere link between between is and

is another the

aspect

in

the

analogy

physical and

mental is
a

worlds.

the order the the

as

of progress
and

there

connecting
The of

mineral

vegetable kingdoms,
animal of

likewise

vegetable
much
a

and

kingdoms.
an

sensation

state

feeling as connecting
mind.
as

act

knowing
the

consequently
mind of the and the

is the

link

between

feeling
sult re-

knowing
well

If the then

percept is the
it may mind stand and

thinking as

intuition the

for the

dividing

line between

knowing*

thinkingmind.
9. The

Concept

as

Thought

Product.
many

Conception
class. The
"

is the

process of such
for
a

of thinking
a

notions
a

into

one

The

product
may

process

is called of for
concrete

concept.

(1)

concept the

stand
man,

group

general notions
:

as

concept

which

stands

the

five general notions American

concrete

Caucasian, Mongolian,
(2) The
notions. the for concept For
may

Ethiopian, Malay
stand the the for
same a

and of
man

Indian. individual all of stand

resents rep-

group

example,
men

concept

represents concept
may

individual
a

of

world.

(3) The
notions.
as

group

of

abstract

general
notions

To

wit:

Virtue

such

general (These
into
are

honesty,
because

justice, industry, they admit

may

purity,etc.
a

general notions Industry,

for

of
di-

subdivision
*

kinds.

instance,

be

Intuitive

Knowing.

22

Thought
into
two

and

Its

Operation
and
of

vided

kinds:
may

mental
stand

industry
for
a

physical industry.)
abstract individual shades various

j
!
;

(4) The
notions. of blue,
Thus
as

concept
To

group

illustrate:

Blueness
egg

stands
navy
a

for the

sky blue, bird's

the

blue,
for

blue, etc.
group

does

concept
and

stand

of

all kinds

of

notions, individual
The I I is

general, abstract
Illustrated. in
a

and

concrete.

Process
see

of

Conception first time of told

for

the

my

life

pencil.
of that
a

In

other

words
"

j
i

become
a

conscious
I
am

localized
the
name

group

sensations which thread

I

this
is

percept.
I note

that

of

see

I
j:

pencil.
lead color.

that
in
a

this particular pencil has

of

black
in
as

encased
A

cylindrical strip of object shape

rather is

wood

which
I

is brown

second the
green
a

presented
than
brown.

which

recognize
than

pencil though
and

is

prismatic rather
But

cylindrical
a

the

color

I call it in
a

pencil ij
of
two

because wood.

it has The
and

thread which

of
I

black
now

lead
have in

encased mind
a

strip
for
As

notion is

stands
name.

pencils
observe
paper

therefore

represented
various different

by

class

I and
of
r.

other with

pencils of
of
till

shapes, made
colored
for all

of
my

wood notion

threads

lead,

pencil
process process

broadens of of

finally it stands
to

pencils. This
class."
In

is the "The
case

conception according thinking

are

the into

definition,namely:
one

j
I.

many

notions

this

the notions
An

individual. of conception makes

be able to

examination

evident

two

distinct charac-

':

teristics. First,I may

cause

recignize each
of

individual
and

pencil bean encase-

ji |i

of the two of
some

common

qualities,a thread
This
process

of lead

ment

kind.
and

the

knowing

mind
as

whereby
we

it ready alas

j.
|
r,
'

recognizes

affirms connections
Here

is called

thinking

have

learned. the instances

is the thinking aspect of

conception. Second,
my
are

of the observed It is
a

objects

are

multiplied,
where Here
many
we

notion
cemented

of

pencil is broadened.
into
one

building process
a

; like the blocks

of

cement

wall.

find the characThis is the

teristic which
mark

enables

us

to call the process

conception.
all the

f
!

which

distinguishes conception

from

other

thought

processes.

10.

The

Judgment
is the

as

Thought
of

Product.

Judging

process

conjoining and

disjoining notions,

The

Logic of
of

the

Psychological Terms
and all

23

The

product

expressed
one

judging is the judgment of propositions. A by means

one

judgments
form of

are

proposition consists by
some

of

subject and
be
or

predicate connected
conjoin
"

the

verb

its

equivalent.
may
or

(1) A judgment
To

disjoin two

individual
to to

notions. White. Smith.

wit:

Conjoined
"

This

pencil belongs
not
or

Albert

Disjoined
(2)
A

This

pencil does
may
men men

belong

Mary

judgment
"

conjoin
are are

disjoin

two

general notions.

Conjoined Disjoined
"

Some Some

virtuous.
not

virtuous.
or

(3)

judgment
notion.
"

may

conjoin
Lincoln
was

disjoin
virtuous.
not

general and

an

individual

Conjoined Disjoined
In order
"

Abraham

Edgar
that the

Allen

Poe

was

temperate.

recognize degree
is the

some

knowing may mark of similarity or

of the

mind

conjoin notions
connection.
is likewise This
to
a a

it must is the certain of

thinking aspect affirming

a

judgment.

It

or

judging aspect as the latter is simply notions. between denying connections

term
a

matter

But

ing think-

broader

than
name

judging.
and
a

There

may

be

connections in the walk sidethe pendent indea tion, no-

established
case

between

notion.
sees

For

example

of and

the

dog

which the

the mother
a

child

trotting along the

to
as a no

which

refers percept

"bow-wow";
meaning
it is not the This latter child's is
a

term

"bow-wow" of yet

is not

and

has

its association connection and

not

with has his of

the been

dog, hence
made of in

some

mind

between form denies The other of

"bow-wow"

notion

dog.
as

simple
or

thinking, but
that

judging,

the

affirms

connections fact has

as

between

notions and

judging
most

only. thinking so closely resemble

for
some

each

given just
the of
many

cause

logicians
element in

judging
"The In
to

fundamental

designate all thinking.

to

simplest form
order
to

thinking," says
notions illustrate: the
man

Creighton, "is judging."

one

think

into The
a

class who

it is necessary has

conjoin notions.
of
man as a sees

To for

child
negro.

notion

first time he
must

If he

general recognizes
a

the negro of
man

colored

conjoin his general notion

In

with of

this individual
a

notion.

short,
It
may

concept be said

is built further

by

means

series

of

judgments.

24

Thought
an

and

Its

Operation
judgment.
the
It is thus

that

inference that

is simply
appears

made-over in

evident

judging
and

both

thought
as a

processes

of

conception
it may be form
11.

inference
that

and, therefore, judging, though

basic element

final
not

conclusion
the

affirmed of

perhaps

plest sim-

thinking,
as a

is the

of developed

thought.

Inference

Thought
process

Product.

Reasoning
consideration
process

is the of
may

of

deriving
The

new

judgment
of
as

from
ing reason-

other
be

judgments.
an

product
used

any

called

inference, although,
is

will
as

appear

in

later
process

chapter,
as

inference
as

commonly

indicating
the
ference in-

the

well

the

product.
a

Often

reasoning
as

may

assume

syllogistic form
is
an

with

its conclusion.

syllogism
different

arrangement The

of

three
are

propositions syllogisms
:

using

three

terms.

following

(1)

All

children
is
a

should child. should

play. play. hastily. judge

other

Mary Hence, (2)

No
You

Mary

teacher
are a

should

judge

teacher.

Hence,
In

you

should

not

hastily.
should
not

the

second

syllogism the inference, "you

from the
term two

judge merely
maining re-

hastily," is derived

judgments
and

by

eliminating the
two

common

teacher
is
a

disjoining the
a

terms.

The

inference
is

consequently
matter

new

ment. judgcarried

Therefore,
to
a more

reasoning
stage.

only

of

judging
of

complex
"

To
a

summarize notion

conception
with
an

is

largely
notions All

matter

conjoining
of

general
and

individual
of

notion, judging
and three The

ing conjoinof
go
joining con-

disjoining all kinds

and

inference
processes

disjoining judgments. larger

the
process

to

form

the
and

of
are

thinking. products

concept,

the

ment judg-

inference

arising from

conjoining

and
12.

disjoining notions.
THINKING
AND

APPREHENSION.

Says Jevons: "Simple

mind

apprehension
become
aware

is the
of

act

of

the

by

which

we

merely

something,

Thinking
have

and

Apprehension
of that it

25

or

an

idea

or

impression
states
us

brought
"The is

into

the of

mind;"

while which

Hyslop gives
the

process

knowledge
It is obvious

percepts
of the

apprehension."
is that

that

idea

latter

hension apprein

yields individual citingthe

would
term

notions
an

only, while
of his

Jevons,

iron that the

as

illustration notion

definition, product
of and
dent stu-

infer

general
term

is the

apprehension.
will not

The

is

strikingly ambiguous
in this treatise.
cover

be referred
a

to

often

If the
concensus

desires

definition

this will of

the

of

opinion
is that

on

the

meaning of
the

apprehension. Apprehension
mind which
to

process

knowing
Some of

yields
the

the

percept and
mind the

concept.
three

logiciansgive

ing thinkand

aspects

apprehension, judging

reasoning.
13. STAGES IN THINKING.

In
may In noted

all be the

thinking
termed
case one

there

are

three

steps

or

stages which

discrimination,comparison, integration.
of is the
two

pencils held
than the other.

in the Let

hand, it is
us

that
process

longer
made

analyze Step
then
to

the
one
"

which is

possible this
first to the other
two
"

conclusion. and

Attention other. In

given
case

one

pencil
are

the from

each and

pencils

distinguished
This

the hand

the

surrounding objects.
The
two
one

is discrimination. in the

Step
three
"

pencils are
notions is
are

compared
united than in

length. Step judgment,

two."

The number

"Pencil This

longer

pencil

number Another

is

integration.
The

illustration.

child

is

requested

to

solve

26

Thought

and

Its

Operation
cost

this
tons

problem
cost?

If 8 tons

of

hay

$165,

what

will 16

Statement:

Given:

tons

cost
tons

$165
cost

Required:
Discrimination.
and
at

16

?
cost

The

child notes

that 8 tons
cost

$165

this

rate

he is

required to
child

find the

of

16 tons. is twice

Comparison.
8
tons.

The

perceives that

16

tons

Integration.
tons

The

child
cost

concludes of 8 tons
tear to

that
or

the

cost

of

16

will be twice
we

the
we

$330.
we

When become

think,

first
every

pieces that
This
may

may

acquainted with
we

part.

be

called

analysis. Then
This
may
are

put the related pieces together again.

be

called
a

synthesis. Before,
certain
amount

however,

the is

parts

re-united The

of

comparison might

necessary.

three

stages

of

thought

thus

be

denominated:

(1)

analysis, (2)

comparison,

(3)

synthesis.
After
name

the

synthesis or

integration it
a

is necessary

to

the result, consequently

fourth

step is sometimes

given, namely
14.

denomination.

OUTLINE.
and

Thought

Its

Operation. Mind

(1) (2) (3)

The

Knowing Thinking

Compared

with

the

Thinking

Mind.

Knowing
The
Denned.

by Intuition.
Process.

Other

definitions.

(4)

Notions. Individual. General.

Thing

and

object distinguished.

28

Thought
A

and

Its

Operation
or

thing includes
A A but
may

objects, qualities, relations

has individual have
a

any

existing

entity.

thing is that which

bit of knowledge
may
not

existence.
a

(5)
mind,
found
is

must

been

notion

of mind.

some

one's
edge Knowl-

necessarily
in

be

notion
a

of your

be

found

books,
Idea
an

but is

notion

is

mental

product

only
The

in the

mind.
to

ambiguous,
a

though its meaning

or
a

usually restricted (6)

The

image,

meaning
mind inference.
are

belief.

products of the knowing

concept,

are

the

sensation, the notions, while

image, percept,
the
A mind. A An A

judgment,
and
and

sensation, image
judgment
is
a

percept inference

individual

concept,

are

general product
of

notions.

sensation

vague,

unlocalized

of

the

knowing

percept

is

a a a

consciously localized reproduced

mental class. percept.

group

sensations.

image
concept into

is
is
one

product product
derived

arising from arising from

from

thinking

many

notions
A

judgment
inference

is

mental

conjoining

and

disjoining notions.
An The
and is
a

judgment

antecedent

judgments. the.judgment
in the
tion. quesplex com-

developed thought
inference.
where

processes

are

the concept,

the

(7)
various

Just

the

simplest

form

of

thinking
an

appears

activities of It is agreed

the knowing that

mind
in

is still

undecided
and
more

thinking
from

its developed
and
to

form

is found

in conception, judging evolves the

reasoning.
the
more

(8) just
The thinks
as

Thinking
life has child
in

simple

complex,
the adult
very

evolved.
in vague,

thinks

indefinite The

wholes,
child

while

clear, definite
the
seems

parts.

discriminates

imperfectly while
The sensation and the

adult
to

discriminates
the

accurately.
the ing feelthe percept links together

be

connecting link between

mind

knowing
and

mind, while

the knowing

mind

the

thinking mind.
process

(9)
one

Conception
The
for

is the
of of
two
one.

of
a

thinking
is
a

many

notions The

into
cept con-

class.
stands

product
groups

such

process

concept.

all kinds
aspects of

of

objects.
and
of

Conception has
building
many

the

affirming connections thinking

side

of the

into

The

first is the

Outline

29

process from

and

the

second

is the

mark

which

distinguishes conception disjoiningnotions.

notions. each
term
a

the

other

thought
process

processes. of

(10) Judging is the Judgment Judging

are

conjoining

or

is the

product of judging.
and

Judgments
and

conjoin

disjoin all kinds

of

not

thinking, though they closely resemble terms. Thinking is a broader synonomous

may

other,
in that
for

connections
that notion.

be

established

between

notion

and

name

Judging is the
is built from
made-over
a

most

fundamental

of all and

thinking, as
inference

the concept is

series of

judgments

an

simply

judgment.

(11) Inference. Reasoning

consideration
may

is the

process

of

deriving
Sometimes
as

new

judgment
derived
term

from

of
an

antecedent inference. of

judgments.
well of
a

This the
as

judgment
notes de-

be

called

inference

the process

reasoning
the

the

product. products

Reasoning
The

often

takes

form

syllogism.
are

concept,

arising from
(12) Some
for the

the inference and judgment conjoining and disjoining notions.

the

give

to

the

thinking mind

the three

aspects,
is another

hension, appre-

judging
two

and

reasoning.

Apprehension
in thinking

word

processes,

perception and
stages

conception.
are

(13) The comparison,

16. REVIEW

three

important

discrimination,
and

integration; or
QUESTIONS. the difference

analysis, comparison

synthesis.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

thick
a

Show

between

the

knowing

mind

and

the

thinking mind.
Describe What Is the the process known
as

intuition.

is intuitive knowledge?

assumption that think

one?

comes

from

the

same

root

as

feasible Define

Explain.
at

(5)
(6)
Show

thinking in making

least two
due
some

ways.

to think is "Inability

to

this by

use

of

connections." to note inability problem in arithmetic. and

(7)

Distinguish
Which

between

individual term,

general notions.
or

(8)

is the broader

object

thing?

Explain.

30

Thought
(9)
What kind
of

and

Its

Operation
of subdivisions? trate. Illus-

notions

only admit
between

(10) What Explain.

is the

difference

knowledge
of the idea.

and

notions?

(11) Explain and (12) Classify the

define each.

illustrate the various

meaning

activities of

knowing
the

mind

and

(13) Explain knowing

the

by definition
the

and

illustration

products of the

mind.

(14) Relate

general notion
is

to

the

psychological products of
Explain
evolution

knowing (15)
"The

mind.

thinking mind
the

unit." the

fully.
of

(16) Trace
world
and

analogy
of

between

the

physical regarded

the

evolution

thought.
and

(17)
as

Show

that the sensation

between

the percept
and

may states.

be

connecting links
(18) Define (19) Show (20) Point
from
and

lower

higher
for of

illustrate conception. the the concept stands aspect all kinds of notions.
as

that
out

thinking

conception
process

guished distin-

the the that

activitywhich
judgment.
the

gives the
Illustrate
two

its

name.

(21) Define (22) Show judgments. (23) Show thought (24)

Define

kinds.
means

concept

is built by

of

series

of

that

judging

is the

fundamental

element

in

the

products.
and

illustrate reasoning.

(25) Describe
(26) Explain (27) What
are

the syllogism.
the
use

of

apprehension.
in
a

the

stages

thinking?
matter

Illustrate

fully.

(28) Show
17.

that

thinking is
FOR

of

analysis and

synthesis.

QUESTIONS

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1) (2)
without

Give
do

your not

argument reason." illustration

in

favor

of

the

statement,
be

"Dogs

think, but

Show

by

that

thinking

would

impossible

intuition.

(3)
end

"Thinking

is the

conscious

adjustment
this.

of

means

to

an

in problematic

situations."

Illustrate

Questions

for

Original

Thought

and

Investigation

31

(4)
sell Find
some

The house the cost."

class for

is

unable

to

solve
is
a

the

following
of the

problem:
on

"I
cost.

my

$12,000,
is

which the trouble?

gain
State

25%

the

What is

problem

so

that

connection

apparent. of
my

(5)

"Two-thirds A child
result

salary by

is

$2,400. $2,400
by
for

What
two

is and

my

ary?" sal-

solves

this

dividing
a

ing multiplyright

this connections.

by

three.

Illustrate

plan

establishing

(6) (7) (8)

general

May
Is Show and Show Is the
a

judgment
a

express

general

notion?

Illustrate.

thought
the abstract. that concept that
sensation
a

thing?
of

Illustrate.

illogic

dividing

notions

into

individual,

(9) (10)
(11) (12)
sides of

goodness
an

is idea?

general

notion.

Explain.
is

Prove "In the Show

of

mental

image
there

always

an

individual

notion. both

is

implicit

thinking?"

Argue

question.
that the the concept, mind. where the

(13)
are

judgment

and

the

inference

products

thinking

(14)

Show

by

illustration

perception

ceases

and

tion concep-

begins. (15) judging?

(16) (17)
the Is there Illustrate.

actually

any

difference

between

thinking

and

"Reasoning
Of the three

is

controlled stages in

thought." thinking
which

Explain.
one

most

concerns

teacher?

Illustrate.

CHAPTER

3.

THE

PRIMARY

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT.

1.

TWO

FUNDAMENTAL

LAWS.

The

elemental The
laws

form
or

of axioms

evolved

thought thought
may,

is the

ment. judg-

of

therefore,

be

discovered

by studying the judgment.

is

Judging
notions. is

the

process

of

conjoining
are

and

disjoining
the

When

these

notions
when

conjoined
the
are

ment judgis
an

affirmative;
To

disjoined
"Some "Some
men

judgment
wise,"
not

negative.
affirmative
a

illustrate: while
All

is

judgment,

men

are

wise," is
tive affirmabe but
or

negative judgment.
or

judgments
suggests
axioms that

are

either
may

negative

and laws

this
or

there

two

fundamental
of

underlying judging
One the law
law law

all forms the Such is

developed

thinking.

would
the

tion condi-

affirmative

judgment;
case.

other which

negative.
the

actually

the

The
the

permits

affirmative the the the law

law law

judgment
allows

is called
a

of identity,while
is known law
termed
bination com-

which

negative judgment
There is
a

as

of of
of

contradiction. excluded
the

third

middle, which
two.

is in

reality a

other

2.

THE

LAW

OF

IDENTITY.

In

general the law

of

identity implies
material be for
32
a

certain

nency perma-

throughout
door and

the

world.

That till the

door

is

always
If it
were

will
not

door this

conditions is

change.

law, that

everything

The

Law

of Identity
it would itself, Take
away

33

permanently
to

identical For

with

be
the

impossible
notion
at

think

at

all. from

example:
and

of

permanency

the door that

thought
we are a

becomes

once

ridiculous.
the

Suppose
a

while
to

asserting that
while
to
a

object is
the
can

door, it changes

tree, and

we

insist that
etc.

object is readily see

at

now

tree, it it would

changes hardly

cow,

We
to

that

be

worth

while The

think of

all. be stated in three

ways
:"

law

identitymay
is the
"

(1 )

Whatever

is, is; (2) Everything remains

same same. and

identical

with

itself;(3) The
Absolute

Identity

Complete
of

Incomplete. the affirmative

Applying

the

law

identityto
of and
a

ment judg-

expressed in the form

kinds of absolute identity,

we proposition,

find two

relative.
are

In

the

tions, proposiis

"Socrates

is Socrates,"

"dogs

dogs," "honesty
with
If
two
one we

honesty,"the subject is absolutelyidentical

"

the

cate predito

the

same

in

form and

and

meaning.

were

illustrate the
would

subject
same

predicate by shape,

circles

they

be of the the other of

we

size and
to

the

coinciding

with

point

point. identity which

for
want

This

kind

absolute may

makes
a

possible
name,

all truisms

term,

of

better that

complete
is the
an

absolute

identity. This
absolute

would

imply
such
man man

there
to

incomplete
case.

identityand

seems

be

Examining
we or

"A the definition,

is has

rational
same

animal,"
content

observe

that
as

the

notion

the

meaning
the

the

notion
are

rational

animal.

In

meaning, then,
The
one

two

notions
as

absolutely identical.
or

includes

just

many

objects

qualitiesas

34

The

Primary
if

Laws

of Thought
draw the
same

the

other,

and

we

were

to

two

circles

senting repre-

them, they would

in mode
the of

be

of

size.
notions need
to

In

form,
and in

expression, however, coinciding,

of
may
one

the

differ differ

circles,though

would be
a

form, the boundary

a

might
call

solid line, the

absolute

other

dotted.

This

we

incomplete

identity.

All

logicaldefinitions
Identity.

illustrate

identities of this kind.

Relative Relative
as

identityis

best
we

understood
may

by thinking of it
of absolute tity idenof

partialidentity,just as
as

think

total

identity.
be
one

In

relative
of
may
a

identitythe
another of
are
a

whole

one

notion
a

may
of

affirmed

part of
affirmed All

notion;
part
of

or

part

notion
To
are

be

another

notion.
men

illustrate: wise.
These

(i)
and

men

mortal;
are

(2)

Some

their like

made the first

a

possiblebecause
proposition
of the

of the law the "men" If

of relative
class
we were

identity.In
with

all of

is identical
to

part
tion rela-

"mortar

class.

represent
be made

this

by circles,the
than

"men" circle and

circle

would

smaller

the "mortal"

placed inside it,as

in

Fig.

1.

Mortal

[yen

J
Fig.
2.

Fig.

1.

Be
1

it remembered
men

that circles
is identical is

are

surfaces, and
that

in

Fig.
the

the

circle which

with

portion of
it.

mortal

circle

immediately

underneath

36
is

The

Primary
the
same
can

Laws

of Thought
to

impossible for
at

same

thing
time.

be

and itself
out
a

its

tradictory con-

the

Bringing
not

further butes attri-

aspect,
at

no

thing
the
same

have
time.

and

have

the

same

The

little word
are

not

bisects either
are

the universe.
or

All

the

ple peo-

in the world
or

honest

not

honest, virtuous
and

not

virtuous. is

These

contradictory statements
one

what

comprehended
at

by

the

cannot
more

be

comprehended
a

by the
shake If
cannot

other his head

the and

same

time, any
his head
at

than
same

man

can

nod

the
two

time.
then
we

we

assert

the
same

identitybetween
breath

notions

in the

deny their identity.

Illustrations

(1)
red

red
at
man

flower

cannot

be

red

flower

and

not

flower

the

same
can

time.
be

(2)
time.

No

guiltyand

not

guiltyat
not

the

same

(3)
same

boy

cannot

be

working

and

working

at

the

time.
If I assert
same

that the
breath Not.
not

flower the

is

red, then
is not

I cannot

affirr

in the Two

that

flower

red.

Uses
word

of

The

when
that

used

with

the

copula of

given
"Some
to

proposition makes
men

as propositionnegative;, (1)

are

not
a

wise."

But
the

when

not

is attached made
are

the

predicate by
not

hyphen,
as

predicate is
"Some
is
men

negative,
not-wise."
the

the the

proposition,

(2)

Here

predicate not-wise
it appears

negative, but

tion proposithat

in which

is affirmative.

It is obvious

The

Law

of

Contradiction

37

the
law
are

proposition "Some
of

men

are

not
some

wise"
men

illustrates the referred Whereas

to

contradiction, since
of
men

the

contradicted

all

which
are

is wise.

the

proposition "Some
since identity, the

not-wise" "some men" The

illustrates relative is affirmed student

may
one

subject

of

part of
led
to

the

predicate "not-wise."
relations the

be
to

see

these

by drawing circles,the

the other represent the subject,

predicate. (See

page

141.)
Further Some Some Some Some Some Some The
Illustrations
:

teachers teachers teachers teachers teachers teachers student

are are are

wise not-wise unwise

not not

*]
llllustratethe law
of

identity.
1
"

are are are

wise not-wise unwise. that

If

llllustrate the j
a
we

law

not

of
term

contradiction. and its

tradictory con-

must

understand each other.

destroy
of the
one,

affirm the

something
or we

then the

we

must

deny
both.

it of If
are

other,

undermine teachers be denied

integrityof
and

it is affirmed

of

A,

C
are

that

they

wise, then

it must

that

they
:

not-wise.

Illustrations

A, B and A, A, A,
B and

C C C C

are are

wise not-wise

"1These

are

mutually

de-

structive.
are

B and B

are are

wise.
not not-

1 These I

not

mutually

de-

and

structive, but
mean

virtually

wise.

the

same

thing.

38
Symbolization
A is not A be A is

The

Primary

Laws

of Thought
of

of

the

Law

Contradiction.
A is not
or

not-A.

B.

(As
would that

always
to

it
say

or

absurd

is not

not-B.

is not

A.)
and

Contradictory
It
sense.

Opposite

Terms.
terms

is

easy

to

use

opposite
to

in

contradictory
is the

This

leads

serious

error.

"Not-guilty"
is the the
water

while contradictoryof "guilty," of

"innocent"
say

opposite
must

"guilty."
be

We
or

could

hardly
it

that
warm.

either the

cold
term

hot,
which

as

might

be

"Not-hot" The
law

is

only

contradicts
to to

"hot."

of

contradiction

has it is
as

nothing

do

with

opposites.
with the the negative affirmative
are

Further, prefix
form.

dangerous

regard words
of

being contradictory
Valuable is likewise of
we

For

example:
There

and
some
as

invaluable

not

contradictory.

doubt

as

to

the

contradictorynature
though agreeable contradict hyphen
is

such
are

words
sure

agreeable

and and

agreeable disnot-

that To
upon

agreeable
use

each
to

other.

the
some

"not"

with

is safer
to
mean

than

depend

prefix which

supposed

"not."
Contradictory

Illustrations

of

and

Opposite

Terms.

The

Law

of

Excluded

Middle

39

Opposite
"

Continued

Contradictory

"

Continued

4.

THE

LAW

OF

EXCLUDED

MIDDLE.

The

law

of

excluded
of

middle
and

may

be

considered

as

combination

identity

contradiction.
is honest."

Identity

"John gives the proposition, "John

and
or

Doe

Contradiction,

Doe and

is not
we

honest."
have the

Combine excluded
or

the

two

using

either

middle
not

proposition,

"Either

John

Doe
middle

is honest

he is itself.

honest." the
one
or

Excluded

explains
must

Of

two

dictory contra-

notions There The

is
no

it

be

either

the

the

other.

"go-between"
may

notion. in many
ways,
must
as

law

be

stated

will be
or

seen

by
be.

the

following :
Either
a

( 1 ) Everything given judgment

is
no
one

either be
true
or

not

(2)

is

its

dictory contra-

is true;

there

middle
must
or

ground.
be of
true.

(3)

Of

two

contradictory judgments predicate may

Illustrations be
:

(4) Every subject.

affirmed

denied

every

(1) John
you

man

is either is either

mortal
or

or

he

is not

mortal.

(2)
Either

Doe
are

honest
are

not-honest.

(3)

going

or of

you

not

going.
Middle.

Symbolization
A

Excluded

is either
or

or

not-A

is either

or

not-B.

40

The

Primary
SUFFICIENT

Laws

of Thought
REASON.

5.

THE

LAW

OF

The

law
event

may
or

be

stated
must

in this wise. have

: a

non, Every phenomereason

relation
To

sufficient
If Venus
reason.

for
ing even-

being

what

it is.

illustrate

(i)

is the

star, there

must

be

sufficient
be
a cause.

(2) Many

If

thfc

ground
argue

is wet,

there

must

logicians
field being

that
the

this

law

has

no

place
The

in

logic,its
of

that of

physical sciences.
and excluded middle Laws

laws

tradiction conidentity,

are,

however,

universally

regarded

as

the

Primary

of

thought.

6.

UNITY

OF

PRIMARY
BY

LAWS

OF

THOUGHT

TRATED ILLUS-

SYMBOLS.

(1)
Excluded
A

Absolute middle.
A

Symbols

Relative

Symbols.

is either

or

not-A.

is either

or

not-B.

Contradiction.
A

is not

not-A.

is

not

or

is not

not-B.

Identity.
A is A. made
to

is not-B

or

is B.

(2) Propositions
Excluded A
man
or

fit

symbols.

middle. is either
a a man

man

is either

honest

or

not-man.

not-honest.

Contradiction. A
man

is

not

not-man.

man

is
man

not

honest,

or

is not

not-honest.

Unity of Primary Identity.

A
man

Laws

of Thought

41

is

man.

man

is
man

not-honest,
is honest.

or

The

"excluded

middle" which

of propositions
are

the

press foregoing ex-

alternatives There
is
no

mutually
The the

contradictory.

middle

ground.
the

"contradictory propositions" subject with

one

contradict

identityof

alternative,while

the

"identity"propositions affirm
the
of

the This
two

identityof
is made

the

subject with
because

other the if
one

alternative.

possible
false."

principle,"Of
is true

mutually contradictory terms,

must

the shows

other how

be

The

foregoing
middle"

scheme

closely "contradictory" and

related
to

"identity" propositions are propositions. Expressed

middle
=

"excluded

mathematically: identity.
7. OUTLINE.

excluded

contradiction

Primary

Laws

of

Thought. laws.

(1)

Two

fundamental

Identity, contradiction. (2)

Law
of

identity.
"

Absolute Relative.

complete,

incomplete.

(3)

Law
Two

of

contradiction.
uses

of

not.

Contradictory (4) (5) (6)

Law Law of of

and

opposite

terms.

excluded sufficient

middle.
reason.

Unity

of

primary

laws

of

thought.

42

The

Primary

Laws

of Thought

8.

SUMMARY.

(1)
laws of

The and

elemental

forms

of

evolved
This

thought
two

are

the

ative affirm-

negative thought,
former

judgments.
law of

suggests
and the

fundamental of

the

identity
the

law

tion. contradicthe latter

The the

conditions

affirmative

judgment,

negative. (2)
The law of

identity implies
identical
with

permanency
a

of
statement

being.
of

"Everything
identity.
Absolute

remains

itself," is

identity

may

be

divided

into

complete

and

incomplete

identity.
In

complete

absolute form absolute

identity
and

the

subject
Truisms

is the

same

as

the

predicate in
In

both

meaning. identity only.

whole
or

illustrate

this. with

incomplete predicate
relative in

the

subject is identical by definitions.

may

the
In of
a

meaning

Illustrated
of
a

identity the
the of the

the part

subject
of the

be

affirmed
may

part
of

of
a

predicate

subject

be

affirmed

part

predicate.
the
same

(3)

"It is impossible
at

for

thing
a

to

be of

itself the

and law

its of is

contradictory
contradiction.

the

same

time,"
is To with

is

statement

Identity
in
nature.

constructive make the the

while

contradiction

destructive
word
not

proposition
"Not"

negative
to

the the
not

must

be
a

used

copula.
the

attached

predicate
the
To
error.

with

hyphen

makes

predicate negative,

but

proposition.
use

opposite

terms

in

contradictory

sense

leads

to

serious

The

safest
term

way

of

making
"not"

positive
a

term
or

contradictory
use a

negative (4)
of

is to law of

prefix

with

hyphen
is be

"non."
combination

The

excluded

middle
It may its

virtually
stated
as

identity
must

and

contradiction.
be itself
or

follows:

"A

thing (5)
is

either

contradictory."
have
a reason.

"Every

condition
law of

must

sufficient
Its

reason

for

its

existence,"

is the

sufficient than
be

distinct

province

physical science (6)

The
=

rather
may

logic. mathematically:
excluded

laws

expressed

middle

identity -j-contradiction.

44

The

Primary
men are

Laws

of Thought
Relative

(3) "All (4) "No

than

good

wise."

identity.
sum

triangle has
two

interior

angles whose
Contradiction. Relative
nine." of

is greater

right angles."
saves

(5)

"A

stitch in time
is the

identity.
and

(6) "Judging
notions."

process

conjoining

disjoining

Incomplete
either
a

absolute

identity.
or

(7) "You
a

are

voter

in this district

you

are

not

voter

in this district."

Excluded
how
to

middle.

(8) "Some (9) "AH (10) "Some (11) "None (12) "All (lb) Indicate propositions
:

people do
is

not

know ends

live."

Contradiction. absolute

well

that

well."

Incomplete

identity.
men

teach
the

school."
are

Relative
as

identity.
the sun."

of

planets
in

large

as

tradictory Con-

the

trees

this

grove

are

maple."
the

Relative

identity,
the law

which

conditions

each

of

following

(1) "He (3)

"He

who

laughs last laughs best."

is
a

(2) "Perfect
is

perfect."
in

wolf
your

sheep's clothing."
is poor
or

(4) "Either (5) "Some (6) "No

for

memory

you

are

telling they

deliberate
of

falsehood."
our

greatest

teachers

thought

were

failures."
man

of

sense

would

ever

try

to

get

something

nothing."
is not is the
to

(7) "Failure (8) "Success

best."

try."
man

right

in the

right place doing his topic."

successful fakir."

(9) "Every
(10)
"Some

man

is insane
are a

on

some

pupils
are

not

industrious."
or
a

(11) "You

either is the

genius
best

(12) "Honesty
1C.
REVIEW

policy."

QUESTIONS.
many

(1) (2) they

are

How Name

kinds

of

judgments
laws of of

are

there?
and

Illustrate.

the
to

fundamental
the

thought

explain how

related

kinds

judgments.

Review

Questions
be

45

(3)
it not

Show
for

that the
law

it would
of

impossible

to

think

at

all

were

identity.
of

(4)

State

the

law

identity in three
of absolute

ways.

(5)
(6)
relative

Explain Explain Symbolize

the

kinds

identity. Illustrate

by

propositions and
identity.

by circles. by
word and

by

diagrammatical
of

illustration

(7)
these

the

three

forms

identity.

Fit

words

to

symbols.
State
in

(8)

three

ways

the

law

of

contradiction.

by illustration that not bisects the world. (9) Show of not. (10) Explain the uses that "John Doe is not-honest," illustrates identity (11) Prove
and
not

contradiction.

(12)
these

Symbolize

in

three

ways

contradiction.

Fit

words

to

symbols. contradictory
words of with

(13) Illustrate

and

opposite

terms.
are

(14) Show
the

that

negative prefixes corresponding

law

not

sarily neces-

contradictory
and the
law

the

affirmative middle.

forms.

(15) State
(17) State

explain the
law
of of

of

excluded middle.

(16) Symbolize
the

excluded
reason.

sufficient
of

Illustrate.

(18) Illustrate the unity

11.

the

three

primary

laws

of

thought.
TIGATION. INVES-

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

(1)
evolved

Prove

that

the

judgment by evolved

is

the

elemental

form

of

thought.
What Show
is meant

(2) (3)
absolute

thought?
a

that

"Whatever

is, is" is

statement

of

complete

identity only.
State

(4) (5) (6)

or

incomplete
of that
one

absolute

identity.
state

By
Show

means

proposition

relative
is

identity.
a

incomplete absolute
these
statements

identity

term

mora

less

illogical.
Show that
are

(7)
relative

exact

expressions

of

identity :
All
Some
men men

are
are

some
some

wise. wise.

46

The

Primary

Laws

of

Thought.

(8) (9)
upon

Why
Show the

is

the
that

law

of

contradiction
be bisected

so

named?

space

may

by

drawing

circle

black Show
not

board. that honest" there and difference is "You in difference in

(10)
"You
are

meaning

between

are

not-honest."
between

(11)
and
not

Is

there

any

meaning

disagreeable

agreeable?
Which Give
is the list of stronger words
term

(12) (13)
are

not-just
which the

or

unjust?

Why?
forms

in

contradictory

expressed (14) (15)

Illustrate Illustrate and

by

the

ordinary
circles
the

prefixes.
law of

by
by
a

excluded difference

middle.
between

line-diagram
terms.

the

tradictory con-

opposite
that

(16)
is

Show

the

province

of

the

law

of

sufficient

reason

physical

science.

CHAPTER

4.

LOGICAL

TERMS.

1.

LOGICAL

THOUGHT

AND

LANGUAGE

INSEPARABLE.

Any
itself
arouses

impression
in
some

upon

the

mind

tends

to

manifest which
of bols. sym-

form tends
and

of
to

expression.
expression
go in

Impression
the
in form

thought Thought taking

the

symbol
of

hand

hand.

sion, Expresa

form

word-symbols,

constitutes

word-language.
It is

commonly
in

supposed

that
one's

language thoughts
way

is serviceable
to

mainly

communicating
does It service
tends
a

others, but
is

language

in another
to

which
make

quite

as

important. thought.
lack

clarify

and

definite

all

Without

word-language
be vague,

thinking

would

continuity;
use

would

loose, illogical. The

is
a

right

of
to

word-language,

therefore,
The
basic

necessary

adjunct

logical thought.
is the
OF

element

of

word-language
2.

logical term.
TERM. to
as

MEANING

LOGICAL

notion

has mind.

been When

referred
we

any

product

of

the
in

knowing
words such

express

these

notions

expressions
A
a

may
term

be

called is
a

logical terms.
or a

Definition. words

logical

word

group
:

of

denoting
tree, is

definitenotion.
the
man

Illustrations
who
was

Honesty,

Chicago,
roses.

walking,
a

ill,beautiful
each

This
of

list of

logical terms,
a

because of
some

word It is

or

group

words

denotes

notion

kind.

47

48
evident
that
a

Logical

Terms

now

any

subject or

predicate with
In the

its modifiers

constitutes beautiful red the

logicalterm.
on

proposition, "The by Mr. Jones,

of has

house
term

the
as

owned hill,

burned,"
words.

used
must

the
not

subject consists
confuse "Of"
is

eleven with

The

reader

logicalterms
a

grammatical
but
not
a

parts

of

speech.
as no

preposition
is indicated.

logicalterm,
AND

definite

notion

3.

CATEGOREMATIC

SYNCATEGOREMATIC

WORDS.

There definite the

other

are

some

words
as are

which, when
man,

used

alone, denote

notions, such
hand
not

tree, words

dog, justice. On which, when

used
as

there
stand and.

other
a

alone, do

for

definite

notion,

such

up,

beautifully, a,
Words
matic

like those

in the those

first list
in the

are

called

categore-

words,

while

second

list illustrate

syncategorematic
Definition. A
term

words.

categorematic word
unaided is
a

is

one

which
A

forms

logical

by
which

other
must

words.
be

syncategorematic
other

word

one

used

with

words

to

form
Any
either
term.

logicalterm.
word
or or

group

of

words
a

which

can

be
a

used

as

subject
If the

predicate of
word of If in
a

proposition is
be then used

logical
either
be the
one
a

one

question can
proposition

as

subject or

predicate

it must
use
a

categorematic word.
word then
as

it is
or

impossible to
of
a

either
a sure

subject

predicate
that such

proposition
is syn-

this is

indication

word

Categorematic categorematic.
"And expressions, and We For is

and

Syncategorematic
there is
not

Terms

49

example,

no

sense

in

the
and

honest," "Of is

true" ; hence

of

are

syncategorematic.
conclude verbs from
may

may

this be

that

nouns,

descriptive
while

adjectivesand

categorematic words,
are

adverbs, prepositions and

words.
SINGULAR

conjunctions

matic syncategore-

4.

TERMS.

A
or
one

singular

term

is

term

which

denotes

one

object

attribute.
nouns,

Proper
Socrates.
as

when such
proper
as

they

stand

for

individuals, are

singular terms,
Some the

John Adams,
names

Mississippi River,
a

stand

for

class of

objects,
But

Caesars, the Mephistopheles, the Napoleons.

thus
names,

when Such

used

they

lose their character

as

proper
not
some

names.

therefore, are
nouns as

general terms,

singular. ing modifyhighest

distinct

Common

may

be made

singularby
the

word,

the

first man,
etc.

pole star,

the

good,

my

pet

dog,

Certain

attributes

which

imply
as

oneness

or

are individuality

such singular,

absolute

birdsjustice,

egg

blue, perfect happiness, etc.

claim that
terms

Some

like water, for

one

air, salt, etc.,

are

singular,as
cannot

they
if such hard

stand
terms

thing. This, however,

the of possibility mineral
water.

be
as:

admit

fication classi-

water,

soft water,

5.

GENERAL

TERMS.

general

term

is

one

which

denotes

an

indefinite

number

of objects or

attributes.

50

Logical
Class-names

Terms

are

general
Words

terms,

such

as

men,

chair,

tree, army,
are

nation.

like redness, sweetness,

in that

tice, jus-

probably general
of

they
in

denote into the

nation combi-

qualities or
the
term

may is

be

subdivided

kinds.

The should

way

employed

proposition

determine

its

singular or

general

nature.

6.

COLLECTIVE

AND term

DISTRIBUTIVE

TERMS.

collective

is

general

term
one

which whole.
are

indicates Such

an

number indefinite
as

of objects as
army,
term

words

class, crowd,
A

forest, nation,
is
a

collective. which
and

distributive

general
a

term

indicates
also may

an

number indefinite
used
as

of objects as
to

whole,
the

be

to man,

refer

each

one

of

group

separately.

Such It
terms

pupil, tree, book.

to
we

is easy when

distinguish collective
attempt
to to
use
a

from in

distributive

them

the

designation
one

of

individuals. "There

Pointing
is

body

of

troops,
when
say,

may

remark,
to
one man

the

regiment."
could

But

pointing
"There cause be-

in the

regiment, he "Regiment"

hardly

is the

regiment."
it may
be

is therefore
to

collective whole with in the

used

with
be

reference used On in the

the

body
any
tence, sen-

of

troops

but of

cannot

connection hand

individual "Man of
man,
men.

that

body.

other
to

is mortal," It also

"man"
any

refers
one

the whole them.

family

indicates is mortal." term,

to

of

As, "This

John Doe,
distributive
sense;

Thus

"man"
can

is distributive.
used
or

The

therefore,
denote

be

in
to

fold two-

namely,

the

whole

denote

each.

52

Logical

Terms

Descriptive adjectives,because
are

they
name

describe

things,

concrete.

They
are

do

not

alone

of things, qualities

hence

they

not

abstract.

8.

CONNOTATIVE

AND

NON-CONNOTATIVE

TERMS.

A
at

connotative
same

term

is

one

which

denotes

subject and
any-

I
i

the

time

implies an

attribute.

(A subject is

thing
All

which
concrete

possesses

attributes.)
terms at
are
same

general subjects and

connotative time
many stand

because
for
tain cer-

they

denote

the

attributes ; e. g., "man" it stands

for all the power
men

denotes

subjects; in fact, j
it also

in the

world;
of

implies
etc.

'

the rationality,

of

speech, power

locomotion,
three

"Triangle"
likewise

stands

for

all

plane figures of

sides; it

stands
etc.

for

the

three-sided, three-corqualities,
and is

nered,
A

Both

"man"
term

"triangle" are
one

connotative.
a

non-connotative

which

denotes Such

ject subas

only, or

implies an
The

attribute Elizabeth

only.
White,

words
a an

j
j
!

Boston, Columbus,

denote

sub-

"width," imply ject only. "Blueness," "justice,"

bute words

attriThe
ex-

only.

All

these

terms
are

are

non-connotative.

blue, just,wide,
denotes

connotative. the

"Blue," for
blue

j
;

ample,
sea;
sesses

all blue time

things, as
"blue"

sky,

the

blue
pos-

at

the the

same

implies that something

blueness. quality,
proper such and proper
are,
no

Generally speaking,
non-connotative;

abstract
nouns

nouns as

are

though

Mount
connota-

I
i

Washington,
tive, as
attribute.

Mississippi River,
denote
the
case an

doubt,
at

they
In

object
of

and

imply

least
an

one

Mount

Washington

object

Connotative

and

Non-Connotative

Terms

53

is

surely denoted,
Any
proper

and
noun

the

attribute which

mountainous definite

is implied. mation infor-

conveys

is connotative.
nouns

It may For

be claimed

that all proper

to

give city.
a

information.

example,
the said
or

many

Boston

indicates
to
a

not

only

an

object, but
be

qualitiescommon
"Boston"
any

In

reply
or

it may
a

that

might

indicate

boat,

dog,

almost

individual

object.
9.

POSITIVE

AND

NEGATIVE

TERMS.

positive term
certain

is

one

which

the possession signifies

man,

of

attributes; e. g., metal,

teacher, happy,

honest.
A

negative

term

is

one

which

the signifies

absence

of

certain Terms
or

attributes;e.
which have

g.,

inorganic,unhappy, prefix not,

non, un,

non-metallic.

the

in, dis, etc.,

The be
are

the

affix less, are there

are

usually considered
some

negative.
this
must

fact that overlooked.

exceptions to
unloosed,

not

For

example,

invaluable,

positive terms.
In

theory
as

every pure,

positive term impure;

has

its

corresponding

negative;

organic, inorganic; metal,

non-metal; good, not-good.

In word been such
some

instances the The

as

the

language

does
no

not

supply

the

with felt. words

negative prefix because only

way
to

need the

of it has of

express

negative
or

good, table,etc., is to prefix "not"

AND OPPOSITE TERMS.

"non."

10.

CONTRADICTORY

(See

page terms

38).

Positive

with

their

negatives have

contradictory

54

Logical
and

Terms

meanings
terms.

therefore

are

referred and

to

as

contradictory
metallic

For

example,

honest
and

not-honest,

and
terms. assert

non-metallic,perfect
Such the
terms
are one

imperfect,are

contradictory
When
we

mutually
we we

destructive. the

truth

of

also
assert

imply

of falsity

the

other.
was

If, for example,

we was

that Abraham the

any

Lincoln

honest,
Lincoln

carry
not

with

this assertion
or

implication
statement

that
to

not-honest,
was

that

the effect that he

not

honest used
as

is false.

Contradictory
the law of

terms, excluded

when

in

sentence,

trate illus-

middle,

in the

statements:

"John's
teacher

recitation is either in such

is either

perfect or

imperfect."
There is
no

"This middle

just

or

not-just."

ground
When the

propositions.
terms
are

contradictory
is divided honest

used

in

classification
e.

whole

into but

two

classes ;

g.

not-honest

agreeable
metallic

not-agreeable
non-metallic

perfect
pure

imperfect impure inorganic

the world
are

organic
All honest.
or

the

men

in the

either existence

honest
are

or

notganic or-

All

substances

in

either

inorganic, etc.
seen

It will also be of the

from is
not

this list that the

contradictory
by using the
and
case

positiveform
Honest
are

always

indicated
or

prefix.

and
not

dishonest,

agreeable
In
to

agreeabl disof

contradictory terms.
seems

the

agreeable and

there disagreeable,

be

the middle

Contradictory ground
music of
but
nor

and

Opposite

Terms

55

of of the

absolute orchestra back

upon

indifference. is of

For while

example:
the

the

agreeable
me

humming

the
as

enthusiast
to

is

decidedly disagreeable; agreeable

indifferent
made

the noise

the street, it is neither

me

disagreeableas long practicehas

it. When there the is any safest doubt
as

to

to

the

terms

being
or

tradictory, con-

plan
each

is to

prefix

"not"

"non"

to

the Terms

positiveform.
which
to

oppose

other

but

do

not

contradict ing follow-

are

said

be

opposite or

contrary
:

terms.

The

list illustrate hot cool

opposite terms

cold
warm

less wise bitter soft tall

greater
foolish
sweet

hard short

agreeable
All these
or

disagreeable
a

terms

admit

of
a warm

medium.

In the
need
not

case

of

hot

cold, for example,

either. Terms It may
seem

substance
or

necessarily

be

be be

cool. it is
a

to

contradictory when
it is
a

matter

of
or

but opposite when quality,

question of quantity

degree.

11.

PRIVATIVE

AND

NEGO-POSITIVE

TERMS.

privative term

is

one

which words

is

positivein form
as

but

negative in meaning.

Such

blind, deaf, dumb,

56
dead,
there

Logical
maimed,
is
no

Terms

orphaned,
certain but

are or

privative terms,
suffix and

in

that

negative prefix
of

yet
for

they

denote

the absence

qualities."Blind,"
denotes is
one

example, is

positivein form,
A but

absence
which
terms

of

sight. negative in form

invaluable,
loosed, un-

nego-positiveterm

is

positivein meaning.
immoral,

Such
are

as

indwell,

nego-positive because,
possess
a

though they
certain
not
mean

have

negative prefixes, yet they

valuable.

positivemeaning.

"Invaluable," for instance, does

very

not-valuable, but

12.

ABSOLUTE

AND term

RELATIVE

TERMS.

An

absolute without

is

one

whose
to

meaning
terms.

becomes

telligi in-

reference
book,
clear
to

other

Automobile,

water, them

tree, house,
may

are

absolute child
terms.
or a

terms.

Any

of

be made

to

out foreigner with-

specialreference
child will

other

For
common

example,
marks

the the

recognize
every
are

from

certain
sees

automobile

time

he

it. every

The
one.

marks

of

tree,

house, flower,
A

apparent
is
one

to

relative

term to
some

which
term.

derives

its

meaning from

its relation

other

Parent, teacher, shepherd, commander,

the
are

monarch,
terms.

eldest, cause,
in

relative of
to

For
to
a

example,

explaining

meaning
be
are

"parent"
"child." of
as

foreigner, reference pairs

of
terms

must

made

The

thus and

associated

spoken

correlatives.
and
cause

Parent

child, teacher
and

and

pupil,
and
are corre-

shepherd
youngest,
correlative

flock, monarch
and

subject, eldest
and
army,

effect, commander
one

terms.

Either

of

each

pair

is the

Absolute

and

Relative

Terms

57

late

to

the
to

other, and
make its
an

every

relative clear. To
cannot

term

needs that
a

its tive relaof

correlate
term

meaning

say be

denotes reference

object which
some

thought

without it is

to

other think

object, is confusing, as object without

Fire ing callnotion.
etc.

quite impossible to
to

of any
or

mind

some

other

object

calls to

mind

water;

tree

suggests shade,

13.

OUTLINE.

Logical

Terms. of
term.

(1) (2) (3)

Meaning
Kinds of

Categorematic
terms.

and

syncategorematic

words.

Singular
General

terms. terms.

(a) (b)
Concrete

Collective Distributive and

terms. terms. terms. terms.

abstract

Connotative Positive and

and

non-connotative
terms. terms. terms.

negative
and

Contradictory
Privative Absolute and and

opposite
terms.

nego-positive
relative

14.

SUMMARY.

logicalterm
singular
term

is

word

or

group

of words

denoting

definite

notion. A is
a

term

which

denotes

one

object

or

one

attribute. A of

general
objects
or

term

is

term

which

denotes

an

indefinite

number

attributes.
are

General A

terms

collective is
a

or

distributive.
term
as

collective
number of

term

general

which
one

indicates whole.

an

nite indefi-

objects considered
term

distributive

is

general

term

which

indicates

an

in-

58
definite number
refer A An
to

Logical
of
one

Terms

objects
of is the
a
a

as

whole

and

also

may

be

used

to

each

group

separately.
which which
denotes denotes
a

concrete

term term

term, term

thing.
the attribute

abstract

is

of

thing.
A
same

connotative
time

term
an

is

one

which

denotes

subject and

at

the

implies

attribute.
term

A
or

non-connotative

is

one

which

denotes

subject only

implies
A

an

attribute
term

only.
which

positive

is

one

signifiesthe possession of certain

attributes. A

negative

term

is

one

which

signifies the

absence

of

certain

attributes.
In
to

theory
other

every

positive
denotes

term

has

its negative.
terms
are

As
to

related
be
tradictory. con-

each

positive and
one
a

negative
true

said the

If
a

notion

then

other

denotes

false notion. Some

terms to oppose

each

other
terms

but
are

do

not

flatly contradict.
to

As
A

related

each
term

other is
one

such which

said

be

opposite.
but

privative

is

positive in form

negative
form
but

in meaning. A

nego-positive

term

is

one

which

is negative

in

positive in meaning.
An without A absolute
term to

is

one

whose
terms.

meaning
derives

becomes

intelligible
from

reference
term

other
one

relative
to

is
other

which

its meaning

its

relation

some

term.

15.

ILLUSTRATIVE words

EXERCISES.

(la) The

in italics
is the

are

categoremaftic.

(1) "Honesty (2) "A (3) "The

wise

best policy.
never

teacher

scolds."
a

woodcock

has

long bill and

eyes

high

up

on

the head."
Note
"

If

there

is any

doubt

as

to

such
to
use never.

words

as as

never,

on,
or

etc., being

syncategorematic,
a

attempt
g.,

them

subject

predicate of

proposition; e.

John

is

60

Logical
(2) (3) (4) (5) Why Why
Show is
is
man
a

Terms

categorematic

word?

beautifully syncategorematic?
singular and
may

Distinguish between
how
a

general
be used

terms.
a

collective term

in

distributive

sense.

(6)
(7) (8) (9)

Why
Define

are

the words
between

tree

and

book
and

distributive?
abstract
term. terms.

Distinguish
and
are

concrete
a

illustrate
concrete

non-connotative
terms

Why

general
word

connotative?

(10) Distinguish (11) Why (12) Give

of "hot"?
is not

between

positive and
immoral "hot." What

privative
is the

terms.

the

negative? contradictory
between tive rela-

the

opposite of by

(13) Distinguish
and

definition

and

illustration

absolute

terms.

(14) What

is the

correlate

of the

word

effect?

17.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
reasons.

Is

it

possible
words

to

think

independent
or

May
Are Must

be

spoken
words of

written

language? without thought?

of

lustrate Il-

categorematic
all the
pronouns

always logical
verbs

logical terms?
term

words and

be

categorematic?
the of

Are

auxiliary
of

categorematic?
terms
a

Indicate

the the

logical connection
termini
a a

between

proposition and
Show
Is

railroad. broader
term
or

that

attribute

is

than

quality.
Give

the

word

Washington dog

general
term.

singular?

(9)

Make

the word
an

singular
the

(10) Give
collective.

illustration

where

word

class

would

not

be

(11) "All
How
has

the

members
star

of

the baseball

team

are

star

players."
or

the ?

term

players been
New

used, collectively

tributive dis-

(12) Why
New

may

the

term

York
to
a

City be connotative
Patagonian?

to

Yorker

and

non-connotative

Questions

for

Original

Thought

61

(13)

So

far

as

your

present is

knowledge concerned,
? is

of the

the

martyred
Abraham

president
Lincoln

Abraham connotative Are Are What

Lincoln

term,

or

non-connotative
terms

(14)

non-connotative

always

singular?

Illustrate.

(15)
(16)
and

singular
is the

terms

always
in

non-connotative?

differenece
and

meaning

between

immoral

unmoral, (17) Why

disagreeable
is immoral

not-agreeable?

nego-positive

term

while

unmoral

is

negative? (18)
What Show relative.
Is

is that

the

contradictory
there is
some

of

the

opposite
for

of

wise? all
terms

(19)
to

ground

believing

be

(20)
be

army

relative
nature

term? would it

If

"army"
be

were

used

so

as

to

distributive

in should the
to

then
be

general by
and be the

or

collective?

(21)

Why
Show

the difference the effect

pronoun

ignored

logician?

(22) (23)

between that
term

thing
can

subject.
non-contotative.

Argue

no

CHAPTER

5.

THE

EXTENSION

AND

INTENSION

OF

TERMS.

1.

TWO-FOLD

FUNCTION page

OF

CONNOTATIVE

TERMS.

(See

52).

It has which

been

indicated the
as an

that double

connotative
of

term

is

one

possesses
as

function It may is any

signifying
observed

subject
that
an

well

attribute.
a

be

here
or

attribute
of

of

notion notion.
or

mark,

property

characteristic

that

Attribute,

then,
a

sents repre-

quality,
meant

relation which

quantity.

By

subject
Most

is

anything
stand

possesses

attributes. attributes
are

jects sub-

for

objects
for the

and sake

most

qualities;
may
use

consequently, subject
and A and

of

simplicity, we

object interchangeably;

likewise, attribute

quality.
connotative
same

term, it

therefore, denotes
a

an

object

at

the

time
man

implies
for

quality.
various

To

illustrate:
men

The of

symbol
the

stands such
or

the

individual

world,

as

Lincoln,

Washington,

Alfred

the

Great, etc.,
of
term

for

certain of
used
connote

qualitieslike rationality, power

locomotion.
to

speech
teacher

and may

power

The

connotative

be
or

denote such

Socrates,

Pestalozzi,

Thomas

Arnold,

qualities as
The
and
term

ability to planet
and

instruct, sympathy,
stands

and
as

scholarship.
Venus,
upon

for

such

objects

Earth,

Mars,

for
sun,

such
and

qualities as
opaque
or

rotation

axis, revolution
bodies.
In each

about of the

semi-opaque
62

Two-fold
three
sense

Function

of
is

Connotative

Terms

63
two-

illustrations of

the

term

employed
of

in the

fold

denoting objects and

implying qualities.

2.

EXTENSION

AND

INTENSION

DEFINED.

This
an

double

function for

of the

connotative student
In

terms

furnishes the sion Exten-

important topic
and Intension

of

logic
"

of

Terms.

short, some
and intension

authorities of terms

claim is

that to master
master

the extension the entire

an

to virtually

subject of logic. Though

one,

this

position may
the is used the

be

exaggerated
of

yet it tends

to

emphasize
A
term

importance

the

topic.
it is the term
to

in extension

when

employed
stands.
to

with

reference to
When isosceles

objects for

which used

the term

triangleis

refer

the

objects
is

triangle,scalene
in extension.

triangle,right triangle,it

employed
A
term

is used
to

in intension

when

it is the

employed
term

with

reference
The
term

the

attributes for which

stands.
we use

triangleis employed
three qualities,

in intension sided and

when

it to refer to the

three

angled.
AND
IN-

3.

EXTENDED TENSION.

COMPARISON

OF

EXTENSION

A it has

connotative
extent
or

term

seems

to

be
or

two

dimensional

"

length and
consists of

intent the

depth.
to

"Extension

things

which the

the

term

applies," while
which the term is

"intension

consists

of

properties

implies."
while quantitative,
use means

Extension An

intension
to

is
out

tive. qualitaor
num-

extensional

point

64
ber

The

Extension

and

Intension

of

Terms

objects,while

an

intensional
name use
a

use

means use a

to

describe in
tension ex-

by naming
"

qualities. To
describe
a

is to
term
we

term

to

is to

in
must

intension.

To

divide

term

into its kinds

;
e.

regard

it in

an

extensional

sense

g., the term

man

may

be divided

into

Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Ethiopian,American

To
sense;

Indian.

define
e.

term

we

must

regard
animal. extension To
use

it in

an

intensional

g.,

man

is

rational

Etymologically

considered

means use a

to term

stretch
exten-

out, intension, to stretch

within. To

sionallyone
one

must

look in.
to
use

out.

term

intensionally

must

look

In

attempting
the

term

in extension
are

we

may
or

ask "To if
we

ourselves what would "What Let

us,

question, "What
the in
term

the

kinds?" While

objects may
use
a

be

applied?"
the

term

intension
or use

question
are

should

be,

does
for

it mean?"

"What
the
term

the

qualities?"
in the
two

example,

metal

senses,

first in extension, second

in intension.
metal

Question:
swer: An-

To

what

objects may
Metal
may

the

term

be

applied?

be
has

applied to
metal

the

objects silver,gold
in

and

iron.

Thus What

been

employed

extension. Answer:

Question:
The of

are

the

of qualities

metal ?

are qualities

element, metallic
has

lustre, good conductor

metal been used in

heat

and

electricity.Thus

intension. Note.
to
as
a

Since

an

attribute the parts of

a

is
a

anything

which be

belongs
classed

subject,then

subject must

attributes.

Hence,
to

term

is used

when intensionally

reference

is made

its parts.

List

of

Connotative

Terms

65
IN

4.

LIST

OF AND

CONNOTATIVE INTENSION.

TERMS

USED

SION EXTEN-

The

Term.

Extensional

Use.

Intensional

Use. trunk,

branches, [roots,
tree.

maple, oak, beech.

or "j (woody-fiber, sap,

bark.

house.

stone, brick, cement,

foundation, frame-work,
roof.

dog.

shepherd,
bull.

fox

terrier, carnivorous, quadruped,

propensity
cover, to

bark.

book.

textbook, dictionary,
encyclopaedia.

leaves, binding,

quadrilateral,

trapezium,

trapezoid, four

sides, four plane.

of

angles,

parallelogram. logic.
theoretical

limited

logic,

ap-

science

plied
tional

logic, educalogic.

thinking, art right thinking, treats

of

of of

laws

thought.

star.

Sirius, Arcturus,

heavenly body, gives light

and

Vega.
force.

heat, twinkles.

motion gravitation, molecular, [produces atomic. motion -{changes motion. (^destroys

term.

general,

singular,

word

or

group

of

words,

non-connotative.

definite

idea.

government.

monarchy, aristocracy,body
democracy.
lished banded

of

people,
form of
for

estab-

law,
tual mu-

together protection.

bird.

crow,

robin, pigeon,

biped, feathered,

winged.

66

The

Extension

and

Intension

of
FOR

Terms

OTHER AND

FORMS INTENSION.

OF

EXPRESSION

EXTENSION

Formerly
to

the

words

extension
denotation

and and

intension

were

plied apwere

concepts
terms

while

connotation but
now

applied to
words
are

representing the concepts,

the
and

interchangeable. Denotation,
off indicate the stands.

the

noun,

denote, the verb, signify,etymologically,a marking

To denote

off.

is to mark which the mark

which

or

objectsor

classes of
the
noun,

objects for
and

the

term

Connotation,
mark

connote, is
terms to

verb, signify to

along

with.

To

connote

along
should

with
be

the

object,its

attributes.

The

remembered f intension

are

extension
or

denotation

and [" J

*J

or

I connotation

6.

LAW SION.

OF

VARIATION

IN

EXTENSION

AND

INTEN-

It has
reference

been
to

noted

that

the

intension
extension

of

term

has its
periment ex-

its qualities while various

considers
be

application to
with
terms
as

objects.
and of

It may the

wise
of

to

the extension
a

intension

certain
the
two

types with
related let
us

view
each

ascertaininghow
For the sake

ideas

are

to

other.
of

of
:

defi-

niteness

make

use

the

following scheme

68

The

Extension

and

Intension

of

Terms

(i) heavenly body

common

(2) (3)

self-luminous fixed

(i)

nebulae fixed stars

sun

(2)
(3)

qualities

(1) heavenly body (2) (3) (4)

self-luminous
*"

common

(i) (2)

nebulae fixed
stars

fixed twinkle

of qualities

(1) heavenly body (2) (3) (4)

self-luminous
common

fixed twinkle of qualities

(i)

nebulae

(5) foggy
In

considering the
number of

first illustration

we

observe number

that of
as

as

the

is decreased, qualities

the

jects ob-

increases.

While

in

the
number

second

example

the

qualitiesare
It would of the
one
a

increased, the
from
are

of

objects decreases.
and
sion exten-

appear
term

this that

the

intension
to

inversely related
the other
decreases

each and

other.
vice

As

increases
to

versa.

It is customary
law known
a
as

state

this relation
of

in

the

form

of

the

law

variation.

"As

the

intension
and vary

of

term
or

is increased
the extension
to to
a

its extension
and

is decreased
of
a

vice
in

versa/'
an

intension
To of

term

inverse

ratio refers
book

each

other. number book

as we

further

illustrate:
to

this book

large
of

objects; add
the

the

qualitiesof
much

those

text

and

application is
the the book

reduced.

In other

words

increase Increase
text

intension,
intension
and

the

extension

is

diminished. the

further
extension

by adding
becomes

quality English

the

still less.

Two

Important
IMPORTANT

Facts

in the Law

of

Variation

6g
TION. VARIA-

6a.

TWO

FACTS

IN

THE

LAW

OF

In

studying
evident,

the

law The

of

variation
law

two

facts
to
a

are

cially espeof
tension ex-

(i)

applies only
same

series The

terms

representing notions
and intension

of the

family.

of "text the
to
a

book," for example, could

and

not

be

compared
as

with

extension different while

intension

of

"house"
genus of

they belong
book

class of words, the the genus of house

text

being book,

is

building.
To illustrate the then law of variation, determine
of upon any
next

class name,

think
to

its it

proximate

genus

(the

higher-up class
the Or series is

which

belongs).
to

Continue illustrate That

this till the

law.
lecting se-

sufficiently complete opposite

think continue
name man so man man

proceed
the

in the class

direction. of the

is, after
term

name

next

lower is

in

the

class

and
The

thus

till series

complete.
upon;

lustrati Il-

class of

is determined

the
genus

proximate
of
a

genus

is

biped, the proximate

Or

biped

is animal, and

on.

thinking
man,

downward:
man,

proximate species of
etc.

is white

of white

European,
Thus the

series: animal

biped
man

white

man

European (2)
not
a

As

second

fact:
one.

the That

increase

and

decrease

is
ex-

mathematical

is, by doubling the

yo

The

Extension

and

Intension

of Terms
Or if the is intension
not
sarily neces-

tension

the

intension

is

not

halved.

is decreased

by

one

quality the
one

extension
"man"
or

increased
billion
seven

by

object. Thus
million of "man"

stands

for

one

hundred

beings
by
the

objects. quality of
all

crease Detionality ra-

the

intension
and

one

the

extension

would

include

bipeds
"

many

billion

objects.
OF

6b.

THE

LAW

VARIATION

DIAGRAM

MATICALLY

ILLUSTRATED.

In

general
in
a

way

lines and

may

be

used

to

represent

the
we

variation
may
man,

extension
an

intension.

For the
the

example:
extension extension
extension
a

let
one

line
two

inch

long represent long represent

of of
of

inches

biped,
animal,

three
etc.

inches While
the
to
on

long represent
the
other of

the

hand, if
man,
a

line

an

inch inch

long represents

intension

line one-half of the

long
a

may

be used of
etc.
an

represent

the intension
to

biped, one
intension
in

quarter

inch

long

represent

of

animal,

The

following
series

illustrates this scheme of words: Intension

connection

with

another

Extension
barn

building
structure

object
In

'

the

foregoing
of

scheme

building refers

to

greater
sion exten-

number

objects than
Likewise

bam, hence
be

the line under

representingbuilding should
for barn.

longer
a

than

the line
ber num-

structure, referringto

greater
a

of

objects than

building,is represented by

longer

Law

of

Variation

Diagrammatic allyIllustrated
from

Ji

line.
a

Thus

when increase

the series is viewed in extension

use

top

to

bottom
tion atten-

gradual
to

is noted.

Giving
we

the

intensional fewer

of

the

series

note

that

building has
than

than qualities

barn,
than

structure

fewer
fore, There-

building and
from

object

fewer

structure.

top

to

bottom, the

intension

of

the

terms

gradually decreases.
The variation
may
one

be

made

still

more

apparent
upon

if the

trianglesare
other,
vertex

used,
to

trianglebeing placed

base, like the following:

EyzleriiSi
"Biped"
of the is written
near

the base

or

in the broadest the

part

extension of "Man"

trianglebecause

it denotes

greatest
in extension.

number

objects,and occupies
a

is,therefore, broadest
narrower

part of the extension

trianglebecause
in extension

it refers

to

fewer

objects or

is

narrower

than

"biped."

"Arnold"

occupies

the

rowest narrowest nar-

part of the extension

in extension. the broadest On

trianglebecause
the other hand

it is the

"Arnold"

pies occu-

part of the intension

more

trianglebecause
the

in-

tensionally it

possesses

qualitiesthan

others,

*]2

The

Extension

and

Intension

of Terms

while

"biped,"having
the
of fewest

the least depth in intension the

narrowest

or

sessing postion por-

occupies qualities, triangle.

the intension

7.

OUTLINE. The Extension Two-fold

and

Intension of

of

Terms. Terms.

1.
2. 3.

Function
and

Connotative Defined.
of

Extension
Extended A

Intension

Comparison
of

Extension
Terms

and
used

Intension.
in

4.

List

Connotative

Extension

and

Intension.

5.
6. 6a.

Other
Law Two

Forms

of

Expression
in
Facts in

for

Extension and
of

and

Intension.

of

Variation

Extension the
Law

Intension. Variation. Illustrated.

Important
Law of

6b. The

Variation

Diagrammatically

8.

SUMMARY.

1. denote
2.

Connotative

terms

are

used

in

two-fold

sense

first,to
with
is

objects;, second,
A
term to

to

imply
extension which

qualities.
when the
term

is

used

in

it is employed stands.
A
term to

reference
used

the

objects for
when
.

in

intension which

it is
term

employed
the

with

reference

the

qualities for
3.
one or

the
to

stands.
of

The
to
use

answer

either
in

following

questions will lead

are

any to

term

extension:
may

First, what
term

the

kinds?

second,
The
answer

what
to

objects
either
of in

the

be

applied?
will

the

following
:

questions

lead
mean

to

the
or

use

of

any

term
are

intension

First, what

does

it

second,
4. To

what

the

qualities?
and

illustrate in
word for
every

extension

intension

it is best

to

use

the

class-names 5.
The

day

speech.
is

denotation intension.
of

commonly

used

for

extension

and

connotation
6. "As

the
and

intension
vice extension

term
a

is increased
of
terms. to
or a

its extension

is

decreased
in 6a.

versa," is
and

statement

the

Law

of

ation Vari-

the

intension

of

The

law

of

variation
of

applies only
same

series

of

terms

representing

notions

the

class

family, the

words

Summary
being arranged
of

73
increase is not

in

species-genus order.
and intension
of
a

The

and

crease de-

the

extension

series

tional. propor-

6b.

The

law

of

variation

is
upon

best the

explained by
other
vertex

using
to

two

triangles, one
base
to vertex.

super-imposed

base

and

9.

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXERCISES.

la.

Employ

the truth.

following

terms

in

extension

"

European,

flower, term,

("Russian Englishman European-] [Scotchman [singular distributive term-J

[collective
lb. Truth

[lily rose nower-j (pansy

has
no

extension.
a

Since
it

it refers

to

quality only,

is non-connotative. in extension

Employ
stone.

the

following

"

grain,

rock,

soil,

precious
2a.

Use

intensionallybird, quadruped,

John. letter,
feet ("four

[two feet
bird-! ability to

fly

quadruped-/ back
Ihairy
.

bone

[^feathers
("heading
John

covering
Since
it

has

no

intension.
an

letter-jbody
[complimentaryclose
2b. Use the

it refers

to

object only,

is non-connotative.

following
of
term

in

intension

"

word,
follows
are

table, purity, government.

when kinds?

3a.
to to

The

use

in extension

attempting
Second,

answer

two

questions:
may to

First, what
term term

the Make

what

objects

the the

be

applied?

application of
Malay, lian, Mongoington, Wash-

this with
1.

reference
are

man.

What

the

kinds

of

men?

Caucasian,
refer?

Ethiopian,
2. To what Chas.

Redman.

objects does

the

term

man

George

Hughes,

John

Smith.

74

The

Extension

and

Intension

of

Terms

In

both

1 and

2 the in
term

word

man

is used

to

denote

objects, hence
the

it is employed
3b. Use the

extension.

vegetable in extension by
the qualities of
when

by answering

two

questions in 3a.
4a. Decrease
a one one

some

common

object
the

with

view

of

noting how

the

intension

is decreased

extension

is increased.

Intension

Extension

binding
leaves
cover

school

arithmetic

printed designed

matter

for in

instruction arithmetic

instruction

binding
leaves
cover

school
school
matter

arithmetic
grammar

printed designed

school instruction "school

speller, etc.

for

arithmetic
grammar

binding
leaves
cover

school
school

speller, etc.

encyclopaedia
matter

printed

novel 'school school arithmetic

grammar

binding
leaves

school

speller,etc.

encyclopaedia
novel
note

book when the

intension
one

4b.

With the

view

of

noting
is

how

creased is deone

extension

increased, decrease
tree.

by

the

common

qualities of peach
In

5a. "mammal" mammal.

the
and

following why?

series what

word

could

be substituted

for

Being, organized Fish, reptile, or

being, animal, vertebrate,

there
are

Answer:

bird; because

at

y6

The

Extension

and

Intension

of

Terms

11.

As

one

studies

the

law

of

variation

what

two

facts

are

especially
12. For of

evident? the
which

Explain
purpose

fully. illustrating
a

of
is

the
Draw

law

of and

variation

form

series

desk

member.

name

the

angles. tri-

11.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

1.

Which
If

is

the like

broader Caesar

term, is

subject given

or

object?
does

Prove it
become

it.

2.

term

extension

general
3.

term?

Why?
"man"
as a

Using

member

of

each,

arrange

at

least

three

different
4.

series.

Why
?

may

it

be

said

that

connotative

term

is

two

sional dimen-

5.

Is

there

word

which

has

broader

extension

than

"being"?
6. Prove

Why?
that

youth
series of

has

less

intension
in

than the

human

being.
is
tional. propor-

7.

Devise

words

which

variation

8.

Advance has neither

arguments
extension

supporting
nor

the

hypothesis

that

the

term

John
9. both

intension.

Suggest
extension

arguments
and

to

prove

that

"George

Washington"

has

intension.

CHAPTER

6.

DEFINITION

1.

IMPORTANCE.

To

be

clear, cogent,' concise

Reference of has been
and

and
to

consistent
a

is to

be

logical.
on

made

striking tendency
use

the
a

part

writers fact than

speakers
scholars

to

words aim

loosely.
to

It is

noticeable rather

that

generally

be

profound

clear, philosophical rather

than'

pointed.
In
these what
so

the
are

use

of
common

text

books

more

or

less don't
so

pedagogical
understand much of
to

the means" This

complaints
or

"I read

he

"You

have

to
to

get

little."

condition which
cannot

gives
be

the

topic

definition those who est, clearof

any

prominence seeking
briefest the

overlooked the
most

by

are

truth; because

definition

is the

and
an

altogether
Likewise
to
a

the

satisfactory way
habit of the

describing
doubtful

idea. reduces

the minimum

defining

term

of possibility

misunderstanding.
The

subject
all

must

appeal strongly
make

to

the

instructor,
stand

as

he, above

others, should
and

his

work

for

clearness, pointedness

continuity.

2.

THE

PREDICABLE8.

predicable of
any

is

term

which In the

can

be

affirmed
"A

or

cated prediis
a a

subject.
the

proposition,
animal"

man

rational

animal,"

term

"rational
77

is

pred-

yS
icable, because
To it clear

Definition
be
affirmed of

can

of

the

subject
it is

man.

gain

knowledge
the

the

definition

quite
we

necessary shall

to

understand
in the

five predicables which

:

consider
1.
2.

following order

Genus.

Species.
Differentia

3. 4.

(difference).

Property.
Accident.

5.

(1)
Genus
denned A

Genus
and

and

(2) Species.
relative
terms

species are
which

and

can

best

be

together.
genus

is

term

stands

for

two

or

more

ordinate sub-

classes.
A

species is

term

which

represents

one

of

the

ordinate sub-

classes.
The genus form may

be

subdivided
.

into

species ;
for

the

species

together
To

the genus.
The
or

illustrate:
classes

term

man

stands

five

ordinate sub-

white, black, brown, as species,

genus,

yellow
man" is

and and
a

red.

"Man"

is,therefore, a

while
term

"white

"black
genus

man," etc., are

reference

species. The
to

"polygon"

with

gon," "trigon," "tetragon," "pentaa

etc., while

"trigon" is
may

species of "polygon."
a

Any
class.
to

given
That kinds

genus

be which

species of
is
a

some

higher
reference

is, "man,"
of
men,

genus of

with the

the

is
is
a

species

higher

class

"biped," while
a

"biped"

speciesof "animal,"

"animal" of

species of

"organized being," "organized being" being"

of

"material

being," "material

"being."

But

here

The

Predicables

79

we can summum

stop,
be

as

there

is

no

higher grade highest genus

be

to

which

"being"
name

referred. genus.

This

takes

the

of

Similarly any
lower of class.

given species may

man,"
genus

genus

of is
a

some

"White is
a

for of

example,

which

cies spe-

"man,"

"American,"
"American"

Englishman,"
is "New
term
a

"German,"
"New

Frenchman,"

etc.

genus

of

Yorker," "Californian," etc., while

of "Smith and
cannot

Yorker" is
an

issa genus

of

Jamaica."

This

last

dividua in-

be subdivided. is referred the

to in

It represents the lowest

possiblespeciesand
It is obvious neither species,
Proximate

logicas infima species.

cannot
a

that
can

highest

genus

become
genus.

the lowest

speciesbecome

Genus.
genus is
a

The

proximate
"Animal"

is the next of

class above. but

To

trate: illusis the

genus

"man,"

"biped"

proximate
of
next

genus

of "man."

"Quadrilateral" is
the

the genus
The

"square," but "rectangle" is

class above is the

proximate
not

genus.

"trigon" proximate
of

is

polygon
of

figure.

Hence

"polygon"
Genus

genus

"trigon."
History.

and

Species

Natural

In natural the

history the following grades

of

terms

are

used

to

note deof

various

kinship

in

any

scheme

classification:

(1) kingdom,

(2) class, (3) order, (4)

the and absolute

family, (5)

genus,

(6) species,(7) variety,(8) "genus"

a

dividua in-

thing.
not

Here

"species" are
in

relative from between

a

and

occupy

fixed place
any

the

scheme,
cated indi-

while

logicalviewpoint
the lowest and

of

the

grades
be the

highest would

species

80

Definition
the
next

of
e.

higher grade
is
a

or

genus

of

the

next

lower;
genus

g., order

species of "class," while

it is the

of

"family."
Genus,
We
use,
a

Double that
any

Meaning. class
name or

recall

genus

has

double
from
a

extensional

and

intensional.

When
genus

considered

the of

standpoint of its extension, a

represents

group when

objects or
in
an

is mathematical

in its

but application,
a

used

intensional
is in logical

sense

it represents

group

of

or qualities

its

application.
genus

Considered
number of

extensionally the objects than

the

refers

to

larger
viewed

species. But
to
more

when

intensionallythe
the law
genus. of This

species refers
was

qualities than

made

clear and

when

discussing the
of
terms.

variation

in the

extension

intension

(3)
The

Differentia. differentia of
a

term

is that

attribute other

which

tinguish dis-

given species from

all the

species of

the genus. It has been observed that In the

species refers

to

more

qualities than
attributes
of

the the

genus. genus from

fact, it represents
which

all the

plus those
the
other

distinguishthe
the genus. of

particular species
These
additional

species of
the

qualities are

differentiae

the

particular species.
To The Illustrate:

attribute
of the

which

man distinguishes

from

the which

other

bipeds

world

is his

rationality. That
the

tinguishe dis-

the

rectangle

from

other

parallelograms

The

Predicables

81

is its four

right angles.

The

attributes

and rationality

rightangles are

differentiae.

(4) Property.
A make

property
the
term

of

term

is any

attribute

which

helps
is

to
a

what

it is.
a

Thus

"consciousness"

property property
and A

of man, of

"binding"

property of book, "angles" a

the
terms

triangle. Deprive
true nature
a

of

these

butes attri-

their

is altered.

differentia

is

property

according
defines

to

the

foregoing
as

definition.

However,
is
common

Jevons

"property"
of
a

"Any
This

qualitywhich
necessary

to the whole

class,but is not
classes."

to mark

out

the class from from

other

viewpoint
The

excludes

"differentia" in

the notion

of property.

difference

opinion

is of

slightimportance.

(5)
An
not

Accident. accident

of

term term

is any what
to

attribute it is. the

of
term.

zvhich

does' ferently indifa

help

to

make
or

the
not

It may

belong
term

belong
the teacher's is
one

Deprive
term

of

an

accident

and
a

nature

the

remains

unchanged.

Thus,

position,a
"

man's

watch,

the fact that the It is obvious while

an

angle
that
a

of 80

are

all accidents.
constant

property
This

is

attribute
former
a

accident

is variable.

gives to
more
or

the
less

universal
and

while validity All the

the latter is

shifting angles degrees

uncertain. while

triangles must
value

have

three in

(property)

of

each

angle

(accident) admits
Some

of unlimited divide hat

variation. into
a

logicians
A

accidents would be
an

separable

and

inseparable.
while his

man's

be

separable accident

would birthplace

inseparableaccident.

82

Definition
Five In Predicables

Illustrated.
five

the

following brief descriptions the

(species) (genus)
a

predicables

are

designated:
(differentia)
with
four

(1) This

rectangle is

parallelogram

right angles

(accident)
its

longer

sides

being

ten

inches.

(species) (2)
This
man

(differentia)
is
a

(prox. genus) biped

with

rational

the

(property)
power

(accident)
and
a

of

locomotion

ruddy

complexion. (differentia) (property)

and three

(species) (3) A trigon

is
a

(genus) polygon (accident)

of

three

sides

angles,

the

sum

of

the

angles being equal

to

two

right angles.

3.

THE

NATURE

OF

DEFINITION.

It will notion notion

of is

be
a

remembered

that
or

an

individual

notion
a

is

single thing
notion
of
a

attribute, while
of

general
of
tributes. at-

class

things or
an

group

A is known for
a as

term
a

which

represents
while
to

individual
term
a

notion

singular term,

which

stands
term.

general notion
may

is referred the

as

general

One stands butes.

a

explain
one

meaning
such

of

singularterm
its various
as a

which

for
For

thing by enumerating
attributes

attri-,
liking

example,

piercing bark,
a

companionable, yellow color, intelligent, explain

we

strong

for sweetmeats, "Fido."

term

the

meaning
explain

of

the

singularterm
of
a

Likewise

may

the

meaning
To

eral gen-

by enumerating its attributes.

illustrate:

84
But power the A when of

Definition
the enumeration includes
such

attributes

as

and speech, rationality

a

to laugh, then ability

does

description become
definition is
a

definition.
a

To

: put it differently means

description of
This

term

by

of its distinguish
be

attributes.
a

statement

may

considered
"A
man

definition
creature

of

man,

though

somewhat and
who

faulty:
possesses

is

who
and

is rational

the

power

of

speech

to laugh." ability

4.

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISION

COMPARED.

We
may

have be used

learned

that

general

terms

when

connotative

extensionallyor
indicates which
as

intensionally.
nature

A while

definition
a

the

intensional
out

of

term,
ture na-

statement
a

points

the

extensional
More

of A the

term

is known

division. logical
statement

: briefly

definition term,
of To
:

is

an

intensional

of

the

nature

of
ment state-

while the

logical division
of the The
term.

is

an

extensional

nature

illustrate:

following

statements

are

tions defini-

(i)

dog is

domesticated

quadruped

of the genus

canis and

given

to
a

barking.
rectilinear

(2)

quadrilateral
sides.

is

figure of

four

(3)

Soil is and

substance

composed

of

pulverizedrock
in which

decayed vegetable matter

plants

will grow. The

following represent Logical (1) Dogs

are

Division

divided

into

bull, etc. hounds, terriers,

Definitionand (2)
The kinds
of

Division

Compared

85
trapeziums,

quadrilaterals are

trapezoids and parallelograms. (3)

5. THE

The

various

soils

are

loam, sand, clay,muck,

etc.

KINDS

OF

DEFINITIONS.

Generally speaking

there

are

three

kinds

of

definitions,

namely, (1) Etymological, (2) Descriptive,(3) Logical.1 (1)

An is etymological definition
one

based

upon

the

derivation This

of

the
a

term.

kind

of

which definition, is sometimes

a

gives merely
a

the
or

ing mean-

of the

symbol,

called

nominal

verbal
as one

definition; while
which

real

definition the notion

is

regarded

gives the meaning of

The
on

for which
to
a

the symbol

stands. classification between

to
a

modern the

logicianis
that the notion

inclined
to

ignore this
distinction is

argument

make

symbol

and

it

symbolizes

simply
them. then it the

misunderstand definition

the relation which does

not

exists between with the

If the
cannot

agree

thing

correctlyexplain
Define

the

term term

which and the be

one

represents
has

thing.

correctly the
notion of

defined

correctlythe
The classes:

signified by
a

term.

attributes

term

may

separated into three

It would pear ap-

differentia, property and

define

accident.
a

therefore, to possible,
the accidents

term

by enumerating properties, or,

tion enumera-

only

or

by enumerating
differentiae. the chances
a

the

finally, by statingthe
is confined will be
are a

But

if the
are

to accidents

that the statement accidents the

not description,

definition, as
to

seldom
*

characteristic sufficiently
Elements of

determine

Hyslop's

Logic

(1901),

page

100.

86

Definition
of
term.

boundaries
of

This

leaves

open

two

distinct

ways
or

defining a
and

term:

First, by naming

the

properties

properties

accidents The

only; second, by statingthe

kind is the

ferentiae dif-

only.

former the

so-called

tive descrip-

definition,while

latter is the
a

logical.
term

(2) of

descriptive of definition
by
means

is

description

its nature

of

its

propertiesand
a

accidents.

(3)

logicaldefinition of
by
means

term

is

descriptionof

its nature
The Three

of
of

its

digerentice.
Illustrated
and

Kinds

Definitions

Compared.

Etymological
A

Definition
a

of

Trigon.
corners.

trigon is

figureof

three

Descriptive :
A

trigon is

figure which
sum

has

three

sides

and
to

three
two

angles, the

of

the

latter

being equal

rightangles. Logical :
A

trigon
seen

is

polygon
an

of

three

angles.
is

It is
root-word
comes

that

etymological definition
In' the
case

simply

analysis.
the Greek,
the

of

trigon, the

prefix

from from

meaning three, while meaning

of
corner.

the root-word

comes

Greek

The

descriptive definition
"three sides and
sum

trigon names
of which

the

ties, proper-

three

and angles" (differentiae)

the

accident, "the

of the

angles

equals

two

right

angles."
The

definition logical
genus,

of

trigon simply

states

the

mate proxi-

"polygon," and

the differentia, "three

angles."

When

DefinitionsAre
THREE KINDS

Serviceable

87
ARE

6.

WHEN

THE

OF

DEFINITIONS

SERVICEABLE.

The
cue

etymological remembering
It also leads

definition the

is

helpful

in

furnishing

for

descriptiveand

tions. logical defini"

to

precision of expression
Here is where the is

the

right
of

word
a

in the

rightplace.

knowledge

Latin, foreign language, particularly

The

helpful.
to

descriptivedefinition
Children think
in the

is best

adapted
are

the
to

childsplitting hair-

mind.

large;

not

given

and, therefore, discriminations,

marks
must

many
to

istic characterinsure
a

be

mentioned

in

order the

mastery

of the
too

content.

With
to

children For

tion logicaldefinieasy

is often
to
see

brief the

be clear.

example, it is
would
A be

which
to

of

following

definitions

better is
an

adapted
of four The of the Few
powers

the

child-mind.

Logical:
A

square

equilateral rectangle. Descriptive:

equal sides
and four may

square

is

figure

right angles.
be introduced
to

logicaldefinition secondary
exercises of
school.
are

the student

better

adapted
and

to

the

development

of

discrimination
common

precision than
terms

practice in
life.

defining logicallythe
For

of

every-day

example:
"A

"A

book
a

is

pack

of

paper-sheets bound
with back "A and lead

together."

chair is the

piece of

furniture
one

seat, designed for

seating of

person."
with lead
to

pencilis

cylindrical writing implement

"A
open

through swing
eraser

the center."
and
an

door and

is

an

obstacle
an

designed
"An
or

in

out

to

close
to

entrance." written

is acters." char-

implement

made

rub

out

printed

88

Definition
These
are

definitions,coming
not

from

training

school

dents, stu-

above

criticism, yet they illustrate the point

in hand.

7.

THE

RULES

OF

LOGICAL

DEFINITION.

Five

rules

summarize
must

the
conform.

requirements

to

which

logicaldefinition
First A

Rule.
state

logicaldefinitionshould
the

the essential

attributes

of

species defined.
means

This

that

logicaldefinition
genus and
to

should

contain

the As

species, the
the
terms

proximate

and

the

differentia. have

species,
will be

genus

differentia

been this

explained, it
rule.

sufficient

briefly illustrate

Logical According
species (1) A
bird is
a

to

the First

Rule.

genus

differentia feathers. differentia

biped with
genus

species (2) A
mascot

is

person genus

supposed

to

bring good

luck,

species (3) Religion is species (4) A

moonbeam
a

differentia of faith and

system

worship,
differentia

genus

is

ray

of

light from Rule.

the

moon.

Illogical According (i)

A
man

to

the First

is

rational

animal.
genus,
not

("Biped"

is the

proximate

"animal.")

The

Rules

of Logical Definition
term

89
both ject ob-

(2)
and

A
an

connotative attribute.

always

denotes

an

(No genus.) (3)

A

trigon is

polygon.

(No differentia.) (4)

of It is
a

term

which

denotes

an

indefinite

number

objects or

attributes.

(No species.)
The

Foregoing Illogical DefinitionsMade

A
A
man

Logical.

(1)

is

rational
term

biped.
is
a

(2)
an

connotative
an

term

which

denotes

both

object and (3) (4)

A
A

attribute.
a

trigon is

polygon
is
a

of three which

angles.
denotes
an

general term
of Rule.

term

nite indefi-

number Second A

objects or

attributes.

should logicaldefinition

be

exactly equivalent to

the

speciesdefined.
This
means or

that the the

speciesmust

equal the

genus

plus the
definition

differentia
must
must

subject and
"

predicate of
same

the The

be

co-extensive
same

of

the

bigness. objects as
makes

subject

refer to the
man

number witness the

A

of stand

the

predicate.

A that

upon

the

the whole

declaration truth and

he

will but

testify to
the truth. whole does
on

truth, the

nothing
the

logicaldefinition

must

contain

the species, definition while the

speciesand nothing
not

but

the

species.
is too other

If the
narrow;

include

all the

it species,

the

other

hand, if it includes
broad.

speciesof

genus

it is too

go

Definition
An excellent
test

of this second

requirement
If the

is to interchange osition prop-

subject
means

and

predicate.
same as

interchanged

the
met.

the

originalthen Original
" "

the conditions
A A

have

been
of

To

illustrate:

trigon is
polygon

polygon
three The

three
a

angles. trigon.

Interchanged

of

angles is
very

best

way

of
to

making

the

definition three
2.

conform

to
i.

this rule Does

other marks To
to

is to

put

oneself
the

these

questions:
it exclude
unnecessary

it include

all of of the

species?
3. Has

Does

all

species
?

genus?

it any

exemplify:
the
A

Let

us

ask

the

three
:

questions

tive rela-

definitions following logical

(1)

parallelogram is
are

quadrilateral

whose

site oppo-

sides

parallel.
is
a

(2)

bird

biped with

feathers.

Questions:

(1 )
Yes. Are

Does Does

the definition it exclude

include

all the

parallelograms?
Yes.

all other
marks all birds? ?

quadrilaterals?
No.
Yes.

there

any

unnecessary it include Yes.

to

(2)
all other

Does

Does
marks?

it exclude No.

bipeds ?

Any
the

unnecessary Second
Rule.

Illogical According (1) (Too

genus, A
man

is

vertebrate
not

animal. other

broad.
as

Does

exclude

species of

the

such A

horses, dogs, etc.)

is
a

(2) (Too
as

barn

building where
not

horses

are

kept.
species,such

narrow.

Does

include

all of the

cow

barn.)

92

Definition
A

violation
the unknown

of this rule is referred

to

in

logicas

ing "defin-

by the still more

unknown"

(ignotum
is
make

per ignotius).
It is known clear used
some

that

the

purpose

of

definition

to

obscure

term,

consequentlyunless

every has

word
been

is understood

the chief aim

of the definition

defeated. From should

would and in

this it
be free

must

not

be

inferred
terms.

that Such
terms

all definitions
a

from

technical

restriction

make
a

the
cases

defining of

many

unsatisfactory
To

few

practicallyimpossible.

the student is intelligible, obscure

:

of

evolution while

the
to

following definition by Spencer

the uninitiated it would
from appear
an

"Evolution incoherent

is

continuous
to
a

change

indefinite, ity heterogene-

homogeneity
successive

definite coherent
and

through
This
to

differentiations

integrations.
when it is possible

"

rule insists upon

use

simple language
accurate

such the

in
term

giving an
defined.

and

comprehensive

meaning

to

Illogical DefinitionsAccording (i)

"A
net

to

the

Fourth is the

Rule. and

is

something

which

reticulated

decussated,
Dr.

with

interstices

between

intersections."

Johnson. (2) "Thought

of
our

is

only

cognition of

the

necessary

relations

concepts."
soul

(3)

"The

is the
has

entelechy,or

first form Aristotle.

of

an

organized body which

Fifth

potential life."

Rule.
must possiblethe definition

When
than

be

rather affirmative

negative.

The

Rules

of Logical Definition
are a

93

The

fact that there admit of

a

considerable

number

of

terms

which
force infidel

negative definition only, takes

Such
can

from

the

of this rule. and

the

terms

as

deafness, inexpressible,

like

best be that when

one

defined

negatively.
are

It likewise it is

happens
to

words

used

in the
of

pairs
other
tive rela-

expedient

define for

and affirmatively

negatively. Recall,
and

example, the definitions

:

absolute
term

terms
to

"A

relative its
not

term

is

one

which "An
to

needs absolute make

another
term

make
does

meaning
need

clear."
term

is

one

which clear."

another

its

meaning

Definitions According Illogical (1) (2)

A

to the

Fifth
not

Rule.

gentleman
element

is is
a

man

who

is

rude. is not
a pound. com-

An

substance

which

(3)
more

An

univocal
one

term

is

term

which

does

not

have

than

meaning.
CANNOT BE DEFINED LOGICALLY.

8.

TERMS

WHICH

definition logical But

as

insists upon there is

no

proximate

genus

and the

differentia.

genus

higher

than

highest genus
be defined
terms

(summum
this class.

genus)
words

then

surely such
and

cannot

logically. The
of

being

thing

trate illus-

Moreover,
of
an

it is

impossible to (infima
tinguish will dis-

give

satisfactorydefinition
no

individual which

species) as
others
not

attributes

can

be mentioned the

and definitely

permanently
may

individual attributes

from but
To

of the that

class.
are

We

perceive the
who

those that

possessed solelyby the individual.

Lincoln
was
a

say

Abraham

man

was

simple

94

Definition
honest is not
as definition,

and
same

other

men

have

had

the

characteristics.

Again
and
terms

there
which
to

are

few

terms

such

as

life,death, time

space
seem

cannot

be class

defined

satisfactorily. These
or

be

in

by

themselves

of their

own

genus

(sui generis).
a

Since
it

definition
of
terms

of

term

is

brief

explanation
that

of

by

means

its

attributes, it follows
for
a

collective
are

terms

and of

standing
Such

single attribute
as

capable in-

definition.
to

terms

group,

bute, pain, attri-

belong
We
some

this class.

may
too

say,

then, that there

and
some

are

some

terms
come

too

high,
the

low
of

too

peculiar
In

to

within

province

definition. logical "sui

short, "summum
are

genus,"

"infima species" and

generis"

nition. incapable of defi-

9.

DEFINITIONS

OF

COMMON

EDUCATIONAL

TERMS.

(i)

Development
an

is the

process
are

whereby
or

the

latent

of possibilities conditions of
a

individual
are

unfolded

the invisible

situation
means

made

apparent.
to

Development
while

expansion according
or

principle,

unfolding
Education

may

may

not

involve

principle.
in

(2)

is the

process

employed

developing
of the

symmetrically systematically,
of capabilities
a

and

progressivelyall

singlelife
is the the

or

(3)
in order

Education
to

process
as

of

modifying experience
as

make

life

valuable
of

it

ought

to

be.

(4)
which

Teaching
result in

is the art

occasioning those
and

activities

knowledge,

power

skill.

Definitionsof
It is the

Common

Educational

Terms

95

duty

of the

true

teacher

to

inspirethe
own

child

to

activityalong right lines.

child

Through
which

his

activitythe
termed

shapes

his inner

world

is sometimes

character.

Knowledge
skill is
a

is

anything known,
of action.
art

power

is

to ability

act.

readiness

(5)

Instruction result in

is the

of

occasioning those

ties activi-

which

knowledge.
the

Instruction

develops

understanding; teaching

velops de-

character.

(6)

Training
means

is the

occasioning

of

those

activities
and

which, by
skill.

of directed

exercise, result

in power

Training

and

education outside

are

not

ing interchangeable. Train-

implies an
involves
inner

authority,while
may

education, which
without
vision. super-

development,

proceed

(7)

Knowledge

is

anything acquired by

the

act

of

knowing. (8) (9) Learning

is the
act

of

acquiringknowledge

or

skill. cation edu-

Instruction, training, teaching,learning and

all involve

activity.
which activity results in
power

Instruction

arouses

knowledge
and

which training directs activity

produces
and

skill ;

teaching includes
is
an

both

instruction
in

training. Learning
and while skill, all the

which activity is
a

results

knowledge
which

education others.

developing

process

involves

(10)
of

science

is

knowledge

classified

for

the

pose pur-

discovering general truths.

g6 (1
power "A

Definition )
to

An

art

is

skillful

of knowledge application

and

practice.
teaches
us
a

science
A

to

know,

an

art

to

do."

(12)
made A
to
or

fact
is

is

single,individual, particularthing
which

done.

truth

general knowledge

exactly conforms

the facts.
A

truth
A

may

be
as

definition, rule,law, opposed

to

or

principle.
an

(13)
which
An
occurrence

fact

hypothesis is

occurrence

is

true

beyond
a

doubt.

hypothesis is
or a

supposition advanced
of
occurrences.

to

explain

an

group

theory is

general hypothesis which

has

been

partly

verified.

(14)

Theory
while

as

opposed

to

practice
the

means

general
tion opera-

knowledge,
one's

practiceinvolves

putting into

theories. A

(15)

fact as
A

opposed phenomenon

to

phenomenon
is

is

something

accomplished.

something
subdivision
a

shown.
of

(16)
for

method-whole

is any
leads
to

the matter

instruction
Method

which
is
an

generalization. according
to
a

(17)

orderly procedure
rules and used

recognized system
As the
term

of

principles.
it includes
for
not

is commonly
of the

only

the but

arrangement
the mode

subject

matter to

instruction

of presenting the Induction

the

same

the mind.

(18)
less

is the
more

process

of

proceeding

from

the

general to

general.
of

Deduction

is the the less

process

proceeding

from

the

more

general to

general.

Definitionsof (19)
reference The
to terms

Common

Educational

Terms

97

induction of

and
or

deduction
to

may

have

forms

reasoning

methods

ing. of teach-

The

inductive truth from

method

is the method instances. is the

of

deriving a
of

eral gen-

individual
method

The

deductive
to

method

applying

general truth
The

individual
method

instances.

inductive is

is

while objective, is the

the deductive of covery; dis-

method

subjective.

Induction

method

deduction

is the method is the

process

of instruction. of

(20)

Analysis

separating a

whole

into its related

parts.
of

Synthesis
form

is the process

uniting the

related

parts

to

the whole. The

(21)
from The

analyticmethod
to

is the

method

of

ing proceed-

the whole

the related

parts.
of

syntheticmethod
parts
to

is the method

proceeding

from

the related

the and

completed

whole. with

(22)
while

Analysis
and

synthesis deal
are

single things,
with classes

induction

deduction

concerned

of things. (23)
The

complete method

consists of three verification the

or

elements

(1) induction, (2) deduction, (3)

When the
the

proof. phase, ment develop-

emphasis

is

placed

on

inductive the

complete method
method.

is sometimes

termed

10.

OUTLINE.

Definition.

(1)

Importance.

98
(2)
The Predicables. Genus
"

Definition

species
"

summum

genus

"

infima

species.

Proximate Genus
and

Genus.

Species of Natural
meaning
of

History.

Genus,

Double

Differentia.

Property.
Accident.

Separable, Inseparable. (3)

Nature of

Definition. and of Division

(4) (5)

Definition The Kinds

Compared.

Definitions.

(1) Etymological.

(2) Descriptive.
(3) Logical.
Three

Kinds When The the Rules

Illustrated

and are

Compared. Serviceable.

(6) (7)

Three

Kinds

of Logical Definition.

(1) (2)
(3) (4)

Essentials. Same
Do
not

size. repeat.

Unambiguous. Language
Which affirmative.
be

(5) (8)
Terms Summum Infima Sui

Cannot
genus.

Defined

Logically.

species.

generis.
terms.

Collective A

single attribute.

11.

SUMMARY.

(1)
This should

To

be

logical

one

must

acquire the
the

habit

of

accurate

definition.

topic ought
above and all

to

appeal strongly
make his

to

school
stand

teacher, who
for

others

work

clearness, cated predi-

pointedness (2)
A

continuity.
a

predicable is subject.

term

which

can

be

affirmed

or

of any

ioo

Definition
(6)
The the

etymological logical

definition

leads

to

precision
to

of

sion, expres-

descriptive

definition

is best

adapted
to

the
of

child-mind, secondary

while

the

definition

belongs

the

realm

education.

(7) Every (2)

to

Five
must

rules

summarize
In
must

the
a

requirements
or

to

which

logical
are:

definition

conform.

word

two

these
genus
not

five rules
and

logical definition equivalent

be Some
to

(1)

state

the

differentia,
the
name

be be

the species defined, (3)

not

repeat

defined, (4)

be

expressed

in

obscure

language,

(5)

commonly (8)
low within

affirmative.
terms
are

too
some

high
too

(summum

genus),

some

too
come

(infima species),
the

peculiar (sui generis)

to

province of logical definition.

12.

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXERCISES.

la.

The

italicized
because
man

words
are

in

the

following
of the

propositions

are

predicables

they

affirmed
one

subject:

(1) "This (2) (3)

"A "The

weighs
is
a

hundred

fifty pounds."
worker."

bird

feathered
teacher

biped."
an

earnest

is

indefatigable

(4) "Walking
lb. Underscore
"All
men

is the

most

beneficial outdoor following

exercise."
:

the predicables in the

are

(1)

rational."
be of

(2) "Teachers (3) "Every (4) "Calmness

wisdom."
2a.
group

must

just." springs
of the from
a

form of the of

unhappiness
is

wrong

dition con-

mind."

mind

one

beautiful

jewels

of

To of them

clarify
words
as

our

ideas
to

it is

an

excellent
genus
as

plan
a

to

select
of
an

belonging simply
may

the

same

with

view
As

fining de-

and be

expeditiously
as a as

possible.
The

tration illuswill

building
suggest
to
us

selected
such

genus.

word

kind

the

species,
the

dwelling,
smoke-house.

church,
This
are

theatre,
it is
to

school, barn, bird-house,

necessary
to to

granary

and of

Next
seems

discover
the

basis

distinction.
Now
we

be the

the

use

which
:

building is put.

ready

for

definitions

Illustrative

Exercises

101

2b.

By

selecting
in the
may

man

as

the

genus,

define American

the

terms

Caucasian,
Treat

Mongolian,
term

Ethiopian, Malay
same manner.

and

Indian.

the

chair One

3a.

easily distinguish
the alter its identity"? words italicized
are

property

from

an

accident

by asking himself
from

question, "Would
For

subtracting the attribute example

in the

the

term

following,

I find that

the

properties because

subtracting

each

from

the term
"

changes

its identity : Attributes

Term
man

age,

rationality, possessions,
contents, costs
a

book radium

binding, leaves, size,color,

emits intense
a

light and

heat,

million

lars dol-

pound,
moves

snail

air-breathing mollusk,
soft mud
the the
common
:

slowly, deep. following

the terms, of the

slush
3b.

and

snow,

six inches

Indicate

attributes

underscoring
4. of for The

properties

Tree, teacher, garden, house, river.

the essentials
of

rules

summarize

well

subject
the

ter mat-

the

logical definition.
to
a

Therefore,
rules
at

it is

highly important
tongue."
Make
a

the

student

have

these

the
may

"tip of
be

With each

this in view
letter word of

device

of this
stand

nature

helpful.

the word in each

1

rules

for the

initial letter of

gestive sug-

of

the

five rules. For

example:

(repeat),

(unambiguous),
With

s (same (language affirmative), e (essential),

size).
a

little study "r and

repeat," "u and

unambiguous,"
same

"1 and be

language rule, do

affirmative," "e and together in the

repeat the
name,

essential,""s and
memory.

size" may the

firmly linked
not

Repeat

suggests the

third

etc.;

unambiguous,

fourth

rule,

102

Definition
ambiguous

not

the fifth rule; language, etc.; language affirmative, rule, subject and size, the second essentials,the first rule; same
must

predicate
recalled It

be

of of

same

size.
is

The

fact

that

the

rules

are

not

in

order

treatment

inconsequential.
fifteen similar
rules.
a more

is the

writer's
upon

experience
this

that
or one

minutes
to

of

trated concen-

study
stamp
The
upon

device
these able

it will

indelibly

the

mind
be

troublesome
to

student

may

devise

helpful keyword.

13.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.
should the

(1)
the

Why
Define
Name Define

subject

of

definition

appeal strongly

to

school

teacher?
a

(2) (3) (4)

predicable.
order the five predicables.
terms genus genus,

in and

illustrate the
terms
summum

and

species.
species, sui

(5)
generis. (6) (7) history. (8) (9) (10)

Explain
Illustrate

the

infima

proximate
the
terms

genus. genus

Explain Exemplify
Define
In

and

species
of

as

used

in natural

the

double

meaning

the genus

man.

and
sense

illustrate differentia. is the species

between
a

what

richer and

term

than

the genus?

(11) Distinguish (13) Give

the
five obversion.

property
and

accident.

(12) Illustrate separable descriptive

:

inseparable accidents.
of the

definitions

following, indicating
non-connotative term,

predicables

logic, general

term,

(14) Define (16) Name, (18) Define city,metal.

definition; illustrate.
between and

(15) Distinguish

definition illustrate the

real and

and

division. kinds
of

define

three

definitions.

(17) Distinguish between

in

verbal

definitions.

three

ways

the

following: king, government,

(19) State the (20) What

the rules
for

rules

of
may

logical definition.
be used
as cues

words

to

aid

in

recalling
make

logical definition?
what
of

(21) Under
use

circumstances kinds
of

will

the

wise

teacher

of

each

three

definitions?

Review

Questions
rule should
for ask

103

(22) Relative
are

to

the

second
one

logical definition
himself? rule. what
may

what

the three

questions that
with

(23) Explain (24)

to

the exceptions to the third

the

In
use

connection of technical

fourth

rule

be

said

as

the

terms?
from

(25) What
(26) What
Illustrate.

facts take

the do

force
not

of the fifth rule?

of

classes of words

admit

logical definition?

(27) Define
; deduction

education, teaching, instruction, training.

illustration between induction and
thesis syn-

(28) Distinguish by
and

analysis.
FOR ORIGINAL

14.

QUESTIONS

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1) Why ? illogically (2)

icables. Name

should

the

scholar

be

tempted

to

speak
classed

and

write

the

parts

of

speech that

may

be

as

pred-

(3) (4)

Explain
Show

the ten
genus

categories as given by Aristotle.

and

that should
as

species

are

relative
most

terms.

(5)
dence

Why
and

the

definition

be needed

in the

abstract

sciences, such

theology, ethics, political economy,

juris-pru-

psychology? sin, life,wrong,

the viewpoint
terms

(6)
(7) (8) (9)

Define From

habit, character. personality,

of natural is

history find the species in

a

the series of What

of

which

polygon

member.

is the should is is

plural of differentia? logic insist

a

Why

upon

the

proximate

genus

(10) (a) Man (b)

In Man

rational rational immature

animal.

biped (proximate genus).

mind the first definition would be

the

case

of the ?

clearer.

Why
"A
to

(11) belongs

property that term." is the

of

term

is any

mark

or

characteristic Give

which

Is this definition
between

logical?
the

reasons.

(12) What
(13)
Is

difference

logical and the popular logical

and

conception of property?
there
of
any

difference

between

the

popular
for the

conception (14) "The

accidents?
term

confer entia

might

be

used

to

stand

104

Definition
of
of

essence

the

genus,

as

the

term

differentia this. that there is

represents

the

sence es-

the

species."1 Explain
Stuart

(15) John
real

Mill

affirms

no

such

thing

as

definition.
In
your

Discuss

this.
of

(16)
what
one

opinion,
most

the
the

five
average

rules

of

logical definition
Give
reasons.

is violated

by

teacher?
content.

(17) Distinguish (18) Why

What
are

between

symbol

and

descriptive definitions principle is involved? standpoint following:

is
a

best

for

young

children?

educational
From

(19)

the

of

the

five

rules

for

tion logical defini-

criticise the

(1)

A A

man

reasonable
is
a man

vertebrate. with
no

(2)
(3) (4) (5) (6)

gentleman
support.
is

visible

means

of

man

an

organized entity whose

element
a one

cognitive
luster.

powers

function
A A A

rationally.
is
an

metal

with
of

metallic
sides.

triangle
teacher

is is

figure
who

three

imparts knowledge.
of
and who

(7) Education
beautiful

is the

process

drawing
in

out

all that

is

in the
is
a

body
man

noble

in the

soul. trade. rect by di-

(8) (9)

A A

democrat

believes

free

government
vote

is

commonwealth

controlled

of

the

people.
in

(20) Write (21) Since

not

the
man

foregoing definitions
is the
a

logical
to

form. is

only animal
:

given
"Man

laughter, why

the

following
"A

logical definition

is the
any

laughing animal." species, the

reason

(22)
and

logical definition should appropriate?

contain
Is

genus

the
term

appropriate differentia."

there

for

using

the

(23) (24)

In Is

connection

with

genus

and human
may

species explain being

be
an or an

subaltern.

laughter
how

property

of

accident?
but
not
a

(25) Show
teacher.

pedagogue

instructor

(26)

Illustrate

the complete induction

may

method. consist
of
a

(27) Show
also
l

that
of

series of

analyses;

series
Hyslop.

syntheses.

CHAPTER

7.

LOGICAL

DIVISION

AND

CLASSIFICATION.

1.

NATURE

OF

LOGICAL

DIVISION.

The stands
term

term

genus
two
or

is
more

used

for

any

class

name

which while the ordinate sub-

for

subordinate
to

classes
any
one

species is made
classes.

stand

for

of

the

The above.

proximate
For
not

genus

of the

any

species is the
genus

next

class is

example

proximate

of

man

biped,

animal. division is the process

Logical
genus

of separating

proximate

into its co-ordinate

species.

Illustrations Genus

Species
Fixed Planets Satellites
stars

(i)

Heavenly

bodies Comets Meteors Nebulae

Leptocardians
Fishes

(2)

Vertebrates

Amphibians Reptiles
Birds Mammals
105

io6

Logical

Division

and

Classification
Caucasian

Mongolian (3)
Man

Malay Ethiopian
American Indian

Monarchy (4)
Government

Aristocracy Democracy

2.

LOGICAL

DIVISION

DISTINGUISHED

FROM

TION. ENUMERA-

When

the the

genus process

is is

separated
not

at

once

into

individual

objects

logical division, but

simple

enumeration.
smaller class

Logical
terms,

division
term

implies a separating into being

may
as a

each

genus

of

still till

smaller
the

subdivisions.

This

process

be

continued tion Enumeraa

last division takes

gives

individuals

species.

place when
To

the first subdivision illustrate:

results in

list

of

individuals.

Logical

Division. Science teacher teacher

Mathematics Teacher

J English
I Modern

teacher

language teacher

Enumeration.

John J. Brown
H. Teacher G. White

Mary Jones
Alice Smith

108

Logical
etc.

Division

and

Classification
cannot

man,

If

such

an

affirmation
is not For that

be

made

then

the

separation
is
a

involved

properly logical division example

sap
any

but that

probably partition.
a

it
a

cannot

be

said

roof

house,

or

is

tree.

It is seen, be
of
marized suma

then, that

logical division
form of
a

of

genus

may

in the

series of the genus

judgments
is the

which
For

species is the subject and example, by

into
this process
a

predicate.
be

logicaldivision
be

quadrilaterals may
and in
a

vided di-

trapeziums, trapezoids
may

parallelograms;
series of

then
A

summarized
is
a

three
A
a

judgments:
trapezoid is

(i)
a

trapezium

quadrilateral;(2)
A

quadrilateral;(3)

parallelogram

is

quadrilateral.
4.

RULES

OF

LOGICAL

DIVISION.

When

the
there

logicaldivision
four

of

genus should but

one

is under be

ation consider-

are

rules which
must

observed. sion diviinto red

First

Rule.

There

be

principleof
mankind and

(fundamentum
white
man

divisionis). To
man,
as
are

divide

man,

Australian, yellow
violation
of

African
two

is

this rule

the

principlesof
A

color in

and

geographical location
more

involved.
used the

division

which

than
as

one

principle is
because in

is sometimes

referred
cross are

to

cross

division
For

various

species
there

each
many

other. white
men

example
are

the

foregoing

who

Australians.
one

This is
a

rule

applies only
a

to
new

division.

Where
be

there

series of divisions division. For

principlemay
in

employed
sides
is

in each

example,

dividing triangles into

scalene, isosceles and

the equality of equilateral,

Rules

of Logical Division
in

109

the

principle involved, but,

into

subdividing

isosceles
the

angles tri-

right angled

and

oblique angled,
of the

principle

employed
Second

concerns

the nature The There

angle. species must overlapping.

a

Rule.

co-ordinate
must

be The

tually mu-

exclusive.

be

no

lustrat ilof

given
this rule.
not

in the first rule is likewise

violation
rule

Another
may

example
be
found

in which
most

this second

is

obeyed
are

in

geometries
and

where

angles tri-

divided
second

into scalene, isosceles and third classes

are

equilateral. mutually
clusive ex-

Here

the

not

since all
to

are equilateral triangles

isosceles

ing accorda

the

usual
two

definition,"An equal sides."

isosceles All

triangle is

triangle having
have
two

equilateral triangles

equal
Rule.

sides. The division

must

Third

be exhaustive.

That
genus.

is,the speciestaken
The genus.
sum

together must
be

equal

the whole

of

the

species must

co-extensive

with

the

Dividing
would other
A

man

into Caucasian,

Ethiopian
there

and
are

Mongolian
at

be

violation
man,

of this rule, as

least two

speciesof
distinction
and
a

Malay
be

and

American between
as

Indian.
an

should

made division divide

exhaustive is
not
archy, mona

division

complete
To

the

latter

logical requirement. aristocracy and

Exhaustive

government
is exhaustive is
no

into

democracy
because

but kind

complete in-

there

other

of

government,
in

all the

species are
may be pure

included

; but

incomplete
and

that

monarchy

divided and

into

absolute

limited; democracy into

Fourth Rule. The

representative.
must

division

proceed from

the

no

Logical
to

Division

and

Classification species.
genus
to
a

proximate
be The
no

genus

the immediate
from
a

There
low

should

sudden
division

jumps
must

high

species.

be

gradual
into

and

continuous; step bymonarchy,

lute abso-

step.

To

divide

government
pure be
a

limited and

monarchy,
would

democracy
violation
of

mocracy representative de-

of this rule, as
not

government
archy, mon-

is the

proximate
therefore involves
a

genus
one

monarchy,

of limited Such
to
an

step has been

from

omitted.

sion omis-

step

grandfather
of father

grandchild,
been

so

to

speak,

the

generation

having

left

out.

violation

of this rule is most

a

insidious immediate

when while into

some

of

the
are

species of
not.

subdivision
:

are

others

To

wit

dividing government democracy

rhombs.
and

monarchy, dividing

aristocracy,pure
rhomboids

republic, or

quadrilaterals into
squares,

trapeziums, trapezoids, rectangles,

and

5.

DICHOTOMY.

Dichotomy
two. two

comes

from is
are a

the

Greek, meaning
division

to

cut

in into

Dichotomy specieswhich

continual

of

genus

contradictoryin
are

nature.

Contradictory terms
ground.
two

such

as

admit
of

of

no

middle into
and

They
For

divide

the whole

universe and
are

thought

classes.

example, honest
and

not-honest, pure

impure, perfect

imperfect,
an

contradictory terms.
for
an haustive ex-

Dichotomy

thus

affords
as

easy
use

opportunity

division
in the universe

in the

of contradictories

nothing
of

need

be omitted.

An

historical

illustration of

dichotomy

is the

"Tree

Dichotomy Porphyry"
named after

in

Porphyrius,

Neo-Platonic

philosopher of

the third Tree

century.

of Porphyry.
Substance.

Corporeal

Incorporeal

Body

Animate

Inanimate

Living Being

Sensible

Insensible

Animal

Rational

Irrational

Man

Socrates

Plato

Other

Men

H2

Logical
This kind
of

Division

and

Classification altogethersatisfactoryas
On the other
there

division
too

is not

the negative side is both

of

indefinite. made

hand,
is

if

subdivisions
the

are

positive then
contrary
would
of be

danger
tradictory. con-

making

opposing
of

terms

rather
a

than

This,
as fallacy,

course,

serious

logical
while
one
or

contrary

terms

admit

middle

ground
the

contradictory terms
the other.
use new

give no

choice, it

is either

The where

of
and

dichotomy

becomes

evident

in may

situations be
made.

unexpected

discoveries

Without
be

disturbingthe
to

classification the side

of

new

species may
division. The

appended

the

negative
:

the

following

illustrates

Vertebrates
' i
1

Leptocardians

Not-leptocardians
Fish
I

Not-Fish
'
"

Amphibians
1

Not-amphibians
'

Reptiles
Birds Mammals

Not-reptiles
i

Not-birds
"'-"

Not-mammals

I
The New

Species

6.

CLASSIFICATION"

COMPARED

WITH

DIVISION.

is Classification
to

the

process
or

of grouping notions
connections.

cording ac-

their resemblances
as

So

far

results

are

concerned

there

is

no

difference

Classification Compared
"

with

Division

113

between
may

division logical
us

and

classification.

Both

processes and heads. sub-

give

the

same

orderly scheme
it

of heads itself. the

The is deductive
genus

difference in nature
to

lies in the process

as

Division
eral gen-

proceeds

from

more

the
as

less

general species.
the less Division

While

tion classifica-

is inductive the into

to
more

it groups
genus.

general speciesunder
differentiates reduces

general

unity

while multiplicity, It follows difference

classification that the

one

multiplicity
of
may

unity.
The

is the
of

inverse

the be

other.

in the
common
:

mode

procedure
or

illustrated of

by using

the

classification

division

triangles. For
Without
any

example

knowledge

of

the

kinds
the

of

trianglesthe shapes
none

student
many

discovers that triangles

by examining
there is
a

various

of

group

in which better
name

of the
he
terms

sides these

are

equal.

For

the lack

of

non-equilateral(scalene). Further
another
group

observation
are

closes dis-

in which

two

of the sides

equal.
a

These third This

he
group process

names

bi-equilateral(isosceles). Finally designated

as

is

(equilateral). tri-equilateral
Division
into would three consist kinds
"

is classification. the
genus

in

separating

triangle

the

scalene, isosceles, equilateral.

7.

KINDS

OF

CLASSIFICATION"

ARTIFICIAL

AND

NATURAL.

An is made

is classification artificial
on

one

in which

the

grouping
loguing Cata-

the basis

of

some

arbitraryconnection.
books in
a

the alphabetically this kind of classification.

library illustrates
arrangement
of

Likewise

the

H4

Logical
in

Division

and

Classification
book. title The
or

the

names

directory or
the

telephone

necting con-

mark
The group
reason

being why
both

initial letter of the

and

name. same

Mills
names

Meyers
happen
to

are

put

in the with

is that

commence

the

letter M.

Artificial classifications
purpose,

are

resorted
not

to

for

some

special

designed by

man,
are

by

nature.

Consequently
called

artificial classifications

sometimes

special or

working
A made

classifications. is classification basis

one

natural
on

in which
mark

the

grouping
resemblance. the
are

is

the

of

some

inherent and Such

of
are

Classifications of

in animal

plant life

best

lustrat il-

this
and
or

kind.
not

classifications
and may,

gested sug-

by
called

nature

by

man,

therefore, be
of and
natural

general

scientific.
to

The

main

aim

classification

is

derive
be

general

truths

arrange

knowledge
8.

so

that it may
OF

easilyremembered.

TWO

RULES

CLASSIFICATION.

The

rules of
a

division logical

are

applicablein
addition
to to

ing the mak-

of

logicalclassification.
should
be

In made

these
to
to

an

artificial classification
one

conform

the
the

rule:

The

must classification

be

appropriate

purpose
be

in hand.
to

Likewise
to

natural rule: the

classification should

made

conform

the

Every classification
greatest possible
ber num-

should

afford opportunity for

of general assertions.
9. USE OF DIVISION ROOM. AND

CLASSIFICATION

IN

THE

SCHOOL

It has

been

stated

that

classification

and

division

aim

n6

Logical Division
(6) (7) (8) (9)
Classification Kinds.
Two

and

Classification
Division.

Compared

with

Artificial" Rules
of

Natural.

Classification.

(1) Appropriate,
Use of Division
and

(2) Afford

many

Assertions.

Classification.

11.

SUMMARY.

(1)
genus

Logical division
into its co-ordinate
The

is the

process

of

separating

proximate
gives class
vidual gives indi-

species.
in
a

(2)
terms,

first subdivision the

logical division
an

while

first subdivision

in

enumeration

objects. (3)
into Partition its parts. is the process These parts of
may

separating
be

an

individual

thing
or

either

quantitative
in

qualitative.
A
of

logical division judgments

of

of

any
a

genus

may

be

summarized

series
is

which

species is the subject and

the

genus

the predicate.

(4) (1) be

The
based

four
on

rules
one

of

logical division
and

are:

the

division

must
clusive, ex-

principle, (2) have

species mutually
from

(3)
to

be

exhaustive

(4) proceed
gives

proximate

genus

immediate
A

species.
of

violation

the first rule is

cross

division.
with
a

Exhaustive finished

division

easily confused
division

complete
into

or

division.

(5)

Dichotomy
are

is

continual

of

genus

two

species which
An

contradictory
service

in nature.

historical

illustration of dichotomy
is of

is the Tree
new

of

Porphyry.
unexpected
ing accord-

Dichotomy
discoveries.

in the

field of

and

(6)
to

Classification

is the
or

process

of

grouping notions
division deductive.

their resemblances

connections.
in nature,

Classification

is inductive

fication Classi-

unifies,division (7)
mark An

differentiates.
is made
on

artificial classification
a

the

basis
some

of

some

arbitrary connection;
of

natural

classification, on

inherent

resemblance.
The In rules of

(8)

logical division
to

are

applicable in
should

any

fication. classiap-

addition

these

classification

(1) be

Summary
propriate and
number

117

(2)

afford

opportunity
be the

for

the

greatest

possible
in the

of assertions. Classification should

in the

(9)
lower

mode

of

procedure

grades, division

higher grades.

12.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS. and is the does illustrate

(1)

Define What How

logical division.
of

(2)
(3) (4)
or

meaning

proximate

genus

? enumeration?

logical division

differ

from

Illustrate.

Distinguish between

logicaldivision, and

physical division

partition. (5) Illustrate

(6)
Illustrate

quantitativepartition; a qualitative partition.

a

how

logical division

may

be

summarized

in

the form

of State State

series of judgments. and the

(7)
(8)

explain the rules of logical division.

rules violated in the

following

divisions,

(9)
terms.

Show

the

difference

between

contradictory and

opposite

(10) Define
scientists.

dichotomy.
the Tree of

(11) Illustrate

Porphyry
between

and

indicate

its

use

to

(12) Illustrate the difference (13) Why

should immature

classification and
of

division. when

classification be minds ?

the mode

procedure

dealing with

n8

Logical

Division

and

Classification
artificial and natural

(14) Illustrate the difference

classification.

between

an

(15) State (16) Show

which
are

and

explain the
of the

two

rules

of

classification.
are

which
:

following

divisions

logical

and

not

(1) The

manifestations
and

of

the

mind

into

knowing,

ing think-

feeling.
and
are

(2)
(3)

Books Students

into mathematical into those who

non-mathematical.

industrious,athletic
and lilies. the

and

shiftless.

(4) Flowers (5) Planets

and

into into

roses,

carnations which
are are

those which

larger than

earth

those

smaller.

13.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
book.

Analyze

by mathematical

partitionthe
the

terms

world, plant,

(2) (3)
the genus

Analyze
What

by logical partition
is violated the if the

terms

granite, water,
is

air.
to

rule

logical division
genus

applied

rather

than

proximate

?
terms
:

(4)

Divide

logically the
life.

following

school, religion,

book, vegetable,

(5)
(6)

"Each

new

subdivision this.
and

may

adopt

new

sion." principle of divi-

Illustrate

Explain

illustrate
and

the

meaning

of

the

terms

super-

ordinate, sub-ordinate (7)

division. Define
and

co-ordinate.

illustrate

metaphysical

division

and

verbal

(8)

Give

definition of

of

an

isosceles
into

triangle which
isosceles

will make and

logical the division

triangles

scalene,

lateral. equi-

(9)
three the third

"The

evolution

of all truth

develops progressivelythrough
is the antithesis ; of

stages." "The
is the Illustrate

first is the

thesis ; the second this in

a

synthesis."
the

Explain

terms

trichotomy.
division
and

(10)
an

difference

between

complete

exhaustive

division.

Questions

for

Original

Thought

119

(11)
the rules

Show of

in

what

ways,

if

any,

the

following

divisions

violate

logical

division.

Memory
1

Mathematics

(History)
2

Astronomy
Physics

Imagination
3

Human

Learning
(by

(Poetry)
Reason

Sciences
4

Chemistry
Biology Sociology
Morals

Bacon)

(by

Comte)
5

(Philosophy)
6
or

(the

Sciences)

CHAPTER

8.

LOGICAL

PROPOSITIONS

1.

THE

NATURE

OF

LOGICAL

PROPOSITIONS.

Judging
or

has

been

defined This of

as

the be

process

of

conjoining
way:

disjoining notions.
is the process
two
a

may

put

in another

"Judging

asserting or
The

denying
of

the agreement
the
are

between

notions."
and

product

act

of in

judging
word-

is

judgment

when
are

judgments

put

form

such
A words.

expressions

called

logicalpropositions.
is
a

Definition: in
are

logical proposition Just

means as

judgment
concept
so

pressed ex-

percept

and
terms

notions

expressed
may

by

of

logical

judgment

notions To
express

be
:

expressed
The
terms

by logicalpropositions.
the

illustrate
two

squirrel and
an

cracking

nut

notions,
and
an

and the

when

agreement
is expressed the

between in word

them

is

asserted such

product

form,

then "The

expression
is

becomes
a

logical proposition,

squirrel

cracking

nut."

The

following being expressed

:

judgments

are

logical

propositions

(i) (2)
(3)

All

men

are

mortal.
are

Some
No
men

men

wise.

are

immortal.
are

(4) (5) (6)

Some No Some
sane

men

not

wise.
a

person

is

lover
are

of vice.
not

good
man

orators

good

statesmen.

(7) Every

is fallible.
120

The

Nature

of Logical Propositions
not

121

(8) (9)
2.

If it He

rains, I shall
sane or

go.

is either

insane.

KINDS

OF
are

LOGICAL

PROPOSITIONS.

There

three

kinds

of

logical propositions;namely, disjunctive.

one

categorical, hypotheticaland
A

categorical proposition is

in which

the assertion

is made
one

unconditionally.An
the assertion
one

hypotheticalproposition is
upon
asserts
a

in which

depends
which

condition.
an

disjunctive propositionis
The
Three

alternative.

Kinds

Illustrated has his

(1 ) "Every dog (2)

"If you

day."

Categorical.
will reward

do your

best,success

you."

Hypothetical. (3)
"He is either

stupid

or

indolent."

junctive. Dis-

(4) (5)

"All vices "Either

are

reprehensible." Categorical.
are

you

very

talented

or

very

trious." indus-

Disjunctive. (6)
"If

capitalpunishment
be go

does

not

aid

society,

it should

abolished."

Hypothetical.
teacher ing." is will-

(7)

"You

may

provided

your

Hypothetical. (8)
"No of
man intelligent can

ignore

the

practice
that the
ments, state-

temperance."

Categorical.

By studying the

illustrations it will be observed

categoricalpropositions are
whereas which make for the

direct,bold, assertive
limited the

hypotheticalare
less forceful. "success In

by conditions

them

second

tion, proposiis limited

example,

will reward

you,"

122

Logical Propositions
the be

by
may in

condition, "If regarded

because
as

you

do

your

best."

The

disjunctive

categorical in form, but hypothetical

in such
a

meaning,
or

propositionas,
is made be

"He

is

either,
gests sug-

stupid

indolent," a direct assertion

and categorical,

which

the

yet it may

implied that,

if of

he the

is

stupid then

he

is not

indolent; this is indicative

hypothetical. propositionsas categoricaland logiciansclassify being

The subdivided into

Some

conditional, the conditional

and

thetical hyposeems

disjunctive.
as

first classification
to

preferable, however,

it conforms

the three

modes

of

reasoning.
The
are

common

word-signs
each,
any,
no

of the
and

proposition categorical
while those
of

all,every,

some,

the

hypothetical are
that,when,
a

if,even
or

if,unless, although, though, provided

word
or

any

group

of words
are

denoting
"

condition.

The

disjunctivesymbols
A

either

or.

3.

THE

FOUR

ELEMENTS

OF

CATEGORICAL

SITION. PROPO-

Every

categoricalproposition namely,
the

should

have

four

ments; ele-

quantity sign,the logicalsubject,the

In the

copula

and

the

logicalpredicate.

foregoing
are

gorical cate-

propositions the quantity signs

every, all and
no.

respectively,
is

In

any

case

the

quantity sign

always attached
or

to

the

subject and

indicates
two

its breadth

extension.
are

For

example, in the
and

"All propositions,

men

mortal" makes

"Some
man

men

are

wise,"

the

quantity
does the

sign all

the

term

much

broader

than

quantity sign some.

124

Logical Propositions
The student
must

ever

keep

in mind

the

fact that

to

be

absolutelylogicalall categorical propositionsmust

terms
man

be

expressed in
is too
of

of the is too

four busy

elements.
to to

However,

life
terms

short four
an

and

speak always in
be

the

elements. awkwardness could

Moreover,
of

logical may
and For
a

often lack of
sons rea-

compel euphony
the

expression
be tolerated.

which

hardly
in
far

these
are are

utterances
so illogical

ordinary
as

conversation elements

quently frecerned, con-

the

four

though
it is desired
to to

not test
some

in meaning. necessarily illogical the of validity

any

When

series of statements
may

leading up
to

it generalization, the
statement

become of the

sary neces-

express

in terms

four

ments. ele-

The otherwise The

student be

should

gain

some

in this, facility

he may

readilyled

into fallacious
at random

reasoning.
from
papers news-

following statements
are

taken

given

in the elements

original and
:

then

expressed

in

terms

of the four

The

Original
too

In

Terms

of the Four
person too
man was

Elements
one

(1) You

came

late.

(1) The
came

is late.
one

who

(2)

saw

the

swell

turnout

(2) The

who

saw

coming

along.

the swell

turnout

coming

along.
(3) All of the
men

walked.

(3) All

of

the

men

were

those

who

walked. the
robbers
were

(4) The

robbers

cut

hole

in

(4)

All
ones

the
in

this floor.

who floor. birds

flew

cut

hole

this

(5) Some

of

these

flew

away.

(5) Some
which

were

those

away.

The

Four

Elements

of a CategoricalProposition
with

125

(6) The

rain

interfered

(6) The

rain

was

that with

which the
tendance. at-

the attendance.

interfered

(7)

Our make

habits
us.

make

or

un-

(7) All
us.

our

habits
make

are
or

forces unmake

which

(8) We

all had

fine time.

(8) All
who

the

party
a

were

those

had

fine time.

In "think without

argumentative
the

discourse
terms

it is often of the

sufficient four it.

to

proposition" in
time
to

elements

taking the
AND

actuallyexpress
SUBJECT

4.

LOGICAL

GRAMMATICAL

AND

CATE PREDI-

DISTINGUISHED.

The

grammatical subject is
the

one

word

while

the

logical

subject is

grammatical subject with example:

men

all its modifiers in the

except the quantity sign. For

"All white
men are

tion, proposimatical gram-

Caucasians,"
men

is the

subject,while
All of

white

is the

logicalsubject.
the extension

being
men

the

quantity sign simply indicates

a

and

is not

subject. part of the logical

is the verb-form the

The with

grammatical predicate
any

together logical

predicate noun
the

or

adjective,while
or

predicateis
The the

predicateword

words

and the

fiers. all its modi-

grammatical predicateincludes
never

copula,but
The

logical predicate

includes
not

the the what To

copula.
is

grammatical predicate does

the
to

include

object,while equivalent

logicalpredicate always
the

includes

object and

all its modifiers.

men are

illustrate: in the wise is the grammatical

proposition,"Some
And

wise,"

are

predicate, while
in the

wise

is the

logical predicate.
on

"He proposition,

burned

the red house

the

126

Logical Propositions
is the the red

hill,"burned
who burned

grammatical predicate,while
house
on

the

one

the

hill is the

logical cate. predi-

5.

THE

FOUR

KINDS

OF

CATEGORICAL

PROPOSITIONS.

Categoricalpropositionsare quantity into

their
A

divided

according
and

to

their
to

Universal

and

Particular

according

qualityinto Affirmativeand Negative.

universal

proposition is of
the

one

in which

the

predicate

refers to

the whole

logical subject.

Illustrations

(i)
(2) (3)

All

men

are

mortal.
men

All civilized No

cook

their food.

dogs
man

are

immortal.
was once a

(4) Every Considering

boy.
the

the first
to

proposition,"mortal''
of the refers the the

logical
the the
term

predicate,refers

the whole

subject"men." logical
to to

Similarly "cook
term term

their men"
;

food"

whole whole

of of

"civilized

"immortal"
a

"dogs,"

and

"once

boy"

to

the whole

of the

"man." In

considering the
to

definition in mind

of

universal

proposition
between
sition propoto
a

it is necessary
and logical
a

keep

the distinction

as grammatical subject,

in the second

the

logicalpredicate,"cook

their

food,"

refers

only

part of the grammatical subject,men,

be propositionmight fallaciously than
a one

fore, and, therea

the

termed

ticular par-

proposition rather
A

universal. in which the

particularproposition is
a

predicate

refers to only

subject. part of the logical

The

Four

Kinds

of CategoricalPropositions

127

Illustrations

(1 )

Some Some Most

men

are

wise.
are are are

(2) (3)
In the

animals elements children

not

quadrupeds.

metals. mischievous.
most
not

(4) Many

foregoing propositionssome,

and

many

are as

quantity signs and, therefore,must

a

be

considered

part of the

subjects. Considering the logical logical

the term wise refers
to
to

subjects and only

a a

predicates in order,
men

part of the

in the

world, quadrupeds
to
a

only
ments ele-

part of the animals, metals

and An mischievous
to

only

part

of

the

only

part of the children.

one

affirmativeproposition is
between

which

expresses

an

agreement
A

subject and predicate.

one

negativepropositionis
between

which

expresses

agreement dis-

subject and

predicate.

Affirmative

propositionsconjoin terms, negative propositions

In the first the

disjoin terms.
in the second

agreement

firmed; is af-

the agreement

is denied.

Illustrations None Some

of the

captivesescaped.
are

Negative.
Affirmative.

teachers
grow

just.

Affirmative.

All trees Some No

towards
are

heaven.

people
person

not

companionable.

Negative.

is above universal kinds

criticism. and
;

Negative.

Dividing
to

both

particularpropositionsas
universal and

quality, gives four

namely,

affirmative,

universal

negative, particular affirmative

particular

negative.No topicin logicdemands

than greater familiarity

128

Logical Propositions
four

these
one

types,

as

every

propositionmust
be used
as a

be reduced

to

of the four before For the sake

to

it can

basis of

reasoning.
O
are

of

brevity the symbols A, E,

universal

I and

used

the designate respectively

affirmative,
and the

the universal

negative,the particularaffirmative
A

particular negative.
are propositions,

and

I, symbolizing the affirmative

second vowels in

the first and

Affirmo,

while in
or

and

O, symbolizing the negatives,are

common

the vowels

Nego.
the A

The

sign of

the universal

affirmative,
E

propositionis all;of
of the the
not
as

the universal

negative,or

propositionno;
some;
some

particularaffirmative,or
O The

I proposition

of

particularnegative, or
a

tion proposipanying accom-

with

part of the copula.

these

classification summarizes used

to

facts,S and

being

symbolize

the

terms

"subject" and
A

"predicate."
Illustrations All S is P No Some Some S is P S is P S is
to

Affirmativef Universal
" .

"j
INegative-E
""
"

Categorical
L

Propositions
Particular

Affirmative-I f -j [Negative-O

not

Henceforth
the

the four

symbols A, E, I, O
kinds other
may A E
"

will be used

nate desigThe
ones

of

categorical propositions.
from the be summarized

propositionshave
used above. These

quantitysigns aside
:

"

all, every,
no, none,

each, any, whole.

ail-not.
a

Quantity signs of

";

"

some,

certain,most,
not, few.

few,

many,

the greatest part, any

number.

[O
"

some

Propositions Which
6.

do not

Conform
CONFORM TO

129

PROPOSITIONS LOGICAL TYPE.

WHICH

DO

NOT

THE

It has been be reduced before

upon
to

observed
one

that all four

expressed judgments logical types A, E,

there be I

must
or

of the be used

O,

they

can

argumentatively. Logic
"

insists
biguity, am-

definiteness
no

and

clearness
a

must

no

opportunity for
the four

wrong

From interpretation.

this Their with

viewpoint meaning
normal

types fulfill every

be misunderstood.

requirement.
To
any
one

cannot

their significance intelligence may

be

made of
cision. pre-

perfectlyclear.
the four

Any argument
be

when

once

put in

terms

types may
In

spelledout
it is of be in well

with

mathematical

consequence
not

prime importance
understood, but

that
a

the

four

types

only

that

certain
to

be gained facility
some one

reducing ordinary

tion conversa-

of and

these

types.

(1 )

Indefinite

Elliptical Propositions. logicalproposition must

four elements
"

It is known in

that every
terms

be

pressed ex-

of

the and

quantity sign,
form these the See

logicalsubject,copula
the four of

logical predicate,consequently
O which

types A, E, I and

epitomize every
in
terms

logicalproposition,are
elements. But in

expressed
the

of often

four

common as

conversation

quantity sign, as
section 3.

well

copula,

is omitted.

Propositionswithout
while termed
as

the

quantity sign are

called

nite, indefibe

those

with

the

suppressed copula
Both

may

elliptical propositions. attending illustrations

may

be made
:

logical

the

will indicate

130

Logical Propositions Illogical Logical

All
men are

Indefinite
Men Lilies Good
are are

mals. fighting ani-

fightinganimals.
not
roses.

(A)
No lilies are
roses.

(E) object
of

is the

object of

moral

All

good

is the

approbation.
Perfect

moral In

approbation. (A)
cases

happiness is impossible.

all

ness perfect happiimpossible. (A)

is

Elliptical
Fashion rules the world. All fashions
are

ruling the
zuhich

world. Trees
grow.

(A)
are

All

trees

plants

grow.

(A)
are

Children

play.
cheat.

All

children

playful.

(A)
Some
men

Some

men

are

persons

who

cheat. Here it is noted that the the most

(I)
of
some

logicalform
forceful.

tions proposithe

is not form

always
an

Often and

logical
be
sorted re-

gives
to

awkward
for purposes

construction of kind

should

only

logicalargument.
to

The be

reduction

of either

the

logicalform proposition. (eitheran

the with
A

must

determined

by

the

meaning
the

of the

As
or

a an

usual

thing the
in

indefinite while of

is universal

E)

meaning,

problem

of

is elliptical
as

to

give

it in terms
as

the

copula, expressed

little

awkwardness General

possible.
attended with
no

truths, because
classed
as

quantity sign,
theii

might

be

indefinite

propositions,though

132

Logical Propositions
"I would I had
a

Optative.

am

one

who

desires

million

million."

dollars.
you

(A)
one

Exclamatory.

"Oh,

how

You
me.

are

who

frightened

frightened

me!"

(A)

(3)
An

Individual individual
e.

Propositions. proposition is
one

which
was
an

has

singular
man.

subject;
Peter
tree

g., Abraham
was

Lincoln

honest The

the Great in my
a

Russia's

greatest ruler.
age.

maple

yard is dying of old

These

propositions,
or

having
in

singularterm
As

as

are subject,

individual
to

lar singuof the

as

nature.

the

predicaterefers

the whole
are

logical subject, individual

universal.

propositions

classed

(4)

Plurative

Propositions.
those introduced

Plurative

propositions are
or are

by "most,"
For know
ple, exam-

"few," "a few,"

"Most
to

equivalent quantity signs.

useful
to

birds "A

man"

"Few

men

how

live"

few

of the

prisoners escaped," are

more

plurative
"few"

propositions. "Most"
and "a few" is
mean

means

than

half, while
case

less than

half.

In either

the proposition illustrative

are ful use-

particular.
take

Stated
the

the logically, of "Some

not

propositionswould
to

form do

birds how

man";
of

"Some

men

know

to

live";

"Some The between

the

prisoners escaped."
will observe
and
a

reader

the The

difference former is

in

significance
acter charticular para

few

few.

negative in
it
a

and

when

introducing a proposition makes

The latter

negative (O). particularaffirmative

always

introduces

(I).

Propositions Which (5)

Partitive

do not

Conform

133

Propositions. particularswhich
arise

Partitive

propositions are opposite.

some ail-not,

imply
the

complementary
use

These and

through
Ail-not may
as

biguous am-

of

few.

times some-

be

interpretedas

not

all and
men an

sometimes
are

no.

To

illustrate: The
a distinctly

proposition,"All negative or
not

not

mortal," is
the proposition,

universal that

E, while
a

"All
or are are an

is glitters

gold,"is
of the

particular tive negais,"No

men

O.

The of

logicalform
the used

first

mortal," and
not

second, "Some
in the "not-all" if the

glittering things
sense,

gold."
is

When

the proposition is intended

not

because partitive For

O-meaning
"All that

the

I is

implied.

example,

is glitters

because gold," is partitive

the statement
as

implies that
as

some

glittering things are

"Some of both the

gold (I)
not

well

the

complement,
A

glittering things are

affirmative and in the statement

gold" (O).

knowledge
is taken for the other.

negative aspects
one or

granted

of either the
any

"Ail-not," then, is negative in

when it
means no

case,

but
means

universal
not

and

particularwhen
nature

it when the

all.

Any

in proposition is partitive
not
or all,

the

quantity

sign is
not

ail-not

interpretedas

equivalent of

all. It
may

be

observed
may

here be

that in For

all has
a

two

distinct
sense;

uses.

First, it
a

used

collective

second, in
in the members
or

distributive
sense

sense.

example:

All is used "All the

collective of the the

in such
team

propositions as,

football of the

weighed exactly one equal

sense

ton,"

"All

angles

triangleare
distributive

to

two

right
make

angles." Using

all in the

would

134 these than

Logical Propositions
:

true
more

"All the members

140

of the football the

team

weigh

pounds"

; "All

angles of

triangleare

less than reference reference The

mean

two

rightangles."
to to
an

All is used

when collectively

is made
is made

when aggregate, but distributively

each. is likewise
some,

quantity sign some (1)

some

ambiguous,
all,or
When

as

it may
at

only
"

but
or

not

(2)

some

least used

"

some,
as

it may

be

all

not

all.

"some"

is

the has
at

quantity sign
accepted
as

of

any

particularproposition
second

which "some "some" section. When

been

the logical,

meaning,

least,"is always implied. This

will

of interpretation
a

be

explained

more

in

detail in

succeeding

some

is used of the
For

in the

sense

of

some

tive only,the partias

nature
are

propositionis apparent,
example, with
"some leads
are

both
to

I and human

implied.
say

reference
are

the

family, to

that

only
to

wise"

necessitates that
some

an

which investigation,

the wise. O

discovery
If the is

are

wise, while
an

others its

not

proposition be
if it be
an

I, then

complementary

implied, or

O, the
Few
serves

I is

implied.
as a

given
as a

sign
the

of

plurative proposition

also is

sign of
when

partitive. The
"Few
men

plurative aspect
can

prominent
and
men

it is said that

be millionaires" that "Most is

emphasis

is placed upon But

the meaning when

cannot

be millionaires."
as

emphasis
than the
e.

given
are

to

"few,"

meaning few only

I and

rather

most

not, then
men

the

the

are

both
most

implied;
do
not.

g., Some

become To

but the millionaires,

a

put it in

word,

"ail-not,""some"

and

"few"

intro-

Propositions Which
duce
an

do

not

Conform

135

propositionswhen partitive
I and
an

the

meaning impliesboth
in

O.
to

When be

treatingsuch
the greater

logicthe meaning
must

whiclr

seems

given
in the

prominence
"All the
not

be

accepted. Surely
not

statement,
is

that
one

is glitters

gold,"

the

O-interpretation things which

:

intended;

namely,

"Some

are glitter

gold."

Illustrations

(1)

"All

men men men

are

not to

honest." be
a

(2) "Few (3)

The all "Some

live
are

hundred."

consistent." the
are men

first

proposition with
that
some men some

emphasis placed
not
are

upon

suggesting

tended honest, is the inhonest the is the plied. im-

proposition while
In

reducing
the
one

it

to

the

logical form
should be
some,

intended

proposition is
With third the

which
upon

used. the second follows: live do

to

emphasis

few
be

and

and

propositions may

interpreted as
men

(2)
be
a

Intended hundred.
a

proposition, Some

do

not
men

Implied proposition,Some (3)

Intended

live to
men

be
are

hundred.

proposition, Some
men are

consistent.

Implied proposition,Some

not

sistent. con-

(6)
These all be been
are save.

Exceptive Propositions.
are

introduced wit:

by

such

signs as
few
save

all except, all but, and

To

(1)
"All

"All
but

except James
a

John

may

excused";

(2)

of the

the

culpritshave
sparrow

arrested"; (3) "All birds

serviceable
to

English

man"

are

exceptive propositions.
universal when the
tions excepa

Exceptive propositions are

are

mentioned.

Universal

propositionsnecessitate

136 subjectmore
refer in
to

Logical Propositions
or

less

the predicateof such as definite,

of
a

must

the

whole

definite subject.
definiteness

It follows when clear the

that the
how

exceptive statements

is secured it becomes Of

exceptions are
all such

mentioned, therefore

propositionsmust
third

be universal.

tions, illustra-

the first and

propositionsare

universal. the

Any

exceptive proposition is particular when

are

exceptions
the

referred

to

in

general
The

terms

or

when

subject tion proposi-

is followed is

by

et cetera.

second

illustrative

particular.
Exclusive

(7)
Of

Propositions.
vary

all

propositions which
is the
most

from

the

logicalform
are companied ac-

the exclusive

misleading.
as

Exclusives "none

by
and

such Their
to

words

"only," "alone,"
in the

but,"

"except."
is made

rests peculiarity

erence fact that refto

a

the whole

of the

but only predicate,

part of the subject. For

example, in the exclusive

are

sition, propoto

"Only
as a

elements

metals," metals
is considered
are

is referred

whole

while

elements

only

in part. The
or

true

meaning

is "Some
"All
an

elements metals exclusive

are

all

metals,"

to

put

it in
way

logicalform,
to

elements." is to and

The

easiest

deal

with

interchange subject
call

and
an

predicate {convert simply)

A.
Illustrated
:

the

proposition

Process

Exclusive
1. None
ates

Proposition high school

enter

Reduced
All who
must uates.

to enter

Logical

Form

but
may

gradu-

Training School high school

for

Training
All

be

gradfirst-

School.
2.

Only
are

first-class
allowed in

passengers

parlor
class

cars

are

parlor

cars.

passengers.

PropositionsWhich
3. Residents
to

do not

Conform
are

137
teach

alone

are

licensed

All

who
are

licensed

to

teach. admittance except

on

residents. have business

may

4. No

All

who

be

business.

admitted.
men

5. Only

bad

are

not-wise.

All

who
men.

are

not-wise

are

bad

6.

Only

some

men

are

wise.

All

who

are

wise

are

men.

It is claimed the exclusive

by good authority that

is best

the

real nature

of

expressed by negatingthe subjectand

E;
e.

callingthe proposition an
are

g., exclusive:

"Only

ments eleare

metals"; logical form:

"No

not-elements it is

metals" how
an

(E).
E

In

succeeding chapter
first

explained
and then

admits The

of

simple

conversion these
are are

obversion.

following illustrate
"No not-elements "No metals be with
seen an

two

processes:

Original E:

metals."

Simple

conversion: "All it may

to

metals
are

not-elements."

Obversion: From easiest this

way

elements." that the

statement,
is to

"The

deal

exclusive

interchange A,"
is

subject and

predicate and

call the

proposition an

correct. substantially

(8)
The

Inverted

Propositions. employs
of war." these
are

poet often

the

inverted
are

trated illusproposition, the

by
"Great and
e.

the

following:
man

"Blessed An

merciful;"

is this

interchanging of subject logical;

of
war

predicate makes
the

poeticalconstructions
blessed;" "This
man

g., "All

merciful

is

great."
Note.
"

The

student Often

should be

not

be

misled
a

by

the

tive rela-

clause.

it may

interpretedas

part of the

Logical Propositions predicate rather

friend who
no

than

the
a

subject.

To

wit:

"No

man

i""

ex.

betrays
man

confidence";

clearly the

logical

subjectis

who

betrays

confidence.

7.

PROPOSITIONS ILLOGICAL.

WHICH

ARE

NOT

NECESSARILY

(i)
An

Analytic and

Synthetic Propositions.
one

analyticproposition is
burns"
are

in which in the

the

predicate
three

gives information already implied

"Fire "Water is zvet"

subject. Thus,

"A

triangle has
the has who

angles"
do
not

analyticpropositions because
added information Because
to
one

predicates
any
ception con-

give

of the

subjects.
an

the attribute
one,

mentioned

by
are names

the

predicate is

essential

analyticpropositions propositions
.

sometimes for the

termed
same

essential of

Other and

kind

proposition are
in which

verbal

explicative.
A

syntheticproposition is
not

one

the in the

predicate subject.
cubic "A

gives information
"Fire

necessarilyimplied from
the wild "The
two

protects
water
a

men

animal."
sum

foot of

weighs 62^/2 lbs." triangleis equal

a common

of

the interior These

ing mean-

angles of
are

to

right angles."
the include
names

syntheticbecause
of the

conception of
need
to

subject would
the

not

tion the informafor

given by
The

predicate.

Other

synthetic

propositionsare
distinction is "Fire
or

accidental,real and
between

ampliative.

analytic and
would
on

syntheticpropositions thought
to

not

so

clear

as

first

appear.

burns" who

might give
knows

added of

information the

the

child fire*

savage

only

light emitted

by

140

Logical Propositions
truistic where

The in
cases

proposition is
the

of used

little

importance except
the

subject is

extensionallywhile
the

predicate is
man

used

intensionally. In

illustration,"A
for
a

is

man," the subject merely stands

member
tain cer-

of the

man

family, while

the

predicate may
such

indicate

manly

qualities. Against
be
on

ambiguities

the

logicianmust

guard.
BETWEEN SUBJECT AND CATE. PREDI-

8.

THE

RELATION

In

Chapter

5 the extension student be used "red

and

intension

of

terms

was

explained.
term

The may

recalls, for
to

instance, that

the

"man" "black "man"

denote
etc.

objects, as
In

"white the
to

man,"
term

man,"
is used

man,"

this when of

sense

extensionally.
is used relation

But

made

stand

for the attributes

term

"rationality," "power intensionally.

between
terms
serves

speech,"

etc., the
In,

"man"

considering the
to

subject and
in
an

cate predi-

it is customary
sense

employ the
a

extensional of

only, since

such

restriction conversion.
to

the purpose

syllogistic reasoning
Let
us,

and

then, give attention

the

extension

of

the

subject

and

predicate

of

the

categorical propositions

A, E, I, O.

(1 )

The

Universal

Affirmative or
the A

Proposition.
This
may
to

All S is P

symbolizes

proposition.

be
a

interpretedas meaning
or part of the predicate,

that all of the

subjectbelongs

that all of the first

subject belongs
the

to

all of the
one

predicate.

The

is interpretation

usual

and

may

be illustrated

by

the

: following propositions

The

Relation

Between

Subject

and

Predicate

141

1. 2.

"All "All

men

are

mortal."

trees

grow/'
are

3. "All

metals

elements."

It is obvious
every

that the

subjectsof
the

these

clude propositionsinmentioned.
every

specimen
The

of

particularclass
men

For

example:

subject all family;

covers

includes includes

men speciobject

of the human

all trees

every

of that class ; all metals classes

as

everything which

the scientist

such.
to

In the three whole

ence then, referpropositions,

to men,

is made the

the

subjectbut
beside

only

part of
as

predicate,as
mortal the

other
; and

beings
other
; other

such

the

horse, are
as are sun

plants aside

from

trees, such
oxygen,

flower, grow

substances, namely

elements. For the sake of

making

the

logical meaning
may

of the four
to

propositions clearer, recourse diagrams,

so

be

made

Euler's and

named

because

the Swiss

mathematician

Leonhard logician, The

Euler, first used

them.
men are

first illustration of the A

may

"All proposition,
two

mortal,"

be the

represented by

circles, a larger circle

and
a

standing

for

predicate,mortal,

smaller

circle

entirelyinside
Thus:

the

larger representing the subject,men.

Fig.

1.

142

Logical Propositions
that all of the smaller circle

It is evident

belongs

to

the

larger.
it may the
some

This

diagram

will then

fit any

proposition where
to
as a

be said that all of the which

may

subject belongs
be
some

part of
S is

predicate,or
P."

symbolized
of the
are are

"All

(All the subject is

knows
statement to

predicate.)
surfaces is and

The when

student such
a

that
as

circles
"All
men

plane

mortal"

given,
circle

reference which has is been

is made

only

that part of the "mortal" the the "men" circle.

directlyunderneath
said circle. relative
to

Nothing
of the

remaining
be

part

"mortal" "A" "All S

propositionswhich
is all P"
are

may

interpretedas meaning
A's because the Such
g.
:

called

co-extensive

subject and predicateare propositionsare

i. 2.

exactly equal by

in extension.
e.

best illustrated is
a

definitions ;

"A
"A

man

rational
a

biped."
of

trigon is

polygon
art

three

sides." activities

3. which To Euler
one

"Teaching
result in

is the

of

occasioning those
and skill."

knowledge,

power

represent the meaning

of the co-extensive
same

by

the

diagram,

two

circles of the
every

size may

be drawn, If the first dotted

two

coinciding at

point with
black
and

the other. the second

are

circle is drawn

heavily in
clear
to

in

red, it will make

the eye

that there
or

circles.

(2)
"No S

The

Universal best

Negative

Proposition. proposition,though
"All S is
not

is P"

symbolizes

the E

sometimes P." This and "No S

the universal latter form,

as

negative
has

is written

been

explained, is ambiguous

therefore is P"

illogical.
surely
means

that

no

part of the subject

The

Relation

Between

Subject

and

Predicate

143

belongs

to

any

part of the predicate and

any

no

part of the

predicatebelongs to
and

part of the subject. The

exclusive. the E

subject

predicate are

mutually

The
1. 2.

following illustrate
"No "No
man

proposition:

is immortal." teacher works for

can

true

money."
remain unwise."
two
:

3. "No The
one

thorough

student be

proposition may

represented by
as

the circles,

without entirely

the other

in

Fig. 2

Man

]
Fig. 2.

(3)
This
as

The
may

Particular be

Affirmative or
as

Proposition.
ered considto
a

symbolized
that
a

ceSome

S is P," and

meaning
the is
at

part of the
It has that be

subject belongs
noted

part
"some"

of

predicate.
and
may

already been
its all
or

that

ambiguous
least." the

is logicalsignification it may
not

"some
For

(It

be
can

all.)
be

example,
on

which only logicalinterpretation

men are

placed
has wise. entire

"Some in

wise"
a

is,that the investigation

part of
wise the
man

resulted Whether

finding only
or

family
as can

not

all

are

is unknown In wise.
no case

the it

field has

not

received

attention.
are

be assumed

that all the others

not

144

Logical Propositions
I

The
i. 2.

proposition illustrated:
men are

"Some "Some

wise."
are are

animals teachers of the I

vertebrates."

3. "Some The
two

inspiring."
be

meaning
circles

proposition may
other
:

represented by

each intersecting

Fig. 3.

The

feature significant

of

the of

diagram
the "men" The

is the circle unshaded

shaded
as

part which
to
a

represents

part

longing be-

part of the "wise"

circle. field.
or

part

of each

circle is the unknown The

common

(4)
The P."

Particular

Negative

Proposition.
is "Some the S is
not
cluded ex-

symbolization of
statement

the O of

Put

in

form: of the
must
men

Some

subject is
as

from

the whole

predicate. Here,
be
are

in the
e.

I, the
in the

same

logicalimport

given
not

to

some;
our

g.,

"Some proposition,
to
are

wise,"
not

edge knowlWhether

is comfined
or

the group wise O

or

who

are

wise.

not

the others
of
men

not-wise

is unknown.

Illustrations
1. 2.

the
are are

proposition:
not not

"Some "Some

wise."

laws
novels

just." helpful."

3. "Some

are

not

The

Relation

Between

Subject

and

Predicate

145

The
two

of significance

the O
as

proposition may Fig. 4

:

be shown

by

circles intersecting

in

Fig. 4.

similar

diagram represents

the I

the only proposition, In the O

difference the the

being in

the part shaded.

proposition
of

investigatedfield
"wise"

is all of the "men" in the "men" I

circle outside known

circle,while
part
of the

proposition the
circle inside the

field is that circle. In that

"wise"

comparing
the

the

four

diagrams

the

student

will

note

affirmative

propositions are
exclusive.

while inclusive,

the

negative propositionsare (5)

A
as a

The

Distribution
to

of Subject
distributed

and

Predicate. it is

term

is said

be

when

referred

to

whole. definite the

In all
men

proposition,"All
is considered
as a

men

are

mortal," the subject

"All
not

whole.
race;

men"
a

stands

for has
one,

every

specimen
left
were

of the

human the and

many

single one

been if he

out.

Again,
the time

whole

is definite ; any

given
count

opportunity,could
"all men" if the of
a

ascertain

by

actual

just how
observed

represented. definiteis
not

It should

be

that

word

incorporated in

the definition

distributed

term, there

146
is afforded

Logical Propositions
an

opportunity for
this clear students
:

error.

The

trations attending illus-

will make
1.

"All

the

except

John

and

James

are

missed." dis-

2.

"All

the

students

except

John, James,

etc.,

are

dismissed." The the

subjectof

the first

propositionis distributed,while
is undistributed. Reasons: and The is

subject of

the second

first

subject,"All
to
as
a

the students whole

and

except
that

John
is

James,"

referred

whole

fore, theredefinite, the

a

it is distributed; the

second

subject, "All
to
as

dents stu-

except
but
as

John, James, etc.,"is referred

whole is not all is the observer

whole,
buted. distriject sub-

the

definite,the

term

is not the second misled

in

Because the it Here made

to

quantity sign of might easilybe

term.

casual
as a

nating desigis

distributed
be

it may

well

to

explain

that

when

reference

subject or

predicate the logicalsubject or

this is

cate predimind
are

is meant.
error

Unless
e.

constantly kept
white

in
men

results;

g., in the

"All proposition, is

Caucasians,"
"men."
If
as

the

logical subject
of the

"white it would

men,"
be

not

the

subject were
man

"men,"

tributed, undis-

the whole

family is not
men,"
men. are

considered,

but

the

actual the

subject,being
the that

"white

is distributed

because

predicate refers
to

to

all white
men

Recurring
have The concluded

"All illustration, the

mortal,"

we

subject "all
in part;
are

men" is

is distributed.
as

predicate, "mortal," however,

is made from
to
men

undistributed,
are as

reference

it

only
that

i. e., there

other

beings

aside

mortal, such

"trees,"

148
"wise." This

Logical Propositions
may

become

clear

by studying Fig. 4.
for the of the "wise"

Here

all of the shaded

part which
from

stands

"some subject, circle.

men," is
But

excluded

the whole

all of the shaded

part is only a part of the entire "men"

circle,consequently the
represents

subject which
is undistributed.

the

shaded

part

(some men)

The

predicate,
that not,

the subjectis excluded "wise," however, is distributed, as from

when every

part of it. It is well

with the

to

remember the

used it.

copula,distributes
in

which predicate

follows

If the student he
must

is to succeed
ever

the testing

value

of arguments, his

have

"at the of

tip of
the in view

his

tongue"
of the

knowledge
schemes

of

the

distribution With

terms

four

logicalpropositions.
are

this

the

following

offered: I.

The

Relation

Between

Subject

and

Predicate

149

Referring
O contradict

to

scheme

II it may

be observed A

that A

and O

each and I.

other; i.
vice

e., where

is distributed relation

is undistributed between E and

III

versa.

similar

exists

In scheme the term

the bracket
^__

under

the

symbol

indicates

which As
a

is distributed. scheme
a

IV.

fourth three

"key

word"

might
(1)

be

adopted.
or

Any

of these

might
for

be

used: The

saepeo,

(2)

asebinop, or
is this
:

(3)
stands

uaesneop.

of "saepeo" significance for

"s"

subject distributed,"p"
"0" for the

cate predi-

distributed,"a," "e"
where
any

propositions logical
letters

distribution

occurs.

Putting the
of

together
and

gives

this:

subject distributed
of

propositions A
and
:

E,

predicate distributed

propositionsE
stands for this

O.

Similarly, "asebinop"
its

"as," a distributes
i distributes

subject; "eb,"
0

distributes the

froth; "in"

neither; "op"
In

distributes word

predicate.
appear

the coined

"uaesneop"
the

six letters which the

same

compose

"saepeo," and
The and
two

letters have
u letters,

cance. signifiversal for unientire and

0 e

additional The

and

n, stand

negative.

interpretationof
the wniversals

the
a

word,

therefore, is this: "uaes"

their

distribute

subjects; neop,

the

negatives e

and

tribute dis-

their It it
seems

predicates.
me

to

that the last word

two

is the most
are

helpful as
most

emphasizes

the

facts

which

the

used;

namely, (1) Only (2) Only

If the
as never

the universals

distribute their subjects;

their

the

negatives distribute
will visualize

predicates.
so

student
to

"uaesneop"

thoroughly

forget it,he

will not

in experience difficulty

150

Logical Propositions
the distribution of the
terms

determining

of

the

four

logical propositions.
9.

OUTLINE.

Logical

Propositions.
nature

(1)

The Kinds

of

logical propositions.

(2)

of

logical propositions.

Categorical Hypothetical Disjunctive

(3) (4) (5)

The

four

elements and

Logical
The

categoricalproposition. guished. grammatical subject and predicate distinof

a

four

kinds

of

categorical propositions.
A E I

Universal
Universal

affirmative

negative
affirmative

Particular Particular

negative
which and do
not

O conform
to

(6)

Propositions
Indefinite Grammatical Individual Plurative Partitive

the

logicaltype.

elliptical.
sentences

Exceptive
Exclusive Inverted

(7)

Propositions not
Analytic
Modal Truistic
and and

necessarilyillogical.
synthetic.

pure.

relation (8)) The logicalpropositions. Euler's

between

subject

and

predicate of

the

four

diagrams.
of

Distribution

subject

and

predicate.

Uaesneop Asebinop
Saepeo

Summary
10. SUMMARY. A

151

(1) (2)

logicalproposition is
three kinds
of

judgment

expressed
are

in words.

The

logical propositions
in which

categorical,
assertion
is

disjunctive. hypothetical, A categorical proposition is

made
A

one

the

unconditionally.
one

hypothetical proposition is
depends
upon
a

in which

the

assertion

condition.
one

disjunctive proposition is

which

asserts

an

tive. alterna-

The
are

most

common

word-signs
and

of

the

categorical proposition
of the

"all," "no," "some"

of

"some-not,"
"

hypothetical,"if"
the four ments: ele-

and

the

disjunctive, "either

or."

(3)
The the

Every

logical categorical proposition has

and

quantity sign, subject, copula quantity sign indicates

is that
of the the

predicate.
of the
is is

the

extension

proposition;
affirmed affirmed
or or

logical subject
of

which
is the

something
term

denied;
denied and

logical predicate
to
connect

which
some

subject; the copula is always subject

and

form
"Not"

of "to be" is
times some-

is used
used

predicate.

with

the

copula. ordinary conversation

the four
are

The

statements

of of

usually

not

pressed ex-

in terms
can

elements,
constitutes
goes

but

must

be, before

they

be used

in

testing arguments.
usually
with the
to

(4)
while
a

One word The

word with verb

grammatical
make
up

subject logical

all its modifiers

any

the

subject.
it may
as

predicate
and

word

is the

grammatical
the

predicate. The
include the modified

logical predicate is all which

the

follows

copula
as

"

predicate-word

all its modifiers

well

object.
divided into four

(5)

Categorical propositions are

affirmative

kinds;

versal uni-

(A), universal

tive negative (E), particularaffirma-

(I), particular negative (O). For the sake of brevity these four are respectivelydenoted by the vowels A, E, I, O.
An A

proposition is
of

one

in

which

the

predicate

affirms

something
An E

all of

the

logicalsubject.

the in which predicate denies proposition is one something of all of the logicalsubject.

152

Logical Propositions
An I

proposition
a

is

one

in

which

the

predicate

affirms

something of
An O

part

of the
one

logical subject.
which the

proposition is
a

in

predicate denies
the four types

something of
Every
before It with it

part
be
a

of

the

logicalsubject.
to
one

proposition
can

must
as

reduced of

of

be

used
on

basis
student

argumentation.
to

is incumbent

the

recognize
which denned

these

four

types

precision
There

and
are
a

accuracy.

(6)
as

few

proposition types
be is
one

are as

recognized
follows
the
:

These being illogicalin form. may (1) An indefinite proposition

without
as

quantity

sign. (2)
An

It

usually

may

be

classed is
one

universal. which
the

elliptical proposition
is suppressed. individual

in

copula
singular

(3) An

proposition is

one

which

has

subject.

It is universal

in content.
those

(4) Plurative
"a
are

propositions are
or some

introduced

by "most,"
These

few,"

equivalent quantity sign.

meaning.
are

particular

in

(5) Partitive

propositions
use means

particulars which
These arise and

imply
"few."

complementary ambiguous
"Ail-not"
mean

opposite.
of

through
times

the

"ail-not," "some"

sometimes If

"no," while
means

at

other the

it may
it

"not-all."
a

the

quantity sign

latter, then
The
makes

introduces

partitive proposition.
mean

"Some"
is the

may

"some

only"
The

or

"some

at

least"

latter

logical meaning. partitive.

nature.

former

interpretation
means

the
is

proposition partitive in

When

"few"

"few

only," it

(6) Exceptive propositions

signs
are as

are

those

introduced

by such
etc.

"all

except," "all but," "all save," only

when
the

They
are

universal

exceptions

mentioned.

(7) Exclusive
words In
an as

propositions
exclusive

are

those

introduced but"
not

by

such

"only," "alone," "none

the predicate and
the

and
the
way

"except." subject
to

is

distributed.
an

Consequently logical is
call it
an

easiest

make and

exclusive

to

interchange

subject

predicate and

A.

Summary
(8) An
inverted

153

proposition is

one

where

the them

predicate

precedes

the

subject. Interchanging
only the
of

gives the
is

logicalform.
Of The word the

grammatical

sentences

declarative be used

logical.
the

relative clause,
it modifies. There
are

though

out

place,must

with

(7)
which defined

other

though propositions,
some

not

to illogical,

the
as

logician usually gives

f ollows
:

attention.

These

may

be

(1) An

analytical proposition is

one

in which

the
in

cate prediject. sub-

gives information

already implied

the

(2)

synthetic proposition is
not

one

in which
in the

the predicate

gives information (3) A

modal in which
adverbs

implied
one

subject.
the
manner

proposition is
the predicate of
of

which
to

states

belongs

the

subject. The
are

time, place, degree and

modal

manner

the

signs (4) A (5)

A
pure

the

proposition.
states

proposition simply
or or

that

the

predicate
in which of the

belongs
truistic the

does

not

belong

to

the subject.
is
one

tautologous proposition
the words and

predicate repeats

meaning

subject.

(8)
and
as

In

considering the relation which

two

may

exist between in extension

ject sub-

predicate,the
use

terms

are

employed

only,

this The

best

serves

the interests relation

between be

of inference.

extensional

subject
stated
as

and

predicate of the
:
a

four

logicalpropositions may
Ordinary
A
"

follows
to

All

of

the

subject belongs

part of

the

predicate.
Co-extensive
A
"

All

of

the

subject belongs

to

all of

the

predicate.
E
"

None

of the

subject belongs
subject belongs subject

to

any

part

of the

cate. predi-

"

Some
"

of the of the

to

some

of from

the
the

predicate.
whole of

Some

is excluded

the predicate.

154

Logical Propositions
general it
while
may

In

be

said

that
are

the

affirmative

propositions

are

inclusive
A
term

the negatives
to

prelusive. when it is referred

to
as a

is said

be

distributed

definite whole. "A" distributes

and the

logical subject only, "E"

"I"

both

ject logical subnor

logical predicate,
the
both

neither

logical subject
The

logical
"A"

predicate, "O"
distributes It of

logical predicate only.

co-extensive

subject and
that the
used and E

predicate.
know

is essential
terms

the

student

by heart
the

the

distribution like
means

the

of be A O

logical propositions. Some

as an

keyword
This the

uaesneop the

may

aid

to

memory.

wniversals E and

distribute their

their

subjects,while

tives nega-

distribute

predicates.

11.

ILLUSTRATIVE the
as

EXERCISES.

(la) Examine classifying them

E A / A

following list of propositions with

"A's," "E's," "I's"
of
or

view

to

"O's."

1. "None

the

inmates
was

voted." American."
their

2. "Benj. Franklin
3. "Some doctors
earnest

the best educated

it

deem

right to lie
to

to

patients."

4. "All
of

teachers

need

observe

the

teaching

others."

/ A O E I

5. "Some
6. "Fools

politicians are
rush in where
are

honest."

angels
not

fear
to

to

tread."

7. "Some 8. "No
an man

proverbs
should

true upon

life."

infringe

the rights of others."

the
one an

recall that
to

affirmative
of the
a

proposition in which
is the
an

predicate
where

refers

the

whole
to

subject
part
the
one an

A, while subject is
the

the

predicate refers
a

only

of

I.

Further,
whole of
to

negative proposition where subject is

a an

predicate refers
in

to

the

the

E, while

which With

predicate refers
facts in

only

part

of

the

subject is
as

O.

these

mind,

classify the

propositions
a

indicated.

(lb)
the

In

similar

manner

classify as
workers

to

quantity and

quality

following: (1) "All worthy

grow
to

look

like their work."

156
(2b) Classify the

Logical Propositions
attending

propositions and
honest." saved."

change

to

the

logical form,

if necessary: truthful
men are were

(1) "Only (2) "The (3)

"All

stokers who
run

alone do
not

think."

(4) "Honesty

is the

best

policy." happy." just

smell and

(5) "They
(6)
"The

laugh that good

the

win."
are

alone
is

(7) "Knowledge

power."
of the
sweet

(8) "Only

actions

blossom

in the

dust."

12.

REVIEW Define Define

QUESTIONS.
and and

(1) (2) (3)

of

illustrate logical propositions.

exemplify
the usual

the

three

kinds

of

logical
four

ositions. prop-

What

are

quantity signs
four

of

the

kinds

propositions? (4)
Name and

define

the

elements

of

tion. logical proposiwhich

express

(5)
are

Select

from

the
in terms

printed
of

page four

five

propositions
and
so

not

expressed

the

elements,
and

them.

(6)
likewise

Distinguish between
between Define

logical
the four

grammatical
of

subject;

logicaland
and illustrate

grammatical predicate.
kinds

(7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

categorical
four

ositions. prop-

What
so

makes

an

understanding quantity signs

one

of

the

logical propositions

important?
the unusual of the
an

Give
What

logicalpropositions.
indefinite

should

guide

in

making

tion proposi-

logical?
How
are

general truths
birds
and

usually classified?
form.

(12) Change (13)

How

fly to the logical

what kinds
of

many

grammatical
with

sentences

are

logical? (14)
? How would

the

logician

deal

interrogative

tences sen-

Review

Questions
individual

157

(15) Give

illustrations

of

propositions. dealing with

the

How

are

they usually classified?

(16) Explain
proposition.

the

logical

mode

of

plurative
"few."

(17) Exemplify
(18) Why
and "few"
are

the

ambiguity

of

"some" "ail-not,"

and

propositions introduced called partitive?

by

"ail-not,""some"
Which

(19) Use "all" in both a partitive and has logic adopted? signification
(20) When
?
are

collective

sense.

exceptive propositions universal

exclusive

and

when

ticular par-

(21) What
(23) Tell (24) Tell
as

is

an

proposition?
change
exclusive deal
in
man

(22) Explain
in how

by circles the exclusive.

full how the
to
an

to

logical form.
poetical
me pressions ex-

logician would
are

with

such
"Tell

"Blessed

the

pure

heart,"
of

not

in

mournful

numbers,"

"Strenuous
does

is the the

state."
between

(25) What
and

distinction

logician make
the

analytic
modal
and

synthetic propositions? (26)

Illustrate

the

difference

between

so-called

pure

propositions.
and

(27) Explain
(28)
and

illustrate the truistic relation

proposition.
the

Show

by circles the
all the in of

existing between
relation
between

subject subject
words

predicate of (29) State predicate

logicalpropositions.
English
the

good
all the
to

the

and

logicalpropositions.
distribution
of
one

(30) Relative "uaesneop" and

the

terms

apply the
more

"asebinop." Which

is the

serviceable?

the grammatical and logical subject. (31) Distinguish between of the (32) Explain by circles the distribution of the terms four

logicalpropositions.
statement,
of "A

(33) The
the whole how

part

of

the

subject is excluded
which

from
plain Ex-

the

predicate," describes
that the

proposition?

it indicates

predicate is distributed.
THOUGHT
AND

13.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
well
as

Show
a

that

judgment

may

be

an

individual

notion

as

general notion.

158
(2)
Many

Logical Propositions
logicians

classify logical propositions

in

this

wise:

("Categorical
Propositions

{Conditional fHypothetical
,T_
,

*"

(Disjunctive
against bipeds"
is to is of be

Give

arguments
"All is wise"
men

for
are

and

such
a

classification.
of

(3)
"Man

judgment

extension,

while

is

judgment

intension.

Explain.
Discuss

(4)

"To

be is

logical
the

pedantic."

this. Make it

(5)
logical. (6)

Why

proposition, "He

runs,"

illogical?

Point
a

out

the

reasons

for

calling, "White

men

are

casians," Cau-

particular
makes

proposition.
it necessary
to

(7) ordinary (8)

What

to

change
four

the

propositions

of

conversation Some would

those the

of

the

logical types?

call

individual

proposition

particular.

Argue (9)
show

the
Make

question.
a

list of

five

propositions
may

in

common

speech

and

how

their

partitive implication by
how

mislead.
some

(10) Explain
(11) Explain

circles
"et
.

some

only
may

and

at
a

least. universal
to
a

cetera"

change

particular proposition. (12)

"The the for real
nature

of

an

exclusive

is

best
an

shown
E."

by

gating ne-

subject
and

and

calling the
this
statement.

proposition

Give

ments argu-

against
that
with

(13)
be

Show

the

immature

mind

all

propositions
in

must

synthetical. (14) Explain meaning.

Show
to

how

proposition

may

be

truistic

form

but

not

in

(15)

by

the

Euler that
the
use an

diagram
"O"
of
two

how
not

easy

it is for its

the

less care-

student

think

does

distribute

predicate.
one

(16)
a

Explain
white

by one)
the

pads
of

(a small

yellow

and

large (17)

the

distribution
makes

terms. to
care

When

logician
that he

reference
exercise

the
in

subject

of

proposition, show
as

should

designating

it

the

logical subject.

CHAPTER

9.

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE

OPPOSITION.

1.

THE

NATURE

OF

INFERENCE.

Inference

is the
two

thought process of deriving a judgment

antecedent

from
The in
a

one

or

judgments.
matter

process

is

simply
a

of
was

expressing explicitly implied

From be fair "This from in
one or

final

judgment,

truth To

that

two
cedent ante-

previous

judgments.
"All
a

exemplify:
should truth

the

truth, that
one

teachers

minded," teacher,
the statement, the

may

derive

consequent
be

that Or

Albert

White, should
"All "No
men are

fair minded."
one

mortal,"
immortal." it has

may

derive the

ment, judgis

men

are

Because If all

ground
are

wet

we

conclude then

that

rained.
are

dogs

rupeds quadFinally

surely

some

dogs

quadrupeds.
school is that

from
are

the

two

propositions, "All graduates,"

we are

training "Mary
to

students
a

high
school

school

and led

Jones

ing train-

student,"

conclude

"Mary

Jones

is

high

school

graduate."

2.

IMMEDIATE

AND

MEDIATE

INFERENCE.

It has

been

noted of
one

that
or

truth

may

be

derived

from To
are

consideration illustrate

two

antecedent

judgments.
"All "No "All
men

further:
may

From derive

the the
two
a

judgment,
that

fallible," we

conclusion

men

are

infallible";or,
and fallible,"

from

the
was

judgments, man,"
we

men

are

"Socrates

may

readily infer

159

i6o

Immediate

Inference
These
two

that "Socrates take inference. form: the

was names us

fallible."

modes
and

of inference mediate

of immediate
express

inference
two

Let

these

kinds

in equation

I.

Ordinary

Form.

Equation Form,
All

Using

Initial Letters. Antecedent

are

judgment:
fallible. No
men are

men

All ble. infalliNo

are

f i

Conclusion:

are

II. First
men

antecedent
are

judgment:

All
All
m are was

fallible.

f
m

Second

antecedent
was : a

judgment
man. was

S
.'.

Socrates Conclusion

Socrates

ble. falli-

was

Giving
second
are common

attention

to

the

antecedent that
term

judgments
terms

of and

the

argument
to

it is noted the
common as

the

"f
In

"S"
this is

referred
term
one

"m"
term.

logic
As

is known

the middle in the

term.

there

but
can

antecedent
no common

judgment
or

first argument The

there

be
an

middle

first argument of

is

illustration inference.

of

immediate This

inference; the second

mediate

suggests the definitions:

the
use

Immediate middle
term.

inference is inference without

of

Mediate
term.

inference

is

inference by

means

of

middle

The

Forms

of

Immediate

Inference
INFERENCE.

161

3.

THE

FORMS

OF

IMMEDIATE

Many

logiciansrecognize four
These four forms
are

forms

of immediate

ference inob-

(i) opposition,(2)

version, (3) conversion, (4) controversion*

(1)
We

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE

BY

TION. OPPOSI-

have
must

learned be

that

to

be
some

tions asserlogicalall categorical one

reduced

to

of

the

four

tions, proposi-

A, E, I, O.

If these

four

logicalpropositions be
definite relations

given

the

same

certain subject and predicate,

will become
to

evident; therefore, Opposition is said

exist

between

propositions which

are

given
in

the

same

but differ in quality, or subject and predicate,

or

quantity,

in both. The

following illustrative
1.

outline

will make
2.

this clear:

Original Proposition.
I. All II. No III. Some
men
men

Opposite in Quantity.
Some Some All All No No
men men men men

are are men men

mortal. immortal.
are are

(A) (E)

men
men

are are are

are

mortal.
not

(I)
(O)

immortal.

IV.
V. VI.

Some Some Some tal.

(1) mortal. (I)

not

wise.

wise. mortal. wise.

(A) (A) (E) (E)

men
men

are are

wise.

(O)

are
are

not

immor-

immortal.

(O)
3. 4.

Opposite in Quality.
No All Some Some Some Some
*

Opposite
Some Some No No All
men men

in
not

Both.

men
men

are
are

mortal. immortal.
are are are are

(E) (A) (O) (O) (I)

wise. mortal.

men
men

are

mortal.

(O) (I)

are are are are

are

immortal.

men
men

not

wise. mortal. wise.

(E) (E) (A) (A)

not

men men

wise.

(I)

men
men

immortal.

All

immortal.

Sometimes

called

contraposition.

62

Immediate

Inference

Granting

the truth

of the

propositionsin
second
are

the

umn, first col-

it follows

that those

in the
men

column

differ in
a

quantity.
number A

That
men

is,in "Some
is referred
to

mortal,"
men

smaller
tal." mor-

of

than

in "All

are

similar

variation the

in second
column

quantity
column.
are

obtains

with

the the the

other

propositionsin
the
ones

Moreover,

propositionsin corresponding
Thus

third
in the from

the the

negative of
fourth

first;while
the first in
to
a

column

propositions differ quality.

both

quantity
or

and gree de-

opposition exists
all. We
may
now

greater

less

between "When the which attention the then universal the

ask ourselves
to

the other

question,
in opposition

propositionsare
ones are

related which

each
are

true

and

ones row are

men

false ?"
note

ing Giv-

to

the

propositionsin
men

"I," we

that if

affirmative,"All

mortal," is true,
are

"Some particularaffirmative, true; of

because

mortal," is
is true that of

likewise the But whole

of the is true

"What principle,
of
men are a

the

class

part
are

of

class."
the

the universal

negative,"No
men

mortal," and mortal,"

are

particularnegative,"Some
false. both
E

not

both

Briefly stated:
and

If

is true,

then

I is true,

but,

are
row

false. "II"
we

Regarding
then
As

may

conclude
A

that if E
I
are

is true,

O
to

is likewise
rows

true, but both and

men

and

false.
of the
men are

"III"

"IV," granting the truth

are

"Some propositions,

wise"

and

"Some A

mortal,"

we

are
men

able
are

to

assert

that of the two "All is true. the O

men are

tions, proposi-

"All

wise,"

and

mortal," the

first is false while

or

the second Of

determin is,therefore, in-

doubtful.

"Some propositions,

164

Immediate

Inference
way
or,
:

part of that class.

of all may of all may

To
be

put it in another
affirmed of
of
some.

Whatever Whatever

is affirmed
is denied

some,

be denied

To

illustrate:

Accepted truth: All planets rotate.

(A) (I)

Accepted

inference:
or

Some

planets rotate. (E)

not

Accepted Accepted
These
may
a

truth:

No

planet is
: Some
:

sun.

inference

planetsare

suns.

(O)

are

the two

facts
a

First, a particularaffirmative

be

derived

from

universal
be

affirmative. Second, from

be
a

particularnegative
more

may

derived
I may

universal

negative. Or,
an

An briefly:
an

derived

from

A, and
Square
Aristotle

an

from

E.

of

Opposition.

represented the
what

relations

of

the

four

logical

propositionsby
A

is termed Contraries

the square

of opposition.
E

The

Forms

of Immediate

Inference
square,

165
relations

Viewed
may
1.

from

the
up

standpoint of
as

the

the

be summed

follows

Contrary Propositions.
so

Why
As

named.
to

related because

each

other, A
seem

and
express

are

said

to

be

trary con-

they

to

contrariety to

the

greatest degree.
Relation If
one

stated. is true, the other

must

be

false,but both

may

be

false. Illustrations.

(1)
is true, "No
are

If
as

one

is true, the other metals

are

must

be

false; e.
E
as

g., if A

"All
are

elements," then

is

false,as
birds
are

metals

elements." then A

Or,
is

if E

is true,

"No birds

quadrupeds,"

false, as

"All

quadrupeds."
(2)
Both
may may

be

false.

If A

is

false,as
men are

"All

men

are

wise/' then E
2.

be

as false,

"No

wise."

Subcontrary Propositions. Why

so

named. I and O
are

Propositions
other
as

said

to

be

related
are

to

each

in

subcontrary
other stated. is and

manner

because their

they

contrary
A and E.

to

each

"under"

universals

Relation If be
one

false, the other

must

be

true,

or,

both

may

true.

Illustrations.

(1)

If

one

is

false,the other
"Some metals metals

must
are

be

true.

If I is is true,
as

false,as
"Some

compounds," then, O
not

(at least) are

compounds."

66

Immediate

Inference
metals
are

Or, if O
then

is false, as
as

"Some metals

are

not

elements,"

I is true,

"Some be
true.

elements."

(2)

Both

may
as

If I is true,
be

"Some
men

men are

are

wise," then
wise."

also may

true, 3.

as

"Some

not

Subalterns.
so

Why

named. considered is under subaltern

means

Etymologically
one,

under E.

the

thus

proposition I
stated.

A, and

is under

Relation First

Relation.
are

Subalterns and

related

to

each

other

as

are

the

versal uni-

particulars ; hence,
is true, the

(1)

If the universal
; while

particularunder
the

it is

also true

if the
or, may

is true, particular not, be

true.

corresponding

universal

may,

Illustrations.

(a)
true.

If the

universal

is true, the

particularunder

it is

If A

is true, "Some
are

as

"All
are

metals

are

elements," then

I is
as as

true,
"No "Some

as

metals

elements."

Or,

if E

is true, true,

metals metals If the

may,

compounds,"
not

then, O

is also

(at least) are particular is

may
as

compounds."
the

(b)

true,
true.
are

corresponding

versal uni-

or,

not, be "Some
men

If I is true,
are

wise,"
"All

or,
men

"Some
are

men

mortal," then
A
may
as

A
as

may "All

be

false,as
men are

wise,"
is
not

or,

be true,
men

mortal."
or,

Or, if O
men are

true,

"Some

are

not

wise,"

"Some

The

Forms

of

Immediate

Inference
as

167
are

immortal," then
or,

E
men

may
are

be

false,

"No

men

wise"

true, Second

as

"No

immortal."

Relation. the universal

not

(2)
may
or

If

is

false,the particular under

it

may

be

true, but, if the

it must be false.

particularis false,

the universal

above

Illustrations.

(a)
may
or

If

the

universal
not

is false, the

particular under

it

may

be

true.

If A
men are

is

false,as

"All

metals
be

are

compounds,"
"Some
men

or

"All
are

wise," then
or,

I may

false,as
as are

metals
are

compounds,"
Or, if E
are

I may "No
may

be true,
men

"Some

wise."
men

is false,as O
may

mortal,"
"Some
men

or,
men

"No
are

wise," then
O

be

false, as
as

not

mortal," or,

be true,

"Some

are

not

wise." it

(b)
must

If

the false.

particular is false, the

universal

above

be I

If

is false,
men

as are

"Some trees." E

men

are

trees," then
is false,as "No

A "Some

is

false,as "All
men

Or,
is also

if O

are

not

bipeds," then

as false,

men

are

bipeds."
4.

Propositions. Contradictory
so

Why
The

named. and

propositionsA

O, likewise

and
oppose

I, are
each

called other

propositionsbecause contradictory
in both
to

they
are

quantity and
other
or

quality. They

mutually opposed

each

absolutelycontradictory.
be false.

Relation If
one

stated. is
true

the other

must

68

Immediate

Inference

Illustrations.

(i)
If A

and

compared.
as

is true, "Some "Some "All and

"All

metals
are are

are

elements," then, O Or, if O

then A

is is is

false, as
true,
as

metals metals metals

I
are

not not

elements."

compounds,"

false,as

compounds."

(2)
If E

compared.
as

is true, "Some birds

"No

birds
are

are

quadrupeds,"
Or, if
E is false,as

then

I is

false,as
as are

birds
are

quadrupeds."

I is true,

"Some

bipeds," then

"No

birds

bipeds."
The chief

value

of

the

square

of

opposition springs
The
square

from

the

contradictory propositions.
any

shows

conclusivelythat A)
may

universal

affirmative
a

assertion

(an

best be contradicted For

by proving
To

particular tive negathe the the

(an O).
statement

example:
be

refute satisfactorily

that, in this section, all birds

in winter, it would
sparrow

migrate
prove
to

to

south

sufficient
not

to

that

English
The

and

do starling makes be

migrate
that

the south. universal ing establishTo trate illustrusts

square

likewise
may
a

evident

any

negative (an E)
the truth
: are

conclusivelydenied

by

of

affirmative particular
to

(an I).

The

easiest way is
to

prove

the

of falsity
at

"No

honest" and The

An B
are

present facts showing that

least trusts

honest.

Individual individual such

as

Proposition. propositionis
was one

with

an

individual

ject subvidual indiseems

"Aristotle

wise."
as a

In

logic,the
This

proposition is
to

classed with

universal. individual

be

bit

as irregular,

the

proposition

The

Forms

of

Immediate

Inference

169

there

is

no

particular,
a

while,

the

strictly
Because

logical
of this

universal

always
from the

implies
true

particular.
form do the

variation

logical

relations,
not

as

indicated the

by

the

square

of

opposition,
For

apply

to

individual

proposition.
and E
are

example:
but,
as

According
when

to

the A

square

contrary,

individual,
was

and

tradict con-

each

other,
not

"Aristotle

wise"

(A)

totle "Aris"

was

wise"

(E).

CHAPTER

10.

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE CONTRAVERSION

(CONTINUED)
AND

OBVERSION,
INVERSION.

VERSION, CON-

(2)

IMMEDIATE SION.

INFERENCE

BY

OBVER-

Obversion the
the

is the process
to

of changmg

proposition from
or

affirmative form negative form

to

its

equivalent negative

from

its refer

equivalent affirmative.
to

Some Privitive
term.

authorities

this process
seems

as

"Inference
to

by

Conception/'

but

Obversion

be

better

Obversion
are

is based
to

upon
one

the

principle that
With

two

tives nega-

equivalent

affirmative.
let
us

this with

double four

negative principle in

mind

experiment

the

logicalpropositions, A, E, I, O.
The
A

Proposition.
"All

Example:
double
men

thoughtful
and

men

are

wise." reads:
to

Insert "All

the

negative
are

the

proposition Changed
men

ful thought-

not

not-wise."

the

logical form
plified Simare
wise." un-

this becomes:
and
we

"No

thoughtful

are

not-wise."
men

: "No have, finally

thoughtful
obversion "All
are we

Thus
from

by

the

process

of

have
men

passed
are

the
to

original proposition,
"No the

thoughtful
unwise." men"
In

wise,"

thoughtful

men

the of

first the
tradictory con-

proposition predicate

subject "thoughtful Assuming

:

is denied

"unwise." of

that

"unwise"

is the of
a

"wise," then

"What
170

is affirmed

predi-

172

Immediate

Inference
note

Referring belongs to belongs to

to

Fig. 6

we

that all of the smaller

none

cle circircle

the

larger or
outside

that

of the smaller

the

space

of the
men

larger. Hence
are

the two

propositions: "All
"No
same

thoughtful
are

wise" have

(A),
related

and

thoughtful men meaning

unwise" the
same

(E)

the virtually is
to

though

subject

different The
use

predicates.
of the

positiveor negative form

the

depends

upon

circumstances.
more

Often
way.

negative puts

the

thought

in

forceful In

passing from, thoughtful men

the

"All
are

thoughtful
unwise," it was
and

men

are

wise,"
to not

to

"No

necessary

fix pre-

not

to

predicate wise
If

substitute

for

its
or or

equivalent tin.
not-wise, then
not
to
an

the

originalpredicate were
order This of

unwise the
un

the

reverse

dropping
of

could

be

followed.

process

prefixingthe
the not
the

not
a

affirmative

predicate or
referred

of
to

dropping
as

from

negative predicate is
Before
must

negating
etc., for

cate. predione tradictory; conwise, un-

substitutingin, im,
that the substitution
are some

un,

not,

make

sure

gives the really

claim that wise.

there
for

logicianswho
the

instance, is
the the

not

contradictoryof

In

comparing
that

first

proposition with
an

the

second is

it
an

is observed

first is

A, while
first was the

the

second
to

E, also that the predicateof

the

the

negated
rule:

form the

predicate of
and

the

second. A
to

Thus

Negate

predicate
To
sum

change

E.

up:
The obversion of
an

proposition.

Immediate

Inference by

Obversion

173

1.

Principle:
Two

negatives are

equivalent to

one

affirmative.

2.

Rule:

Negate using
3. Process The All All

the the

predicateand change sign no

instead

the A

to

an

by

of all.

illustrated. The No No be sympaNo

men

Original Proposition (A)

men are

Obverse
are

(E)

mortal.
are

immortal.
are

maples

trees.

maples
teacher

not-trees.

All teachers

should

should

be

un-

thetic.
All All All

sympathetic.
is

pain
men

unpleasant. imperfect.
are

No No ani* No

pain
men

is
are

pleasant. perfect.

are

birds

feathered

birds feathered

are

non-

mals. All All

men are

animals.
trees.

not-trees.

No
non-

men

are

scalene

trianglesare

No

scalene

trianglesare

equilateral.
The E

equilateral.
that the process of of
an

Proposition.
obverting an
A. E is simply the

It is obvious the
same reverse

obverting
; whereas

Consequently,

principleobtains by reading
the

the process may illustrations the

trated be illus-

foregoing
is :

reversely.

The

rule for the E I

us

obverting E
an

Negate
the

predicate and
no

change
The Let

to

by changing
the

sign

to

all.

Proposition.
note

the

result when the I

men

double

ciple negativeprin-

is

applied to
"Some

proposition.
are

Original : Adding

wise."
men are

two

negatives: "Some

not

not-wise."

174

Immediate

Inference
are

The

"Some foregoing simplified:

men

not

unwise."

In

comparing
that the

the first propositionwith first is the

an

served the last it is oban

I while

the the

last is first

O;

it is

also observed in order

to

that

predicate of

was

negated
the rule
:

form

the

predicateof

the last. the I to

Thus
an

"Negate
The
use

the

predicateand change
make unwise

O."

of circles may

this clearer:

unwise

Mori

Hi

Ia/j.*;*

I unwise

The Here which

we

significant part
have
common

of

Fig.

7 is that

which

is inked. circle inked

represented the part of the "men"

to

is

the
men

"wise"
are

circle. wise."

Thus

the

part represents
is

"Some of

If the inked

part
it
can

entirelyinside
to
men

the

"wise"

circle,no
Thus

part

of

belong
"Some

the "unwise"
are

space

without.

the obverse,

not

unwise."

Summary.
The
1.

obversion

of

an

proposition.

Principle:
Same
as

with

A.

2.

Rule:

Negate

the

predicateand change

the I to

an

O.

Immediate

Inference by Obversion

175

3. Process The

illustrated. The Some Some

water
curves

Original Proposition (I)

water
curves

Obverse
is
not

(0) impure.

Some Some

is pure.
are

perfect.

are

not

fect. imper-

Some

friends

are

loyal.

Some

friends

are

not

loyal. dis-

Some
Some

men

are

true. stones
are

Some Some
not

men

are

not

not-true.
are

precious

precious stones perfect. plants are boys

"nof
'

imperfect.
Some

plants are boys

are

not-trees.

Some

not
not

trees.

Some
It must the when

not-honest. in mind the "not" and

not to

Some

are

honest. without

be borne

that when

is used

hyphen

it makes

proposition negative, because

must

"unhyphened"
with the

be

thought

of in

tion connec-

copula

in connection the

with

the
a

cate predihyphen

; while

"nof

attached the

predicate with
without

simply
the trees"

makes

predicate negative proposition;

e.

affecting
not

qualityof
is
a

the

g., "Some

plants are

negative proposition,while
is
an

"Some

plants are
a

not-trees,,

affirmative

proposition with

negative

predicate.
It may the "Some trees/'
1.

not

be

clearlyseen
to

how from

it is

possible, by
a

ing follow-

rule

given,
are

pass

such "Some
:

proposition as plants
are

plants
Let
us

not-trees,"to

not

illustrate the steps

The

original:"Some

plants are
"Some

not-trees." trees."
not

2.

Negating predicate: Changing

to
an

plants are plants are

3.

"Some

trees."

176 Dropping
"2"

Immediate

Inference
"1"
and

the

not

from into

then

adding
double

it

again

to

is

simply putting
no

operation

the

negative

idea, so that there is

The O 0

violation

of the

principle.

Proposition.
the
same

bears

relation is the
same.

to

I that E

bears

to

A.

The

principleinvolved

The

process

is illustrated
under

by reading reversely the

The

scheme obvert
I

of illustrations
an

I.

rule is and

as

follows O

To
an

cate negate the predinot.

cliangethe

to

by eliminatingthe

Summary
1.

of Obverting

the Four

Logical Propositions.

Principle:
Two

negatives are

equivalent to

one

affirmative.

2.

Rules:

f (1) A

to to to to

E A O I
BY

Negate
and

the

J (2 predicate (2) 1 (3) change ^ (4)

E
I

(3)

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCE

SION. CONVER-

Conversion

is the

process

of inferring from

given

propositionanother of of
the

which

has, as its subject,the predicate

as

and, given proposition,

its

predicate,the subject
a

the

given proposition.

It is

simply

matter

of

posing trans-

subject and predicate.

called named The First which
The

The the

originalproposition is
derived

the the

convertend
converse.

while

proposition

is

process

of
term

conversion
must

is limited distributed

by

two

rules.

rule. is
not

No

be

in the

converse

distributed the
converse

in the convertend.
must

Second
same as

rule. that
of

quality of

be

the

Immediate

Inference by briefly:(1) (2)

term

Conversion

177

the

convertend.

More
term.
a

Do

not

distribute

an

undistributed We
to to
as a

Do

not

change

the

quality.
it is referred is referred fore, there-

recall that

is distributed An

when
term

whole. definite in part.

one

undistributed

only

The

principleunderlying
forms the
may

rule "1" of

is the

which

basis

inference

by

opposition; namely,
class may be said of this is not
cannot

"Whatever
a

be said

of
The

the entire
converse a we

of

part of that class."

true, that is,"What

is said of part of

class tribute dis-

be said of the whole

an

of that class.'' When

we a are

undistributed
was

term

saying

of the whole This

a

class what fallacious. what

term.
was

said the

only
other

of

part of that class.

we

is

On

hand,
or

may

say
a

of

part

said of the
,

whole,

"undistribute"

distributed

We

recall that

the

conclusion that
an

of

the

whole
an an

matter

of
ferred in-

inference

by opposition was,
an

only
from

I could

be

from in another and the

and

only
an

E,
an

or

to

put it

way:
a

Only

affirmative
a

from

affirmative establishes "Do

not

only
truth the
us

negative
of the

from

negative.
in

This

second

rule

conversion:

change
Let

quality."
the
two

apply

rules

to

the

four

tions. logicalproposi-

Converting an
Take
as
"

proposition.
are

type, "All horses

is

quadrupeds."

Here

the

subject

horses" is

rupeds" distributed,but the predicate "quadIn

undistributed.
cannot

transposing subject
the
term
not

and

predicate we according
to

distribute which

"quadrupeds,"
distribute
an

the

rule

says,

"Do

178
undistributed

Immediate

Inference
in "All

term."
cannot

Hence
say,

interchanging subject and quadrupeds

are

predicate
but
must

we

horses,"
are

limit the

assertion

to, "Some

quadrupeds

horses."

Logicians call

this process

Conversion

tion. by Limita-

Conversion

by

Limitation

Exemplified Further.
Converse. Some Some bees. elements
are

Convertend All metals All bees

are

elements.

metals.
are

buzz.

buzzing

insects

All

men

are

fallible.

Some
men.

fallible

beings

are

All

good

teachers

are

sym-

Some
are

sympathetic good
teachers. these:

persons

pathetic.
The conclusions mode of from the

foregoing
A

are

First,

the usual and

or a

converting an

is

to

ject interchange subthe word "some" is

an

limitingthe predicate,
of similar

latter

by

word

significance. Second,
limitation.

this mode of

called conversion
A

by

Third, the

converse

is

an

I.

The

Co-extensive

A.
of A

In the conversion

propositionsthere
A's," such
as

is the and both

one

ception ex-

of "co-extensive

truisms these

tions. defini-

It will be remembered
and

that with

subject
changed interTo

predicate are
without

distributed; hence, they may

be

limiting the predicate by

converse

"some." is
a

illustrate: The is "A "A

man man

of the the

truism,
converse

"A

man

man,"

is is
This
a

man," while

of the rational

definition,
animal is
a

rational mode of

animal," is "A

man."

interchanging subject and

predicate

180

Immediate

Inference
undistributed
converse.

Thus

care

must

be used distributed

lest

an

term

in the

convertend

be

in the

Illustrations:
Converse.

Convertend.
Some Some Some
enter
men are

wise. scold.

Some Some

wise

beings
scold
enter

are

men.

teachers

who
who

are

teachers.
are

school high college. Americans

graduates

Some

high
Some

school who

college graduates. simply

Some

live simply.

live

are

Americans.

From

the

foregoing

we

conclude

that first,

I is

verted con-

simply; second,
The With
the

that

I is converted

into I.

0
an

Proposition.
O

proposition the subject is undistributed

is distributed. This condition

while
a

predicate

presents

peculiar difficulty. Consider, for example, the O

"Some wise the
men

tion, proposi-

are

not

wise."
and

Convert

this

into, "Some

beings

are

not

men,"
is

the undistributed becomes the 0 the

subjectof
distributed

convertend, which
converse.

"men,"
Thus

predicate of the
be A

proposition cannot for

distribution.

converted

without

violating the
the Four

rule

Summary

of

How

Logical Propositions

May

be Converted.
i.

A.

The

ordinary by
A

proposition may only.

converted be

be The

verted conextensive co-

limitation
may

simply. simply. by
tion, limitais

2.

E.

The

proposition
E may

is converted

The

also be converted the inference thus

but weakened.
3. /.

obtained

The

propositionmay
O

be converted

simply

only.
4.

O.

The

proposition

cannot

be

converted.

Immediate

Inference by
BY

Contr aversion

181

(4)

INFERENCE

CONTRAVERSION.

(Contraposition).
This mode of inference is

usually

referred

to

as

ference in-

by contraposition,but
more

contraversion, indicating
is
a

the definitely

nature
two
same

of the process,

better term.
ond, sec-

Contraversion

involves

steps:

First, obversion;
rules

conversion.
in these
two

The

principlesand
in inference

evident

processes

obtain

by

sion. contraverto

The sufficient to

following scheme,
make the matter

therefore, ought

be

clear: Contraversion.
2. No No All All Some Obverted.
men are are are are
men

Inference by
1. A. The
All

Given
men are are are

Proposition.
mortal.

immortal.

All E. No No I. Some O. Some Some

trees
men men men

plants.
infallible.
trees.

trees
men

not-plants.
fallible.
not-trees.
are

are

men

are

wise. is not
are

not

not-wise.

water

pure.
not

Some Some

water

is

impure.
not-white.

houses

white.

houses

are

3.

Converted;

giving
immortals

the

contraverse

of

the

original

proposition.
No No Some Some An O
are men.

not-plantsare
fallible
not-trees
cannot

trees.
are men.

beings
are

men.

be

converted, consequently
of
an

the contraversion Some Some It is indicated be contraverted.

I is
water.

impossible.

impure liquidsare
not-white in the This

buildings are
scheme

houses. that "I"

cannot

foregoing
is due
to

the

fact that the obverse

182

Immediate

Inference
be remembered that "O"
of

of

an

I is

an

O,

and

it will
All

cannot

be converted.

the other

propositionsadmit

contraversion.

4.

EPITOME
INFERENCE

OF

THE IN

FOUR

PROCESSES WITH

OF

IMMEDIATE THE FOUR

CONNECTION

LOGICAL

PROPOSITIONS.

Proposition symbolized

Name Process

of

Inference

Principle
involved

symbolized

All

S is

P*

Opposition

Some

S is P

(i)

What
said of

is said
some.

of all

may

be

Obversion

No

S is not-P

(E)

Two
to
one

negatives

are

equivalent

affirmative.

Conversion Limitation Contraversion

by

Some

is S

(i)

An be

undistributed distributed.

term

cannot

No

not-P

is S

(E)

Same in

principles which obtain obvertingf A and convert-

in? E.

*S" represents

any

subject and

"P"

any

predicate.

Inference by
Inference
Some
as

Inversion

183

By

Inversion.
of
it
a

logicianstreat though
be

form of

of

immediate

inference
and of

known little

inversion

is

small

importance
propositions

practicalvalue.
The the
then
one

process
case

can

applied only

to

and

E.

In

the of

contradictory subject is limited

the

by "some"
other
case,

and the

denied

predicate, whereas, in the

of

contradictory subject is merely affirmed

Illustrations. The I. All All II. No No From S Given is P.

the

predicate.
Inverse. is not P.
do
not

Proposition. (A) (E)

immortal. Some
Some

The

not-S

(O)
rotate.

planets rotate.
S is P.
men are

not-planets
not-S
not-men

Some Some

is P.
are

(I)
immortal.
the
to
an

the
is the

of "A"
while

that able to conclude are foregoing we found by negating the subject and changing inverse

inverse

"O"
and

of "E"

is

found

by negating the subject

changing
5.

to

an

"I."

OUTLINE.
Immediate Inference
"

Opposition
inversion.

"

Obversion,

Conversion,

contraversion
1. 2.

and

The

Nature

of Inference. and Mediate Inference.

Inference.

Immediate The Forms

3.

of Immediate

(1) Opposition. (a) Scheme (b) Square (2) Obversion. (3) Conversion. (a) Simply. (b) By Limitation. (4) Contraversion.
Inversion. of
of

Opposition. Opposition.

6.

SUMMARY.

1. from

Inference
one or

is the

thought

process

of

deriving

judgment

two

antecedent

judgments.

184
2.

Immediate

Inference
inference without the
use

Immediate
term.

inference Mediate

is

of

a a

middle
middle 3.

inference

is inference

by

means

of

term.

The

four

common

forms

of

immediate

inference

are

(1)

opposition, (2) obversion, (3) conversion, (4) contraversion.

(1) The
which the
same name

opposition
the

stands

for

certain

definite

relations
are

exist

between

logical propositions v/hen

The
of the
one

they

given
be

subject and
:

predicate.
is said
The be
an

principle underlying
class
may
sum

opposition is
of
a

Whatever

entire

said
sition oppoan

part
are

of

that class.
I may from made

two

statements

which
an

up

first, an
derived fact
are

derived

from

A;

and

second,

may

be

E.

The

crucial
and O

obvious

by the

square

of

opposition is
E

that A

mutually
is the

contradictory; likewise
of from
are

and

I.
to

(2) Obversion
its equivalent affirmative.
is the

process
or

passing
a

from

an

affirmative its

negative

negative
to

to
one

equivalent

"Two

negatives

equivalent

affirmative,"

basic

principle of obversion.
may

The
and and and and

proposition A
to to to to
an an an an

be

obverted

by negating the predicate by negating the predicate by negating the predicate by negating the predicate

changing changing changing

E. A.

"E"

is obverted

"I" is obverted
"O" is obverted

O. I.

changing
another

(3) Conversion

is the process

of

inferring from
the

given
the

sition propo-

which
and

has
as

as

its subject

predicate

of

the

given proposition proposition.

Conversion
an

its predicate the

subject of

given

is limited

by the

two not

rules, (1) do

not

distribute

undistributed
To
convert
an

term;
A
or

(2)
word

do

change the quality.

subject and predicate, limiting
is called

interchange
a

the

latter

by

some,

of

like significance. This

conversion
The

by limitation.
A
may

co-extensive

be

converted

without

limiting the
tion. by limitaa

predicate. This
An
E

is called
may

simple conversion.
be converted

proposition

either the

simply

or

When
one.

converted

by limitation

inference

is

weakened

An

proposition is converted

simply only.

Summary
The O

185
of

proposition does
inference
and

not

admit

conversion. is
a

(4) Immediate
first obversion

by contraversion
conversion.
be

process

ing involv-

then
may

"A,"

"E"

and

"O"

controverted

"I"

cannot

be

travened. con-

7.

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXERCISES.

(la) From
am

the derive
are

antecedent

judgment,
inference
or

"All weeds these

are

are

plants," I (1) (4)

able
weeds

to

by immediate not-plants,"
weeds."

judgments:
not
are

"All "No

not
are

"No

weeds

plants." (2)
weeds."

not-plants
weeds
are

(3) "Some
backbone."

plants
From

"Some

plants."
have
a

(lb) "All

vertebrates

the

foregoing

judgment (2a)

derive

immediately five different conclusions.

citizens try White is
a

"All

good

to

vote," citizen/'
vote." mediate
use

^'Albert

good

Hence,
I know

"Albert
above

White is
an

will try to

that the
two

example

of make

inference of the

cause be-

the term,

antecedent

judgments

middle

"good

citizen" is the wise wise

(2b) Why

following illustrative of mediate

men men are

inference?

"All "All

close observers,"

Hence,

"Some

thoughtful," are thoughtful men

are

close

observers." the lowing fol-

(3a) Derive
:

immediate

inferences

by opposition from

(1) "Good (2) "No

(3) "All

men

are
can

wise."
afford
to

teacher birds
of

be

unjust."
large
the earth."

fly."
the inner
"1"

(4) "None
I "2"

planets are
and "3"
are

as

as

first determine
and

that

propositions, while
an

"4"

are

E's.
an

Then
A

I recall that

by opposition
an

I may the

be

derived

from
are:

and

an

from

E.

Hence,

inferences

(1) "Some

good
birds
of

men

are

wise." afford
to

(2) "Some (3) "Some (4) "Some

teachers

cannot

be

unjust."
so

fly."
inner

the

planets

are

not

large

as

the

earth."

86

Immediate

Inference
from her

'3b) Derive

by opposition inferences
true
woman

the
home

following:
for

(1)
(2) (3) (4a) (1)

"No "All "Fools

will love

neglect
the

society."

patrioticmen
rush

flag."
fear
to

in where

angels

tread."

Obvert "All

the

following:
teachers
man are

earnest

diligent students."
can

(2) "No

self-respecting

afford

to

be

careless

in

his personal appearance."

of the (3) "Some practice what

great

teachers

of

the

past

did

not

they preached."
beautiful."
of each

(4) "Some
I determine the

weeds

are

first the
be Then
an

logical character A, the

I and second
an

proposition,
an

finding
the
must
an

first to
an

E,
be
to
an

the third the

to
an

and

fourth

I.
be

recall that
an

in obversion

predicate
an

always
E
to
an

negated
an

must

changed
O
or

E
an

or

; also

I must each

be

changed
is

to

I.

Hence,

the obverse

of
earnest

proposition
a

is

(1)

"No "All

teacher

not-diligent student."
can

(2) (careful)
(3)

self-respecting men
of
to

afford

to

be

not-careless

in their

personal appearance."
the great
teachers of the

"Some

past

did

not-

practice (failed (4) "Some (4b)

Infer

practice) what
weeds
are

they preached."
not-beautiful."
the

not

by obversion
"All "None
roses

from

following:
of the

(1)

are

beautiful."
members

(2)

of

the

stock

exchange

are

dishonest."

(3) "Some

pupils

are
are

not

industrious." tactful."

(4) "Some (5a) Convert (1)

"All

teachers

the following: that is glitters

men are

not

gold."
chewed
and

(2) "All good

(3) "Some (4)
"No
man

are

wise."
to

books is
to

be

digested."

perfectly happy."
determine the lead
one

It is first necessary

logical character
to

of

each

proposition.
an

Carelessness
because

might

call the

first proposition

A second

it is introduced
we

by the quantity sign "all." meaning

is
an

But that

on some

thought

note
are

that the
not

is to

the

effect

glittering things

gold; this

O.

It is clear

88

Immediate

Inference
left the town."

(3) "Nearly all the troops have

(4) "Some (7a) The

rule

teachers

are

not

patient."
the

attending

scheme
from

indicates

logical
to

process

and

involved in passing A. "All men are

one proposition imperfect."

another:

E.

Illustrative Exercises

189
above the

(7b) Treat
"All
horses
are

in

manner

similar

to

the

proposition,

quadrupeds."

8.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

What What Define All

is inference?
is the

meaning

of

antecedent?
a

(1) judging, (2)

are

judgment.

roses

beautiful,
is
a

This
This Write Name the this

flower flower

rose,

is beautiful. of mediate

example
term.

inference

in

equation form.

middle

(5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Define Define Name What Draw

immediate mediate the

inference. inference. of

Illustrate. Illustrate.

five forms

immediate

inference.

principleis involved
the
use

in inference

by opposition?

scheme

of

opposition.
in

(10) Make

of this scheme

deriving inferences

from

the

following propositions: (a)

(b)
"Good "No
men are

wise."

king is infallible."
are

(c) (d) (11) What (12) What

that

"Cattle
"All
are

ruminants."

who

cheat

the railroads

are

not

honest."

contradictory propositions?
be

Illustrate.
ment state-

would

the

simplest way
said to
be

of

disproving the
been

"No
are

great religious teacher

A and E

has

consistent?"

(13) Why
(14) Define

contrary

propositions?

obversion. other
name

(15) By what

is obversion

known?

(16) State the basic principleof obversion. (17) Illustrate the

(18) State
the rule
process

known

as an

(19)

Obvert

obverting the following:

the boys in my is the best
room

for

negating the predicate. A proposition.

industrious."

(1)

"All

are

(2)
(3)

"Honesty

policy." "Only the industrious are truly successful."

190

Immediate

Inference
then
obvert

(20) First (1) (2)

state

the

rule

and
are

the

following:

"Some "Planets
"Blessed

plants
are are

biennial." suns." merciful."

are

not

(3) (4) (21) Define

(22) State
of conversion.

the

"These

samples

not

perfect."

conversion.
and illustrate

the

rules

which

condition

the

process

(23) Convert, if possible,the following: (1) (2) (3) (4)

"Some "Few "Some "All
men men

practice sophistry."
know the how
to

live."
are

of the of

inhabitants
is
a

not

civilized."

world
my

stage."
taskmaster."

(5)
(6) (24) Wiry

"None

pupils failed."
is
a

"Experience
may

hard

co-extensive
the
process

propositions be converted
of

simply?

(25)

Describe

inference

by contraversion.

9.

PROBLEMS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

GATION. INVESTI-

(1)

What
so

ground

is there
a

for

the

belief
of

that

immediate

ference, in-

called, is merely
there difference conclusion each

matter

the

interpretation of
inference?
are

propositions ?

(2)
(3)
the
same

Is

any

between is reached

reasoning
that
two

and
rooms

When

the

of

width, because
term? Put in All

is five

yards

wide, what

is the

middle

(4)

equation form:
teachers

instruct,
is
a

John
Show

Jones

teacher, absolutely
between

John Jones that the equations

Indicate
of

instructs.
are

not

true.

(5)
(6) (7) (8)

the

true

relation

the

subjects and "

I?

cates predi-

the

foregoing
cannot
cannot
an an

by using the algebraic signs " and

A be be

Why Why
The
to

derived derived

from from

an an

A?

basic
one

principle of
affirmative."

obversion

is "Two

negatives
of

are

equivalent

Show

by

means

circles

that

Problems

for

Original

Thought

and

Investigation

191

this

is

not

absolutely
not

true

take

as

an

illustrative

proposition,

"No

men

are

mortal." that

(9)

Show
terms.

agreeable

and

disagreeable

are

not

dictory contra-

(10)
universal

Why
? Show "Some Show

should

the

logician

class

individual

propositions

as

(11)
between,

by

circles

that
not

there
wise"

is
and

difference
Some

in

signification
not-wise."
be

men

are

men

are

(12)

by

circles

that

the

proposition

cannot

verted. con-

(13)
clear.

"The

proposition

cannot

be

contraverted."

Make

this

(14)
work is

Is

there

any

difference
and

in

meaning

between,
work is

"All

illogical

unscholarly"
by
circles. the
to

"No

illogical

scholarly?"

Explain

(15) proposition

State

logical succeeding
men

process
one:

involved

in

passing

from

each

its "All "No "No "Some "Some "Some

(1) (2) (3)

(4)

are

imperfect."

men

are

perfect."
beings
are are

perfect
not-men

men."

perfect
are

beings."
not-men."
not
'

(5) (6) (16)

no

perfect

beings beings
that in

perfect
said
you

are

men." there
is

It

is

sometimes
Do

sub-contraries

really

opposition.

agree?

Give

arguments.

CHAPTER

11.

MEDIATE

INFERENCE.

THE

SYLLOGISM.

1.

INFERENCE

AND

REASONING.

Inference
process.

has When becomes

been used

denned
to

as

both
a

product
the

and

indicate

process

term

ference inIf

synonomous agree
to to

with inference it would

reasoning.
to
remove

logicians could
and

confine

the

product
an biguity am-

reasoning
which

the
more

process,
or

is
become

less

misleading.
we

But

since

this
as

has

not

the
process

custom,
as

shall the

use

inference

indicating
Definitions
Inference
"

the

well

as

product.

Middle

Term

Explained.
process of

is the
one or

thought
two

deriving

ment judg-

from Mediate
term.

antecedent

judgments.
means

inference

is

inference by

of

middle

Reasoning
of and The which then
are

of

this

nature

involves
a

three
or

terms,
middle

two

compared
to

with other
common

third form

term,

related
term

each is the
terms
are

to

new

judgment.
standard^
illustrate:

middle which the

and

unit,
measured. six The feet

or

the To

by
If

other

are

John
are

James
the
same

each

tall, then
or

plainly,
middle

they
term,
2. THE

of

height.
tall."

standard,

is "six
SYLLOGISM.

feet

Just

as

the
so

judgment
mediate

is

expressed
is

by
best

means

of

the

proposition,

inference
192

expressed

by

The

Syllogism
The

193

means

of the

syllogism.*
is six

followingare
tall,

syllogisms:

(1) James John

Hence All You Hence

feet

is six feet

tall,
as

James
true
are

is

tall
are

as

John.

(2)

teachers
a

just,

true
are

teacher,

you
men are are a

just.
mortal,

(3)

All You Hence

man,
are

you

mortal.

3.

THE

RULES

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

All

syllogistic reasoning is
rules: A

conditioned

by

the

ing follow-

eight

(1) (2) (3) (4)

syllogism must
different
terms.

have

three, and

only three,

syllogismmust
propositions.
middle

have

three, and

only three,
least

The

term

must

be

distributed

at

once.

No

term

must

be is

distributed
not

in the

sion concluin
a

which

also

distributed

premise.

(5)
(6)

No

conclusion

can

be

drawn

from

two

negative premises.
If
one

premise
be

be

negative, the
of

conclusion
prove

must
a

negative; and

conversely,to
one

negative conclusion,
be

the

premises

must
*

negative.
to
reason

From

the

Greek

meaning

with.

194

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
drawn

(7)

No

conclusion

can

be

from

two

particularpremises. (8)
If
one

premise
be
are

be

the particular,

conclusion

must

particular. exceedingly important,

in
to
as

These observance student these

so

rules

their
The

is necessary
not

all mediate understand

to

reasoning.
the them

needs, rules, but

only
needs

meaning
to

of

he

commit be

memory

thoroughly
or

that

they
To

may

recalled
memory,

without the

tion hesitarules

mistake. divided I. Rules

aid

the four
two

eight

may

be

into these
one

groups

and

relate

to

the

composition

of
II. Rules

the

syllogism.
and four

three

pertain to

the distribution

of
III. Rules

terms.

five and

six

have

reference

to

negative

premises.
IV. Rules
seven

and

eight

concern

particular

premises.
4.

RULES

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM

EXPLAINED.

(1)
It forms
for

syllogism must
common

have

three

and

only
various

three

terms.

is

to

represent
the In
same

the

syllogistic

by symbols,
same

symbols always standing

we as

the G

terms.

this treatment

shall let capital

means

stand

for

the

major
the

term,
minor for

"major"
"

greater;
means

capital S.

for

term,
the

as

minor

"

smaller, and

capitalM

middle

term.

G,

and

M, the initial letters of greater

and

(major),

smaller for

(minor)

middle, will be the

constant

symbols

196

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
the

first, a major term, which

conclusion minor term, and middle There
term

is
once

always
in the the

predicate of

the
a

and

appears

premises; second,
of the
sion conclu-

which

is
once

always
in

subject

appears
to

the

premises;
terms
are

and

third,

which
two term term

the other
ways

two

referred. term;

are

of

locating

the

middle the in

it is the first,

which

is used
never

in both

premises;
the
clusion. con-

second, it is the

which
are

appears
ways of
term

Likewise, there

two

locating the
is

major
the

and

minor

terms; the

the major first,

term term

always
clusion; con-

predicate and

minor

the is

subject of

the

second, the
and the minor minor
or

major
the

usually the
of the
two.

broader If the the the

term

narrower seem

major

and

terms

to

be

of
term

about in

same

extension

breadth,
is not

then the

the middle the

first

proposition,which
In the

term,
three

is the
terms

major.
are

attending syllogisms

designated : (middle) (1) All true (minor) 1

You
are

(major)
are

teachers

sympathetic,

(middle) 1
a

true

teacher,

(minor)
.'. You
are

(major)

sympathetic. (major) (middle)

vertebrates,

(2)

No

shell fish

are

(minor)

(middle)

Rules

of

the

Syllogism Explained
vertebrates,

197

All

trout

are

(minor)
.*. No The
any
trout
are

(major)
shell fish. but

necessity of having syllogism

are

three

different terms

in that

may

be

understood

by
then
or same

supposing
it would

there that the

to
or are

four could
"

different be
no

terms;
standard
to

follow

there

common

link.
are

In

axiom,
each link.
not

Things equal
same

the

thing
common

equal

other," the
Two

thing is
which other.

the
two

standard

things
to

equal

different

things

equal

each

The be

of reasoning impossibility

from

four

terms

may

shown

by

circles. All All

men are

mortal.

trees

grow.

Fig. 8.

These

circles between

show either
as

that
group.

no

connection

can

be

lished estabin any

Using
have

four

terms

syllogism is

known

the
must

fallacyof four
three

terms.

(2)
term

syllogism
The the
term

and

only
the
one

three

propositions.
is called the minor

proposition containing major premise, while

is called
the the minor the

major
ing containIn
a

premise.

strictly logical syllogism

major

premise

is written

198

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
the conclusion third.
or

the minor first,

In
even common

premise

second

and the

parlance, however,
conclusion of
may
a

minor

premise

the The

appear

first. is

conclusion its The

syllogism

always preceded by
may
answer

therefore, or
understood.

equivalent, which

be

written

or

premises always
true?
as

the

question,
are

Why

is the

conclusion
words

The and

premises
because.
are

often

preceded by such
The

for

attending
the

irregular syllogisms
and

arranged

and logically

premises

conclusions

indicated:

(ia) Illogical.
"You the
are

must
are

take

an

examination and
you,

because
as

all who understand

enter

school

examined
to

it,

planning (2a.) "Some

enter." of
to

these

books
as no

are

not

well

bound,
book

for

they
do."

are

going

pieces

well

bound

would

(ib) Logical.
All who
enter

this

school

are

examined,

Major

premise.
You
are

planning

to

enter

this

school, Minor

premise.
You
must

be

examined. book

Conclusion.
goes
to

(2b)

No

well

bound

pieces, Major

premise.
Some of these books
are

going

to

pieces, Minor

premise.
Some of these books
are

not

well

bound.

Conclusion.

Rules

of
all

the

Syllogism Explained
have "1." with middle links three One the
term

199

The three
must

fact that

syllogisms must
from rule
term

and

only

premises
compare

follows the
must

premise "major";
with the the

middle
compare

another
"

premise
"

the

minor

;
"

while and the

the
"

conclusion

together

"

major (3)

minor."
term

The The

middle
rule be is

must

be

distributed
"

at

least dle midnot

once.

usually given
once

in this way,
at

The
must

term

must

distributed In this

least,and
the

be

ambiguous."
has been

treatment

last part be in

of

the
to

rule the

omitted
a

because
term

it

must

apparent
senses

student

that

middle
to

used

two

is
an a

virtually equivalent "ambiguous

middle"

two

different terms;
in
consequence,

such

would,

give

syllogism of four
Rules others the 3 and
4

terms.
are are

of

greater
more

importance

than

the If the
If

because
term

they

frequently
at

violated.
once,

middle is

is not
to
as

distributed

least

fallacy
the

referred

"undistributed of

middle" is
not

distributed in the

major
of
the
term

term

the conclusion
then the
;

tributed dis-

major premise,
major
of the the

fallacyis called,
if finally, is
not

"illicit process distributed

term"

and

the

minor

conclusion

uted distriban

in the minor illicit process

processes may

premise
the

fallacyis
term."
to

denominated
two

of
be

minor

These

illicit illicit

abbreviated

illicit major

and

minor. Recall
to term
as a

that

any

term

is distributed Unless
to

when whole
a common

it is referred of the middle

definite

whole.

the

is considered

it fails

become

standard

200

Mediate

Inference
This

"

The

Syllogism
when

of
made

comparison.
to

becomes

clear

recourse

is

the

circles.

Illustration.

Syllogism

in which

the middle
All All
men are are are

term

is not

distributed:

mortal, mortal,
men.

trees trees

.'. All All the

propositionsare
each
are

A's

and

consequently
as

the

cates predithe
is

of

undistributed,
the of

distributes

subject only.
not

Therefore in either

middle the

term,

"mortal,"
and thus

distributed

premises

the

fallacy. Fallacy shown by

circles
:

Fig. 9.

These

circles

indicate them
to

the it is

correct
seen
"

meaning
that all of and

of

the
"

two
"

premises.
circle "tree" there

By

the

men

belongs
circle is
no

the

"

mortal

circle

all of

the
case

belongs to

the "mortal" between "All

the
trees

but in this circle, "men"

are
or

connection
to

and

"tree' circles.

Thus,
We have
no
men

say

that

men," is fallacious.

right to
and this

either affirm

deny
were

the connection distributed make

clear
we :

between would

trees.

If "mortal" the

have

right as

following will

Rules

of

the

Syllogism Explained
men are are are

201

All No
.'. No

mortal, mortal,
men.

stones stones

JloirtaiXf 5tones\

w
Fig. 10.

Here second from

the

middle
as

term

mortal

is distributed

in

the

premise
the

in it the mortal

subject "stones"
This
"

is excluded conclusion
is

entire the

territory.
statement

verified both circle

by

formal

that

"

distributes the
" "

subject belongs

and
to

predicate.
the
"

Since
"

all of

men

mortal
to
can

circle and

none

of

the
none

"stones" of the
"

circle
stones

belongs
"

the

"mortal"
to

circle then the in

" "

circle
must

belong

men

circle.

(4)
which It has

No is
not

term

be

distributed
in its
a

the

conclusion

also distributed affirmed

to
a as a

premise.
is distributed To it is
we

been

that

term

when it in

it is referred another in
way,

definite whole.
when that

put

term

is distributed It is obvious
sense

employed
not

its fullest
a

sense.

should

employ
it has What the

term

in its fullest

in the conclusion in its

when

been

used of For
not

only
the

in

partial sense
cannot

premise.
of
are

is said

part

necessarilybe said
some are men

whole.
it does the

example:
follow of
men

Because
men

honest
course

that all

honest.

Of

converse

this is true,
are

namely,

if it could would

be

proved

that

all

honest

then

surely it

202

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
honest. of
some

follow
: briefly

that What
some

some

of is true

the

men

are

To but

put
what

it is

of all is

true

true

of

is

not
a

true necessarily
term

of all. when is of it is
not

To

distribute

in the

conclusion it is
occurs

distributed
to
error

in the
"

premise
is
true
"

where
some
"

equivalent
all." This

saying,
which

what

of
4

true to

violates of

rule the

leads
and

the

two terms.

fallacies The

of

illicit process

major
two

minor

following

illustrate the

fallacies.

illicit Syllogism illustrating major: All trees No .'. No The first

men men

grow,
are

trees,

grow.

premise
The

is

an

and

consequently
and

its

subject being
Thus
as

is distributed. E's
grow,

second

premise

conclusion

have
as

both used

subject and
in the

predicate distributed.

conclusion, is distributed,but,
is
not

used shown

in the

major premise, it
:

distributed.

Fallacy

by

circles

Fig.

11.

Here circle
"

all of and
"

the

"

tree

"

circle
"

belongs
"

to

the

"

"

grow
to

none

of

the the

men

circle

belongs

the

tree

circle, hence

diagram

correctly represents

204

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
of the third
or

the
term

two

terms,

as

the

absolute

exclusion
a common

eliminates

any

of possibility

link

standard. The circles will make No No

men

this apparent
are are

immortal, immortal,

trees

Wen\

[//nmortal]

Fig, 13.
"

No 13.

trees

"

are

men

is the

conclusion

represented by

Fig-

Other "All
It
men

possible conclusions
are

are,
men

"All
are

trees

are

men,"

trees"
seen now

and that be

"Some
no

trees."
can

is

thus It may

definite that

conclusion the

be and
nection con-

drawn. minor

said

when

major
the

terms

are

used them be

in two

negative premises
This
two

between of rule

is indeterminate. the

violation

"5" //

may
one

termed be

fallacyof
the

negatives.
must
clusion con-

(6)
be

premise
and the

nagtive

conclusion
a

negative;
one

conversely, to premises
must

prove
be

negative

of
to

negative.
rule, it
and
may

Referring
of two
of
a

the

first part of
one

this

be

said

terms

that if term, then

is affirmed the
two terms

the other be

denied of

third

must

denied

Rules

of

the

Syllogism Explained
and
:

205

each

other.

The

attending syllogism
throw No
men

its

"

circled

"

representationwill

lightupon
are

this

immortal,
are are

All Americans
.'. No

men,

Americans

immortal.

Fig.

14.
"

Since
"

none
"

of

the

"

men

circle

belongs
"

to

the

immortal the

circle and
"

all of

the

"American that
any

circle is of of the the

inside

"

men
"

it circle,
can

is evident
to

none

"American
"

circle circle.

belong

part
that
an

immortal

"

Thus

it is manifest Americans
are

tive affirmais

conclusion invalid. The

converse one

like, "All

immortal,"

of of the

rule

6,

"

To
must

prove

negative

clusion, con-

premises

be

negative," may
that
agree

be

explained by
two
a

the

general principle in logic

to

when with both of

terms

are

known while
a

disagree, one
other
must

must

third

term

the

disagree.
conclusion

If

agreed

with

third, then
If A

the both

would
no

necessity be
could called the No

affirmative. be drawn.

disagreed
of rule

sion conclumay

violation

be

fallacy of negative conclusion.

conclusion Proof
: can

(7)

be drawn

from

two

particular

premises.

206

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
of
are,

(i)

All

the

possible

combinations
I and

the

two

particular premises (2) OI,

"IO" considered. Since would O is
a

(i) IO,

(3) II, (4)

00.

(2)

negative premise
to

the

conclusion
to

have
one

be

negative according
is

rule

6, (If
must

premise

negative,the

conclusion

be

negative.)
is

(3)

If the

conclusion is the

negative, then
term,
must

its

cate, predi-

which

major

be

tributed dis-

(All negative propositionsdistribute

their

predicates.) major
it
must

(4)

If the

term

is distributed distributed
term
must

in the in the

clusion, con-

be

major

premise,

rule 4

(No

be

distributed

in the conclusion, which in

one

is not

also distributed

of the
two

premises.)
terms

(5)

Hence

must
term

be

distributed

in the
to

premises,
and

the

major
term

according
to

(4)

the I

middle

according
neither
term

rule and O O

3.

(6)

But

distributes its

tributes dis-

predicate only;
but
one

I and

together,

then, distribute

term.

(7)

To
must

draw

negative
two

conclusion

the

premises
and

distribute

terms,
to

the

middle

the

major, according
a

the from

foregoing.
I be and of
"

(8)

Hence untenable.

conclusion The
same

is OI."

may

said

"II"

considered.

Rules

of
I

the

Syllogism Explained
neither

207

(1)

The
nor

proposition distributes
hence
no

subject
"

predicate,
distribute the
once

the

premises
be

II

"

would

term. must
to

(2) (3)
A

But least

middle

term

distributed

at

according
no

rule 3.
can

Therefore from
"

conclusion

be

drawn

II." from 5. conclusion

must
"

valid

conclusion
to

00

"

is

impossible

according

rule

(8)
be

If

one

premise

be

particularthe
The

particular. by

Proof:
are

possible EI, EO,

combinations

conditioned "AI"

rule 8

AI, AO,

IO, II, 00.

considered. A distributes hence its

(1) Proposition
I distribute

subject, proposition
"

neither ; but
to
one

"AI

together
be

term.

(2) According
the middle minor in

rule

this

one

term

must

term. term

(3)

The

must,
minor

therefore, be

tributed undisin
sequence con-

the

premise,
in minor the
term

and

undistributed

conclusion. ject is the subconclusion

(4)

But

this undistributed of the

conclusion; hence

said

must
an

be

particular,as

only particularshave

undistributed and "EI"

subject.

"AO" Proof:

considered.

(1) (2)

"AO" Both

distribute "AO
"

two
"

terms; EI
"

so

do have 6.

"EL"

and

must

negative

conclusions

according

to

rule

208

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
its

(3) (4)

negative conclusion
is the

distributes

predicate

which The be and

major
term

term.

major

and in

the

middle

term

must

distributed 3. the be

the

premises.

Rules

(5)

Thus
cannot

third

term,

which in the

is the minor

minor,

distributed

premise
be

and,

consequently,
in the

the

minor

cannot

distributed

conclusion.
a

(6)
Premises conclusion

This EO

necessitates and

particular conclusion. yield a

can

OO,
to

being negative, cannot

5 ; neither similarly, of rule 7.

according
and

rule

the

particularsIO
THE

II because

5.

DICTUM

OF

ARISTOTLE.

Aristotle

gives

an

axiom Indeed

on

which this

all

inference syllogistic

is based. the

from

fundamental could
"

ciple prinbe rived. de-

rules significant dictum

of

the

syllogism
:

The is
term

is stated

in this wise

Whatever
a

predicated, whether
distributed
may

or affirmatively

negatively,of
the
manner

be

predicated
it."
ways

in

of
ments state-

everything

contained

under various

The of

following explaining

represent
dictum
:

this

(1)
sense

Whatever
may

is said
be

of

term

used
term

in

its fullest used

likewise

said

of that

when

only

in

partial sense.
What "What lower." is
true

(2) (3)
to

of

the

whole

is true class

of

the

part.

pertains to
Since

the

higher

pertains also principle

the

this dictum

is the

basic

The

Dictum

of
rules

Aristotle

209

underlying
unnecessary

the
to

important
dwell the rules

of
upon

the

syllogism, it
it; because

is
an

longer

explanation
the dictum.

of

is, virtually, an

explanation

of

6.

CANONS

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

The

dictum
some

of

Aristotle

is

ostensibly a
put this truth
which
are are as one

self-evident in the
as

truth, and
of three

logicianshave
statements

form the

axiomatic

known follows: and the

canons

of
"Two
term
"

the

syllogism.
terms

These

(1)
third

agreeing with
each of
one

same

agree

with

other."
one

(2)
does
not

Two
agree

terms

wmich and

agrees
same

and third

the

other do

not

with each
terms

the

term,

agree

with Two
term
use

other." both
or

(3)
same

"

disagreeingwith
may
not
as

one

and

the

third

may

agree

with
on

each
a

other."

Making
page

of the

symbols

explained
seen

previous
canon

of

this chapter, it will be

to

that the first

conforms

this

syllogistic type:
All All
.". All

M S S

is G is M is G M is the third
term.

The

two

terms

are

S and

G, while

The second

the illustrate, respectively, attending symbolizations and third

canons:

No All No

is G is M is G

S
S

210

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism

No No

M S

is G is M indeterminate.

Conclusion

7.

THREE

MATHEMATICAL

AXIOMS.

Analogous
certain

to

the three

canons

treated which
are

in "6," there here stated

are :

are

mathematical

axioms
to

(i) "Things equal

each other."

the

same

thing

equal thing
not

to

(2)

"One

thing equal
to

to

and third

the

other

not

equal
to

the

same

thing are

equal

each
not not

other."

(3) "Things
may

equal equal

to

the

same

thing

may

or

each

other."
:

Illustrations

of the three
x

axioms
y
y

(1)
(2)

If If

equals 5, equals
not not

and

equals 5,
does
not

then

equals y.
5, then
x

5, and

equal

does

equal

y.

(3)

If

does
x

equal
or

5, and
not

y does

not

equal

5,

then

may

may

equal y.

8.

OUTLINE.

Mediate

Inference. Inference Definitions. and

(1)

reasoning.
Middle
between
term

explained. judgment
and the
number.

(2)
(3)

The Rules Rules 1.

analogy
of the of the

the

syllogism.

syllogism given.

Eight in

(4)
Rule

syllogism explained :
found.

symbols. Syllogistic Major,

Fallacy

minor,
of
four

and

middle

terms;

how

terms.

212

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
and

All minor and

syllogisms must
premises,
the
common

have the

three

propositions,the major
The

the first

and

conclusion.
more

major
the

premise
minor

minor

second

is the

logical arrangement,
is to
use

although
premise

the

conversational

form

first.

Ambiguous
Unless the

middle middle
to term

amounts
term

to

the

fallacy of
at

four

terms.
once

is
a

distributed
common

least

in

the

syllogism, it fails Distributing

in
true
a

become in is

standard. its tributed being disis

the

the

conclusion, without
to

its

premise,
is true

equivalent
the
whole." minor.

asserting that, "What

This
error

of

part
of

of

results

in

fallacies
A total

illicit major from of

the
two

and

conclusion exclusion
two

negatives
term.

is

impossible,
and

because

of

the

middle
one

Of
a

terms, term,
then

if

is
must

affirmed
be be

the
of of

other each

denied

of

third

they
terms
are

denied denied
of
a

other;

and,
must

conversely, if two
be

to

each

other, one
term.

affirmed

and

the

other

denied

given

third

This

fundamental
from
two
converse

principle necessitates deriving a negative conclusion is negative. It, likewise, compels premises when one
of this.
because particularsis untenable some fallacy relative to fallacies,or
two

the
A

valid conclusion
two

from

of

the

negative
of
terms.

the

distribution One
of

particular premise
fallacies
of
two

the

because particular conclusion negatives, two particulars, and illicit

forces
a

minor.

(5)
whole

Aristotle's is
true

dictum
the

simplified

means,

"What

is

true

of

the

of
canons

part."
of the

(6)

The

syllogism,

three
one

in number, and the

are: same

(1) "Two
term

terms

agreeing with
with
of

third

agree terms

each

other."
one

(2) "Two
not

which
one

agrees

and

the

other
do

does
not

agree

with

and

the

same

third

term

agree

with
terms term

each both
may
canons

other."

(3) "Two
third

disagreeing with
or

one

and

the

same

may may

not

agree

with
as

each

other."

(7)
axioms.

The

foregoing

be

stated

mathematical

Illustrative Exercises

213

10.

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXERCISES.
use

(la) Make
terms

of the

the

proper

symbols

and

indicate the three

of

each All

of

attending syllogisms :
stars

(1)

fixed is
a

twinkle,
star,

Vega
.*. Vega

fixed

twinkles.
men are

(2) All
No

rational rational

tree

is

beings, being,

.*. No

trees

are

men.

(3) All good citizens

All

are

law

abiding,

good
who

citizens

vote, law
are

.*. Some

vote terms

are

abiding.

I recall that the three

the
not

middle, the major

occur

and

the

minor, and
whereas the

that

the

"middle"

does

in

the

conclusion,
the

"major" is always the predicate and

the "minor"

The symbols M, G and S being the subject of the conclusion. of and initial letters of middle, greater use smaller, I make these in
:

designating the
M

three

terms,

as

the

following

will

illustrate

G
stars

(1) All fixed

S

twinkle,
star,

M is
a

Vega
S

fixed

G twinkles.
is

.". Vega
"Twinkles"
as

being the predicate of the conclusion

term

designated
it. Then

being the major "G" is placed above

"S" is

by putting the letter G

term

above

the

"twinkle"

in the the

first

premise.
to

placed
as

above

the
term.

subject
"S" second

of

conclusion

indicate

that it is the minor The

minor
found

is also

placed above

"Vega," the

term,

in the

premise.

be the middle term, remaining term, "fixed stars," must it. The fact that "fixed star" does I place "M" therefore above
not
occur

in the

conclusion

verifies this.

214

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism
this form:

Using

only the

symbols, the syllogism takes

All M

is G is M is G the other

Using

the

symbols
No S S

to

represent

syllogisms, we
All M M

have

(2) All G is

(3)

is G
is S

is M is G

All

.*. No

.*. Some
the three
terms

S
of

is G the

(lb) Indicate syllogisms : (1)

No All

by

symbols

following

trees

are

men,

rational

beings

are

men,

.*. No

rational have
a

being

is

tree.

(2) All
You

men

the power

of

speech,

are

man,

.*. You

have
men men

the
are are

power

of

speech.

(3) Some
All

wise,

rational, beings
are

.'. Some

rational

wise.

(2a)
middle.

Illustrate
An A does
easy

by
way

syllogism
is to
use

the

fallacy
term

of
as

undistributed
the
an

the middle

predicate
A
sition propo-

of

two

premises.
not

This

yields the fallacy because

the

distribute

predicate.
terms

The

illustration:
All
true

distributed teachers
are are

underscored.

students,

All

scholars

students,

All

scholars

are

true

teachers. of undistributed
of

(2b)
(3a) major

Give Give
and

two

illustrations

middle. fallacies
of

syllogisticillustrations

the

illicit

minor.

Illustrative Exercises

215

Illicit Major. Use

then
a as

the
the

middle

term

as
an

the
E

predicate of
conclusion
term

subject of proposition.
the

an

proposition,and
would necessitate is distributed.

This
term

But

negative the major

in

which

major

is not

distributed

in the major

premise, hence
underscored:

the fallacy. Illustration in which

men are

the distributed

terms

are

All No

mortal,
men,

trees

are

No

trees

are

mortal.

Illicit Minor. To illustrate this

two
use fallacy one may premises. This would

the

middle
an

term

as

the in

subject of
which the

give
same

A
term

conclusion is
not

subject is distributed.

But

this

tributed dis-

in its
an

premise because
earnest

here

it is used

as

the

predicate of

A.

Illustration: All All students students

study,
desire
to

earnest

succeed,

,*. All who

desire

to

succeed

study.

11.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS. inference Mediate and

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Distinguish between
Define inference. the Illustrate

reasoning.
mediate
and

inference.

difference

between

immediate

inference.

Explain by illustration the use of the middle Exemplify the syllogism. State the rules of the syllogism. From the attending syllogisms select the three citizens vote, (1) All patriotic ^ You are a patriotic citizen,
You

term.

terms

should

vote.

would misrepresent, (2) No honest man Smith did misrepresent, (but) John is honest. Smith not .*. John

"'

t*

Or
,__,,

M
/v|

r-

""

"Vtf

216

Mediate

Inference
"

The

Syllogism

(8) (9)
drawn

Symbolize

the

foregoing syllogisms.
fallacy of
a

Illustrate by syllogisms the

four

terms. cannot

(10) Indicate
from four

by

circles

that

valid

conclusion

be

terms.
a

(11) Why

must

syllogism have
the three

three

and

only

three

propositions ?
(12) Indicate
be

how What

designated.

propositions of an is the logical arrangement?

middle
amounts

argument

may

(13) Show
four
terms.

that

an

ambiguous

to

fallacy of

(14) Explain and

illicitminor.

illustrate undistributed

middle, illicit major,

"14"

(15) Exemplify

the

fallacies of
a

question

by using circles.
cannot

(16) Explain by circles why from two negatives.

(17) Make
clear that
a

conclusion

be

drawn

negative conclusion

must

follow, if
the

one

premise
"If

be

negative.
and

(18) State
the

explain the principle which

is

underlies

rule,

conclusion

negative
process two

one

premise
elimination

must

be negative."
no

(19) Prove
can

by the
from

of

that

conclusion

be

drawn

particulars.
if

one

that similar to that of question "19" show (20) In a way be particular. must premise be particularthe conclusion (21) State and explain Aristotle's dictum. of the syllogism. (22) State the canons (23) Symbolize and explain by circles the three canons. which the canons axioms (24) Illustrate the three mathematical

suggest.
QUESTIONS ORIGINAL THOUGHT AND TIGATION. INVES-

12.

FOR

(1)
from

Give
four

an

illustration

of

valid

conclusion

being

drawn

terms.

(2) (3)
middle

Explain
From
term

by circles the
three different

foregoing.
business

transactions, select
given
to

the

of

comparison.
not

(4)

Why
("He

should

those

who

are

much

which

is

argumentative,

speak
a

in

(5)

is

man

terms? syllogistic of high ideals,and

you

know

him

to

be

Questions

for

Original

Thought

and

Investigation

217

strictly
for him."

honest,
Recast

therefore this

you

have with

no

excuse

for
of

not

voting
a

quotation

view

making

logical

syllogism. (6)
between

Show

by

circles
of

that three

there
terms

may

be

vital

difference
of

syllogism

and

an

equation

three

terms.

(7)
the

Indicate minor Show

by

illustration

that

in

conversational first.
of

tion argumenta-

premise
by
circles

naturally
the

comes

(8)

meaning

"indeterminate

clusion." con-

(9)
two

Rule

five

states

that this

no

conclusion
in connection valid
true

can

be with conclusion:

drawn the

from ing follow-

negatives. syllogism, Any

This

Defend which
statement

rule

seems

to

contain is
not not

which is be

cannot

be

accepted,

statement

true,

/.It

cannot

accepted.
is

(10) particular

If ?

the

conclusion

particular,

must

one

premise

be

Explain.

CHAPTER

12.

FIGURES

AND

MOODS

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

1.

THE

FOUR

FIGURES

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

By

figure
of

of the

syllogism
three
terms

is

meant

some

particular
The in it
term

arrangement
conclusion the

in the this

two

premises.

is eliminated of
as

from
terms

discussion, because
the

arrangement
used the

the

is constant, of the

major

always being
the
we

the

predicate
the

conclusion G and

and

minor find

as

subject. Using
are

symbols M,

S,

that

there

four

possible arrangements
These
may

and,

therefore, but
as

four figures.

be

represented

follows:

First M S
"

figure
"

Second G S"

figure
"

Third M M"

figure
"

Fourth G M"

figure
M S

G M

M
M

G S

"

"

S"

S"

"

No

matter

what

the be

syllogism,
to

if

it is to of the

be four

proved figurebeing

"logical"
types.
To

it should be it
sure,
cannot

made it may be

fit

one

fit the

figure

without

logical,but figure.
four The

strictlylogical without
valid

fittingthe
to

following
will be

syllogisms
the

conform
terms

the

figures as

seen

by
218

symbolized

220

Figures

and

Moods

of
G

the

Syllogism
M

Fourth

figure:

Some

teachers

are

fair

minded,
S
are

M All who
are

fair minded S

just,

G
are

.". Some

just persons
G M S
"

teachers.

M
"

S G all the

"

Here, then,
which other. familiar
as a

are

the

types that represent

may
use.

syllogisms
no

mediate Since with

inference
every

Logic recognises
of

successful

student

logic must
may

be used
:

the

four
to

figures,the following reproducing

one are

be will

suggestive aid
It is easy

the

figures at
this

First.

for any All

men

to

remember

syllogism :

mortal,
a

Socrates
'

is

man,

Socrates
.

is mortal.
us

In

fact, it

comes a

down

to

from
many

the

time

of

Aristotle,
to

and the

is therefore faithful
to

patriot of
touch this

generations
hats. with
at

whom

should

their

Let

us,

then, be
cision, pre-

ready

reproduce

syllogism
us

automatic
once

since

it will enable in the first

to

know

the

position
the the

of

the

terms

figure.
of

Second. the first

Converting figure gives

terms

of

the

major premise
e.

second

figure,as,
First M S
"

g.

figure.
G M

Second

figure.
"

(Convert)

G S

M
"

"

The

Four

Figures of Syllogism
of the minor
e.

221

Third. first

Converting

the terms third

premise
:

of the

figuregives the
First M S S
" "

figure, as,

g.

figure.
G
M G the
terms

Third M
"

figure.
G
S M the

(Convert)

M S

"

"

"

Fourth. minor

Converting
premises
First M S
" "

of

both

major
e.

and g.
:

of the first figuregivesthe Fourth

fourth,as, figure.
"

figure.
G M

(Convert)
(Convert)

G M

M
"

S G

S
To summarize
:

"

The the

second, third

and

fourth figuresmay
the

be derived

from

first. Converting
the second third

major premise

of

the

first figuregives
the premise gifues

figure; convertingthe

minor

figure;and

convertingboth

premises gives the fourth figure.

2.

THE

MOODS

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

By

the

mood

of

syllogism is
for

meant

some

particular
the

arrangement
"Mood" while
terms

of the

propositionswhich
an

compose

gisms. syllositions, propoof the

stands

arrangement
an

of the

"figure" represents syllogism.

any
as,

arrangement

in any

Combining gives
a

three
e.

of

the

four
E

logicalpropositions

mood,

g.,

(1)

(2)

A II I

(3)

A
E

222

Figures
moods. The
an

and

Moods

of
has
an

the

Syllogism proposition for

and
an

are

first
A

one

the the

major premise,
conclusion. above
:

for

the

minor

for

This

syllogismrepresents
No

the first mood

given

E A E

men

are

trees,
are are

All Americans
.'. No

men,
trees.

Americans
to

It would

not

be difficult
many

determine could of be valid

by

actual

ment, experiof It

just
these, how
may

how
many

moods admit
are

formed, and
conclusions.

would

be

seen

that there

four permutations sixtythree

at
a

of the These

four
are

logicalpropositions,taken
in part:

time.

(9)
-I A

(io)
I E

(ii)

(12)
I O

(13)

(14)
O E

(15)

(16)

AAAAAAAA I I O A O I O O

And
E

so

the permutations could

be continued. above
a

Substituting
would

for the

major premise

of the

group

give
This

another O would

group

of sixteen,while
two
more

like substitution sixteen

,

of I and

result in

groups

in each.

gives sixty-fourin
The student
may

all.*
sufficiently
interested to

be

complete

the

list.

Testing the Validityof

3.

the Moods

223

TESTING

THE

VALIDITY

OF

THE

MOODS.

In order ascertain If each be

to

put the moods

ones

to

good

use,

it is necessary in any

to

which
were

yielda

valid conclusion four

figure.
would

valid

in all of the

there figures, is not the

case.

256.

But

it is obvious
to

that such

Referring
find that

the

sixteen

permutations given above,

makes rule the

we

the

rule "negative-conclusion"
I2j
out

invalid for ticulars par-

2" 4" 5 j 7" I0"

x3

and

15; whereas
14. in This
one or

the leaves
more

throws
as

9 and moods
to

following
: figures

the

probable valid
11,

of the

1, 3,

6, 8,
must

16.

But

be certain The mood

of this the A A A has

tion investigathe
test

be

continued.

stood

of the rules let

us

for negative and

from the

particularconclusions standpoint of
: figures

now

test

this mood

the

tion distribu-

of terms, First A M
"

using

it in all four Second

Third M M
"

Fourth G

"

G
M

"

"

"

"

"

"

As

an

proposition
the

distributes of each
a

its

subject only,
in
to

we

underscore

subject

proposition simple
way

all the indicate

figures. (This underscoring is distribution.)

We because
now

find that the mood the middle

term

is valid

in the
at

first least

figure,
once;

is

distributed

224

Figures
in the

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
is
term

namely,

major premise,
which
occurs.

and

there
not

no

tributed dis-

in the conclusion in the

is

already distributed
the other

premise
A A A

where

it

On

hand, the

mood

is invalid

in the second, because

of "undistributed

middle/'

and in

invalid the it

in the third

and
not

fourth, because
distributed in

S is the

distributed

conclusion

but

premise
Let
A
us

where

occurs

(illicit minor).
four M
: figures

try All
G

in the G

"

"

"

"

IS"

"

"

"

IS" We of the

G underscore four

S the

"

S the A

"

"

G each

subject of
As

proposition in
neither

figures.
other A

I distributes should be

subject nor
It is

predicate, no

term

underscored.

now

evident

that

I is not I

valid

in

figures two

and

four,

because

in both

figures the

middle

term

is undistributed

(undistributedmiddle).
In
a

like

manner

all the have these done have when

other

moods

might
found

be
24

tested.
to

Logicians,
valid. Five

who of

this, have
weakened it could

be
a

conclusions; i. e.,

particularconclusion
A
versal.

just

as

well

be

uni-

E O

illustrates this

as

the

conclusion

could

be

E.

Testing
This

the

Validity of

the Moods

225

syllogism exemplifiesthe
A
E

weakened

conclusion

All trees No
.'. Some

grow,
are

sticks

trees,
not

O This least." conclusion Yet

to

sticks do "some"

grow.

is true, since conclusion with sticks the

means

"some there

at

the

is weak, broader

because and

is

nothing

interfere

stronger
are,

clusion con-

that, "No

grow."

There moods.

therefore,
are as

only

19
:

valid

and

serviceable

These

follows

14

19

Of

these

nineteen A

moods

it is

not

much

of

tax

to

remember

that A A

is valid

only

in the first

figure;

whereas

226

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
A

E A
E

is valid

in the

first and

second

figures ;

I in the I

first

E and

third; while

I O

is valid

in

all.

This

knowledge, employ
a

however,
answers

should

be

used

only

as

one

would

the in

in arithmetic. four

Testing
an

the

of validity valuable final

test

mood

the

figures
a

is

exceedingly
of the
to

thoughtmight
of the value

exercise, which

knowledge
is, no
such

result the

easilyvitiate.
any

It

doubt, best

mood

without

knowledge,
the
to

and

then

compare

result

by referring to always
wise

foregoing
with know
a

list of the of
answer a

valid

moods. in

It is not

work

mind,

yet
one's

it is most

satisfying to
has led
to

certainty that
others have

reasoning

truth

which

verified.

4.

SPECIAL

CANONS

OF

THE

FOUR

FIGURES.

As

deductive

exercise in

in

clear, logicalthought, the

indirect

proof
should

involved

certain establishing of immense omitted. is

principles
On
no

underlying
account

the four

is figures, be

value. The
mere

this section
to

fact

that

it appears

be

difficult section of

proof positive

that the student Canons

is in need

just such

exercises.

of
The The

the

first figure. premise

must
must

(i ) (2)
Problem:

minor

be affirmative. be universal.
must

major premise
The minor

premise

be

affirmative.

228

Figures
Given

and

Moods

of
the G M G

the

Syllogism figure:

Data:

the

form
M

of
"

first

S
S

"

"

Proof:
which

(i)

The

predicate of
term,
is

the

minor

premise, M,
because
no

is the

middle

undistributed;
its

affirmative

proposition distributes
middle
term must

predicate.
in the
term

(2)

The

be distributed middle

major
be

premise;
distributed

since
at

in any

syllogism the

must

least

once.

(3) major

As

the middle
must

term, be

M, used

as

the

subject of
the

the

premise,
must

distributed, then

major

premise
distribute

be

universal; because

only

universals

their

subjects.

Epitome.
In

the

first figure,the making

it

minor

premise

must

be

tive, affirmathe
be

since

negative
the

necessitates

making
must at

major premise negative also;

universal
once.

major premise
middle
term

in order

to

distribute

the

least

Special canons (1 ) (2)

One The

of

the second
must

figure.

premise

be

negative.
be universal.

major premise
To

must

Problem: Data:

prove
the

that

one

premise
the M second

must

be

negative.

Given

form G S S

of
"

figure:

"

"

Special Canons Proof:

both

of

the Four

Figures
is the

229

(1)

The

middle

term,

M,

predicate of

premises.
The middle rule 3.
one

(2)
(3)

term

must

be distributed

at

least once,

according to
Hence

premise
their

must

be

negative;

since

only

negatives distribute
Problem: universal. Data: Given To

predicates.
the

prove

that

major premise

must

be

the form G S S

of the second
"

figure:

M M G
must

"

"

Proof:
that rule 6.

(1)
the

As

one

premise
must

be

negative,it

lows folto

conclusion

be

negative according
its

(2) G,
the

If

the

conclusion
must

is

negative, then

predicate,

major term,
their

be distributed

; since all

negatives
major

distribute

predicates.
distributed also
as

(3)
term,
where

When

in

the

conclusion, the
in the See
must

G,

must

be the

distributed

major premise,
universal; for

it is used Hence

subject.

rule 4. be

(4)
only

the

major premise
their

universals

distribute

subjects.

Epitome.
In order the second
to

figure one
the middle be

premise
term

must

be

negativein
and the

distribute
must

at least once;

major premise
which in the

universal

that

the

major

term,

is distributed

in the it

conclusion,may

be distributed

premise

where

occurs.

230

Figures of
the

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism

Canons

third

figure.
must

(1) (2)

The The

minor

premise
must

be

affirmative.

conclusion To

be

particular.
minor

Problem:

prove

that

the

premise

must

be

affirmative.
Data: Given the form M M" S of the third
"

which figure,

is,

G S G

"

Proof:
then would the

(1 ) Suppose
conclusion the

the minor have

to

premise
be

were

negative,
this

would

negative,and
its

distribute A

predicate G. predicate would

necessitate

(2)

distributed in the

being

distributed

major premise.
of the

(3)
could

But be

G, being the conclusion

major premise,

distributed would could

only by
result

negative proposition. negatives; therefore

minor
no were

(4)

This

in two

conclusion

be

drawn,

if the

premise

negative.
Problem: To

prove

that

the

conclusion

must

be

particular.
Data: Given the form M M" S of the third
"

figure:

G
S G

"

Proof:

(1)

The

minor

term,

which

is the

predicate
; because

of the affirmative
no

minor

premise, is undistributed
its

affirmative

distributes

predicate. premise,
then the minor

(2)

If

undistributed

in the

Special Canons
term

of

the Four

Figures

231

must
as

remain the

undistributed

in the

conclusion, where

it is used

subject.
must,
their

(3)

The

conclusion distribute

then, be particular;since all

universals

subjects.
the minor

Epitome.
In the third there minor would minor the minor

figure, unless
can

premise
a

be

firmat af-

be

no a

conclusion; since

negative
tive affirmathat

necessitate

negative major.

An

compels
term, in

particularconclusion, in
the

order

conclusion,

may

remain

tributed. undis-

Canons

of the fourth figure.

the

(1)

If

major

premise

is

affirmative, the

minor

premise

must

be universal.

(2)
must

If the minor

premise

is

the affirmative,

conclusion

be

particular.
If either

(3)

premise

is

negative, the major

must

be

universal. Problem: the minor Data:

must

To

prove

that

if

the

major

is

affirmative,

be universal. the form of the fourth

Given

figure:

G
M" S

"

S
G is

"

Proof:
its

(1)

If the

major premise
middle

affirmative,then M,
tributed is undis-

predicate
; for

which
no

is the

term,

affirmative distributes its predicate.

term

(2)
"minor"

The

middle

must

then

be

distributed

in the

according

to

rule 3.

232

Figures (3)
Then the

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism only

"minor" their

must

be

universal; since

universals Problem:

distribute To
must

subjects. if
the

prove
be

that

minor

is

affirmative,

the conclusion Data: Given

particular.
of the fourth G M" S
"

the form

figure:

M S G

"

Proof:

(1)

If the

minor

premise

be

affirmative,then
no

must S, its predicate,

be undistributed

; because

tive affirma-

distributes

its predicate. is undistributed in the minor

(2)
must

Since remain

premise,
where

it

undistributed

in the

conclusion

it is

used

as

the

subject.
To
must

Problem: the

prove

that

if either premise
the M S G fourth

is

negative,

major

be universal. the form G M" S of

"

Data:

Given

figure:

"

Proof:

(1)

If
must

one

of

the

premises

is

negative, then
to

the conclusion

be

negative according
is

rule 6.

(2)
must

If the conclusion

negative,then

the

G, predicate,

be distributed. If G is distributed in the in the

(3)

conclusion, it

must

be

distributed

major premise.
must

(4)
as

The

major premise

be universal distribute

as

is used

its

and only subject,

universals

their

subjects.

Epitome.

Special Canons
In the

of
the

the Four

Figures
is

233

fourth figure,if
must

"major"
to

the affirmative, the middle

must

"niMor"
term.

be universal the minor is

in order

distribute

If If

the affirmative,

conclusion

be

otherzvise particular;
either

the is

fallacyof

illicitminor

would
must

result. universal

premise
the

negative,the major
illicitmajor.

be

to avoid

fallacyof
RELATED.

5.

SPECIAL

CANONS

After
way,

mood particular been intimated

has

been

tested student

in the
may

regular
refer
a

it has

that the
to

to

the tabulated the

list of valid moods his

ascertain,with
This is

tainty, cer-

of validity the
answers

reasoning.
in

equivalentto

referringto
is unable
to

arithmetic; for if the student

in the

find the mood he knows A

figure in

which
some

he

has take mis-

proved
is

it valid,then

that he has made

in his
to

reasoning.
recall the

second

check, though
of section

not

lute, abso-

specialcanons
has led

four.

If,
A E E

for

example,

our

reasoning figure,we

us

to

believe

that minor

is valid

in the first of the first

cannot

may

recall that the and

premise
AEE A
canons

figure must

be affirmative

fore there-

be valid.
to

few
may

suggestions relative
not

memorizing
The
two

the

special
of the be
membered re-

be be

out

of

place.

canons

first

figure must
Other

committed,

and

then the

it may

that the second

figure is negative
a

negative figure of
Since

logic.
the

figuresmay
must

yield a negative conclusion, but

a

second

yield
second

conclusion.

negative
follows

conclusion the

necessitates

negative premise, always

appear

it

that

figure must

with

234

Figures

and

Moods

of
other

the

Syllogism
which

one

premise negative. major premise

of the first third

The

canon as

pertains to

the
canon

is the

same

the

"major premise"

figure.
the

The

figure is
This of

particular figureof logic. Other

but the
canon

figures may
must

yield particular conclusions, helps

the which
us

third that

do

so.

to

remember

the be

the The the The

conclusion other
same canons canons as canon

third

figure
to

must

particular. premise
is

relates

the

minor

the "minor of the

premise"

canon

of the first in
a reality

figure.

fourth

figure are
three

summary

of the

of the other

figures.

6.

MNEMONIC

LINES.

As

device
an

for

remembering

the

19

valid

moods,

the of be

logiciansof
coined words

earlier

day originated a

combination

which, though rather

to to

unscientific, may

easily committed
much
more

memory.
test

Since, however,

it is of

value of the the

the moods

by
to

means

of the general
to

rules these

syllogism than
mnemonic here

it is

try
of item

remember

moods,
are

lines
as

are an

slight value.
of historical

They

treated

merely

interest.

( 1 ) Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferioque prioris ; (2) Cesare, Camestres, Festino, Baroko, secundae; (3) Tertia,
Bokardo,

Darapti,

Disamis,

Datisi, Felapton.

Ferison, habet; Quarta insuper addit

,

(4) Bramantip
The

Camenes,

Dimaris, Fesapo, Fresison.

lines which
mean

only
r, t

letters in these small For b and

nothing
have the
a

are

1, n,

and

d; all the others

the vowels
of

nificat sig-

example,

italicized

236

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
the proposition

is the initial letter of each denoted

word,

that signifies

by

the

preceding
s

vowel
means

is to be converted that the

simply. premise

To

illustrate:

in E

Fesapo
of

major
be

of

the

mood

the

fourth

figure must

O converted
of

simply

in order

to

change
that the
p

the

mood

to

Ferio

the first

figure, p

indicates which

proposition represented
must

by by

the vowel

precedes
m

be

converted
dent evi-

limitation
that

(per accidens). premises

the
are

(mutare)
and

makes

the

to

be

interchanged, the major

the minor that
k denotes

of the old
of the old

becoming becoming
such
as as

the minor

of the new, of the be

new.

major

the

mood,

Baroko,
indirect
as

must

reduced These
of

by

special

process

known
now

reduction.
illustrative

directions
process of

may

be

followed

the

reduction. A

(1)

Given:

syllogism in Darapti
M G
are

A
I

All

true

teachers
M

just,
S

All true

teachers

are

sympathetic,
G
are

S
I .'. Some

sympathetic persons

just.

A The

symbols

indicate

that

the

mood

is A
I

or

is in

Darapti

and

that

this mood

is used

in the

third

figure.

Mnemonic

Lines

237

A Problem: To reduce
A

of

the

third

figure to

some

I mood of the first

figure.
initial letter of
to
one

Process:

D, being the
must

Darapti,
indicated

gests sug-

that its mood word of the first

be reduced

by

figure whose
A

initial letter is D.

This

mood

is in

Darii, or

is I. I

The

p in Darapti indicates

that

the
must

proposition represented
be converted

by
limitation. it
are

the This

preceding

vowel

by
verting con-

proposition is gives :
there

the

minor

premise;

by

limitation As is M

"Some
are no we

sympathetic
other have

persons

true

teachers."

ters letsignificant this

:

the reduction

complete

and G

All true

teachers

are

just,
M
are

S I Some

sympathetic
S

persons

true

teachers,

G
persons
are

.'. Some

sympathetic

just.
A

The

symbolization indicates

that the mood

is I of the first I

or figure,

is in Darii. A

(2)

Given:

syllogism

in Camestres

238

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism

G A All true S E No
one

M
are

teachers

just,
M is just, partiality G

who

shows

S
E .'. No
one

who

shows

is partiality is AEE from

true

teacher.

The

symbols
in

show

that the mood

of the second

figureor
the mood

in Camestres. Camestres

Judging
must

the initial letter

to

C,
in

be

reduced

the

mood

E Celarent A.
E

The and

letter minor

between of

and the

indicates

that

the

major
be

premises
The

given syllogism
conclusion

must

interchanged.
the
must

letters and

following both

e's suggest that of the

minor

premise

the

syllogism

be converted is the

simply.
M G shows

This

resultingsyllogism: just person

S

No

partiality,
M

All

true

teachers S

are

just persons,
G

.'. No

true

teacher E

shows

partiality.
the mood in

Here, then, is the

of

the

first

figure or

E Celarent.

According
as a

to

the ancient

theory, reduction proof

is necessary

matter

of

finaland

absolute

that the conclusion

Mnemonic

Lines

239.

follows been
not
as

from

the

given premises. But, by

modern the

as

this claim

has need of

refuted satisfactorily

we logicians,

give
related

more

space

to

process.

The

meaning

k,
of

to

"indirect
on

reduction/3 is explained in

most

the earlier works

logic. See Hyslop,

OF THE FOUR

page

193.

7.

RELATIVE

VALUE

FIGURES.

The The

figure. first
first

figureis
one

known

as

the

perfect figure;
all of of the the four

because

it is the

only

which

proves

logical figure

propositions. Recalling
makes this evident
:

the

moods

first

A A A It is likewise the
uses more

E A E

A I I natural

E I O

figure; subject

because

it is the

only
in

one

which

both
same

the

and

predicate of they
makes appear this

the conclusion the

in the

relative

places as

premises.
:

Symbolizing
M S
"

the

figure

apparent

"

G M G

S
The first

"

figure,being

the

only figure which

is used
most

proves

"universal
as

affirmation"

(A),

by

the

scientist;

the

objectof science
second the

is to establish

universal

affirmative

truths. The As

figure. figure
the conditions

second

negative

conclusions exclusive

only, it

is called

figure of disproof, or

the

240

Figures
It is easy
narrow

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
be

figure.
used
to

to

see

how

negative conclusions
down
to to
a one

may

the suppose

inquiry

definite

theory.
boy

For of

example,
the

it is desired

ascertain series of

which

five broke
may be

the

window;
to ;

by

deductions
not

the teacher
not

able
D

prove

that the the

culpritis
must

A,

B,

not

and

not

hence
one

guilty one
in

be E.
most

This

figure is virtuallythe
third third

used

diagnosing

diseases. The
The and

figure. figure admits

of

particularconclusions
to

only,

in consequence

is of littlevalue
way
to

the scientist. Since,

a

however, the easiest

contradict

universal is
to

tive affirmathe
and
a

(A)

or

universal
a

negative (E),

prove

of truth, respectively,

particularnegative (O)
follows that the third

particular affirmavite
serves a

(I), it

figure

purpose.

The This

fourth figure. figure is

so

nearly
may

like the first that

it is of

little

value; in fact, it

be

changed
and

to

the

first

by simply
Some

interchanging
authorities

the
to

major

minor fourth

premises. figure.

refuse

recognize the

8.

OUTLINE.

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism. the syllogism.

(1)

The

four

figures
"

of

Definition

symbolization
"

Illustrations

device

for

remembering.

(2)
(3)

The

moods

of

the

syllogism.
of the moods. rules of the

Twenty-four Testing the validity

Application
Weakened
of

valid.

the

general
"

syllogism.

conclusion

five.

Summary
Nineteen
A

241

useful

moods.

(4)

thought exercise. of the four Special canons

Proof
"

figures.
of
"

of the
" "

two
"

canons
"

the
"

first figure.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

(5)
(6)

Special
Used Mnemonic Their

canons as

three related.

"

"

"

figure. third figure. fourth figure.

second

checks.
lines.

use

explained.
of the four

Reduction.

(7)

Relative

value

figures.

9.

SUMMARY.

(1)
of

By

syllogistic figure is
three
terms

meant

some

particular arrangement
are

the

in

the

two

This the

arrangement

yields four

premises. figures which

designated by

position of the middle term. To be logical, conform of the four syllogism must to one any first figure is suggested by the position of the figures. The
terms

of

the

"Socrates

is

mortal"

syllogism.

The

second

is

derived third

by converting the major

figure
the

results

and first,

fourth

premise of the first;while the from converting the minor premise of the by converting both major and minor of the
a some rangement particular ar-

first.

(2)
There

By

syllogism is meant of the propositions which compose

a

mood

of

it.

are

64

moods
of

but

only 24
various of the

are

valid. moods
may No

(3)

The
to

validity
them
any

the

be mood

tested

by

applying
A

the
one

rules of the

syllogism.

is valid

if it violates

"weakened

conclusion"

eight rules. is a particular conclusion

weakened
conclusions.

which

could Of leaves

just as well be universal.

the but 24 valid moods five have This 19 useful moods. moods in the four

Testing the validity of the various

is
a

figures

most

valuable

thought

exercise. involved in

(4)

The

deductive

exercise

establishing certain

242

Figures
canons

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism
immense value and

special
should
In
must

of

the

four

figures is of
proved
it
no

not

be

omitted.

the be

first

figure it

may

be

(1) that the minor

negative necessitates
conclusion
can

affirmative; since premise

in order second

making
that
the be

premise making
drawn be
must
once.

the
from

major
two

and negative,,

be

negatives;
to

(2)

the

major
term

premise
at

universal In
must

distribute
may
to

middle

least
one

the
be

figure it
in order

proved

(1) that
the
in

premise (2)
where distribute

negative major

distribute be

middle order
to

term;

that
its

the

premise

must

universal
in the

subject, which
as

is distributed

negative conclusion

it appears In

the predicate.

the

third
be

figure
an

it

may

be

proved
to

(1) that
the "two
a

the

miner

premise

must

affirmative

in order

prevent

negative" particular
must

fallacy; (2) that

affirmative the
minor

minor
term

necessitates in the

conclusion, because
remain
In

conclusion

undistributed. fourth

the

figure it
minor

may

be be

proved
universal

(1) that if the major

in order
to

is

the affirmative,
the

must

distribute
clusion con-

middle
must

term;
be

is affirmative, the (2) that if the minor avoid to particular in order committing

the

fallacy of
the major

illicit minor;
must

(3). that
to

if either the
canons

premise

is

negative,

be universal of the

avoid

fallacy of illicit major.

is helpful in that
it

(5)
may

knowledge
to

special

be used

check

fallacious lines

reasoning.
were

(6)
an

Certain in

mnemonic

used

by the Schoolmen moods,

and

as as
a

aid

recalling the
to

nineteen
in the is

valid

also

suggestive device
The
process

aid

process
a

known
matter

as

Reduction.

of reduction moods
to

merely
other

of

changing
process

to

the
no

first figure the

of

the

figures. This

is

longer thought (7)

most

be

necessary.

The

first figure, called the

it is the

perfect figure, is the

proves

one a

used
versal unior

as by scientists,

only figure which

second

affirmative

truth.

The
is used

figure is the negative,

purpose
one.

figure of disproof, and

all the

mainly for the

the

of

nating elimithird
a

conditions
purpose

of

inquiry
an

save

The

figure

serves

in affording

easy

way

to

contradict fourth

universal

assertion; this is the figure of particulars. The

it
so

figure,because

closely resembles

the

first,is of little value.

244

Figures
O
E
as
a

and

Moods

of
in

the

Syllogism
a

but

conclusion

would
terms

be,

this case,

weakened

one;

since

distributingboth
which fact would Thus

would
the

necessarily distribute
minor could
to

the
in

minor;
the

permit
the

be

distributed
as

conclusion.

conclusion

just
A is E. E

well

be

universal

as

particular. The
the
as

completed
of

mood

(2b)

From

following
E

sets
no

premises derive
to

as

many

conclusions

possible paying
AAA.

attention

figure :

(3a)
test

Making

use

of

all the

general

rules

of

the

syllogism,
A A. I

the

validityof the following mood

12

in all the

figures:
3

Answer

"

"

"

"

"

S"

M"

M"

I An underscored
its all

"

"

"

G
term.
are

"

G
A

symbol figures.

indicates

distributed

Since
scored under-

distributes
in

subject, the
the
I distributes

subjects of both
No
term

premises
In

is underscored
term.

in

the

clusions; con-

since middle
term

neither
in the

the

first
and
are
as no a no

figure the
term

is distributed in the

major
both

premise,

is

distributed the
may

conclusion.
are

Since
not

premises
and is
to

affirmative,
particular
of

rules
be rules

for
drawn

negatives
from
two

applicable;
if there
seems

universals,
mood

violation valid in
an

the

for

distribution, this
It

be

the
A

first figure.
could

is,however,
be drawn. of

weakened The
mood

conclusion; since
is invalid but valid
term

just
and

as

well

in in

the

second

figure
third
at

because

undistributed

middle,
cases

(both the

fourth

; since in both

the middle

is distributed

least

once.

(3b)
the

Determine

the

'validity of
I A A I

the
E A

attending moods

in

all

figures giving

reasons

O O

Review

Questions

245

11.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.

of some (1) Define a logical figure and illustrate by means ordinary syllogisticargument. four the (2) Symbolize figures and give suggestions for remembering them. illustrate four each of the (3) Write syllogisms which figures. it is used in logic. Illustrate. as (4) Define mood moods valid? (5) How are many

(6) (7)
third.

Explain by illustration
A

"weakened

conclusion." E

Test

the

validity of
of

E E

in

the

third

figure;
of

of

in the

O the truth the

canons

(8)
the

Independent

all

helps, prove
prove

of

first

figure.
a

(9)
and

In

similar

way

the

canons

of

the

second, third
what

fourth

(10) So
be made of

figures. far as testing arguments

the
a

is concerned, the for

use

may

special
few

canons

of

syllogism?

(11)
canons.

Offer

suggestions
attach

remembering
importance

the

special
tion reduc-

did Aristotle (12) Why in logic?

so

much

to

(13) Justify callingthe first figure the "perfect figure,"and others the "imperfect figures." (14) Treat of the relative value of the four figures. figure is the (15) Show by illustration that the second figure.
E

the

clusive ex-

O
A

(16) Test
AEEAAEAAA
E I

the

following moods

in all the figures: I A

A
I

A O

I E

E I

O
I

A
I

I.
I

12.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
which

Give

an

illustration
as

of

syllogism in the

fourth

figure

might just

well

be

written

in the first figure.

246

Figures

and

Moods

of

the

Syllogism

(2)
made

May
valid

syllogism,

which it
in

is form

invalid of
to

in the

the
first all

fourth

figure,
Prove
rules of

be it.

by

writing
why
the
it

the

figure?
the
and

(3)

Show Show

is

impossible
between

apply
a

the

(4)
to

difference

direct

an

indirect

the

figures.
Show the difference
A between
a

(4) proof.

direct

and

an

indirect

(5)

Show

that

is

valid

in

the

first

figure

when

the

major

premise
(6)
conclusions. "One
must

(A)
The

is third

co-extensive.

figure
should
be

is
not

known
the

as

the

figure
of "The

of

particular figure
conclusion

Why
must

second

canon

that

be,

premise
be

particular"

rather

than

particular?"
Show that moods in there the is
other
some

(7)
final

ground

for should

thinking
be reduced

that,
to

as

test,

figures

the

first.

(8) disproof;

Illustrate whereas "To

be but

the the

fact

that
is

the
the

second

figure
of

is

the

figure

of

third

figure
must

contradictions.
to

(9)
four

logical
this

syllogism
not

conform

one

of
all

the

figures,
must

does

mean,

necessarily,
Explain
this.

that

ments argu-

conform

to

some

figure."

CHAPTER

13.

INCOMPLETE

SYLLOGISMS

AND

IRREGULAR

ARGUMENTS.

1.

ENTHYMEME.

An

enthymeme

is

syllogism in

which

one

of

the

three

propositions is omitted. Suppressing

the the

major

premise gives
if the becomes minor
one

an

enthymeme
be

of
pressed, sup-

first order;
the

whereas

premise

enthymeme

of the second
an

order;
of the

while third

omitting
order.

the conclusions

gives

enthymeme

Illustrations:

Complete syllogism.
All You
true
are

teachers
a

are

just,

true

teacher,

(Hence)
Enthymeme

You of

are

just.
omitted.

firstorder; major premise

You

are

true

teacher,

(Hence) Enthymeme

You

are

just.
order; minor
are

of second
true

premise

omitted.

All

teachers

just,

(Hence)
Enthymeme

You

are

just.
third

of the All
true
are

order; conclusion
are

omitted.

teachers
a

just,

(And)

You

true

teacher,

247

248
To
in
not
our

Incomplete Syllogisms
terms

argue

of

the method.

complete syllogism
We

is of

the

unusual,

the

usual

have

way

breviati ab-

remarks;
obvious
becomes

expressing only
to

the

necessary

and

leaving the
enthymeme
the
mere

be

taken

for form

granted.
of

Thus

the But
makes and

the
a

natural

expression.
is omitted,

fact that

part of the argument

for the student
no error

it

more

essential

to

think
may

clearly
intrude

with

careful

continuity,that

itself.

Probably
the the

the

most

common

enthymemes
be

are

those

of

first order.

This is

may

explained by the fact that

most

major premise

usually the
in

universal the The

one

of

the

three
would

propositions,and,
be the
most

consequence,

which

generally understood.
of of this

following
the

represent

enthymemes
conversation "Your beets
them

order, gleaned from

ordinary

ordinary people :
grow,

(1 )

won't

because time of

you

are

ing plant-

in the wrong
a

of the moon."

(2) "You,

being
be

member

the

Sunday

School,

should

ashamed
son

of such
your

language." ought
to

(3) "Being
have

the
some

of

father, you

pride
to

in this matter."
an

(4) "We
I
near

are

going
the

have that

open

winter, because
nests
are

have

observed

the

hornets'

ground."
better that

(5)

"You

had

put in lots of coal, for I have

the

noticed
more

squirrels have

gathered

in

nuts

than

usual." it would and

seem

Judging
more

from
to

these
assert

enthymemes,
the conclusion

to

be

natural

follow

this

by

Enthymeme
in
to

249

reason

the

form

of

minor

premise, leaving

the

major
The

the

of intelligence of it the

the auditor. second

to

enthymeme
since

order
an

occurs

only
mode

frequen inof

seems

be

unnatural
to

expression,though
to
a

sometimes
e.

it appears

lend

emphasis
come

the conclusion; bad

g., "All

untrustworthy boys
you

to

end, and

predictthat

will
are

come

to

bad

end." for

Enthymemes
the sake of "No
you

of the third order

as

commonly

used
:

emphasis,
business
are

the
man

following make
wants
an

evident

(1)

indolent

boy,

and

indolent." teachers
are

(2)

"All

successful
you

interested successful

in their teacher." Lincoln

work, and

plan sign

to

be

(3) "Humility

is

of

greatness, and

possessed
2. EP1CHEIREMA.

this

quality."

An the An

epicheirema is
is
an

syllogismin
To

which

one

or

both
way

of
:

premises

enthymeme.
is
a

put it in another
in which
one or

epicheirema premises
one a

syllogism
a

both

of the When termed

are

is

supported by
is
an

reason.

premise

enthymeme
when

the

syllogism is
premises

singleepicheirema ; whereas
it becomes
a

both

enthymemes

double

epicheirema.

Single epicheirema.
All
men are

mortal, because
was was a

all

men

die,

Socrates
.". Socrates

man,

mortal.

Double All

epicheirema.
men are

mortal, because

all

men

die,

250

Incomplete Syllogisms
because he rational

Socrates

was

a was

man,

was

animal,

.'. Socrates

mortal.

It is obvious lends the

that

supporting each premise

This

with

reason use

strength to

the argument.

the justifies

of

epicheirema.
POLYSYLLOGISM.

3.

polysyllogism is of
a

series

of syllogisms in
becomes

which
a

the

conclusion

preceding syllogism
one.

premise

of

succeeding
of the

The

syllogism in

the series whose

conclusion

becomes
a

premise

succeeding syllogism
the

is termed
uses as one

proof its is

syllogism; while premises

called
an

syllogism which
of the

the

conclusion

preceding syllogism

episyllogism.

Illustrations.

fA
Polysyllogism\
' . . .

quadruped dog dog

is is is is
a an a an

is an

animal/
"Prosyllogism
1

quadruped,
animal.

Fido Fido All who

dog,
animal.
an

\-Episyllogism
are^

libel

associate

unprofessional,
This teacher has libelled her Pro-

associate,

Jsyllogism

Poly-

.'. This

teacher sional.

is

unprofes-

syllogism\
All

who should

are

unprofessional
be

YEpi\syllogism

disciplined,
should

This

teacher

be disciplined.

252

Incomplete Syllogisms

Circle
"

I 2

stands
"

for Thomas
"

Arnold.

teacher.
man.

"

"

3
" " "

4
" " "

biped.
animal.

Fig.

15.

The
to

progressive sorites proceeds

the

from

the

smaller

circle

larger,thus
All

of circle

belongs

to

Hence,
The smaller

"

"

regressivesorites proceeds
;

from

the

larger to

the

i. e.

All

of circle 4

belongs

to

Hence,
Other conclusions

"

"

differences
are

become

apparent

when

the omitted

expressed.

Progressive Symbolized
All
All .'. All

Word T. A Arnold teacher

was

Form
a
a

A
B

is B is C is C is D

teacher, {A)

is
was a

man,
a man.

{A) (A)

A C

.'. T. Arnold

All

man

is

biped, (A)

Sorites

253

.\

All All

A D A the

is D is E is E three

.'. T. A

Arnold

was

biped. (A)
animal. becomes
as

biped

is

an was

animal, (A)
an

.'. All

.*. T. Arnold

(A)
evident its first fourth

In that

completed syllogisms it
sorites
uses

the

progressive
and

the the

minor form

premise

in consequence the

takes

of the

though figure,
The rules:

reasoning is accordingto
must

the first figure^ the

progressive sorites

conform

to

following

(1) (2)
all the
A

The

first premise may

must

be universal

or

particular,

all the others The others

be universal.

last

premise
be the

may

be affirmative

or

negative;

must

affirmative.

violation

of

first rule
a

would of

result the

in

tributed undisrule

middle; whereas
would

violation rules

second be

give

illicitmajor. attention
to

These the

may of

illustrated

by

giving

symbols

the

foregoing

completed syllogisms.
The first

completed syllogism
All All .*. All A B A

of

the

sorites

is:

is B is C is C

Securing major
and

logical arrangement premises gives :

by interchanging

the

minor

(M )
is

(G)
C

(First premise

universal

(M)
is
B

(G)
is C

254

Incomplete Syllogisms
the rules A find this

Applying

we

syllogismvalid,or

we

may

recall that A A Let

us now

is valid in the first figure.

make

the first

premise
is B is C is C

of

the

sorites particular

and

test.

Some All
.'. Some

A
B A

Arranged logically:

(M)
(A)
All B is

(G)
C

Proof:
Since
one

premise

is

particularthe
As there is
are

conclusion
no

must

be the
ticular par-

particular. (Rule 7)
argument,

negatives in
a

only

one

conclusion

possible;namely,
of the it must

affirmative "All A
or

(I). Thus,
is
an

instead

conclusion,
A is

is
an

C," which

(A),

be, "Some
term,
the

C,"
seen

(I). Underscoring
the middle
no

the

distributed in

it is

that

term

is distributed is distributed This valid first

or

major

premise
Thus

and

that

term

in the conclusion. when

we

the

mood All shown

is valid. is

is "checked" in the first

of
a

recall that have

now

always
the

figure.

We

that

premise

progressive
us

sorites

may

be

universal

particular. Let

further

Sorites

255
other

proceed
universal. Data:

to

prove

that

all the

premises

must

be

Given

the first

completed syllogism of
All All A B A is B is C is C such
as

the sorites:

.'. All

Proof:

Let

any

other

premise,

the

second, be

particular;this gives

the All Some

following:
A B A is B is C is C distribution cated. indi-

.*. Some

Arranged logically: Mood,

figure,and

(M) (I) (A)

Some B is

(G)
C

(S)
All A is

(M)
B

(S) (I)
We
note at
once

(G)
is C
term

.'. Some

that the middle

is

undistributed,

I hence the mood A I

to

is invalid

in the first figure; reference

the valid
no

moods

in

figure one
than the

"checks"

this conclusion. be

Since then The

now we

premise,
save

other

first, can

particular,

all

the first must

be universal. been
to

truth
may

of the first rule has follow

a

demonstrated, and
prove the truth of

similar

plan

the second

rule.

256
Problem: To

Incomplete Syllogisms
that the last

prove

premise

may

be

tive.* nega-

Data

Given

the last

completed syllogism:
All All All A D A is D is E is E and
we

Let

us

make

the

last

premise negative (E)

test

the

result.
use an

(As O.)

all but the first must

be universal

cannot

All No
.'. No

A D A

is D is E is E

and symbolised: Arranged logically

Proof:

Negative premise
Middle
term

negative conclusion.
in

No

ticulars. par-

distributed

major premise.
is
not

No in

term

distributed where it

in conclusion
occurs.

which

distributed We
must
now

premise
prove

Syllogism valid. premises

no

that all the other

To prove

must

be affirmative.

Problem:
or

that
must

other

premise
sorites be

can

be

tive, nega-

that all others Given last

be affirmative. of
may
last

Data:

syllogism
other
the

with

the

first

premise negative. (Any

*The student should
prove

taken.)
may be affirmative.

that

premise

Sorites

257

Proof:

"G"

is distributed

in the conclusion illicitmajor.

but Hence

not
no

in the other

major premise. premise

We
can

Fallacy of negative.
consider

be
now

may

the

completed syllogisms of

the

sorites. regressive All All

.*. All

A C C D
D

is B is A is B is C is B is D is B it becomes and

All .*. All All .'. All

E
E

By examining
the itself

the

foregoing

apparent
in the

that

both regressivesorites,
to

in form

reasoning,

adapts
The of the

the

first

figure.
are

rules of the

regressivesorites
These
are :

just the

reverse

progressive.
The

(1 )

first premise may be affirmative.

be

negative; all

the others

must

258

Incomplete Syllogisms (2)

The last

premise

may

be

particular; all
the student
in

the

others It would these

rules

must

be universal. exercise the

for
to test

be

valuable
to

according

plan pursued

treatingthe

progressive sorites.
5.

IRREGULAR

ARGUMENTS.

It has
order
to

been be the

intimated

that be
must

syllogistic argument,
made
not to

in the

should logical,

conform from

to

rules

of

syllogism.
here valid

It

be

inferred

this,
the

however,

that

all deductive

reasoning
There
seem

is included
to

by

logicalforms
which

treated.

be

arguments
are

yield
the
some

conclusions, and
sense

yet

which The

not

logicalin
illustrate

strict

of forms

the
:

word.

following

of these

(1)

Quantitative Arguments.

John
Albert
.'. Albert

is taller than is taller than

James, John,
James.
four
terms
:

is taller than
a

Here, apparently,is
terms
are

fallacyof

these

four

(1) John, (2)

John.
is
not
a

taller than
we

James,

(3) Albert,
is

(4)

taller than There the

Yet

know

that the argument in the mind "Albert

to

valid.
to

particleof
conclusion

doubt that

tive rela-

truth We

of the
are

is taller the ence infer-

than

James."
that such

consequently
The

forced

quantitative arguments
argument
a

lie outside involves second

the field this

new

of

syllogistic reasoning.
than

"Whatever principle,
is greater
a

is greater than third

thing which
than
a

thing is

itself greater

third

thing."

260

Incomplete Syllogisms
SUMMARY.

7.

(1)

An

enthymeme
is omitted. of the

is

syllogism

in the

which

one

of

the

three
an

propositions enthymeme
the second

Suppressing omitting
the

major
the

premise gives

gives
one

first order; omitting

while

minor

gives
one

of the

order;

conclusion

of

third order.
The

enthymeme
of order the
are

is

really the
are

natural the
most

form
common

of

expression.
while those

Enof

thymemes
the

first order

third

the

most

emphatic.
a

(2)
the

An

epicheirema
is but
are an one

is

syllogism in which
An
an

one

or

more

of
to

premises
when

enthymeme. premise enthymemes.

a

epicheirema
and

is

said

\"e

single
both

is

enthymeme,

double

when

premises
A

(3)

polysyllogism is
of
one.

series

of

syllogisms
becomes
a

in

which of

the the

conclusion

the

preceding
The
a one

syllogism

premise

succeeding
a

of the

series whose

conclusion

becomes
uses

premise

is termed
as a

conclusion

which prosyllogism ; while the one premise is called an episyllogism.

a

the

(4)
are

sorites is omitted kinds

series

of

syllogisms
one.

in which

all the

sions conclu-

except
of
uses

the last
are

The The

two

sorites

the
as

progressive
its first

and

regressive.
and

progressive
form or"
as

the

"minor"

premise
of
are,

adopts
uses

the

of

the

fourth premise
of the

figure, whereas
and

the
form

regressive
the

the

"maj
The

its first rules be

adopts the
the

firstfigure,
first

two may

progressive
be

sorites
must

(1) "The
others

premise
"The

particular, all
may

others

be the

universal"; (2)
must

last

premise

negative, all

be

affirmative." The
may two

rules

of

the

regressive
others
must

are,

(1) "The

first premise

be

negative,
may

all the

be

affirmative"; (2) "The

must

last

premise
do

be

all the others particular,

are

be

universal".

(5)
and yet

Irregular arguments
not

such

as

yield valid conclusions

quantity
on

conform

to

the

syllogisticrules.
expresses

The
four
ever

quantitative argument
terms.

and

contains

This

argument
a

is

based

the

principle,"What
than
a

is greater

than

second than
are a

thing which
third

is greater

third

thing is itself greater

Plurative arguments

thing." by "more"
or

introduced

"most"

and

Summary
give
This
in
consequence
to
a

26

valid

conclusion

from and

two

particulars.
terms.

is due

the

overlapping of the major

minor

8.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.
and

(1) (2)
out

Define

illustrate the
uses.

an

enthymeme.
of the three
orders and

Illustrate distinct

enthymemes
the

point

their

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Why
Define Of

should

enthymeme

demand

closer

thought than

the ordinary syllogism ? and

use

illustrate the
is the

epicheirema.
?

what

epicheirema
a

Illustrate.
and
an

Define

and
are

Why
Define Relate

prosyllogism polysyllogisms so called ?

illustrate the sorites
two two

illustrate

episyllogism.

and the

sorites.

and forms
forms

the

epicheirema by

to

the

enthymeme. diagram.
show that

(10) Illustrate the (11) Explain the

(12) Prove they
their

of sorites. of sorites
rules
means

of

the truth
two

of

the two

of the

progressive sorites.
and

(13) Illustrate
are

kinds

of irregular arguments

valid. the five

(14) Complete
mood and

enthymemes

of

page

248

and

indicate

figure.

9.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
common

Why
than You

should those desire

enthymemes
of
to

of

the

second

order

be

less

the make

first? it evident
to
a

(2)
the

child
so

that

small
of

beginning

often

leads
of

to

momentous

ending; do

in terms

enthymeme
Show

the

first order.

(3)
terms.

that

prosyllogism and
common

episyllogism
of form

are

relative

(4)

When

the

premise

the

"pro"

and

"epi"
this

syllogism is omitted what abbreviated the (5) From viewpoint of your

"A sorites is the
a

results? criticise
:

definition
and

series of
are

prosyllogisms
suppressed
of the
two

episyllogisms in which
the

all of

conclusions

except
of

last."

(6)

Prove

the truth

rules

the

regressive sorites.

262

Incomplete

Syllogisms

(7) progressive (8)

or

Show

that

the

prosyllogism

and

the

episyllogism

may

be

or

regressive.
from
cause

"Reasoning
? is the

to

effect"
"

is

such

progressive

regressive (9)
Which

Explain.
inductive in nature, the

progressive

form

of

soning rea-

or

regressive?
the

Explain.
of

(10)
249.

Test

validity

the

enthymemes

on

pages

248

and

(11)
chain this.
of

"A

sorites

is

at

least

as

immediately
it
can

convincing decomposed."

as

the

syllogisms

into

which

be

Discuss

CHAPTER

14.

CATEGORICAL

ARGUMENTS

TESTED

ACCORDING

TO

FORM.

1.

ARGUMENTS

OF

FORM

AND

MATTER.

The
ii, test
12

matter

relative 13 is

to

the

syllogism
to

treated the

in

chapters
reader
to

and

given primarily
of

enable

the

validity
be

categorical arguments.
from
one

Such of of

ments argu-

must

viewed it is

the of the

two

standpoints
purposes

form logic
no

and
to

matter,
enable how
may

since the

chief

student

to

detect be

fallacious

reasoning,
Therefore,

matter
one

subtly gain

it may

concealed. this

that it and

marked
to

facility in proceed
of

kind

of

work,

becomes

necessary

with

thoroughness
and the
we

confidence.
material

The

meaning
may

arguments

various
are now

fallacies with

be

treated

later; but
and

equipped
the

sufficient

knowledge
from the

experience
of

to

test

validity of arguments

viewpoint

form.

2.

ORDER OF

OF ARGUMENTS.

PROCEDURE

IN

THE

FORMAL

TESTING

In

testing categorical arguments

first,to follow third,
to
a

three

things
to

are

tial; essen-

definiteplan; second,
author the

give
the

sons; rea-

give

the

benefit of
this

doubt. which

In
may

view be

of

these
to

essentials, we
the

suggest
:

outline

helpful

inexperienced

(1) Arrange (2)

Determine

logically and
the

complete
mood

the

syllogism.

figure and
for

by using symbols.
and

(3) Apply

the

rules

negatives

particulars.

264

CategoricalArguments (4)
Indicate
terms

Tested

the

distribution

by underscoring

the

distributed. the rules for distribution.

any,

(5) Apply (6)

We Name

if fallacies,

giving reasons. categorical

premise;
in
mon com-

recall
must

that

to

be

strictly logical any

form:

argument

take

this

first,major
Often
or

second, minor

premise; third, conclusion.

either the minor
of this:
no

conversation is

premise (1)
"He

conclusion
cannot

given

first.

Illustrations for

be
such

gentleman
a

(conclusion);

gentleman would
there is
no

do but

thing (major premise),

did it" teacher knows
and

and

doubt
the

that of

he
a

(minor premise). (conclusion) ;

how this
to

(2)

"He

has

making

good
he

because what

he not he
of
a

only knows, (minor

teacher" in this
arrange

but

impart
a sure

knows

premise),

is When

sign
the

good
appears

(major premise).
form, illogical
it the

the

argument

first do

duty
he

of

student be able

is to
to

logically. To

this and

must

recognize
this end

readily the
these

premises
be of

the

conclusion.

To

facts may

assistance:
answers

(1)

premise always
and is often

the

question "Why",
such

introduced

by

words

as

"/or," "because'/ "since;' and (2)

The conclusion is

the like.

usually introduced
"it

by

fore;' "there-

"hence;'

follows," etc.
those mentioned
a

(3)

When

there

are

no

word-signs
may

in the of

foregoing

be

inserted

with

view
and

determining
are

which

is the

conclusion,

which

the

premises.

Order

of

Procedure

in

Testing of Arguments
abbreviated

265

Suggestions

relative

to

completing

ments: argu-

(1)
used
not
now

If the

conclusion

is to be

supplied,select
middle
two

the term
must

twice
appear

in the in the

premises; this, the

conclusion. The
to

term,
terms

other form used

to

may

be
narrower

connected
term
occurs

(copulated) (minor)

the
as

conclusion,
the

the

being

subject, major

unless

it

in what If either the with

clearly seems premise

is to

be

the

premise.
the middle minor for the

(2)
term

be

supplied, unite
for the

with and

subject of
the

the conclusion the

premise, major

predicate of
In make

conclusion

premise.
should be and done

(3)
be in

supplying
to

any

missing
argument

proposition,care valid, if
this
can

taken

the with

conformity
of

good

lish, Eng-

good
As locate M.
term

sense,

the rules

logic.
of the

regards
the

the

determination
term

figure it

is well

to

middle "G"

first, placing above

may

it the the

symbol major

Then and

(greater) (smaller)

be

placed
minor.

above

"S"

above

the

3.

ILLUSTRATIVE WHICH LOGICALLY ARE

EXERCISES ALREADY ARRANGED.

IN

TESTING

ARGUMENTS

COMPLETE,

REGULAR,

AND

G
are

(1)

All

dogs

quadrupeds,
M
are

S A All

greyhounds
S

dogs,
G

All

greyhounds

are

quadrupeds.

266

CategoricalArguments

Tested

\A
This

argument

is in the first figure, the mood

being

A. -J

lA
All

the

propositionsare
the rules

affirmative

and

universal, consequently

pertaining to negatives and

distributes the The

particulars

are

inapplicable. "A" subjectsare

subject only, hence

middle
and
term

all the

underscored.

"dog"
term

is distributed

in the

major premise,
is distributed in the minor
in

the

minor

"greyhound"
likewise

which

in

the

conclusion, is
The be

distributed

premise.
This
may

argument
verified

is, therefore, valid

form.

by

referring to

list of valid moods G

in the

first

figure.
M

(2)

No

prejudiced person
S

is open

to

conviction,
M

All

fair minded

persons

are

open

to

viction, con-

S No fair minded
person

G is

prejudiced.

The

argument

is

in

the

second

figure;

mood

IE
There
no

is

one

negative premise
middle and

and

the conclusion both

is negative; "A" the

particulars. "E"
The Both

distributes
term

terms,

subjectonly. premise.
the

is distributed
terms
are

in the

major
in the

major

minor
are

distributed
in

conclusion, but
where

they
are

likewise The

distributed

premises

they

used.

argument

is, there-

268

Categorical Arguments
premise
"A"

Tested

figure. One

negative;
the

conclusion

negative;
"E"

no

particulars. subject and

is distributed is distributed where

distributes The

subject only;
term,

both

predicate.
in both

middle The

"good citizens,"
term, in the

premises.
conclusion

major
not

"votes,"

in the

but is

premise fallacy figure's

it is used.

The

argument

invalid, the

(A

being

illicit major.

E E

is not

found

in the first

list of valid

moods. G M
are

(5)

All

true

teachers S

sympathetic,
M

All lovers S

of children

are

sympathetic,
G

.*. All lovers

of children

are

true

teachers.

(A
The mood of this argument is A A used in the second

figure.

There its

are

no

negatives and
The

no

particulars. "A"
term, hence

distributes

subject only.

middle

thetic," "sympathe
ment argu-

is distributed is invalid.

in neither of

premise,

Fallacy
valid

undistributed

middle.
'

ReA

ferring to
the second

the list of

moods,

we

do

not

find

-|A

in

figure.
M G
are

(6)

All

thoughtful men

humane,

Illustrative

Exercises

in

Testing Arguments
M

269

S
A

All

good
S

citizens

are

thoughtful men,
G

.'. Some

good

citizens

are

humane.

rA
The mood is

JA
I

in the first

figure.

No

negatives;
"I" in

no

particulars.

"A"

distributes
term.
no

its

subject only;
distributed in The
an

tributes disthe

neither

Middle
term

term,

major
The

premise;

distributed

the

conclusion. is

argument
as

is, therefore, valid.

it could

conclusion A. The mood

weakened A A I

just

as

well

be

in the first

figure is valid, but

conclusion.

of little value

because

of the weakened

4.

ILLUSTRATIVE

EXERCISE ONE OR

IN

TESTING PREMISES

COMPLETED
BEING LOGICAL. IL-

ARGUMENTS,

BOTH

Arguments (1 ) Only

containingexclusive
first class passengers
car,

propositions.
may

ride in the

parlor

All these .'.

are

first class passengers,

They

may

ride in the

parlor car.
such words
as

Propositions
but, alone
and Since distribute with

introduced their

by

only, none tions. proposido

not

equivalents are
their
most

exclusive

these

distribute

but predicates,
way

their them

the subjects, is to

convenient

of dealing

interchange subject and predicate and

270

CategoricalArguments regard
them
"A"

Tested

then

as

propositions.
is
an

As

the first proposition

must

of the

argument

exclusive, we

deal with

it

accordingly. Interchanging subject and

with all places the G
A

predicate and
in this form: M

introducing it

argument

(All)

The

parlor

car

is reserved

for first class

passengers,

S
A

M
are

All these

first class

passengers,

~~S~
A .'. All

G
may

these

ride

in the

parlor

car.

XA
The mood of this argument A is^j in the second

figure
.

lA
No

negatives; only;
the

no

particulars.
term

"A"

distributes undistributed.

ject its subThe

middle

is thus

argument
middle.

is invalid,the

fallacy being that

of undistributed

(2)

"No

one

but

thief would it has been

take

these

books

out withtook

asking
the

for them, and

proved
called

that you
you
to
a

books; that is the

that "no

reason

I have

thief."

It is clear Thus the and and the

one

but" of

is equivalent the

"only."
an clusive, ex-

first
may

proposition
be made

argument

is

logical by interchanging subject

an

predicate and
argument
takes

callingit
the

"A."

As form:

result of

this

following
M

G
were

(All)

These

books

taken

by

thief,

Exercise

in

Testing Completed Arguments

M

271

S You took these

books,

S A
.'. You
are a

G thief.

We the

have

now

had mood

sufficient AAA

experience

to

recognize

of validity

in the first figure. deserve the fair,

(3)

"None And

but the brave

you
are

not

fair."

Making
A

the exclusive M

and completing gives: logical G the brave,

(All)
S
You

The

fair deserve

M
are

not

fair,
G

S You
.

do

not

deserve

the

brave.

The

mood

of

this argument

E used is"J

in the first fig-

ure.

There
no

is

negative premise,
middle

also
term

negative
in the

clusion; con-

particulars. The major

not term

is distributed
clusion con-

twice.

The but

"brave"

is distributed
; hence

in the

major premise

the argument

is

the fallacybeing invalid, Note. There

to

illicit major. doubt but in the the brave student's deserve

"

may

be

some

mind

as

the

proposition "None
"All

the fair,"reallymeaning

the fair deserve

the brave."

2.J2.

CategoricalArguments
doubt in be
second

Tested

This

may

better
way

satisfied
as

by treating the
on

clusive ex-

the

indicated the

page

137,

to

wit: form

Negate
of the

the

subject of
"E."

exclusive, then
results
in

give

it

the brave

regular
the

This

"No

not-

persons

deserve

ing fair,"which, after first convert-

and

then

obverting becomes,

"All

the fair deserve

the

brave."

Arguments

Containing

Individual
never no

Propositions.
told
a

(4)
when

"George

Washington

lie,but

you,

tempted, yielded with

and

qualms

of conscience."

Completing,
E

gives: arranging logically

never

George Washington
You did tell
a

told

lie,

lie,

.'. You

(in

this

respect)

are

not

like

George

Washington.
Treated

properly

this argument
to

proves

to

be

valid; the
:

student, however, is apt

O I O

deal with
never

such told

in this wise
a

George Washington
You
.*. You

lie,

did

tell this

lie,

(in

respect)

are

not

like

George

Washington.
When the is

placed major

in this mood which in the

the

argument
in

is invalid the it

since

term,

is distributed

conclusion,

not

distributed It is the

premise
on

where the

occurs

(illicit
to

major).

tendency

part

of has

students
as

a proposition which classifyas particular,

its sub-

Exercise

in

TestingCompleted Arguments
Such The the
men cause

273
learned is

ject a singular term.

to

propositionswe
of this

have

call individual. Consider

tendency
"This

easily
is
are

explained:

propositions,(1)
are

man men

mortal"; (2) "Some

mortal." "man" men"
to

mortal"; (3) "All

"mortal" in refers
to

In the first instance which is

narrower

the subject

than significance

"some

which

"mortal" it is very is

of the second natural

to

proposition refers.
infer that
man

In consequence,
men are

if, "Some
is mortal"
a

mortal"

then, "This particular,

The
error

is likewise

particular.
of little to

springs
in

from

wrong of

conception
the
term

particularas
do

used with

logic;the

content

has with

extension, but only

is

chiefly

concerned is
one

indefiniteness.A
the

particularproposition
to
a

in which

predicate refers
If the is

part of
to
as

an a

indefinitesubject. whole,
and

subject
or

is referred

this whole

more

less

then definite, refers

to

the the it

proposition
whole refers

is universal.

Since

"mortal"
as

of the definite term

to

"this man" there

as positively as

the whole

of "all men"

is

much
as

cation justifithere

in is in

callingthe firstproposition universal

third universal.
as

callingthe

It may universal

be remembered, all

then, that

logicians class

individual

propositions. Arguments (5)

Containing Partitive Propositions.

is glitters
not

All that Tinsel

.'. Tinsel

gold,

glitters,
is
not

gold.
used with "not" The is to is
biguous am-

The

quantity sign
; it may
mean

"all" when "no"

or

"some-not.,}
is intended

only way
try both

to

determine

which

meaning

274

CategoricalArguments quantity signs, selectingthe

the author's the

Tested

these

one

which

seems means

to

fit best "some-not"

meaning.

When

"ail-not"

propositionwhich
such

it introduces

is called
a

partitiveproposition; since proposition.

"Some its

always suggests
page
are

plementary com-

(See

133.)
not

For

ample, ex-

glittering things
"Some

gold/' suggests
are

complement,

glittering things
it is clear
mean

gold."
"All

In

testing the foregoing argument

is glitters is
are

that

that

not
so

gold"
much Thus
as

does it

not

"No "Some takes

glittering thing things glittering

this form: G

gold/'
not

implies

gold."

the argument M

Some S

glittering things are

M

not

gold,

Tinsel S Tinsel

glitters,
G is
not

gold.

The

mood

A in is"{

the first figure. There

is

one

negative

premise (O),
one

and

the

conclusion but

is

negative.
conclusion invalid

There is

is
not

particular premise (O),

This makes "A the rule

the

particular.
to

argument

according
a

8; viz.:

particular premise Carrying

is likewise the
test

necessitates still further

particularconclusion."
will be
seen

it

that

there

the

fallacy of

tributed undis-

middle. Other "All

arguments
scholars
are

where
not

one

of

the

premises

is

partitive.

wise

and, therefore, Aristotle

276

CategoricalArguments
the inverted

Tested

struction, is typical of

form.

These Since

are

usually made usually

easy
to
see

logicalby simple conversion.

follow that

ises prem-

"for," or they
the

equivalent word-signs, mercy"

is
one

it is of is

"for

shall obtain

the

premises ;

while

other, the broader

of the

two,

understood.

Arranged
A

the argument logically M Those who S The merciful obtain

mercy

assumes

this form G

are

blessed,

M shall obtain G
are

mercy,

S,
The merciful

blessed.

Here

we

have

the

A mood-j lA

in the first

which figure,

we

know

to

be valid.

Other inverted. "Blessed "To

agruments

where

one

of

the

propositions

is

are

the pure self be thou

art
canst

in heart

for it be

they
must

shall

see

God."
as

thine the

own

true, and
not

follow,

the

night
"A

day,

then

false to any

man." shall

king
must

thou be

and, therefore, thy commands

be, yea,

obeyed." propositions in
is the
true to

Taking
each heart "You

the

inverted

order

and "The

making
pure
. .

the logical,
are are

following
; "You

result:

in
"

blessed"
a

be

and yourself, ."

king, therefore

Arguments
5.

which

are

Incomplete
AND

277

ARGUMENTS OR LESS

WHICH IRREGULAR.

ARE

INCOMPLETE

MORE

(1)
on

"He

must

be which

star
won

player;
the

for

he

played

back full-

the team "The of 90

man

championship."
he served

(2)
a

is not in

to

be trusted; because

term

days

jail."
bodies

(3)
not

"Only

material

gravitate,and

ether

does

gravitate." (4)
"If

only

fools

despise knowledge, this

man

cannot

be

fool." "A charitable he

man

(5)

has does

no

merit is

in

tress relievingdishimself."

; because

merely

what all who

pleasingto

(6)
since The

"It

is evident the

that

get justice buy it;

only

rich get it."

above

arguments

thrown

into

logical form
should

and
test

validity or
these in

stated: invalidity

(The

student

detail.)
M

(1)

All

belonging

to

the

team

which G

won

the

championship
S
He

were

star

players,

played

with

the

team

which

won

the

championship,
S He is
a

G
star

player.

Valid

in

form.

278

CategoricalArguments
M

Tested

(2)

E
'

One

who

serves

term

of 90

days

in

jail

G is not
to

be trusted, M served
a

S This
man

term

of 90 G

days

in

jail,

S This
man

is not

to

be

trusted.

Valid

in

form.
M G
are

(3)

All S

gravitatingbodies
M does
not

material,

Ether S

gravitate,
G

.'. Ether

is not

material.

Illicit major.

G
are

(4)

All

who S

despise knowledge
M does
not

fools,

This

man

despise knowledge,
G

S E
.'. This
man

is not

fool.

Illicitmajor.

(5)

No

one

who

merely

does

what

is

pleasing

Arguments

zvhich

are

Incomplete
G

279

to

himself S

has

merit

in

relievingdistress,

charitable M

man

merely

does

what

is

pleasingto himself,
S E .'. No charitable
man

G
has merit in in

relieving

distress.

Valid

form.

(6)

All the rich S

buy justice,
M

All

who

get justiceare
S

rich,

G Valid
in

.*. All who

buy it. get justice

form.

In bound
so

supplying suppressed premises

to

the of

critic is duty

give
no

the

author

the

benefit

the and

doubt, if by
the sition propoOften the

doing

principlein logic is
to

violated and

conforms it is not
easy
to

good English
in such
to

good
all

sense.

perceive in

the abbreviated instances the

argument

meaning
should be illustrate: "6"

intended;
directed In

legitimateeffort
valid.
of To

making
to

argument

supplying the major premise

be
easy

argument

it would
the

make

it, "All
the

justiceis bought
pronounce

by

rich" ; in consequence

critic could

280

CategoricalArguments
invalid the middle

Tested

the argument

as

term

would

be undistributed.

Before it has
sure

assertingthat
terms
are

an

argument

is fallacious
must

because make In four

four

rather
no

than

three, the student

or are

that there

synonyms

equivalents used. apparently

the

argument
terms:

"4," for instance, there

(1) (4)

"foolish," (2)
"fool"
not

"despise knowledge,"
The

(3)
as

"man,"
synonyms

; but
seem

to

regard "foolish" and

"fool"

does

like undue

liberty.
of

ing follow-

arguments
synonyms:

further

illustrate this need

recognizing

"Human

beings
not

are

accountable
are

for

their

conduct;

brutes,

being human, (Not

therefore for their

free from conduct.)

sponsibilit re-

accountable
men

"Not often

all educated finds mistakes

spell correctly; because

one

in the

writings of collegegraduates."

(Educated men.)
"Modern increases which education the
tax

is not

popular
the

in this state; for

it

rate, and

popularity of everything, frugal Yankees,

is lived."

touches the
tax

the

pocket
very
use

of

these

creases (in-

rate) is

short

(Not popular.)
so

In

common

parlance the

of synonyms

prevalent

that and in

to ready ability

substitute

equivalentsin word, phrase,

him who would be skillful

clause

form

is needed

by

testingall
It has

kinds

of arguments.

already
of the

become
or

apparent
the A
tense

to

the

student

that the

number

noun

of the verb

is of small of the rules

logical consequence.
formal fallacies in

very

large proportion
concern

argumentation

the

Arguments
of distribution
may

which

are

Incomplete
in be said the

281

which said of

are

summarized
may

dictum

"What

be

the whole

of part of

that whole."

6.

COMMON ARGUMENTS.

MISTAKES

OF

STUDENTS

IN

TESTING

The

most

common are

mistakes
as

made
:

by

the student

when

testingarguments
as an

follows

( 1 ) Using

the exclusive

"A"

without

interchangingsubjectand predicate; e.g.,

school

the proposition, interpreting "Only high

may
enter

graduates
"All

the

training school," as
may
enter

meaning

high (2)
"A." "A's"

school

graduates

the

training school."
g., than
are

Calling individual
"Socrates

e. propositionsparticular; as an

ing interpretan

is mortal" that
e.

"I"

rather

(3) Signifying
rather than

partitive propositions
g., "All that that "All is glitters

"O's";

not

gold"
are

interpreted as gold," rather

meaning
than "Some

glitteringthings
not terms

glittering things are

that
two
a

gold."
has

(A).
been

(4) Concluding
committed
to

fallacyof
are

four

when

terms

synonomous. and

(5)

Failing
inverted

interchange

the

subject

predicate of

propositions.

7.

OUTLINE. Categorical

Arguments
of form

Tested and

According
matter.

to

Form.

(1)

Arguments
Order The of

(2)

procedure in the

formal

testing of arguments.

outline.

Determining Completing

premises
abbreviated

and

conclusion.

arguments.

282

CategoricalArguments
Illustrative whose

Tested

(3)
(4)
or

exercises
are

in

and

premises

testingarguments logical.
testing completed illogical.
individual

which

are

plete com-

Illustrative of

exercises

in
are

arguments,

one

both

whose Exclusive

premises

premises,
and

premises,

partitive

premises, inverted

premises.
the student.

(5)
(6)
8.

Incomplete
Common

irregular arguments.
of

mistakes

SUMMARY.

(1)
from

In

determining
two

their

validity,arguments
and
matter.

must

be

tested

the
In

viewpoints of form
and

(2)
doubt. With

testing categorical arguments

reasons,
to

it is

quite necessary

to

be

to give definite,

give the author

the benefit of the

this
1. 2. 3. 4.

in

view

the

attending outline
the
for

is suggestive

Arrange
Determine

logically and

complete.
mood.

figure and

Apply
Apply
Name

rules

negatives and
distribution.
any,

particulars.

Indicate

distribution.
rules

5.
6.

for

fallacies,if

giving

reasons.

The

of syllogisticarguments logical arrangement 1. Major premise. 2. 3. Minor

is

premise.
in
a

Conclusion.

Any "Why?"
or

proposition
is
a

syllogism
the
or

which conclusion

answers

the

question
is in
If

premise, whereas
the

follows
If
are a

"therefore",
conclusion
but
once

its be

equivalent either written

understood. which

to

supplied, unite
is
to

two

terms

used
as

the
a

premises, using the "minor premise

to

premise premise

term"

the
term

subject.
with

be

supplied, unite
minor

the
and

middle with

the
to

"minor"

form

the

the

"major"

form

the

major
be

premise.
which
are

(3)

Arguments
may

regular, complete, and

and

tested

by symbolizing the mood

terms, and
then

ranged, logicallyarscoring figure,under-

the
of

distributed

applying the general rules

may not

the

syllogism.
Arguments
with

(4)

illogicalpremises

be

tested

with

284
(6)

CategoricalArguments
Designate the premises
supplying
any

Tested

and

the

conclusion
may

in the

ing, follow-

proposition which
test

be

omitted, also

arrange

logicallyand (1) "The

hard

the
of

validity.
country
are

people
of

this

suffering from
a

an

overdose

prosperity;
a

consequently
lesson."
to

period period

of

times should

will be
be will

valuable
so as

(The
this

sion concluof

recast
cure

read, "A
of

hard
The

times

the

people

country."
an

suffer from who premise is, "Those overdose of prosperity may be cured by a period hard times")

minor

of

(2)
(3)

"I
are

am

teacher;
a a man

you

are

not

what

I am;

hence

you

not

teacher." is murder, therefore best

war

"To
You

kill

is murder."

(4) (5) (6)

have

not

adopted
and

the

policy since honesty

be the

has

always been
the road

will always

best policy."

"Since
not

is criminally
be

mismanaged, why should

as

the authorities
to

indicted

criminals
a man

?"

"Early

bed

and

early to rise makes

I
am none

healthy,
my

wealthy

and

wise.
have

of

these; hence

sleeping hours (7) (8)

Illustrate
a

been

wrong."

weakened exclusive it.

conclusion.

Explain

the
treat

proposition

and

indicate how

the

logician should (9)

Arrange

logically and
weak
men was

test

the

following: intemperate, business;

and

(1)

Only
Allen

become

Edgar

Poe

surely intemperate.
except
on

(2) No

admittance
be

hence

you

not can-

admitted.
acts
are

(3)

Virtuous

praiseworthy,
a

and

inate indiscrim-

giving is
(10) Explain why

not

virtuous

act.
are

individual

propositions

classed

as

versal. uni-

(11) Write proposition;

an

argument

whose

major
test

premise is

partitive

arrange

logically and
test

validity.
"Blessed
heaven."
are

(12) Arrange spirit: for

theirs

and

this argument:

the poor

in

is the

kingdom

of

Review

Questions

285

(13) Complete, (1) "The (2)

"The
upon prey

arrange

and of

test.
war

object
are

is to

settle

disputes; hence
created
to

soldiers

the best peacemakers."

various
one

species of brutes
proves

being
man

prey
to

another them." of
of

that

is intended

upon

(3) (4) (5)

"The the "All

end end the

one

everything is its perfection; death life is its perfection."

of the

being
and

trees

yard

make

thick

shade

this is '"Minds

of them." moderate caliber

of

ordinarily
range,

condemn
and

everything which
such
a

is beyond

their

his

is

mind." of
are

(6) (7)

"The
and

best
you

all medicines

are

fresh both."

air and

sleep,

sorely
comes

in need
from
an

of

"Every
from
a

hen

egg; egg

every
comes

egg

comes an

hen;

therefore

every

from

egg." (8)
"He
cannot
seen

have him."

been

there

"

otherwise

should

have

(14) "It is fair

we

to up

give the author

as censors

the benefit of the doubt of the name."

when

set

ourselves

worthy

Explain

this. the (15) Illustrate by citing arguments which are equivalents in signification.
need

of

detecting terms

(16)
treated

How

does

the ?
and

logician look

upon

number

and

tense

as

in grammar

(17) Illustrate
is

test

an

argument

in which

one

of

the

mises pre-

elliptical.
the
most
common

(18) Summarize
in the and

mistakes

made

by students
mistakes

testing of categorical arguments; then write in logical form.

illustrate these

10.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
but

Give

illustrations in

of

arguments

which

are

valid

in

form

invalid

meaning.

Explain.

286

CategoricalArguments
May
?
an

Tested

(2)
form

argument

be

valid

in

meaning

but

invalid

in

Exemplify.
Put
a

(3)
show

simple problem
minor

in arithmetic

in syllogisticform first.
custom

and

that In
the

the the

premise

naturally
is there
of

comes

(4)
giving
?

practice of law
the

any

analagous

to

author

benefit

the

doubt

in

logical argumentation

(5)

Test

in detail
"All wise

the

following arguments:
to

(1)

presidents strive

give heed

to

the
not

mands dedone

of the people, but so."

this president has

(2) (3)

"The
hence

existence
it cannot

of

God

is not

universally believed,
under it?"
out

be has

true."

"The

institution therefore is
so

prospered change
because

the

present

regime
"The
man

why

guilty

seven

of

the

nine

witnesses

testified."
men

(5)

"I

know

three

who
in

cleared

not

less

than

ten

thousand
I do
as

dollars much?"
may

this business; and

why

cannot

(6)
you

"Only
will

members
not

vote to

and, since
vote."

you

are

not

ber, mem-

be

allowed
two

Change
in

the

exclusive

in

this
126.

argument
Test

in

the

ways

suggested
cases.

Chapter

8,

page

the

argument

in both that

(7)
used
"

Show with
f. Make "nof

by

illustration
may

the

quantity sign
mean

"all" in

when others

in

some

cases

"no"

and

some-no

(8)
(9)

two

selections
with
news an

from

some

poet

of

authority
which

resenting rep-

arguments
Select
from

inverted three
but

premise.
arguments which in
seem

papers

to not.

illustrate the

fallacy of

four

terms

reality do

Explain. (10) Wherein

could

the

elliptical proposition lead

and without that
test:

to

error?

(11) Put (1)

the

following in syllogisticform
persons may
reason

"That
proven

language
infants
reason

is

by
yet have

the
no

circumstances

and

language."

Review

Questions

287

(2)

"The contain

scriptures
some

cannot

come

from

God
be

because

they

things

which

cannot

comprehended

by

man."

(3)

"When
of and

Columbus

was

sailing
fell
he in

the

ocean

in
of

search

new

world,

Ik that

with
not

flock be
far

land
from

birds
land."

concluded

could

(4)

"Bolingbroke
Christian has bred

in

arguing
shows

against
that "Burke the

the

truth

of

the

religion
contentions." that civil

Christian
answered

religion
him

by

showing

government

had

bred

tions." conten-

CHAPTER

15.

HYPOTHETICAL

ARGUMENTS,
INCLUDING

AND

DISJUNCTIVE
DILEMMA.

ARGUMENTS

THE

1.

THREE

KINDS

OF

ARGUMENTS.

The

proposition,constitutingthe
would of

basic

unit
of

of the argument,
nature

necessity

be

indicative

the kinds

of

said

argument

; therefore

the three

general
and

of propositions,

hypothetical categorical,
the three kinds of

disjunctive,suggest
are

arguments
and

which

in

turn

gorical, cate-

hypothetical
are

disjunctive. Categorical
all of has
two.

ments argugorical. cate-

those Since

in which this kind the other

the

propositions

are

been

treated, it remains

for

us

to

consider

2.

HYPOTHETICAL

ARGUMENTS.

We
one

have in which

observed the

that

hypothetical proposition
depends
it is
on a

is

assertion

condition;
will
state

for call of the the

example,
on

in the

proposition, "If
the will is

pleasant, I
on

you

to-morrow,"
"I

calling depends
call
on

the

the

weather. which is

you

to-morrow," condition,

is "If

assertion weather The

the

limited

by
:

the

pleasant."

Definition
or

hypothetical argument
is

syllogism
and the

is

one

in which

major premise

hypothetical

minor

premise

categorical.
288

Hypothetical Arguments
Illustration

289

If the

people
world

are

right more
;

than

half

of the time, the

will progress
are

And Hence

the

people

right more

than

half

of

the

time,

the world

will progress.
to

In contradistinction and
to
as

hypotheticalpropodisjunctives, sitions
are

hypothetical syllogisms "conjunctive."

CONSEQUENT.

frequently

ferred re-

3.

THE

ANTECEDENT

AND

Facilityin detecting the hypotheticals is required

with been the

antecedent in order
to

and

consequent

of

deal

intelligently
has
a

argument.
as one

The in which

hypothetical proposition
the assertion is the is limited and which and

defined

by

condition. follows

The

consequent
not

assertion

usually
is the the

(though
is the

always)
First

the antecedent antecedent

as

limiting condition.
consequent
of The the words

the

then

order logical and

the

derivative would words

meaning
indicate.
as

antecedent

consequent

antecedent

is introduced

by

such

"if,"

"though," "unless," "suppose," "granted that," "when,"

etc.

Illustrations

Antecedent.
1. 2.

Consequent.
you

If you

study,
is added
are

will pass.

If it rains,
to

it is

cloudy.
will live

3. If two
4. If you

three,

the result is five.

you
to
a

temperate,

ripe

old

age.

290

Hypothetical Consequent.

and

Disjunctive Arguments
Antecedent. unless
you

5. I will go,

wire

me

to

the

contrary.
6. I will pay
you,

when

you

present

your
no

bill. acci-

7. I shall make
ten

the

trip in

granted
dents.

that I have

hours,
overcoat

8.

My
have

would

not

been
KINDS

stolen,
OF

if the door
HYPOTHETICAL

had

been

locked.

4.

TWO

ARGUMENTS.

The

two

kinds

of

hypotheticalsyllogisms are
is

the

structive con-

and A

destructive.

constructive

hypotheticalsyllogism
antecedent.

one

in which

the minor A

premise affirmsthe

destructive

hypotheticalsyllogism is
denies the consequent.

one

in which

the

minor The
as

premise

constructive "modus is called

hypotheticalis
;

sometimes the

referred

to

the

ponens"
the

whereas

destructive

thetical hypo-

(fmodus

tollens."

Illustrations

Constructive

Hypothetical Syllogisms.
Words.

Symbols.
If A is B, C is D If
you
are

diligent, you diligent,

will succeed.

will

ceed; suc-

A
.\

is B is D

And

you

are

Therefore

you

Destructive
If

Hypothetical Syllogisms.
If you have had been

is B, C

is D

diligent, you
succeed,
were

would

succeeded;
did
not

C is not
.*. A is not

D
B

But

you

Therefore

you

not

diligent.

292

Hypothetical Considering dampness

and

Disjunctive Arguments
:

valid. for the the

the second

rain is
as

not

the

only
result

cause

of the
or

ground,
a

it

might
no

from
not cedent antenot

of dew, falling
no

from

dense

fog;

rain does

mean necessarily

dampness.
the that

It is clear that if the

may
or

does follow. invalid. similar

to

not

happen,
it appears
to
:

consequent
the

may

Thus

second evident

argument
a

is

Attention
the

the third makes

the

condition

second than

ground
as

may

be made
and dew.

damp
Thus the

by
the

agencies other
third

rain, such

fog

argument

is likewise that

mvalid. if the

But

in

fourth

argument
then No there

it is obvious could have

out

ground
rain, nor

is not

damp,
dew.

been. neither
all of the

fog, nor

dampness

shuts

conditions, including the

is valid.

rain. This

Therefore

the fourth

argument
a

investigation suggests
Since

rule for

hypotheticalarguments.
arguments
The
or are

only

the

first and which

must

fourth

valid, this is the

rule

obtain:
antecedent

minor the

premise

should

either

affirm the

deny

consequent.

Any
of

violation

of this rule would

or

result in the

fallacies

denying
There is

the antecedent
one

affirmingthe consequent.
this rule which and
must not

exception
If the

to

be of

overlooked;
the may

viz.:

antecedent
are

consequent
then

hypothetical proposition
be either

co-extensive

both

affirmed

or

denied.

Illustrations

(1)

If the The

then rectangle is equilateral,

it is

square;

rectangle is equilateral,
a

.'. It is

square.

Rule

and

Fallacies of the

Hypothetical
it is
a

293

(2)

If the The

then rectangle is equilateral,

not
not

square;

rectangleis rectangleis

equilateral,
a

.*. The

square.

(3)

If the It is
a

then rectangle is equilateral,

square,

it is

square;

.'. The

rectangleis equilateral.
then rectangle is equilateral,
a

(4)

If the It is not

it is

square

square,
not

.'. The

rectangleis

equilateral.

6.

HYPOTHETICAL CATEGORICAL

ARGUMENTS
FORM.

REDUCED

TO

THE

The

hypothetical syllogism
it may be After

so

closely
to

resembles
a

the

that categorical in the

own

changed

it

by

tion slightaltera-

wording.
be

the hypothetical by its testing

to

rule,it may
the

expedient
and

reduce
to

the argument
a

to

the which

categoricalform,

subject it
are

second This

test

in

categoricalrules
two

applied.

reduction

usually necessitates
which and
to

tions change the proposisteps; first,

and

represent the antecedent

a

consequent

to

subject
unite
new

term

predicateterm
the

respectivelyand

then
a

them minor

form

major premise; second, supply

term, if necessary.
of

Illustrations and

Reduction;

and

Comparison

of

thetical Hypo-

Categorical Fallacies:
Form:

Hypothetical

(1)

If it has It has .'. The

rained,the ground
is

is

damp;

rained, damp.

ground

294

Hypothetical

and

Disjunctive Arguments

CategoricalForm:
M
A

G makes M the

The

fallingrain
S

ground damp,

In

this S

case

rain has

fallen,
G

.'. In

this

case

the

ground

is

damp

ground.

It is is valid

seen as

that the
to

the minor

argument

in the

hypothetical form
the antecedent. the

premise

affirms
to

Reducing
mode

the

categoricalgives
first

the

argument
to

\K

in the

figure which

we

know

be

valid.

IA
Hypothetical: (2)
If But
.'. You
one were

wise, he would

study;

you
are

will not
not

study,

wise.

Categorical:
G A A wise
person

M would M

study,

S
E You S You
.

will not

study,
G

are

not

wise.

In the

the minor

hypothetical form premise

denies

the the

argument

is valid

since
to

consequent.

Reducing

Hypothetical Arguments
A the

Reduced

295

categorical gives mood

E E

in the second

figure.

This

is valid.

Hypothetical:

(3)

If the wind But Hence the wind

blows

from

the south, it will rain; from the south,

is not

blowing
to

it is not

going

rain.

Categorical:
M
A

G
wind

South

brings rain,
M

S E This wind is
not
a

south

wind,

S
This wind will not

bring
the

rain.

Hypothetically considered,
the antecedent
to

minor the

premise

denies

and the

consequently

argument
it is found

is invalid. that is the

not

Reducing major
term

categorical form,
in the

is distributed in the

conclusion, but
hence the

distributed illicit major

major premise;

fallacy of

is committed.

Hypothetical:

(4)

If

man

is

just,he

will the

obey

the

golden rule;

This Hence

judge has obeyed

he is

golden rule,

just.

296

Hypothetical

and

Disjunctive Arguments

Categorical:
G
A

M will

just man
S

obey

the

golden rule,
M

This

judge
S

has

obeyed
G

the

golden rule,

.'. This

judge

is

just man.
the minor

Hypothetically considered,
the when

premise
is the
were

affirms

consequent

and
to

thus

the

argument
find

fallacious;

changed

the

categoricalwe
If the other

fallacy of
taken, it

undistributed could the be

middle. that is

examples

proved

hypothetical fallacyof denying

to

antecedent

usually equivalent
whereas the
amounts

the

categorical

fallacyof
of

illicit major; the

hypothetical fallacy
to

affirming

consequent

undistributed

middle.
In
use

reducing
of such

some

hypothetical
"the

it is necessary

to

make

expressions as,
The

case

of

or

"the will

stances circumillustrate

that." this:
If

attending argument

Jefferson
and

was

right, man

was

created

free

equal;
not

(but)
.'.

Man

was

created
not

free and

equal,

Jefferson was
to

right.

Reduced

the

categorical:
G

The

case

of

Jefferson being right is

the

case

of

man

Hypothetical Arguments
M

Reduced

297

being
S Man
was

created

free and M

equal ;

not

created

free and

equal,
G

S .'.

Jefferson (thisman)
argument
is valid

was

not

right.

The

in both

cases.

7.

ILLUSTRATIVE ARGUMENTS

EXERCISE OF ALL

TESTING KINDS.

HYPOTHETICAL

The

following brief

outline
:

may

be

followed

in

testing

hypotheticalarguments
1. 2.

Arrange logically.
Determine antecedent and

consequent.
;
name

3.

Apply
Reduce

the

hypotheticalrule categoricalform.

fallacies

giving

reasons.

4.

to

5. Apply

the

rules, giving categorical

fallacies with

reasons.

(1)

If

man

is

properly educated,
labor;

he

will not

despise

manual therefore I

conclude

that

you

have

not

been

properly educated,
since you dislike to work with
your

hands. cated: indi-

and Arranged logically

antecedent

and

consequent

If

man

is
not

properly despise

educated

(antecedent), he (consequent) ;

will

manual

labor

298
You

Hypothetical despise manual

hands),
have

and

Disjunctive Arguments
labor
to (dislike

work

with

your

.'. You

not

been

properly
the
or

educated. hence minor the argument

The

minor

premise

denies
to

the consequent,

is valid
must

according
that
must

rule, "The
the

premise
The and

affirm

the antecedent
note

deny

consequent."
is

student therefore Reduced

should

the be

consequent
an

negative

its denial
to

affirmative

proposition.

the G

categorical:

properly

educated

man

will

not

despise

this Regarded categorically

is valid.
tenets

Why?
of the
;

(2)

"If

one

believes
vote

in the

democratic and since A for me."

party, then
does believe

he should in them and

for its candidates asked and

tenets

I have

him

to

vote

Arranged,
If
one

antecedent

consequent
of the

indicated.

believes

in the

democratic for

party

(antecedent), then
And
.'. He

he

should

vote

dates its candi-

(consequent) ;
A does believe in these tenets, should
to vote

vote

for its candidates

(I

have

asked

him

for

me).

300

Hypothetical
E

and

Disjunctive Arguments
is not enabled

This
.'. This
two

weather weather

unpleasant,
me

to

come.

Fallacy of (4)
but
not

negative premises.
his

"If

one

pays
are

debts, he will

not

be 'black-listed' ; that you have

since

you your

I conclude 'black-listed,'

paid

debts." antecedent and

and Arranged logically

consequent

cated: indi-

If

one

pays

his

debts

(antecedent), he

will

not

be

"black-listed" You
.'. You
are

(consequent) ;
debts. the consequent hence the argument

"black-listed,"
not

have

paid

your

The

minor

premise denies

is valid. Reduced
to

categorical form:
G M his debts is black who

No S
You

one

pays

listed,

M
are

black

listed,
g

in
You have
not

paid

your

debts.

[ E.
The mood

\ A IE

in the second

figureis
the

valid.

(5)
if

"Men

would

do

right for

sake
;

of but

themselves, they
never

they appreciated the law of retribution

of that." tested: law
of

think

Arranged, completed, and

If

they appreciated

the

retribution

(ante-

Illustrative

Exercises

301

cedent), men

would

do

right for

the sake

selves of them-

(consequent);
But

they (never

do

not

appreciate
of

the

law

of

retribution

think do
not

that), right for

the sake of themselves.

Hence

they

do

Fallacy of denying
Reduced
to

the antecedent.

the

categorical:
M

The

case

of

men

appreciatingthe
G

law

of retri-

bution, is the
the sake S But
men

case

of

men

doing right for

of themselves

M do not

appreciatethe
G

law of

retribution,

S E
.'. Men

do

not

do

right for

the sake of themselves.

Fallacy of (6)
"If
an

illicit major. animal the it is

a

vertebrate, then
say

it

must

have is not

a a

backbone;

but

books
cannot

that
a

this animal

vertebrate, hence
Since
appear

have denies

backbone."
antecedent
common

the

minor

premise

the

it would edge knowlis As

are

that the argument and

common no sense

is invalid; yet dictate

can

that have and

the
a

conclusion backbone.

true.
a

Surely
of

invertebrate the

matter

fact and

antecedent the

consequent
is

co-extensive

therefore

hypothetical rule

not

applicable.

302

Hypothetical
to

and

Disjunctive Arguments

Reduced

the

categorical:
G
must

M A Vertebrates have
a

backbone

(Co-extensive)

S This animal is not

a

vertebrate,
G

S E
.'. This

animal

cannot

have

backbone.

As

co-extensive
of there

A's

distribute
a

their

bility predicates the possiis likewise valid.

being

of fallacy

illicit major is forestalled.

considered Categorically

the argument

8.

DISJUNCTIVE

ARGUMENTS.

It has
one

been

observed
an

that

disjunctiveproposition is
A

which is
one

expresses

alternative.

disjunctivesyllogism
is
a

in which

the

major premise

disjunctive

proposition.
Illustration The He
.'. He
:

boy
is not

is either

honest

or

dishonest,

is honest, dishonest.

9.

THE

TWO

KINDS

OF

DISJUNCTIVE

ARGUMENTS.

The zvhich

two

forms

of

disjunctivearguments
and
the
one

are

the

one

by affirmingdenies
former tollens" ; while

which

by denying
"modus "modus the

affirms. The ponendo

tollendo

is known the

by

the Latin

words

latter is termed

ponens."

The

Tzuo

Forms

of Disjunctive Arguments

303

Illustrations

( 1 ) By affirmingdenies.
The He
'

defendant is is

is either

guilty or

innocent,

guilty,
not

He
.

innocent,
or

The He
.*. He

defendant is innocent, is
not

is either

guilty or

innocent,

guilty.
affirms. is either

(2) By denying
The He .'. He

defendant is
not

guilty or

innocent,

guilty,

is innocent,
or

The He
.'. He

defendant is not is

is either

guiltyor innocent,

innocent,

guilty.
RULE DISJUNCTIVE

10.

THE

FIRST

OF

ARGUMENTS.

It may
tzuo assert

be

said This

that is the

disjunctive arguments
first: The
A

depend

on

rules.
a

major premise

must

logical disjunction.

logical disjunction
alternatives
must must

volves inbe be

two

requisites; first, the

the

mutually exclusive; second, complete.

Illustrations Terms
not

enumeration

of illogical major premise. mutually boy

is not exclusive: inattentive
or

This He
.*. He

is either

indolent,

inattentive,

is indolent.

304

Hypothetical
that the

and

Disjunctive Arguments
be both inattentive
and

It is obvious indolent.

boy might
teaches the

Experience
and
to
a

that the

are qualities

usually
one

concurrent,
or

assume case

that

boy

must

be

either

the other Some

is

clear

of

"begging
"either
"

the or"
that

question." signifythat
both
may be

logiciansmaintain
cannot

that be

both
true.

alternatives
If this

false,but
be
to

viewpoint
would

were

adopted, the major premise

not
a
case

of

the

illustration

of the

begging

the it is

question.
made

It is unnecessary which the when

argue

point, if
these.

perfectlyclear
"Either

view
two

is to

obtain
are

in this discussion. First that true,

or

Briefly stated opinion:

"

points

or"

used

mean logically,

if
if

the first alternative the first alternative

is false the second is true

"

must must

be

the second when

used

be false.

ond Secthat
true; may

opinion :
if the but
not
us

"Either

or" is

mean logically

first alternative

false,the second
is true, the other

must

be
or

if the be true.

first alternative This treatise

may

opinion. With adopts the first

to
one

all alternative

arguments
when is true
can

be

must logical

be other be

mutually
must

contradictory;i. e.,
true cannot

is

false,the
must true. not

be

and be

when

one

the

other
both

false; both
When it is

false, neither
that this

be

intended the

implication should
will take
or

obtain, then

expressed

alternative
or

this

form, "The

boy

is

either Other
may

inattentive

indolent where

both."
terms

examples
be

the

of

the

disjunctive

not

mutually
Bacon

exclusive:
was

(i )

"Lord

either

exceedingly studious
he

or was

phenomenally bright." (Undoubtedly both.)

The

First

Rule

of Disjunctive Arguments
is
a

305

(2)

"This

teacher

graduate either

of Harvard

or

of Yale."

(Perhaps both.)
is either leads
must
or a

(3)

"The

defendant
one

liar

or

thief."

(The (4)
"To

often
one

to

the

other.)
seize the
tunity oppor-

succeed
as

either make

it passes results

his own."

(The

best

success

from

doing both.)

Incomplete enumeration:
The
cause or

of

the

disease

was

either

the

water

the
not

milk,
the milk,

It
.". It

was

was

the water.

When with

such the

an

argument
that

as

this is advanced, other

it

must

be
ceived re-

knowledge

every

alternative this

has

satisfactory investigation. Without

one

assurance

could

justly claim
the meat the
or

that

the

disease

might

have

been

caused
means

by

fishsupply. Complete
narrowed

enumeration the facts

to

that

investigationhas
of the field covered

the The

boundary
the

by

the

alternatives.
one

fallacy of

incomplete

enumeration

is also

of

"begging
Other

question."
of
a

examples

possibleincomplete enumeration:
in Boston
or

(1) "Jones (2) "Mary

(3) (4)
"He

lives either is

New
or

York."

studying either algebra

committed
or

geometry."
lynched."
will

either

suicide the Boston

or

was

"Either win

the Giants the

Americans

pennant."

306
11.

Hypothetical
SECOND RULE

and

Disjunctive Arguments
DISJUNCTIVE ARGUMENTS.

OF

The

second

rule

is made of When
a

so

self evident discussion

by

the

first

that there it. The denies

one

is littleneed is this
:

detailed

concerning

rule

the minor

premise affirmsor

of
it

the alternatives in order,

of
or

the logicaldisjunction,

conclusion
To

must,

deny

affirmall of
"minor"

the others.

put

differently:When
must

the other
two

affirms, the
vice
to

conclusion
versa.

deny
there
are

every

alternative, and
reference will make
more

When of the clear.

but

alternatives

any

foregoing disjunctivearguments
There
In may
a

the
two

rule

be, however,
case,

than

alternatives. then the second

such becomes

if the first rule is observed

applicable.

Illustrations

(i) John

Doe

lives either

in Boston,

Albany,

or

New

York;
He
.'. He

lives in New does

not
or

York,
Boston
or

live in either

Albany,

He .*. He

does

not

live in New Boston have

or

York,
or

lives in either
must

Albany.
either
summer,
or

(2)

The

season

been
or

autumn, It
was

winter,
nor

spring;
nor

neither have
or

autumn, been
summer,

winter,

spring,

.*. It must

It

was

either autumn,
not

or

winter,
summer.

or

spring,

.'. It could

have

been

308

Hypothetical Hypothetical.

and

Disjunctive Arguments

If the defendant

is

then guilty,

he is not

innocent

But
.'. He

he is

is

guilty,
innocent.

not

Categorical.
The
case case

of

the

defendant

being guilty is
not

the

of the defendant the defendant the defendant

being innocent, guilty,

In this
.". In

case case

is is

this

not

innocent.

13.

THE

DILEMMA.

The related when

majority
to

of

us

are

acquainted with
of life.
open

the dilemma
a

as

the
are

activities
two

One
to

is in
him
a

dilemma neither when is he

there

courses

but

particularly enticing. One

is forced
one a

is

placed in
two

dilemma
For

to

choose

the lesser of the proper he

so

evils. be

example, by
miss

may,

without rain

equipment,
the

overtaken
of
a

heavy
;

storm;

seeks

shelter

wayside
to

shed his Thus

the rain continues

to

that he is forced discomfort

one

either
a

train, or
the

endure

the

of
a

drenching.
between

logicaldilemma
one

limits of which

to

choice

either alternatives,

might

well be avoided.

Definition.
The consists
the minor

dilemma

is
or

syllogism in
more

which

the

major premise

of

tzuo

while hypotheticalpropositions,

premise
a

is

disjunctiveproposition.
of

It

being

combination dilemma

hypotheticaland

disjunctive
The

propositions the
to
as

is sometimes

ferred appropriately re-

the

"hypothetico-disjunctive" argument.

The

Dilemma

309

order
more

of

the

premises
to
use

is the

indifferent,yet it

seems

to

be the

natural

hypothetical first; thus

definition.

14.

FOUR

FORMS.

The

four the

forms

of

the

dilemma

are

the

simple

structive, con-

the complex constructive, simple destructive, destructive. four kinds The

:

and

the

complex

following symboliza-

tions illustrate these

Simple Constructive
If A But Hence This is termed
a

Dilemma. is

is

B, W

X; and
or

if C

is

D,

is

X,

either A W

is B

C is D,

is X.

simple
W

dilemma is X.

because The

there

is but

one

consequent;
affirmative

namely,
makes

conclusion

being

it constructive. Dilemma. W is

Simple

Destructive If A But Hence is

B,

X; and
X
or

if A Y

is

B, Y Z,

is

Z,

either W A

is not B. there

is not

is not

This

is

simple

because

is but

one

antecedent, A
is

is

B,

and

destructive

because

the

conclusion

negative.

Complex

Constructive is

Dilemma. is

If A But Hence This is

B, W

X; and
or

if C is

D, Y is Z,

either A

is B

C is
or

D,
is Z.
two

either W because

is X there

Y
are

complex

antecedents

and

310

Hypothetical
consequents

and

Disjunctive Arguments
as

two

constructive,inasmuch

the conclusion

is affirmative.

Complex

Destructive is

Dilemma. is X;
is not

If A

B,

and
X
not
are

if C is
or

D,
not

is

Z,

But Hence This

as

either W

Y
or

is C

Z,
D.
as

either A because
and

is

is

not

is

complex

there

two

antecedents

well

two

consequents,

destructive
A

because

the conclusion is
one

is

: (i ) negative. Briefly

simple dilemma
is is

where

either

the

antecedent is

or

consequent
the

repeated; whereas

if neither

repeated
dilemma

dilemma
an

complex.

(2)

constructive
while
a

contains dilemma has

as

affirmative
a

conclusion;
conclusion.

destructive

uses

negative
a

(3)
is

simple

dilemma

its conclusion of
a

categorical
dilemma

proposition; whereas
If

the conclusion

complex

always disjunctive.
the
a

number

of

antecedents

and

consequents
result.

be

creased, in-

trilemma, tetralemma, etc., may

"

Illustration If A

Trilemma.

is

B, W
if E is is W

is

X;

and

if C

is

D,

is

Z;

and But Hence Some which

F, U B,
is
a

is C
or

V,
is D,
Y
or

either A either

or

is
or a

F,
U is V. in

X,

is

Z,
as

authorities the

define

dilemma
more

syllogism
one

"major-hypothetical" has
the "minor"
must

than

cedent ante-

while

be

disjunctive. This
form
or

point view-

necessarilyexcludes
destructive
appears
to

the

second of

the

simple

dilemma. favor

The

weight

authority,however,
recommended.

the classification here

Rule

Involved

in

Dilemmatic

Arguments

311

15.

THE

ONE

RULE

INVOLVED

IN

DILEMMATIC

MENTS. ARGU-

Since

the

major premise testingsuch

of the dilemma of
minor

is

hypothetical,
the

the rule for

would

necessitybe premise
it have

thetical hypoeither this in

rule; namely, "The

affirm the antecedent the
or

must

deny

the
to

consequent."
been

As

rule and

fallacies incident discussion

treated

detail,further

is unnecessary.

16.

ILLUSTRATIVE AND DILEMMATIC

EXERCISE ARGUMENTS.

TESTING

DISJUNCTIVE

(1)

If the arithmetic
to

contains

useful

facts,it will help

the powers

good citizenship ; and

it will

if it trains

of reason, But

help

to

good citizenship,
useful facts
or

the arithmetic

either contains of reason,

trains the powers Hence This is

a

it will

help to good citizenship.

dilemma The
to

simple constructive
affirms

in which

the minor fore, is,therethe

premise

the antecedents. it conforms The

argument
rules of

valid

since

the

thetical hypomay
clusion, con-

syllogism.
not

fact that the minor

not

premise
the that of the

be

perfect disjunctivedoes
inasmuch
as

invalidate

it is

perfectly obvious requirements

still obtain. dilemma

if the
cedents, ante-

arithmetic

fulfilled both

the

the conclusion be inferred that

would if the

It may,

fore, thereto

conforms

the

rules of the

hypotheticalargument,
which

it is valid, though the

may
not

disjunctive proposition strictly logical.

it contains

be

312

Hypothetical (2)
A
seen

and

Disjunctive Arguments intemperate; and,

man

is either temperate drunk several

or

as

I have
are

you

times, I conclude

that you

intemperate. Arranged logically.

A You
.'. You
man are are

is either temperate
not

or

intemperate,

temperate,

intemperate. major premise

and is
a

It would

seem

that the

tive, disjunclogical
that the

since alternatives

temperate
are

intemperate
exclusive minor and

indicate the

mutually
since

enumeration
denies
we one

complete.
alternative

And while

the

premise

the conclusion is valid.

affirms

the other,

may

infer that the argument

(3)

If

man

is

honest, he will either

pay
to

his debts the

or

explain;

but

this

fellow

paid

no

heed

repeated

notifications.

Arranged
If
a

logically.
man

is

honest, he will

pay

his debts
case

and

if he
pay,

is This
.*. This

honest, he will explain in

man man

he

cannot

neither is
not

paid
honest.

his

debt, nor

explained,

This

is

simple
denies A
voter

destructive

dilemma, and
it is valid. favor favor

since the minor

premise (4)

the consequents
must

either do
not

protection

or

free
must
one

trade; and
be
a

since trader.

you

protection,you
not

free

The

disjunctive is

logicalas
argument

might

believe

in universal

reciprocity. The

is,

therefore, invalid.

Why?

Illustrative

Arguments
would
not

313

(5)

If

man

were were

loyal,he wise, he
has

not

be
too

unduly cious; loquacritical

not

critical ; and but and

too

if he

would been

be

I find this clerk hence

both

unduly

loquacious;
but

I consider

that he has

been

only

unwise

disloyal. strikingly
dilemma is valid since the minor

This denies

complex
the two

premise

consequents.

17.

ORDINARY

EXPERIENCES PROPOSITION

RELATED AND

TO

THE

JUNCTIVE DIS-

HYPOTHETICAL

ARGUMENT.

(1 )
various

One

desires

to

take

certain time

trip which
tables C. and

involves the

routes;

information
are

from

reveals

fact that there the conditions the matter that

three

routes

A, B,
the most

Concerning
factor is dent eviand

of the

journey

important
comfortable

of comfort.
route

Further the most

makes investigation
one,

B the

will be
route

consequently is
The

selected. form

Putting

this

ordinary

experience in argumentative
route

gives the following:

A,
or

is to be either
route

B,

or

C ;
comfortable
;

I will take

; if it is the most

(co-extensive)
A
is not the most comfortable take
route

route,
A.

Hence

I will not

If B is the most B is the most

comfortable comfortable
route

route, I will take it; route,

Hence

I will take

B.

(2)
evident

The

symptoms

suggest either malarial

till a blood

or

typhoid
makes

fever; the physician is undecided

that it is not

test

typhoid.

314

Hypothetical
Considered This

and

Disjunctive Arguments

argumentatwely.
is either malarial blood
not
or

disease

typhoid

fever

;
;

If it is

typhoid,the
blood the
does

will reveal
reveal

certain

evidences

But Hence

the

these

evidences,

disease

is not

typhoid. youth suggests

or

(3)

The

natural either follow the the

bent

of the

the

fession pro-

of decides fellows.
to
an

ministry
one

teaching.
he
can

He

finally
his him of

to

in which

best

serve

This, after

mature

deliberation, appears
Thrown into the results: the

to

be the work

of the teacher. the

form

argument
I
am

following

best

fitted for

either

pulpit or

the

room; school-

If the schoolroom
my

furnishes

the richest field for that work

to

ing help-

fellows, I will
does

choose

The Hence It would

schoolroom

appear

furnish

such

field,

I will choose appear

are

the work these

of the teacher. that of of

from

ordinary experiences
to

frequently we
alternatives the dilemma.

brought
are

face

face

with

choice
case

which

not

unattractive, as
some

in the

Moreover,
or

condition lead to
a

suggests
choice when

itself of
one

which, if proved
of these

disproved, will
Such

alternatives. form of
an

circumstances

thrown

into the

argument
a

present

disjunctiveproposition
To

followed it

by

hypothetical argument.
our

put

Often differently:

in

daily affairs
us

a one

most out

prominent
of several
in

limitingcondition
alternatives.
nature.

induces

to

select
are

These

alternatives

not

dilemmatic

316

Hypothetical and Disjunctive Arguments

exercises

(16) Illustrative
arguments.

testing disjunctive and

related
to

dilemmatic

(17) Ordinary
and

experiences

the

disjunctive

sition propo-

hypothetical argument.

19.

SUMMARY.

(1)
three

Just
kinds

as

there

are

three

kinds

of

arguments;

namely,

propositions so there are junctive. categorical,hypothetical, disof

(2)
of the

Categorical

syllogistic arguments
are

are

those

in

which

all

propositions are categorical. Hypothetical syllogistic arguments major premise is hypothetical.

In

those

in

which

the

contradistinction
be

to
as

may

referred The

to

disjunctives, hypothetical arguments "conjunctive".

of

(3)
and

hypothetical proposition is composed

the

antecedent
while
cedent antecedent ante-

consequent; latter is the

former

being the limiting condition;

As

the

direct

assertion.

the words The

indicate

the

usually precedes
are

the

consequent.

signs of the "granted

"if," "though," "unless," "suppose,"

that,"

"when,"
(4) premise premise
referred

etc.

The and

two

kinds

of

hypothetical syllogisms
former the is involved

are

the

structive con-

destructive; the
the the

when

the minor
the

affirms

antecedent;

latter
two

when
are

minor

denies
to
as

consequent.

These
and

kinds

sometimes

"modus the

ponens"
four

"modus

tollens"

respectively.
two

(5)
are

Out
as

of

possible hypothetical syllogisms only

proves
or

valid

investigation

this

rule

The

minor

premise
case

must

of
not

In the deny the consequent. the hypothetical proposition being co-extensive, the rule apply.

affirm the antecedent

does

(6)
to

Hypothetical arguments by contracting the antecedent

the

may

be

reduced

to

the

ical categor-

of

the hypothetical

proposition
of of

form

subject-term, and
to

by contracting the consequent

form

the

hypothetical proposition
premise
a new

the

predicate-term
If

the

major supply

of minor

the

categorical syllogism.
term.

it is necessary,

Denying

the

antecedent

is

matter

of

illicit major;

whereas

Summary
affirming the (7)
outline
:

317

consequent

is

equivalent
may

to

undistributed

middle,

Hypothetical arguments (1) Arrange

be

tested

by following this

antecedent and logically. (2) Determine duce (3) Apply hypothetical rule. (4) Reconsequent.
to

categorical

form.

(5) Apply
the

categorical

rules.

(8)
is
a

disjunctivesyllogism is
kinds
and

one

in which

major premise
which

disjunctiveproposition.
The
two

(9)

of

disjunctives

are

those

"by
volved: in-

affirming deny" (10)

In

those

which

"by denying affirm."

two
a

there are testing disjunctive arguments assert major premise must First, "The This necessitates the
two

rules

junction. logical disalternatives

must
an

requisites "the

must

the "enumeration and mutually exclusive" of complete." The two opinions relative to the nature be assertion vice
versa; are,

be

tive alternaand
true,

if first,

one one

is

false,the other
is

must

be true
must

and
be

second, if
true.

false, the

other

be

but

both

may

The

first is adopted is "When of

in this discussion.

Second. affirms
or

The

second
one

rule involved
of the
or

the minor
a

denies
must

alternatives affirm all of

premise logical disjunctive

the

the conclusion

deny

the

others."
to

(11)
test

Subjecting the gives evidence

forms.
to

disjunctive arguments
to

ical categor-

the

close

relation
proves

the

two

logical disjunctive

existing between to be logical when

two

reduced

the
to

categorical. The
the

reduction

entails the
to

steps,

reduce first,

hypothetical; second, reduce

of the
to

the

categorical.
when

(12)

The

logical meaning

dilemma be in
a

is

suggested by the
two

popular conception. One

courses are

is said

dilemma

open

to

him, neither
presents
avoided.

of
two

which

is

specially attractive.
either
one

A which The
minor

logical might major

dilemma
well be

alternatives

of

premise of the dilemma is disjunctive.

The four forms of the dilemma

is

hypothetical; while
the

the

(13)
the

are

simple

tive, construc-

simple destructive, the

destructive. The dilemma is subject

complex

constructive

and

the

complex
(14)

to

the

hypothetical rule

which

318
is, "The
the

Hypothetical
minor

and

Disjunctive Arguments
either
affirm

premise
minor

must

the antecedent

or

deny

consequent."

(15) (16)
by

The

premise

need
to

not

be

logical disjunctive
reduced

vided pro-

the

major

conforms

the

hypothetical rule.
experiences
are

Frequently when
form

ordinary
present
a

to

augmentative
a

they

disjunctive proposition

lowed fol-

hypothetical argument.

20.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS. the

(1)
kinds

Relate
of

three

kinds

of

arguments

to

the

three

general

propositions.
and illustrate
term

(2)
(3)

Define

the

hypothetical argument.
with reference
to

Explain
arguments.

the

conjunctive

thetical hypoin

(4)

Explain

and

illustrate

antecedent

and

consequent

hypothetical arguments. (5) Select from the following

(1)
"I

the

antecedent
I

and

consequent:
will of with
not
a

usually

succeed it

when
you

try."
guarantee

(2) "I
half

not

undertake
sum

unless

the the ity, char-

needed." of
am

tongues
I

men

I speak (3) "Though and of angels, and have

as

become

sounding

brass

or

tinkling

cymbal."

(6)
are

Illustrate

the

two

kinds

of

hypothetical syllogisms which

to

valid.

(7) (8)
rule.

State
must

and

explain the exemplify the

rule

which

hypothetical
the

ments argu-

conform.
and
one

State

exception

to

hypothetical
reduced
to

(9)
the

Explain

how form.

hypothetical arguments
Illustrate.
that

may

be

categorical

(10) Show
equivalent equivalent
to to

by

illustration

denying

the

antecedent consequent

is is

illicit

major,

while middle.

affirming the
form
more

undistributed
to

(11)

Reduce "If

the

categorical
had
would

and of less
not

test:

Napoleon
he
man

possessed
have
but he

the
famous

ington, spirit of Washbut

a

been did

better

than

he

was;

possess

the

spiritof

the

"Father

of

His

Country."

Review

Questions
the

319

(12)
:

Test

according
"If he
and

to

outline

following hypothetical arguments

to

(1)

it be who
must
a

good
have

thing
in the
a

have
of

faith,then
a

certainly
has faith

believes

bible

pagan

good
of

thing."
inside the of
a

(2)

"If

10-inch
be into

charge
small

burst

tank, there
be

would blown

nothing left
had

tank.

It would

pieces."
been
side originally on the outhave judged that there

(3)

"If

the of

plate found
the
green

ship, I should paint on

part
of
you

must

be
on

but it, the

are

I could

not

find green

paint

that

ship."
the
I
man am

(4)

"If
me

I mistake

not,
I

who
sure

did that

not

pay
are

for
man

that pair of
as never

shoes.

you

the

(5)

"If
one

forget a face." the maxim 'Early to bed and early to rise makes healthy, wealthy and wise' were true, I would
been
a

have

millionaire

long ago."

(13) Define and illustrate a disjunctive argument. of disjunctive arguments. kinds (14) Exemplify the two is meant (15) What by a logical disjunction?
(16) "The
alternatives
must

be

mutually exclusive."

Explain

this,illustrating fully. where the enumeration is not complete. (17) Cite cases both of the rules to which (18) State in complete form
disjunctive arguments
must

all

conform. how the

(19) Show
be

by illustration
to

disjunctive syllogism

may

reduced

the
and

categorical.
illustrate the dilemma.
of

(20)
forms.

Define

(21) Give (22) Why syllogism ? (23)

Test

examples, why
the

using symbols,
forms
are
so

the

four

dilemmatic

Explain

these

named.

does

hypothetical

rule

apply

to

the

dilemmatic

the validity of the

"If
so a

following:

Give

reasons.

(1)

substance
it does
are

is solid if it be either
a

it possesses

and elasticity

also

liquid or

gaseous

; but

all

substances

therefore, all substances (2)

"If
men
were

solid, liquid or gaseous; elasticity." possess

act

prudent, they would

morally

for

320

Hypothetical
their
others. for

and

Disjunctive Arguments
if
men or

own

good;
But
own are

benevolent,
will not that
or

for
act

the

good

of

many

morally, either
men,

their

good
not

of

others; such
benevolent."
use

therefore, (3)
"If
are

prudent
of

the

majority
to

those

who

public houses
is
sary; unneces-

prepared
but if

close
are

them,
not

legislation prepared
them
and

they
to

for

such

measure, pressure

then
is both

force

it upon

by
and in

outside

dangerous
a

unjust."
fool

(4) (5)

"The
case

man

is either
is beneath he

liar

or

either

he

my
or

attention." else he
ever

"Either

is sincere the world

him

is the

most

astute
me

impostor prefer
to

has

produced; experiences

for

think

sincere."
many
appear to

(24) Explain
bear toward and
an

the

relation

that

argument

followed

by

tion disjunctive proposihypothetical syllogism. Illustrate. by

a

introduced

21.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)

May

premises of a hypothetical argument propositions ? Explain. See Fowler p. 115.

both
of If A If A

be

thetical hypo-

(2)

Which

the

two

is valid is D
is F

Explain. (2)
If A If is is

(1)

is B, C is B, E is D, E

B, C is D,.E

C
A

is F is F

.*. If C

is F
two

.*. If
of

is B, E

(3) (4)
seem

Show
are

by circles that
invalid.

the possible four

hypothetical

arguments

What
to

categorical rules
Explain.
a

does

the

hypothetical argument
antecedent
and

violate?

(5) (6)
that

Originate
are

hypothetical syllogism whose negative.

be Test its

consequent
four

both
a

validity.
and show
from it.

Originate
valid

co-extensive
may

hypothetical argument
derived the
two

syllogisms
word

(7)
may

Explain by
attached
If
we

and

illustration

meanings
of

which

be

to

"either-or."
both alternates
a

(8)

accepted the opinion that

be ?

junctive dis-

may

true, which

kind

of

disjunctive argument

would

it invalidate

Questions

for

Origmal

Thought

321

(9)
Explain. (10)

In

logical

disjunction

what

law

of

thought

is

involved

Why

do

the ?

laws

of

the

disjunctive

iseem

to

contradict

the

categorical
(11)
dilemma dilemma. Show

rules

Explain drawing
related
on

fully.
common

by
is

experience
the

that

logical
of

closely

to

popular

conception

(12)
a

Illustrate

by

symbols

and

then

place

in

good

English

pentalemma.

(13)
destructive

State

definition

of

dilemma

which

excludes

the

simple

form.

(14)

Give

common

experience
results
in
a

which,

when

thrown

into lowed folsuch

argumentative by
combination.
a

form, hypothetical

disjunctive
Coin
a

proposition
name

syllogism.

for

CHAPTER

16.

THE

LOGICAL

FALLACIES

OF

DEDUCTIVE

REASONING.

1.

NEGATIVE

ASPECT.

It has known

been laws

remarked
and

that of

"Logic thought

as

science
as
an

makes
art

the

forms
must

and
to

gests sug-

conditions In of the
reason

which
we

be

fulfilled

think
second
to

rightly."
aspect
answer

recent

chapters
definition

have these rules

we

discussed have be

the

the

; in

attempted
followed
to

question,

"What

must
now

in order the
same

to

correctly?"
from
must
are a

We

are

ready
of

treat

aspect
errors

negative point
avoided in which

view
to
reason

namely,

what

be the

order
we

correctly?
to

What
our
own

fallacies

must to correct

strive

avoid

in

thinking, and

attempt

in the

thinking

of

others?

2.

PARALOGISM

AND

SOPHISM.

"Fallacy"
or

comes

from
and

the

Latin

fallacia, meaning
a

ceptive de-

erroneous,

therefore

fallacy

in

logic is of
rectness. cor-

any

error

in
If

reasoning
the writer such

which
or

has,

an

appearance

speaker
a

is

himself

deceived but

by

the

fallacy,then

is called

Paralogism;
expressed
a

if the of

fallacy is committed

by
then

him

for

the

purpose

deceiving others,
the

such

becomes the

Sophism.
was

During
such

time

of the that it

Schoolmen

Sophism
Socrates

in

high
this

repute

required
of

even

to

puncture

ignominious
the

bubble

vain

trickery.

In

fact, Socrates,
which

greatest of all pagan

educators, led the crusade

322

324

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

which under Aristotle the used have

Reasoning
lived

nical

terms

through
which
to

the he

generations assigned
as

conventional less
terms.

meaning confusing
have

to

them, it becomes

adhere

closely as

possible to only
and
of

these

Therefore, in the
been
upon
to

attending
which What

division

those

changes
have will appear

made
us. plaining ex-

progress

experience chapter
as

forced be devoted
in

remains
these

this

fallacies of

they
and

this division. it is outline

For

the

sake

clearness the able

definiteness

strongly
sively exten-

recommended

that
to

student
to

study

the

enough

be

reproduce it.

Fallacies.
Formal

{In dictione)
1.

Material

{In

dictionem).
1. Ambiguous middle
2.

Opposition

1. Immediate

2. Obversion

inference' 3. Conversion
4. Contraversion 5. Four
terms

Amphibology

1. In

Language

3. Accent

Equivocation
6. Undistributed middle 7. Illicit major 2. Categorical
8. Illicit minor 9.

4. Composition 5. Division
6.

Figure speech

of

arguments

Negative premises

1. Accident 2. Converse accident 3. Irrelevant conclusion

10. Particular

premises
11.

Denying the
antecedent

2. In

Thought

4. Non 5. False
6.

sequitur
cause

Assumption

3.

Hypothetical
arguments

12.

Affirming
the
conse-

Complex question
the

quent

7. Begging

question
4.

Disjunctivep3. Illogical
arguments

disjunction

General

Divisions

Explained

325

4.

GENERAL

DIVISIONS

EXPLAINED.

The

are formal fallacies

those the of

which

concern

the

form

of the argument arise of from

an

rather

than
use

meaning.
words
as

These

fallacies

improper
from
a

abitrary signs
the
must

thought,
To the of

not

any

inconsistency in fallacy we logic.

For of of

thought
violate the

itself.
one

commit

formal

rules specific
are

this

reason

formal because
come

fallacies of
to
some

easier

comprehension. logiciansare
to

Moreover,
able
to

this

definiteness
as

better and
as occur

agreement

their content inference since

import.
formal because is

Classing the
somewhat of the of

fallacies of immediate
an

innovation of certain is
a

; but

they
the
some

breaking
inference

definite of

rules, and

since immediate form without

matter
we

changing
there is class

the meaning, altering for this

believe

justification

position.

Some

would

"immediate

ference in-

fallacies with The of material

the material

fallacies of

language.
and
not

are fallacies are

fallacies of

meaning

form.

They
and

those

arising from
ways

inconsistencyin interpretingthis
very

thought, thought
of
are

from

imperfect
in them

of No for

as

it appears violated would

language.
and

rules specific
reason

logic are
those from who

by

this

there cies fallais

even we

eliminate entirely

the material

the

field of

logic.

But

since

thought

more

subtle

than

form

in its deceitful

machinations,

believe
on

that the material

fallacycalls
divided
to

for

specialattention

the part of the Material

logician.
are

fallacies have

into
wrong

two

kinds.

First,
cies falla-

those

which in

reference

thinking,or
are

thought; and, second,

those

which

due

mainly

326
to

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

Reasoning
fallacies in

an

incorrect The

interpretationof words,
former
in

or

language.
lack

result from

inconsistencyand
the

reasonablene un-

thought, whereas

latter

come

from

of

precision in expression.
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE.

5.

FALLACIES

OF

Fallacies of the

of

immediate

inference

arise

from

some

lation vio-

rules which

this topic enunciates.

(1) Among (1 )
When

Opposition.
other the
statements

opposition posits these

true

two:

particularis
A

its

opposing
does

universal
not
sarily neces-

is

indeterminate; (2)
contradict These assumed true,
and
a

universal

negative

universal that

affirmative.
an

signify
to

neither when
not

nor

an

E I

must
or

be O is O

be

true

the

corresponding
contradict

that I.

may

always

A,,

nor

contradict

Illustrations

of some

Fallacies
men are

of

Opposition.
I may

(1 )
all
men men

Since
are are

wise, then

conclude his

that

wise. honest"

(2)

I have

contradicted that
no men

statement

"all

by proving
between accident.

are

honest.

There

is little difference
converse are

fallacies like

(1 )

and

fallicies of
both if
one

Concerning illustration (2),

to

statements

false ; but
must

contradict
true.

we

know

that

is false,the other Obversion.

be

(2)
"Two the

negatives

are

equivalent to
obversion. from

one

affirmative," is
most
one common

principleunderlying
obversion

The

fallacy in
instead

springs

using

negative

of two.

Fallacies

of Immediate

Inference

327

Illustrations

of

Fallacious
men

Obversion.
are

(a) Original: Some

Some
men are

not

wise.

Obverse:

correct) (in-

wise. teachers
are are

(b) Original :
All
true

All true

just.

Obverse

correct (in-

teachers

not

just.

(3)
and

Conversion. involves
a

Conversion

the

interchanging

of

the

subject
this

predicate of

proposition without
the usual

affectingthe
to

tribution dis-

; in consequence

fallacyincident
term.

an interchange is distributing

undistributed Conversion.
stars
are

Illustrations

of

Fallacy All fixed

of

(a)

Original:

heavenly
bodies
are

bodies. fixed

Converted:
stars.

(incorrectly)All

heavenly

(b) Original: (incorrectly)Some

Some wise

men

are

not
are

wise.
not
men.

Converted:

beings

(4)
As

Controversion. involves the two

this process

steps of obversion
contraversion

and would

conversion, fallacies appertaining to

relate to these Illustrations
two

steps.
Fallacies No honest
man of

of

Contraversion. fails to who do

pay
not

(a) Original:
Contraverted debts
are
:

his
pay

debts. their

Some (incorrectly)
men.

honest

(b) Original: Some

animals. The formal fallacies

animals Some

are

quadrupeds.

verted: Contraare

(incorrectly)

not-quadrupeds

not

of

hypothetical,and categorical,
received detailed
treatment

disjunctive arguments

have

in

328

The

Logical

Fallacies

of

Deductive

Reasoning

chapters
attention

n,
to

14

and

15;

we

may,

therefore, devote
further

our

the

material

fallacies without

delay.

6.

FALLACIES

OF

LANGUAGE.

(Equivocation.)

These that
an

are

the fallacies of double

term

meaning. permits

It is known
two
or more

equivocal

is

one

which

interpretations ; similarlya proposition which

two
or
more

admits

of

interpretations may
the
term

be

denominated
come

ocal. equivstand

Thus all
errors
one

equivocation has
a

to

for
more

in

language resultingfrom
all of the six fallacies in

of possibility

than

interpretation. This

the justifies

position of
as

referringto
also

language

fallacies

of equivocation.

(1 )

Ambiguous
middle

middle.

Ambiguous giving to
argument
there
are

explains itself.
term
a

It is the In

fallacy of
form the

the middle
may in

double

meaning.
terms,
For

contain

but

three
terms.

yet in meaning
this
terms
reason biguous am-

reality four
and and

middle
be
we

the the

fallacyof thing;

four but

appear
treatment

to

about shall

one

same as

in this

regard
:

them

mutually exclusive, and

this is

the

distinction

Invalid three
terms

arguments
in form

of but

"ambiguous four
term terms

middle"
in

have

only
This is

meaning.
in

that signifies

the middle

though

identical

form

given

double

meaning.
of

Invalid
terms

arguments
both

"four

terms"

always they
are

have

four

in

form

and
sense

meaning;
of

"logical

quadrupeds"

in every

the word.

Fallacies

of Language

329

Illustrations.

Ambiguous (a)

middle. the mother of invention,"

"Necessity is
Bread is
a

necessity,
of invention. than than

.'. Bread

is the mother is better is better

(b)
.'.

"Nothing Dry Dry

A A

wisdom,"

bread bread

nothing,
wisdom.

is better than is force for for

(c)

church

good
a

in any

community, community.

slate roof slate roof

is is

good
a

church,

.'. A

force

for

good

in any

Fallacies

of four
true

terms.
are

(a)

All

teachers is is
an

just,

John
.'.

Doe Doe is

educator,

John
Milk This

just.

(b)

nourishing,
is is be taken be
a

substance substance should has

white

fluid,

.'. This

nourishing. imprisoned,
what does
not

(c)

Thieves
This
man man.

belong to him,

.*. This In
terms

should

imprisoned.
that fourth the
term

the
occur

"four-term"
in

fallacies,observe

four is of

the
the

premises.

When

introduced
non

in

conclusion, the
been committed.

material

fallacy

sequitur has (2)

Amphibology
is
a

(or amphiboly). fallacyresultingfrom

an

Amphibology

ambiguous

330

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

rather The
or

Reasoning
ambiguity
of
any

proposition
when than
sort

than

from

the

term. particular

fallacyof amphibology
written
The
reason were

is committed
more

the
one

spoken

proposition
oracles such

conveys

meaning. fallacy,the
;

ancient for
not too

indulged

in this

of

indulgence being
to
were

obvious

the

oracles

positiveas
therefore

the

come out-

of their careful A careless often

and prognostications,
to
use cover

cially espe-

every

emergency.

of

relative in the

clauses

and

prepositional

phrases

results

fallacyof amphibology.
of

Illustrations

of

the

Fallacy

Amphibology.

(a) (b) (c)

"You
"The

the enemy Duke

a

will

slay."
shall

yet lives that Henry

depose.''
made of

"Wanted

piano by

young

lady

mahogany." (d) (3)

This
some

"You

your

father

will

punish."

Accent.

fallacy springs from placing

word may
or

undue

emphasis
such

on

group
convey
a

of

words.

Naturally

tuation accen-

meaning
are

entirely foreign guilty of

from
a

to

the

author's when them

intent. select

Newspapers
a

this

fallacy
use

they
as

few without

words

speech and
A

headlines

further uttered

explanation. by
or an

tician poliand
toonist car-

may

quote
it
arouse

sentence

opponent
A

fail

to

relate
may

to

what the

preceded

followed.

prejudice
to
some

of

public opinion by

giving ridiculous by
the

emphasis

idiosyncracypossessed

subject of

his attack.

332

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

Fallacy

Reasoning

Illustrations

of

the

of

Composition.
is
a

(a) "Every
hence

member

of the team

star

player;

I expect
a

that the entire

aggregation

will be

winner." of
we

(b)

"All

the

men

the have

jury good
of

are

fair

minded;
for posing sup-

therefore

reason

that accord with and

the

jury's verdict

will be

in

the rules

justice."
odd and numbers
;

(c)

"Thirteen

twenty-three are
to

is equal thirty-six three

;

thirteen

twentynumber." less than

Y

hence

is an thirty-six of
a

odd

(d)

"All
two

the

angles

triangle are
hence
two

right angles;
Z
are

the

angles X,

and

less than

right angles."

(e)

In
a

governmental
law which benefit

affairs the assumption, that benefits

a one

section

will

all,is

fallacyof composition.

(5 )
The

Division.

fallacy of
that what is the

division

is committed
true

when

it is

sumed as-

is true
converse

is collectively
of

distributively.
is

Division
a

composition. Composition
a

fallacious while
to

procedure
division
a

from is
a

distributive

to

collective from
a

use;

fallacious
use.

procedure

collective
may

distributive

The

fallacy of
of

division the
trations illus-

be

illustrated

by giving the

converse

under

composition:
team

(a)

"The

is

star

playing

team

and

since

Smith he
must

is the be
a

'first baseman'
star

of

the team,

player."

Fallacies

of Language
a a

333

(b)

"The the

jury

rendered is
an

just decision;
man."

hence

foreman

fair minded

(c) Thirty-seven is
Nine
.'. Nine

odd

number,

and and

twenty-eight are twenty-eight are angles of

a

thirty-seven,
odd numbers.

(d)
A .'. A

All the

triangleare

equal

to

two

right angles,
is is
an

angle
to

of
two

triangle, right angles.

equal

(6)
This
same

Figure of Speech. fallacy results from

have the
same as a

assuming

that

words the
same

of

the

root

meaning.
noun,

Since

root-

word
not

may

be used that

verb, adjective, etc., it does

forms
noun

follow

in these "Address" distinct

various
as a

it retains and "address"

mon comas a

meaning.
verb The
convey
two

meanings.
of this

following (a)
No This
.'. This

are

examples

fallacy:
be

designing person
architect architect is
a

should

trusted,

designer,
not

should

be

trusted.

is wise, investigation (b) Justifiable This

.'. This
man man

is

just investigator,

is wise.
not
so are

These because

fallacies
two terms

are

classed

as

those

of "four each

terms" in

closely resemble
not

other

form,

and

yet they
the middle

fallacies of
are

ambiguous

dle: mid-

since

terms

not

identical

in form.

334

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

IN THOUGHT.

Reasoning

7.

FALLACIES

The
assume

fallacies
as

in

thought

arise demands
to

through
further

tendency
proof.
to

to

true

that which
anxious

one Anywill which has it fit

rors ersumptions, as-

who make should been the

sure

is

more

be

right
taken

than

win

that

nothing
further

has

been

for

granted
no

receive

or investigation,

that

truth

given

presumptuous
under
may

twist

in order

to

make these undue

particularcase
in

discussion. attributed them

Because

thought
we

be

chiefly to
as

may

denominate

the

fallacies

of

assumption.

(i)
The
a

Accident.

fallacy of
truth

accident
an

occurs

when
case.

one

reasons

from
and
so

general

to

accidental
are

Doctrinaires

theoretic
easy
to

enthusiasts

partialto
formula

this
or

fallacy. remedy

It is

lay
to

down

general
it to her

and

then

attempt

apply
with

every

accidental
tea

circumstance.

Grandmother however
we

catnip
the

and

mustard of the

plaster,
dear old

may

cherish

memory

soul,

was

nevertheless maxims
way
of

guilty of proverbs committing

of

the
to

fallacy of

accident. is

Applying

and

particularinstances fallacy.

still another Examples

of

the

Fallacies is

Accident. the best he

(a) "Honesty

policy,"
the thus

thinks

the

physician
truth
to

as

reveals

cold, hard
shortens the

his patient and

life. patient's

(b) Spirituous liquor in

and therefore
an

excess

acts not
case.

as

poison,
to
suscitate re-

should
extreme

be

used

Fallacies

of Thought
in the market

335

(c)

"What
raw

is
meat

bought
is

is eaten; fore ; there-

bought

in the market

it is eaten."

(d) "Early

to

bed

and

early
and

to

rise makes

one

healthy,wealthy
this
for
ten

wise." and

I shall practice

years

by
and

that

time

hope

to

be

healthy,wealthy
the enviable

wise.

(e) John
of he

has

earned

(?) reputation
in

being
is

the "worst
to

boy
the

school," hence

going

be

worst

boy

in

"my

grade."

(f) Mary

is

an

inveterate
some one some

whisperer;
is
one

and

since I
I
am

know
sure

that that
a

whispering,
is
to

that

Mary.
be trusted.

(g) Being

convict, he is

not

(2)
As

Converse the title

Accident.

implies
case

this
to
a

is

the

fallacy of reasoning
truth.

from

an

accidental

general
a

Illustrations
hence

(a) "John
he

has is

been

bad

boy to-day; and

trouble

going

to

make

during

the

entire term."

(b)

"This is

food

is for

good

for

hens; and
fowls." have

hence

it

good

all domestic
men

(c)

"I know

of several

who
to

been

nomenal pheand

serviceable
none

mankind,

of

these

men

were

college trained;
is the attainment of

hence
not

I conclude essential
to

that the

collegeeducation

highest state

of

efficiency."

336

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

to

Reasoning
accident, it

Relative be
as

both

accident obtain

and

converse

may

said

that

they

because

all

general truths, such

etc., have their

maxims, definitions, rules, principles,

it is
made

exceptions; and
two

through

these

exceptions that the

fallacies Accident

are

possible.
Accident

and and

Converse

Distinguished from

Division The
one

Composition.
we

fallacy of accident,
from the
a

have
truth

learned,
to
an

occurs

when
case reasons

reasons

general

accidental when
one

whereas from both smaller

a

fallacyof
use

division of
a

obtains
to
a

collective the

term

distributive
a

use;
to

in
a

cases

procedure Moreover,
movement

is with

from

larger unit
accident unit

unit.

converse

and
to

composition, the

is from

the smaller is
a

the
of

larger.

Because the
two

of

this kinds

similaritythere
of

danger
matter

confusing
distinction
and

fallacies.

As

of

between division
:

the fallacies of accident, and the

tion composimay

attending comparative

resume

be of

value

(1)

Division while

is similar

in

movement

to

accident,
converse

composition

resembles

accident.

(2)

valuable division that

from

cue

for

remembering
move,

which
is to

way recall

and

accident

division the

in arithmetic
to

is the
in

procedure
and

larger unit
that
same

smaller,

therefore have the

and

division

logic

would

signification.
to

(3)

Division

composition pertain

mathe-

Fallacies

of Thought
accident
to

337

matical

wholes; while
accident relate of

and

verse con-

logicalwholes.
and

(4)

The

aggregates
may

division
or

composition easily;
accident
not

be the

counted accident

enumerated
converse are

while

and

aggregates
enumerated.

(or generals)

easily

(5)

Division

and

composition
accident

relate and

to

logical

terms,
accident

whereas relate to

converse

general truths.
use a a

(6)

Division

and

composition
sense

term

in

a or

collective

and
or

then

in

separate

distributive and
converse

sense,

vice versa;
use an a

accident in
a

accident then in

thought

general
or

and
versa.

accidental

sense,

vice

Irrelevant The

Conclusion

(Ignoratio Elenchi).
conclusion the results when the It is

fallacy of
does
not

irrelevant

argument
the
or

squarely meet
to

point at

issue.

fallacyof arguing

the wrong One

point either purposely

has
a

through ignorance.
may

in defense, who attention from

weak

case,

be

tempted

to
a

divert close

the
matter

point
in

in hand,

realizingthat
tend will
to

analysis of
In such

the

dispute will
the

his

undoing.
the

instances the

(1)

lawyer

abuse

plaintiff, (2)

demagogue
vantage adwill

will tell humorous of the refer

upon
to

stories, (3) the teacher

the

will take

ignorance of
and

pupil,(4)
magnate
wealth.
as

the scholar will These

authority
of

(5)

the

fall back forms

of

the power

positionand
as

"rhetorical

thinking" are

harmful

they

are

popular,

338
and
common as

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

of
a

Reasoning
for
of

furnish

one

the

chief

reasons

giving
"how
to

to

the

people
as

better
to

understanding
been

think"

well

"how
names

not

think."

Definite
of

have conclusion

given
may

to

the be

various summarized

forms
as

irrelevant
:

which

follows

Argumentum
This is the and

ad

populum.
to

fallacy of appealing
an

the

feelings, sions pasthan

to

prejudices of
and of
powers

audience
reason.

rather It is excite

their the the

good
most

sense common

of
group. may

probably

the

To

sympathy,
the

lawyer

for the defense

an

of speak feelingly verdict will

ing sufferwife

that and

unfavorable

bring

to

the

children

of the accused. ad hominem. of the

Argumentum
Here view "Mud of

the character

opponent
the

is defamed
court
or

with audience.
a

discreditinghim
in times

with of

throwing"
of this

political agitationis

good

example

fallacy.
ad

Argumentum
This of

ignorantiam.
from

fallacy comes
the

taking advantage
the

of

the that

noranc igthe
to

opponent;

fallacy assumes proved

if
one

originalsupposition has
prove

been of
no

is unable

the

contradictory
because

the
one

original.
is able
to

Illustration:
prove

Mars Mars

is inhabited is
not

that

inhabited. ad
baculum.

Argumentum
In

this all of

argumentation

is made
to

to

give

way

to

the

forces

personal opposition and

A

the power

of money.

Illustration:

committee political

seating

those

dele-

34-Q

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

All
men are was was

Reasoning

thinking animals,
a a

Socrates
.*. Socrates

man,

scholar.
because
a man

It

does

not

follow

that

is

thinking

animal

that he Cause. is the

have

will become

scholarly.

False This

fallacyof assuming
occurred
the

that

because

two

penings hapone

together several
This
very
to
common

times, the

is due

the
to

cause

of
of

other.

fallacyis

lack
to

discrimination, and

the

exaggerations
down,
the
as

dent inci-

fear and

superstition.Illustrations:
grow such
moon as

(a)
the in order
moon

Planting vegetables which

two

beet, during the last

to
no

days
So

of

waxing
we

have

larger yield.
over

far

know

the

has

influence

growing vegetables.
a

(b)
one

Thirteen

seated

at

table

is

an

indication This been is

that
one

of the number the

an

will die

during

the year. has

ever

of
upon

most

absurd

fallacies that

visited

intelligent people.
seen

It "Non

is

that

"False

Cause"

is

closely related

to

Sequitur."
Question {Double Question).
when
an

Complex
This

fallacy obtains
a

assumption

is put in the

form of

question.
:

Illustrations

(a)
the
to

wise

father

who

did not

want

to

tempt

beyond

yieldingpoint his three-year-oldson,

the scratches
do
on

asked, pointing

the

new

mahogany
this

piano, "Freddie,

did you

that last

night or

morning?"

Fallacies

of Thought
to

341

(b)
Dominie

What New

caused

you

desist

from
or

slandering your
the

neighbors;
X? A

Year's

resolutions

preaching

of

(c)

daily paper
in

anecdote the

"Charles
once

Bradlaugh,
a

noted with should

English free-thinker,
a

engaged
insisted

discussion

dissenting minister.
answer

He
a

that the minister

or

questions by question
should

simple

yes

no,

asserting that
manner." The

every

be
arose

replied to
and
you
a

in that

reverend
you

gentleman
allow
me

said, "Mr. question

on

Bradlaugh,
these
may
terms

will ?"

to

ask Mr.

"Certainly," said
you

Bradlaugh.
your

"Then,

ask, have

given

up

beating

wife?" the

Begging
This which The evident. the of is
a

Question (Petitio Principii).

conclusion

fallacyof derivinga
demand committed
to
as

from

notions

in themselves

proof.
when that
our

fallacyis

not

the assertion

is self-

It is easy
soon

claim
we see

opponent
is

is

begging
better
too

question as
us.

that he the

getting the

One
to

may

himself others with

beg

question by being
the
are

ready
the

charge

begging
which

question.
One

When
cepted, ac-

opponent
he

adopts premises
not
seems

commonly
commits
more

does he he

beg
to

the

question.

the factorily satis-

fallacywhen
than

prove the conclusion

This the he may of

reallydoes.
for

accomplish by
notions The
:

covertly taking
have
not

granted

truth

which

the stamp

of universal

approval.
forms

fallacyof

begging the question assumes

(1) sumptio
The
non

three

assumption probata).

of

an

unproved

premise

(as-

342

The

Logical

Fallacies

of

Deductive

Reasoning premise, or
It
must must not

In may in

this either demand

more

the

major

or

the minor

both borne for

substantial that he the has has

proof.

be

mind, however, proof after

the
of

disputant
once

ask

further
or

accepted
his demands

the
to

premises,
the

after

opponent

met

faction satis-

commonly

accepted authority.
the

Examples

of begging

question by assuming

proved un-

premises: (a)
All This
.'. This

citizens patriotic
man man

are

honest

at
a

heart,

charged charged

with

graft is graft is
at

citizen, patriotic
at

with

honest

heart.
not
an

"All

patrioticcitizens
truth A

are

honest

heart," is

accepted

and

thus

demands of

proof.
the
was

(b)
which

famous

sophism
that of

Greek

philosopher by
an

he

proved
is

motion
an

impossible, is

excellent "If

illustration

assumed
must

premise:
move

motion

a body possible,

either
where

in the

place
But
a

where
cannot

it

is, or
move

in the in the
move

place

it is not; it is ; and

body
course

place where

of

it

cannot

where

it is not,

Therefore, motion

is

impossible." Morgan requires

move

Referring change,
move." but
must

to
so

this, De
a

claims
tzvo

"Movement
order

is
to

and A

body
cannot

places in

body
be

in

the
to

place where place.

The

it is,

moved

from
this

place

major fallacy

premise being assumed,

of

sophism

illustrates the

begging
fc)
The

the

question.
subtle
the

most

form

of

begging

the

question is
the
one

an

enthymeme

where

suppressed premise is

Fallacies

of Thought
a

343

assumed;
other

e.

g.,

"You, being

teacher, should

not

do

as

people
No You
.'. You

do." and

Completed

arranged
should

the argument do
as

becomes

teacher
are a

other

people do,
do.

teacher,
not

should

do

as

other

people

Surely (2)
This

the

major premise
in
a

demands

proof.

Reasoning
form of is based

Circle the
a was

{Cir cuius in probando).

begging
upon

question
itself based
way:
a

occurs,

"When
an

conclusion

premise

which

in
upon

earlier
very

stage of the
conclusion." circle involves
a

argument
To

this

put

it in another the truth then of

Reasoning
the truth From
to

in

proving

conclusion

by using
of the

particularpremise,
conclusion the circle.

and

proving

particularpremise by using
to

the conclusion. conclusion

ise prem-

and

from

premise

completes

Examples
circle:

of begging

the

question by reasoning
conscience

in

(a)
my

It is wrong

because

my

pricks me,
lack of

and

conscience

pricks me
effeminate

because walk walks

it is wrong. shows that

a

(b)
because

"The
no

force;

forceful

man

way."
strates demonfrom its its

(c)
and its

Says Hamilton,
the

"Plato, in his Phoedo,

of the soul

immortality Republic, he

simplicity;

in the

demonstrates

simplicityfrom

immortality." (3)
Question Begging Epithets and
is the of
a

Appellations. point
at

This
means

fallacyof assuming

the

issue

by

carefullyselected epithet.

344

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

sometimes
assume

Reasoning
inexplicable
Politicians

Scientists

to

clarifyan
name.

phenomenon
are

by giving
of

it

technical

exceedingly
the records

free with

their

epithetsand

appellations,
that the

and

religious disputes
to

prove

theologian often Examples

and

resorted

this device.

of begging

the

question by using epithets heredity.

is
an

appellations: (a) (b)

We The
must

attribute

the disease
governor

to

candidate

for

animated

feather (c) (d) (e)

of It is is

duster.

They

call him

Blue

Charlie. the

It is the The the

seen

policy of

big stick.
makes
an

muck-raker

seldom

efficient

vant ser-

people.
that
a a

the

use

of

these device

epithets and
for the

tions appellaof

simply

rhetorical favorable
or

purpose

creating either
8.

unfavorable

impression.

OUTLINE.

The

Logical
A

Fallacies

of

Deductive

Reasoning.
of

(1) (2)

negative aspect
and

of

definition

logic.

Paralogism

sophism.
Mission of

Distinguished. (3)
A

Socrates.

division
More
or

of

the

deductive

fallacies.

less

faulty. Aristotle's

phraseology retained.

Division

given. explained.
material. Material fallacies in

(4)

General Formal
and

divisions
and in

language

thought.
inference.

(5)

Fallacies

of immediate

Opposition, obversion, conversion, contraversion.

Outline

345

(6)

Fallacies

in

language
middle
"

(also fallacies of equivocation). distinguished from

four
terms.

Ambiguous
Accent.

Amphibology. Composition
Division. "all"
a

"

pitfall.

Figure

of
in

speech.

(7)

Fallacies

thought

"

(also fallacies

of

assumption).

Accident. Converse Accident accident. and

converse

Made

possible by exceptions.
accident

distinguished from

composition and Comparative resume.

Irrelevant

division.

conclusion
ad ad ad ad ad

(ignoratio elenchi).
populum.
hominem.

Argumentum Argumentum

Argumentum
Argumentum Argumentum
Non False

ignorantiam.
baculum.

verecundiam.

sequitur
cause.

(false consequent).

question. Begging the question (petitioprincipii). Assumption of premise. Reasoning in a circle. Question begging epithets and appellations.

Complex

9.

SUMMARY.

(1)
thought

Logic
and

as as

a an

science
art

makes suggests

known

the

laws

and

forms
must

of be

conditions

which

fulfilled in order A discussion of

to

think the
a

rightly.
phase
of

second

of the

the

definition

would
as

be well

incomplete without
as

consideration
a

negative aspect
evident
to
reason

the

positive. Such
errors

viewpoint
avoided
in

makes
order

the

question
of

"What
An
answer

must to

be

correctly?" caption

this

question is given

under

the

Logical Fallacies.

346
(2)

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

logical fallacy is
of
correctness.

Reasoning
has the

any

error

in

reasoning which
speaker
for

appearance

A termed
purpose

fallacy which
a

deceives
whereas

the
a

writer

or

himself the
express

is

paralogism,
of

fallacy formed
a

deceiving another
teacher
of

is denominated Socrates who

sophism.

It
to

was

the pagan
upon

taught modern

thought
much
as

frown

all forms
olden of

sophism; these exist to-day

and definition,

they did

in the

time.
as

(3)
of

Because

disagreement
an

to

because

of

inabilityto prevent
the
In the such

overlapping
must

of

species, any

logical division

deductive
division

fallacies
of and is the form

be

faulty.
this treatise fallacies,
out

the

deductive
worked

retains far
to
as

phraseology
retention of time. Formal
words of

by

Aristotle,

so

consistent

with

the

changes

incident

the

advances

(4)
use

fallacies
as

occur

because

of

careless

and
are

improper
definite

of
easy

arbitrary signs. Formal

fallacies due
of

fallacies

and The

comprehension.
are

material and
to

to

certain

inconsistencies

in

thought
are more

imperfect
and

ways
more

subtle

thus

interpreting language. They difficult of comprehension than

thought
to

the

formal
are

fallacies. material
; the

There in

fallacies
are

in

and

material

fallacies the

language
to

former

due

looseness

in thinking and

latter

lack

of precision in expression.
of

(5)
from

Fallacies universals
to

opposition
from their

result

most

frequently
by

from

deriving
universals The

corresponding

particulars, and
negative

assuming
and

contradict

affirmative

universals

affirmative

particularsby negative particulars.

process of

common
one

fallacy in the
of is of

obversion
the

consists
error

in of

using

negative instead
a

two,

whereas

ordinary

conversion Fallacies obversion

two.
or

matter

distributingan
must

undistributed either combination

term.

of

contraversion
since

involve is
a

those
of

of

conversion

the process

the

(6)
more

Fallacies than
one

in language, because

they result
be also

from

permitting
fallacies

interpretation, may

denominated

of

equivocation.

348
because
easy
to

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

etc., have

Reasoning
exceptions.
the with It is of

rules, definitions, maxims,

confuse Division
and

division
and

and

composition
are

with

fallacies

accident. collective accident

sense.

composition
use

concerned whereas

the
of

distributive
the
use

of terms,
notions
notions
concern

the
and be

fallacies

involve The

of

in

general
may

accidental
counted
are
or

former while

represent
the latter

which
notions and

enumerated

which

logical
involve

rather "number

than

numerical.

Composition
of."

division

of," accident, "meaning (3)

The the

fallacy
argument
It is

of

irrelevant
does
not

conclusion
meet

results the
to

when
at

squarely

point
wrong may

issue.

the

fallacy of
or

arguing

the

point either purposely

accomplished audience, assuming
to

ignorantly.
to

This

be of

by
the

(1)
fact

appealing
character
is true

sympathy
opponent,
of

(2) defaming
that
the

of

(3)

because

inability

prove

contradictory,

(4)

gaining point by

force, (5) citing authority. (4)

"Non

sequitur"
which

is the
does
not

fallacy of
follow
new

clusion deriving a conthe premises. from

It

involves

introducing

material

in

the

clusion. con-

(5)

"False
two

cause"

is the

fallacy of assuming that because

occurred of

happenings
the
one

have
cause

together
The of

several

times is due

is the
to

the other.

fallacy
and

largely

the

exaggerations

fear

superstition.
(6)
The
an

fallacy of complex assumption

the in the

question consists
form of
a

in

putting

question.

(7)

Begging
conclusion

question
from notions

is the which

fallacy of

deriving
demand

in themselves

proof.
This

fallacy takes
of
an

the

three

forms

of

(1) the

sumption as-

unproved

premise, (2)
begging

reasoning

in

circle, (3)

question

epithets and

appellations.

Illustrative

Exercises

349

10.

ILLUSTRATIVE ARGUMENTS
IN

EXERCISES BOTH FORM

IN

THE

TESTING MEANING.

OF

AND

(la)

He

who

wilfully takes
shooter

the

life of

another

should

be

electrocuted,
This

sharp
he
know

has

wilfully taken

the

life

of

another,
Hence
In

should this

be

electrocuted.
to

form

we

argument

be

valid

since

it is

in

mood

of

the

first

figure. But
we are

as

the

conclusion

does

not

meet must

with be
a

our

approval,

forced
proves

to to

the
be

belief the

that

there
In

material

fallacy. Such
takes the

case.

the in
a

first instance, "Wilfully

life of

another"

is used

in the second instance personal, individual, selfish sense, whereas in a general, "servant-of-the-government" the expression is used is, therefore, invalid, the fallacy signification. The argument being ambiguous middle. the viewpoint of both form and (lb) From meaning test the

following day;
but therefore

"Events what

which

are

not

probable happen almost

are

every

happens
which
are

every not

day

very
are

probable
in the

events;

events

probable

very

probable."
support

(2a)

The

planets have of life,

is
a

those

attributes

needed

Mars

planet,
has those

Hence of

Mars

attributes needed

in the

support

life.

fA
This is valid in form

-JA

in the

first

figure. The

major

pre-

lA
mise

posits a

fact

which
in

has

not

been

therefore the

invalid

meaning, the
a

is proved; the argument fallacy being that of begging

question. (2b) "The end

the

of

thing is its perfection; death

in

is the end

of

life,therefore
Indicate

death

is the

fallacy
countries is
a

perfection of life." the foregoing, giving

Europe
in

reasons.

(3a)

The

of

abound

in

beggars,

France

country

Europe,

.". France

abounds

in beggars.

350

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

of while

Reasoning
premise
in the is used in
a

"The

countries
sense,

Europe"
the
same

in

the

major

collective
is used

expression
The

minor

premise

in in

distributive

sense.

argument

is, therefore,

invalid

meaning;
and

fallacy of division.
explain
in be the

(3b)
The Vermont's

State
states vote

material

believe will

the

fallacy in the following: income tax principle; hence

to

favorable

this. that
one

(4a)
when
he I

"On

general principles I believe

from
a

is better
reason

off

abstains
you

both of

tea

and

coffee; and
water
was

this is the

why
The been

offer

cup

hot the

water." hot offered

individual
in

to

whom of
a

might
an

have
ception ex-

great
to

need

mild

stimulant.
and

Here,

then, is

the

general

principle
both

the

fallacy committed
and
a

is

clearly that of accident. (4b)

a

"Books
of

are

source

of

instruction it is

amusement; both
of

table

logarithms
and with

is

book;

therefore

source

instruction

amusement."

Jevons.

explanations the fallacy in the above argument. "Twice have I times I started and both out (5) on Friday had tire trouble." Fallacy of false cause. do or vacation, in Palestine spend your (6) "Where you
Designate
Rome?"

Fallacy of complex
"Of
all the
men

question. department
on

(7)
most

of I

that

he

seemed

to

be

the
men

trustworthy, regard;
fact the that
but

and
now

pride myself
even

my

ability to judge
find him."
has
non

in this

the
cannot

police cannot
find
is that in

The with

the

police
The
not

him
of

nothing

to

do

argument.
must

fallacy

sequitur.

(8)
accent.

"You

whisper

my

classes."

Fallacy
in

of

(9)
(10) Fallacy

"I

am

Progressive
it is true

because

believe

progress."
text

Fallacy of figure of speech.

"I of know because I

found

it in

our

book."

irrelevant

conclusion.

11.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.

(1) (2)

Give

definition

negative of logic.
and

the

aspect

of

the

second

part

of

the

Define

illustrate

the

term

fallacy

as

it is used

in

logic.

Review

Questions
paralogism and
of

351

(3) (4) (5) opinion (6)

Distinguish between
Tell of

sophism.

the

mission
may

Socrates.

What
on a

reasons

be

given for
of

such

divergence
deduction?
of

of

proper
a

classification

the

fallacies of

Give

complete

outline, without
formal
of and

explanation,

the

deductive

fallacies.
between
two

(7) (8)
(9)

Distinguish
Explain
Illustrate the

material

fallacies.

kinds

material

fallacies. inference.
be

the

fallacies of immediate the fallacies in

(10)
fallacies

Why
of

should

language

likewise

termed

equivocation?
and

(11) (12) (13) (14)

division.

Explain
Illustrate

illustrate

ambiguous

middle.

the

fallacy of amphibology.
accent.

Explain Explain

by illustration the fallacy of

and

exemplify the fallacies of composition and figure speech.

fallacies in

(15) (16)
as

Illustrate Give
reasons

the

fallacy of
for

of

denominating
the

the

thought
and

fallacies also

of
and

assumption.
illustrate

(17)
converse

Define

fallacies

of

accident

accident.

(18)
division

Distinguish between
and

the of

fallacies of
accident.

composition

and

the

two

fallacies its

(19)
the

"Every

rule has

exception/' what

has

this to

do

with

fallacies of accident?

(20) (21)
may

Explain
the

and

illustrate

the

fallacy

of

irrelevant

conclusion. Name various

ways

in

which

irrelevant

conclusion

be

committed. Illustrate the

(22) (23) (24)

fallacy of

non

sequitur.
cause.

Explain the fallacy of

Give How

false

examples of the complex

may

question.
the

(25)
(26)

the

teacher

use

complex

question

to

advantage ?
Explain
the

fallacy of begging the question.

352

The

Logical Fallacies of Deductive

the three
forms of of

Reasoning

(27) (28) validity

Illustrate From of

begging the question.

and

the

viewpoint

form

meaning,

test

the

the "No
are

following:
soldiers
not

(1)

should

be

brought into the field

to

who
none

well

qualified
are

perform
should

their

part;

but

veterans
none

well but

qualified to perform
veterans

their part,
into

therefore,
the
field." the

be

brought

Whately. proverb
for

(2)

"For

is true,

That
come

heavy purses;' great gains come

(3)
"Whatever be
is taken
not
a as

light gains
but
on now

light gains make thick, whereas

Bacon.
of
sense

and

then."

is
a

given
for

the

evidence
of

may

fact; the existence

it is
not

God, therefore,
to

fact,

evident

sense."

St. Andrew.

1896. in the

(4)

"All is
one

the

trees

park

make

thick

shade; this
a

of

them,

therefore

this tree

makes

thick

shade."

Jevons.
we

(5)

"What what
we

eat

grew

in the

field;loaves
of bread

of

bread

are

eat; therefore

loaves

grew

in the

fields."

Jevons. hungry
therefore
eats

(6)

"WTho
most

is most

most;
eats

who least

eats eats

least is
most."

hungry;

who

Jevons. (7)
"Great
need talkers should

be

cropped,

for

they have

no

of
your

ears."

Franklin. for

(8)

"Love

enemies,

they tell

you

your

faults."

Franklin.

(9)

"All

the

works

of

Shakespeare play
of

cannot

be

read
one a

in

day;
the

therefore
of

the

Hamlet,
be

being
read in

of

works

Shakespeare,

cannot

day."

Jevons. (10) "Logic

a

proved by the schoolmen is it cultivated fruitless study; therefore logic as

as

it

was

cultivated

at

the

present

day

must

be

fruitless

study

likewise."

Jevons.

Questions for Original Thought

12. QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL

353

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)

Is

there

any

difference

in

content

between

error

and

fallacy?

Illustrate.

(2) (3)
doctor ?

In

what

May
Give Select of

indulge in sophisms? the sophism be used conscientiously by the country

ways

do

trusts

Explain.
in substance

(4) (5)
fallacies

Aristotle's which

classification could with

of

fallacies.
be

the

fallacies

justice

called

interpretation. See Creighton. (6) Explain in full the popular conception of equivocation. marks which the distinguish the following : (7) Indicate Ambiguous middle, fallacyof four terms, non sequitur,figure of
speech.

(8)
to

"Why
who
"

should

Jeremy

Bentham in
a

employ

person
tone

to

read

him

habitually read
a

monotonous

of

voice?"

Jevons (9)

Hill.

Originate
of
accent

sentence
as

of
many

about

ten

words

and

fallacy (10)
classed

secure

different

Show
as a

that

the

fallacy of
terms.

meanings figure of speech opinion,

could
are

through the possible. as

might
be

fallacy of

four

what fallacies, in (11) To especiallygiven? that the fallacy of (12) Show of ambiguous middle. one

your

teachers

accident

be

classed

as

(13)
their is the

"When

the

Puritan resolutions

settlers
"

in

New

England
the

passed
earth

three Lord's
to

famous and his

Resolved,

first, that

given it (14)
and
eats

thereof; secondly, that he hath his Saints. What Saints; thirdly,that we are
Fathers commit?"

the

fullness

fallacy did the

A
a

Puritan

Ryland.
arises at

Dutchman

afflicted with
of

pneumonia
The
in

midnight
gets

large quantity
his
sure

sauerkraut.

Dutchman
on

well, whereat
"Sauerkraut
of

physician writes
cure

his little book

The

remedies,
was

for pneumonia."
from

physician
this:

guilty
servant

what

fallacy?
De

Why?
quotes stork
off

(15)
who his
came

Morgan
a

Boccaccio
was

"A

was

roasting
to

for
a

his master

prevailed
eat.

upon

by
had

sweetheart
upon

cut

leg for her

master

to

When
know

the bird
what

the

table

the

desired

to

354

The

Logical Fallacies
the
than his other
one

of
man

Deductive

Reasoning
that
but

become had
to
next
on one

of

leg. The leg. The

dumb

answered
very angry,

storks

never

more

master, before

determined

strike

servant

he
saw

punished

day

into

the

fields where
do.

they
servant

leg, as
on

storks which
and the

The

him, took him storks, standing each turned triumphantly to

his master;
their

the latter
flew
away.
at

other
not

legs
to

shouted, and the birds put down Ah, sir, said the servant, you
yesterday; leg." What
if you

did
so

shout
would

stork

dinner

had

done

he

have from

shown

his other

fallacy does
irrelevant issue?"

this

quotation
(16)
be

Boccaccio
should
as

illustrate?

Why

begging the
fallacies of
of

question

and

clusion con-

classed
the

the
both

"forgotten
form and

(17) validity

From of

standpoint the following:

"Virtue is

meaning
and

test

the

(1)

the

child

of

knowledge
and
to

vice

of

ignorance; therefore
when moral

education, periodicalliterature,
the
a

traveling,ventilation, drainage
fully carried
and civil out,
serve

arts

of

life,

make

population

happy."
power

Hibben. has
the

(2)

"The

and jurisdiction
may

right of ecclesiastical administration,therefore parliament

of

impose

articles

faith

on

the

church

or

suppress

dioceses."

Hibben.
of work

(3)

"Seeing that abundance

is

sure

sign of

dustrial in-

prosperity,it
benefit work." St. Andrews
are

follows

that fire and

hurricane
create

industry, because
"

they undoubtedly
and

\
J j

1895.

(4)

"Riches
and
must

for

spending, by
the

spending
of

for

honor
expense

good
be

action; therefore, extraordinary

limited worth the

occasion."

Bacon.

(5)

"And with
will

let

man

beware and

how

he

keepeth
persons;

company

choleric
engage

quarrelsome
their
own

for

they
i

him

into
upon

quarrels."
puts
and all
come

Bacon,
grow

(6)

"He
to

that resteth great

gains certain,shall hardly

he that
upon
to

j
I i

riches;

and

adven-

tures,
It

doth

oftentimes

break
to

poverty,
with Bacon.

is

good,

therefore,
they
may

guard

adventures

certainties

that

uphold losses."

356
Illustration
Inductive The
:

Inductive

Reasoning

Syllogism.
crow, sparrow,

Deductive All birds

Syllogism.
have

robin,
have

wings,
sparrow,

etc.

wings,
crow, sparrow,

The

robin,
etc.
are

The
etc.

robin,
are

crow,

birds,
have

birds,
crow,
sparrow,

.*. All

birds

wings.

The
etc.

robin,
have
metals

wings.
are

Iron, silver,gold, elements, Iron, silver,gold, metals,

.*. All
metals
are

etc.

are

All

elements,
etc.
are

Iron, silver,gold,
etc.
are

metals, Iron, silver,gold,

etc.
are

elements.

elements.

Boston, New
etc.

York, Chicago,
fine

All

large harbors,
New
are

cities

have

fine

have

harbors,

Boston, New
etc.
are

York, Chicago, large cities,

cities have fine

Boston,
etc.

York, Chicago,
large cities, York, Chicago,
fine harbors.

.". All

large
harbors.

Boston, New
etc.

have

The
of

student

who

is

familiar sufficiently
at
once

with detect

the
the

canons

the deductive illicit minor

syllogism will
in

fallacy
minor
as

of

the used

foregoing
as

inductive

syllogisms;
the the The and

i. e., "birds"

when

the

predicate of

premise subject
same

of the first
of the

syllogism is undistributed, but

"birds" the is distributed.
terms

conclusion said
A

might

be

concerning
this At

"metals" will be

"large cities."
to

portion of
criticism. inductive
to

chapter
this is

devoted be
to

answering
that

this

point
not

it may

stated

the

syllogism
the
canons

supposed
the

conform

perfectly

of

deductive

syllogism.
2.

THE

INDUCTIVE to

HAZARD.

Referring

the

first inductive

syllogism

of

section

The

Inductive

Hazard

357

one,

it is assumed

that the and

robin,
that
we

crow are

and

sparrow

are

representativebirds, concluding
birds of
may
a

thus

in justified then
or

that have

if these

type birds
Of
course

have

wings,
more

all

must

wings.

this is

less

conjecture or
exist in
some

"a hazard"; since birds undiscovered

as corner

without of the

wings globe.
a

However,

inasmuch

the

concerns generalization

resentati rep-

quality,we
founded. unknown" The will be

deem

the
to

assumption fairlywell
take this

logicalright
discussed
more

"leap

into

the
at

later.

It will

profit us
When

this time to realize hazard" Schoolmen failed

to

fullyhow
of time thus
came

essential the "inductive the world.

to

is to of

the

progress

the

mediaeval and

refused

venture,

they
leads

progress,

the dark

days.

ever When-

man

has

ignored
world into truth

this God has

given
with

instinct which

to
to

discovery,the
((take
a

stood

still. This the

zvillingness

leap

the dark" which

hope of finding,
man's
to

in the shadow, and about hazard increase all that which

would

enhance

power
world the
new

his serviceableness, has is worth while. It

was

given
the

the

spiritof
a

pushed
gave

Columbus Newton

to the

discovery of
of
to

world; which
of the

the

secrets

the

motions
a duce re-

universe; which
of

enabled
and
terms.

Edison Morse In

harness
Bell
to

multitude

lurking forces;
to
men

and

distance with
a

its lowest those

ordinary
manifest

affairs
most

ordinary

succeed

best who

of discovery. Here, then, safe, steady,persistent spirit the "inductive school is hazard" in have this
we a

in

most

important phase
the
work
an

of

lifewhich,

day of making
On the other

easy,

being sadly neglected.

hand,

358 unregulated
great
ideals hazard"
waste

Inductive

Reasoning
venture

and of

insane
energy,

of spirit and and

may

result in
of low

in the

development
The

of

recklessness
must
as

inaccuracy.
must

"inductive

be the

cultivated; yet it
reader with

be

regulated

as

well, and,
concern

already realizes, logic needs

this

to

itself

mainly

regulativeaspect.
PROBLEM OF INDUCTION.

3.

THE

COMPLEXITY

OF

THE

The that of

problem
deduction
as
a

of induction because of
of

is much these
was

more reasons:

complex
First.

than duction Decussed dis-

process

reasoning
two

the

only

kind

by

the

logiciansfor
of

thousand

years.

Aristotle

is called the father

of deductive ancient of

logicand
time and deductive
no

this Intellectual

Giant, the greatest

time,
up the
to
so

possibly of

all

perfected the form

time
to

reasoning that,
scholar in the

the

of

Francis

Bacon,

possessed
field of ductive Deother

temerity

gainsay
For the

its supremacy centuries Bible. it

logicalreasoning. Logic
hand,
inductive
was

twenty

Aristotle's On the

Logicians'

reasoning, though

was

cussed briefly distillthe

tile versa-

by Aristotle,received
Francis world.
years

little attention the

Bacon This than

placed
makes

it upon

stage of the
two

ing think-

deduction

nearly

thousand
the

older

induction.

Time,

by eliminating
ways

personal equation and thinking, tends logicians are logic

the A
true to

exposing
and far

in various

fallacious

unify
so

universalize
as

truth.

Hence,
of
ductive deover

agreed
are

the but
are

fundamentals still
at

concerned,
and for
use

odds

conception
reason

of

inductive

logic.
in the field

second

this confused

status

The

Complexity of logic is
events

the Problem

of Induction being
more

359

of

inductive
to

the of

fact
every

of

its

closely
is
of method
common

related the the

the

day living.
used method
are so

Induction

natural school In

method
room;

of

childhood; the popular

the
most

and

of

life.

consequence

its ramifications

varied

and
to

multitudinous, that it will take

reduce the doctrine which
so

centuries
to

of

thinking

of

induction

that

uniformity

and

defmiteness

deduction. distinguishes

4.

THE

VARIOUS

CONCEPTIONS

OF

INDUCTION.

The idea

attending quotations will give

of the

the

student

fair

leading conceptions concerning induction:

is the
process

(1)
that what of the will be

"Induction is true

by

which of
at
a

we

conclude

of certain that

individuals what is true

class is true certain times

whole
true
as

class,or
under

similar

circumstances
a

at

all times."
; it

"Induction,

above the what

defined, is
known
seems

process

of inference

proceeds
process

from

to

the

unknown." is does
no

"Any
wider
not

in which

the

conclusion

than within of

the

premises

from

which

it is
"

drawn,

fall

the

meaning

of the term."

J.

S.

Mill, A

System

Logic, 1892, p. (2)

"An
upon

175. is
a or generalization an

induction

inference "The it must

act

based truth be
one

propositionsthat
may
we

state
or

observed

facts."

inferred which
"

be

general

but particular, in
a

cannot

perceive
Inductive
process of

single

of
14.

observation."

Ballentine's is the

Logic, 1896, p.
inference
or

(3)
we

"Induction
at

by

which
"

get

general truths
1900,

from
p.

facts particular

cases."

Ryland's Logic,

148.

360

Inductive

Reasoning
defined the the
ference legitimatein-

(4)

"Induction of the

may

be from

as

general
from

particular,or,
"

of

the

more

general
10,

the

less

general." Fowler,
has been

1905,

p.

Vol.

2.

(5)
to

"The this

term

induction the mind

to

used

by logicians
of its "In whole
"

denote

leap of

from in is

the limitations laws."

to

positive knowledge

belief
term

universal

pedagogy, however,
process

the
at

applied
or

the

of

arriving
of

general truths
p.

principles."

Salisbury's Theory
5.

Teaching,
DEDUCTION

156.
CONTIGUOUS
CESSES. PRO-

INDUCTION

AND

If there is

is

one

thing above
it is the

another the

which mind

modern and the

are

logic
tiguity con-

emphasizing

unity of

of thinking.
processes which
the and
name.

Induction

and

deduction all

tailed doveof

characterize
ceases,

thinking worthy
commences,

Where
versa.

induction It becomes
a

deduction function between

vice

the

of what

inductive has been

thinking to

establish and what

connection has
not

experienced

been

experienced.
must

fore, Therecontain note de-

the conclusion
more

of

an

induction

always
The

than facts

is

implied
have the

in the been

premises.

premises
the

which

observed; whereas
facts
not

clusion con-

denotes

observed have

of

the

premises plus
Inductive
to

analogous thought
a

facts which

been

observed. and

ventures

into the unknown, of connection Induction that between seeks

attempts
it and

lish estab-

bond known.

something
and

already
does
so

new

knowledge,
the dark"

by
to
as

taking
the

"leap

into

already

referred

"inductive

hazard."

Induction

and

Deduction

361
truth, it
sets

As
to

soon

as

the mind

reaches truth.

universal is

work

to to

clarifythis
other

Such

accomplished by
is

reference
to

facts which

the universal the

supposed
the ticular par-

include ; and

this

of application Induction

general to
the
new

is deduction. while deduction

discovers

edge knowl-

it. clarifies

6.

INDUCTION

AN

ASSUMPTION.

In been and

this treatment subdivided induction is the

as

induction into
a

as as

a a

general
mode
as a

process

has

induction

of

inference

method.

Induction

mode less

of

ference in-

process

of reasoning from

general of
vidual indiIn

premises
as a

to

more

general conclusion; procedure from

a

zvhereas

induction

method

is
to

the observation
a

facts
either
case more

realisation of
an

of

universal

truth.

the conclusion than

inductive in the

process

always
This is

implies

is contained
an

premises.
No

gives

to

the

conclusion from form

uncertainty.
except
receive the

induction

absolutely free
induction, which
section.

doubt will

so-called in

perfect
a

attention

later

7.

Universal All inductive universal law

can

Causation.

assumptions
causation
universal and

are

made

possible because
nature.

of

two

laws

"

uniformity of
may and be every
cause

The

of

causation
a

stated
cause

in this
has

wise

Nothing
"It has
is
a a

occur

without

its effect.

universal
"

truth, that

every

fact

which

has

beginning

cause."

Mill. Universal The Causation.

a

Simple The

Illustrations
sun

of

rises in the east.

boy throws

stone

through the

362
window. stuff earth.
are

Inductive

Reasoning
sweeps
out

democratic The
of

wave

the country.
into
space,

Prices

of
to

food
the

high.
Each
one

bullet,shot
these causation is

finally falls
cause.*

occurrences
a

has

That induction
the
stars
a

universal
may

fundamental The

condition
notes

of

all

be the

further

illustrated.

astronomer to

that

in
common seem

vicinity of
center;
to

Vega
inward

seem

be

moving
of

outward

from
the

whereas

in the

opposite part
a common

the

sky

stars

be

moving
he decides

toward
astronomer

center.
once

Having
for fact
a

observed
cause.

this phenomenon,
that

the the

at

looks
to

Finally
the
sun,

phenomenon
is

is due

the

that

with

his

attending family,
may

moving
:

towards

Vega.
The from the
a

Arranged,
stars
common seem

the

argument
of

take
seem

this form
to

in

the

vicinity
be

Vega
in

be

moving
of

outward the
tain moun-

center,
to
at

whereas

the

opposite part

sky

stars

moving
foot
seem a

inward, When
to
common move

the
at

trees

the

descending a outward from, and

When

those
on

the top the

seem

inward
ties in
to
move

toward,
front
seem

center,
outward this is
we

riding
those
that
a

the the
sun

train
rear

to

move

while conclude
toward

in

inward.

From

the

with

the
near

Earth

and

other
Were
to

planets
it the
not stars

moving
the
a

spot

in the the

sky
been

Vega.
induction.

for had

assumption
cause

that
could

phenomenon
no

relative

there

have ocratic "demas

a

Moreover,
of these that of for

any

investigation concerning stuffs," etc.,

have is
not
causes.

waves,"

"prices

food

must

assume

starting point that

It

phenomena
the the
the mind
occurrences

would

appear

satisfied
of the

with but Due

to

mere

passive observation
to to
a

world

clined is in-

reach

out

"whys
it is

and

wherefores."
is often

partly
as an

this

reason,

'"universal that in

causation"
a

referred
cannot

priori law; meaning

must

law

which

be

proved,

but
8.

be Law

assumed

all

thinking.
of

The Law

of
:

the

Uniformity
same

Nature.
are

stated

The

antecedents "That
need

invariably followed
of
nature

by
is

the

same

consequents.
cause,

the

course

is uniform

This
is.

however,
cause,

seldom the
cause

"This

philosophically

conditions,
of
or

the

positive and of food price

so

it in fact a single antecedent, of is the total sum speaking, Mill. The taken together." negative, tions, condistuff being high, involves many not be
"

antecedents,
as

interwoven

that concerned.

it

is

impossible

to

designate

any

one

being

the

chief

factor

364
cation, "causation"
inductive

Inductive

Reasoning
of nature"

and

"uniformity
the others
are

conditioning
with deductive

thinking, while "uniformity

as an

concerned

thinking.
Because it is of nature"
expresses
as

facts

of with

experience,
the law of mental

regarded
which
or

empirical law, supposed

a

contrasted
upon

causation,

is
an

to

be

based

an

innate

conception
9.

is

priori law.
JUSTIFIED. to
ever

INDUCTIVE

ASSUMPTION

The

function

of

induction
of
man

seems

be

to

universalize

particulars. The

mind

has
the

been

engaged

in

establishingconnections
of

among

concrete

experiences
vidual indi-

daily life.

This

abilityof
been
one

his to
of

generalize his
the chief of

experiences has

agencies in
the has she

elevating him
world."
it for

to

the

position of

"King

animal taken tells

under
can

In

this

dispositionto generalize man

nature

granted

that

is honest;

that

what

him

under

given conditions, she

conditions. To

will tell him

again
man

identical

put

it in

logicalterms
nature's then,

depend
upon
most

upon

the

of invariability
nature. not

or activities,

the

uniformity of
laws

Here,

is

one

of the
of all

fundamental

only
a

of

induction

but
as

activity. But

this law
cause

implies
is

second

quite

mental. fundasame

If every

invariablyfollowed
it is
every

by the

effect that
some

under

like
cause

conditions, then
has
an

thereby implied
event

every
cause.

affect and

is due

to

This,
man

too,

is invariable.

In

consequence
nature

of is not

these

facts
honest
every my

is

in thinking that justified

only
her
arouses

and

therefore
means

"she

gives me
and

confidence,but
therefore
she

activity

something

curiosity."''Uniformity of
"universal

nature''

engenders

confidence,

causation"

inspires the spiritof dis-

Inductive

Assumption
two

Justified
man

365 willing to
is
man

covery
venture

and into
to

with the

these

weapons

is

jungle
the

of

the

unknown. hazard?" and

he

Why

eager

undertake the laws

"inductive

Because,

through of

of

universal

causation and

uniformity dence given confi-

nature,

his

is aroused, curiosity activities.

is

in nature's

10.

THREE

FORMS

OF

INDUCTIVE

RESEARCH.

Induction

is

matter

of

universalizingless
may
assume

universal
one

experiences.
three

In this the process

:

any

of

forms, namely

(1 )

Induction

by simple
:

tion; enumera-

{inductio per enumerationem)

(2)

Induction

by

analogy; (3)
Three

Induction

by analysis.

Forms

Illustrated: enumeration.
a

(1)
"All be

Simple

Having
birds

observed have

few

instances The

the

is, generalization
of this may and
now

wings."

certitude
more

strengthened by observing exception that Analogy.

Mars each has

birds

finding

without

wings.

(2)

By noting on
canals, the
inhabited

geometric markings
Other of land

which that

resemble Mars in atmospheric is

generalization is vouchsafed
human

by
this

beings.

similarities
and

conditions, existence
to

water,

etc., tend

make

more generalization

plausible.
certain

(3)
found of
1

Analysis.
taken from and
a

By analyzing water
to

spring, it

is

contain

hydrogen
a

oxygen

in the

proportion

to 8 ; in consequence

to generalization

this effect is
sources

posited. Analyses of specimens from

other

yield

366
similar results and

Inductive

Reasoning
is given greater generalization

thus

the

certitude. As
a

usual

thing

the

particularform
on on

which of the

the

tion inducunder the have

or

assumes

depends
also

the

nature

topic

investigation and investigator. The wings

could

the

mental

make-up
that of

of

general
be of that

statement

all birds

hardly
is
a

derived
a

by

means

analogy
of many

but analysis, instances.

matter

casual

observation

Moreover,
but
not

mind
to note

given

to

accurate
or

servatio obto

inclined would

resemblances

carry

on

experiments,
type.
On the

naturally

follow

the

first

inductive would of be

other

hand, simple enumeration

like in the
cases

impossible
and

in

questions

habitability requiring

Mars,

would

yield no

results like

definite It is

scientific

experimentation
note

electrolysis.
themselves Enumeration.
to

worthy
modes

of of

that

some

topicslend
To wit
:

all three Without

procedure.

(1 )
is

being taught

the rule the child

a

given by
a

list of decimal

examples involving the dividing of

and

decimal

is asked those what

to

solve the

them.

By comparing
somewhat
correct

his

answers

with

in

book, he
to

covers accidentally disrule for

seems

be the

pointing off
time
paring com-

in the

quotient. By following this

answers

rule and

each

he

establishes

the truth. the

(2) Analogy.
resort to

If the

.24

-j-

.6 is the

first

example,
of

child may
common

weil

known

process

dividing a
60
=

fraction
4

by

common

fraction close
should

(24
:

24
"

\
,

"

1 then,
/
that

because decimal

100

roo

60
may

10 reason

of

their

resemblance, he

fractions

yield

the

same

result.

(3)

Analysis.

Inductive

Assumption
that since

Justified
division
of

367
decimals rule is for

Here the

the child inverse off of

reasons

multiplicationof decimals,
be
out

the

pointing
rule.

might

the

inverse

of

the his

multiplication
answer

By trying this
he becomes

and

proving
of the

in each of his

example,

convinced

correctness

reasoning.

11.

INDUCTION

BY

SIMPLE

ENUMERATION.

As

its

name

implies

this

type

of

inductive
may

research

consists in the

observing many

instances under than

which

exemplify
The tude certi-

particular uniformity
is

consideration.
the qualitative,
on

process

quantitativerather

of the collected detailed

not

generalization depending
than
on

the

mass

of facts
or

rather

any

strikingresemblance
is to after of

any

analysis.
The

The

aim

observe, accurately if
until all doubt
may

instance scientifically,
outcome

instance such

is removed. three This fold.

observation
may

be

(1)
the

The

enumeration

be

complete.
which
may

gives

so-called later.

"perfect (2)
The

induction"

will be

receive

attention and

enumeration

complet inthis
are

without

exceptions; generalizing experience gives (3)

The

in

way

from
c"

uncontradicted

what

termed be

empiricaY'
with

truths.

enumeration that

may

incomplete

exceptions. give
no

It is obvious valid of

this

type of induction
the result uniformities
ce

could

but generalization;
a

may

be put in the and the

form

ratio between
a

the is
an a

exceptions.
chances' and

Such the

procedure

mere

calculation

of

result

simply

expressed probability.

368
The Three

Inductive

Reasoning
Enumeration trated Illus-

Kinds
.

of

Simple

The

subject to

receive

is investigation

school

nation. exami-

(1)
and

Complete
this

enumeration. leads
to

Every

paper

is

read the

marked;

the

"All generalization,

class have

passed."
enumeration
are

(2)

Incomplete

with and marked

no

exceptions.
in which
of
no

Representative papers
failures
are

read

found.

Generalization, "Probably all

the

class have

passed."
enumeration
are

(3)

Incomplete
papers

with marked

exceptions.
in which
papers of

resentat Repthere

read of the

and

are

20

failures

out

hundred

examined. class have

Generalization, "Probably about

80%

the

passed." Briefly, simple

a

enumeration
a

may

take

the

form

of
a

(1)
mere

perfect induction, (2) of

chances. second
the

probable induction, (3)

first necessitates uncontradicted

calculation

The

completed
and

experience,

experience

the third contradicted

experience.

12.

INDUCTION

BY

ANALOGY.

Induction

by analogy
each

assumes

that

if

two

{or more) of
the

things resemble
to
one

other

in certain

respects, they belong

the may

same

type, and, therefore,any

be

fact

known

affirmed of

the

other.

The As

Type. the definition

implies, analogy

involves

an

extensive

Induction

by Analogy
better

369 acquainted
A

use

of types; let us, them

one as

therefore,become
in which How with
a

with

instruments
a

analogical inductions.
the essential and
natural
an

type is

of

group

embodies
easy

acteristic char-

of that group. dismiss which

use a

it is to

complex topic
be

the

citing of
common

example
is the

may

regarded
that
common or a

as

type; how
room

of

examples

in the school

On

second

thought
induction

it becomes
or

apparent
most

analogicalinduction
of of that all forms inference.

by example
of

type is the
as a

either

method

mode

Analogy by
more

example
are

{or type)
same

assumes

if

two

or

things
in every

of

the

type, they resemble

each

other

essential property. Illustrations of

analogical inductions

by example

or

type.

(1)

Mathematics.

Example:

a a

+ + l2+ +

b b ab ab ab

+ +
b2 of the the
sum

a2

Inductive

Inference:
to

The the

square

of

two

quantitiesis equal
the first

square

of

first, plus twice

of the second.

by

the

second, plus the

square

(2)
This
ears,

Nature.
corn

sent

me

as

sample produced heavy,

under like and

full I

and
corn

many

of

them; hence

inference),if (inductive
of them.

plant
receive

like this

sample

conditions, I will

in return

heavy,

full ears,

many

370

Inductive

Reasoning

(3)
Cities
a

Geography.
like New

York,
element

located than

on

the

coast,

possess

larger foreign

the

inland

cities

like

Philadelphia. (4)
A
noun

Grammar. is the
name

of and

anything,
"house"

as

the

examples,

"George Washington"
In

would
one or

indicate.
two

deriving a generalizationfrom prime

essential is
to

examples
are

the

select

types
used

which
is
a

truly

representative. Often
and in consequence characteristics
a

the

example
not

specialtype
the
tial essen-

does

exemplify
To

all of the
an

of the group.
a

teach

nature

of
way
can

parallelogram by using
commit this
error

rectangleonly, is
may affirm

easy

to

; or

one

that the

class

easily cover
on

the

work, when

the

judgment

is based of

tirely en-

knowledge

concerning

the

brightestone

the

grade.

Type
and
a

work
very

when

used judicially

is
of

time positive

saver

present
use

help

in times
and

perplexity.

Let

the

skillful

teacher

types

examples

extensively yet

cautiously.
The As

Mark

of

Similarity.
to

opposed

analogy by type there is

one or more

second
or

form

namely, analogy by
This
When
two

similar

marks

ties. quali:

form

is best

described
each other

by
in in
a

the

definition
or

things resemble
resemble

few marks
marks

qualitiesthey qualities.

each

other

other

or

372

Inductive

Reasoning

The

Value

of

Analogy. rich
in

Analogy
process

being
the

its

suggestions

is the

favored
reasoned

of

scientist and
he

inventor.

Newton
of

by analogy when
what
was

tentativelyaffirmed
of the he

the

moon ing reason-

he

knew positively

apple.

Franklin's the

analogicalwhen
spark and
often leads

discovered

identityof

the

electric
so

lightning. Because
to
error

this form

of induction
a

and

at

best involves

degree

of

probabilityfar
are

below
to
a

induction its

some by analysis,

cians logi-

inclined deem this

ignore
mistake

generalizations altogether.
of these
reasons:

Others First.

because
to
a

Analogy

is serviceable which
may
or

high degree
either It has

in suggesting for the

hypotheses
purpose

be advanced verification. is the

common

of

explanation
that

already

been used

indicated

analogy
and

instrument The
of

by
of

the inventor

discoverer.
at

Second. the basis

ciple prin-

lies analogy, in reality, in

tion; classificato

because

this, things
Third.

are

grouped

according
A

their resemblances. valuable which

new

Analogical

induction

affords mind

and training in originality

initiative.

easilyand naturallydiscerns
ideas."

analogies is

"fertile in

Requirements
It has been

of

True

Analogy.

remarked

that the certitude

of

an

induction of

by simple

enumeration instances.

depends
In

upon

the
the

number
case

contradicted un-

analogy
the number.
are

is different the

as

the

process

emphasizes
rather
a

weight

of In

points

of

resemblance

than

the

substance

the

requirements of

logical analogy

three.

Induction

by Analogy
must

373

First. The and Mars

not

pointsof

resemblance For

be representative

exceptional.

example:
it has
two

The
moons

argument
is of

that little

is inhabited
we

because
no

worth, since
to

have

proof

that moonshine is not

is essential

life; this point of resemblance

the other has
as

representative.
is the carries fact
some

On

hand, if the basis of argument

an

that Mars

atmosphere,
to

the conclusion
to

weight;
Second. the
must

air

seems

be essential

life.
must

The

points of

resemblance

outweigh
instances.

points of difference. That always

it is be
a

is,the ratio of probabilitythe

in

favor

of of

resembling
but of

Since

not

matter

numbers

weight,

numerical Resemblances:

proportion

like
=

this would
10:

he

misleading:
that

Differences

6.

It is obvious the ten

the six differences The

to

might
safer
to

more

than if it
were

outweigh

semblances. re-

way,

would possible,
or

be

attach and

value then

each

point
the

of resemblance in
terms

ence, differof the

express

proportion

sums

of these Third.

values.
must

There

be the the

no

difference which
we

is absolutely wish has

prove
to
no

incompatible with
prove.
For

which affirmation fact

any

example,
renders the

that

the

moon

atmosphere

nugatory

attempt

to

the

of habitability

moon.

13.

INDUCTION

BY

ANALYSIS.

This,
the
most

the

third

form

of

inductive

research, is by far
because it depends

important. Simple enumeration,

the number
we

upon

of observed have

instances, consumes
noted how
easy

much

time; while

already

it is

374

Inductive

Reasoning
At the best, the conclusion

for

analogy

to

lead

to

error.

of these if

methods
we are

must

be

subjected to analyticinvestigation, validity.

forms is
a

seeking

universal

Induction it
secures saver.

by

analysis is superior to
a

the other

because

and higher degree of probability

positivetime

Defined. of

We
a

have

learned into

that

analysis is
parts.

the process We thus

separating

whole

its related

define induction
whole

by analysisas
a

the process

of separating a

into its parts with relative

to

view and

tion of deriving a generalisacausal connection

the

nature

of

these

parts.
Illustrations
:

(i ) wings,"
of the
are

Concerning
it becomes and

the

that generalization observe

"all birds have

possibleto
advance the

in detail the nature these

wings

hypothesis that
This that

wings

designed
be

for aerial

navigation.

hypothesis may
the entire
ture struc-

then

strengthened by observing
is adapted
to

of the bird

flying. analyze
such the

(2)
water,

If and

it

were

possible to

atmosphere,
a

soil of Mars, and similar

to

should

analysisreveal

composition
well
over

that of the earth, it would of

of

illustrate

not

only the

method

analysisbut

also its superiority

the other

methods

investigation.
a

(3)
that the

The

physician, in diagnosing
resemble

"case," observes
but
a

symptoms
the

those

of

typhoid;
takes

to

be

positive of
test.

truth

of

his

diagnosis,he
is induction

blood

Noting

the
test

resemblances involves

by analogy;

but the blood Induction

induction

by analysis.

by analysisconcerns

hypothesis,observation,

Induction

by Analogy

375

and These which with

experiment, including Mill's experimental topics will

follow.
a

methods.

receive

due

attention

in the

chapters

It will be sufficient to close this discussion of

brief treatment

perfect induction,and traduction.

14.

PERFECT

INDUCTION.

As

has

been

indicated is
one

under

simple enumeration,
the

perfect induction
all the instances Illustrations
:

in which

premises

enumerate

denoted

by
E

the conclusion.

(1)

A, B, C, D, and

are

all

Reactionaries,
are

(All)

The

members

of the committee

A, B,

C, D, and
.'.

E,
members of the committee
are

(All)

The

actionar Re-

(2)

John, James, Albert, eyesight, John, James, boys

.'. All the

and

Peter

all have

perfect

Albert, and

Peter

are

all rthe

of my

family,
of my

boys

family

have

perfect eyesight.
groups
are

(3)

The

first, second, and

third

up

to

grade,
The

first, second, and

in my

third groups
room,

include

all of

the children Hence all the

children

in

my

room

are

up

to

grade.
Because the
"

conclusion

of what is

perfect
is found

induction in the

gives
From

nothing
some

new

nothing

but

premises,

claim

that the process

valueless. practically

376
the

Inductive

Reasoning
this

viewpoint
to

of the discoverer

positionis

well taken;

yet

universalize in compact,

observations particular usable time

a

edge puts the knowlone

form, and
to

saves

the trouble of each

ticular. par-

of

returning each
Thus
as

the

consideration leads
saver.

process

which
a

to

verified In the

versal, uni-

perfect induction place it was

to

is used

time

second

the method
to
a were

by
or

Socrates

when

he desired truth. ductive "inone

lead

up

definition

some a

other
use

general
of the

The

Sophists
hazard"

given they
were

to

careless
to

prone

generalize from
to

or

two

or particulars,

what

is worse,
to

establish

eralizatio gen-

and
to

then
a

attempt

fit the

particularinstances
the Great

it. This

led to

which superficiality The fact that

to

Pagan
was

Educator the method

of

abhorred. used

perfect induction
the for of

by

Socrates sufficient

counteract

teachings
its
use

the

Sophists, is

vindication

in

discouraging the
in

indefensible

assumptions

to-day, and
on

warrantable inspiring

based generalizations

accurate

observation.
In the

school

room

with

classes

addicted
a

to

careless,

inaccurate

work,

to

accept nothing but

perfectlyinduced
a

when generalziation, lesson. For

this is feasible,is the teacher the

may

most not

valuable

example,

accept
cities of

the the

generalizationthat
U.
have

all of

"first class"

S.

are

located

on

navigable waterways,
conditions On the other

until the
of every

pupils city
be

investigatedthe waterway
to

belonging
individual
The

the class. of
do

hand, there
need

may

cases can

"cocksureness" little for the

which

attention.

teacher

"know-it-all This
may

youngster"
be
accom-

until he

pricks the

bubble

of conceit.

Perfect plished by allowing

which
at
seems means

Induction

377

the

youth

to

draw

generalization,
of truth then arrived without will show what

to

meet

all the

requirements
instance This

by

of

an

imperfect induction; give

be
an

warning
the Socrates Consider In and
to

let the teacher

which

generalization to
termed the the

false.

involves To

"torpedo's
number" the

shock."

illustrate:

"prime
add
4,

formula class
to

given by Jevons.
2

deriving this, direct

to

add

to

its square, relative work

as

this

sum

41.

Give
10.

similar

directions the

numbers

3,

and the

Indicating

directed, would

give
2+
22

following:
4i= 4i= 4i= 4i=

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

A

47

3+ 4+
7 +

32 +
42 + 72 +

53
61

97

IO+I02
two

+ 4I=rl5I
will make

question or
are

apparent
and X2 then

the the

fact that all

the results
may

prime numbers,
;

generalization

be drawn without
to

namely,

+
the

A1

"

prime

number. that you

=

Now desire This

41

warning,

but under

assumption

test

deductivelythe general formula,

402 +

let X

40.

gives (40 +

41) 1681, which

a

is the square

of

and

is,therefore,not

prime

number.

15.

TRADUCTION.

It may induction"
; viz.

have is not
:

been

noted

by
at

the all

student

that
to

"perfect
tion definiless

induction

according
is

the from

Inductive
to
a

reasoning
more

reasoning

general premises
to

general conclusion. previous

section

Referring
it is appar-

the first illustration of the

378
ent

Inductive

Reasoning
no

that

the

conclusion the

is

broader is
a

than

the

premises.
or a

Ostensibly,
Moreover
the

conclusion

mere

summary, in

generalization of
definition
must

the

facts

mentioned
does
not

the

premises.
to

perfect induction
of

readily conform
in this the the less.
ment move-

deductive the
more

reasoning,as general to
that

be
to

from the

We

are

thus form the

forced of
a

conclusion

perfect induction
is knov/n
from

is under

third

type of reasoning which

of

cognomen

traduction.

This
to

is

the

Latin

trans,

and

ducere

meaning
is

lead
to

across. a

Definition: which

Traductive is neither Aside other First.

reasoning
less from

reasoning
more

conclusion the

general nor
the
case

general than perfect

premises.
there
are

of

induction

types

which

well

illustrate traduction.

These

are:

Reasoning

from

particular {or individuals)

to

particular(or individuals).
Illustration
:

Highland Highland
New
.'. The

Street Street

is the is
not

longest street
so

in

Jamaica,
of

long

as

Broadway

York

City,
of

longest street
of New

Jamaica
York
to

is

not

so

long

as

Broadway
Second.
Illustration All

City. general.

Reasoning from general

:

growing things die, livingthings are livingthings die.

that all of the "A's"
or

All
.'. All

growing things,

It may
are

be observed

propositionsin
"E's";
hence

tion traducall
the

co-extensive

380
Conditions

Inductive

Reasoning

all induction.

Empirical. (9)
(10)
Inductive
Three

Assumptions
Forms
of

Justified.
Research.

Inductive

(1)

Enumeration

(2) Analogy
form

(3) Analysis.

Illustrated. Conditions determine followed.

(11)

Induction Defined Outcome

by
and

Simple

Enumeration.

illustrated.
"

threefold

these

illustrated.

(12)

Induction Two

by Analogy. by type
of

conceptions.
or

Analogy
Error

example.

Illustrations

ative. represent-

analogy.
of

Suggestiveness
Value
of

analogy. analogy.
Three.

analogy.
of
a

Requirements (13)
Induction

true

by Analysis.
and

Importance.
Defined illustrated.

(14)

Perfect Defined Its

use.

Induction.
and

illustrated.

Method

of

Socrates.

(15)

Traduction. Defined
Three and

illustrated.

methods

compared.

17.

SUMMARY.

(1)
two

Reasoning

is the

process

antecedent

judgments.
process

The

deriving syllogism is a
of
from less

judgment
common

from
of

form

expressing the
Inductive
a more

of is

reasoning.

reasoning

reasoning

general premises

to

general conclusion. Deductive reasoning is reasoning

a

from

more

general premises
to

to

less

general conclusion. syllogism

is
not

The
canons

inductive
of
the

supposed

conform

to

the

deductive

syllogism.

Summary
(2) Positing in the conclusion is known premises involves what
The inductive hazard which
be
more as

381
than is indicated hazard."
for since

in the

the

"inductive

is

another

expression
room

the it

spiritof discovery, should

has
been
one

fostered forces
in

in the school human

of

the

great be
low

progress;

but

this

venturesome

spirit must
or

regulated by

rules, principles,and
and

systematic procedure,
will result.

ideals of recklessness

inaccuracy
that of

(3)
and

The

problem of induction
because
more

is is
to
a

more

complex
activities of
nature

than
new

deduction;
also is

the

former

comparatively
the

subject, induction, its being

from

closely related
to

life. of
of

(4)
though
the

The

opinion relative
may

the
up

exact

varied,
of

be

summed
to

in the

thought

process

which

leads

general truths, derived contiguous

process

the

observation

individual and the

facts.
are

(5)
go to

Induction make
up ceases,
new

deduction
more

processes

which

general

of

thinking. Where
induction

induction discovers

deduction

naturally

commences;

knowledge, deduction
as as

clarifies it.
may

(6)
of

Induction
or

a
a

general
method.

process

be

treated

as

mode

inference

In

either
in the

case

the

conclusion

comprehends
Since what
no

more

than

is contained

imperfect
are

induction
we

ground

premises. absolutely free from justified in making any

is follows
: a

doubt,

on

inductive

assumptions ?

The

answer

(7 and
cause

has
of

without occur "Nothing can is the law of universal its effect,"

8)

cause

and

every

causation; while
antecedents These
are

the versally unilaws all

law

the uniformity followed

of nature
same

is "the

same

by the

consequents."
in
a

two

justify inductive thinking.. (9)

he
is

assumptions, and,
of
nature

sense,

condition

Uniformity
causation

gives
the

man

confidence, while
these
two

versal uni-

arouses

his curiosity. With into of unknown."

weapons

willing to
As the
assumes

"march
process

(10)
induction

universalizing individual
forms
of

experiences,

the

three form

analogy and
but is

analysis. The

adopted exigency
modes.

simple enumeration, is not always elective

of

controlled

largely by
to

the

the

case.

Some

topics lend themselves

all three

382
(11)
many

Inductive

Reasoning
enumeration the consists under

Induction

by

simple

in

observing
tion. considera-

instances

which

exemplify
but

uniformity
so

Complete inference;
to

enumeration

gives the incomplete

of
assumes

called

tive perfect inducleads

tion enumera-

incomplete
while

uncontradiced
and

enumeration

empirical truths;
involves
a mere

contradictive

calculation

chances. that respects, known of if

two

(12)

Induction
each

by analogy
other

(or more)
to

things resemble
same

in certain
any

they belong
the
one,

the
be

type,
of

and, therefore,
the
common

fact

may

affirmed
A
most

other.
form of

analogy
that
each if

is

example.
of

In

this it is assumed

reasoning by type two or more things

essential
A second

or are

the

same

type, they resemble

must

in every

property. form of form

The

type

be

truly representative.
of resemblance.

analogy is reasoning by marks

often leads
to

This

second

egregious

error.

Analogy
in A

is

especially valuable

in

suggesting
initiative.

hypotheses

and

giving training in originality and

true

analogy
;

demands

that

the
the

points of points of

resemblance

be

representative
that
no

that

they outweigh
be

difference, and

disagreement
Induction with
and

incompatible.
process
a

(13)
into
to

by analysis is the
a

of

dividing

whole

its parts
nature

view

of

deriving
of of

generalization relative
parts.
tion observa-

the

causal

connection
use

these

Induction
and

by analysis makes

the

hypothesis, of

experiment,
A

including Mill's five methods.

is
one

(14)

perfect induction
the
instances
care

in which

the

premises
It is

merate enu-

all of in

denoted

by the conclusion.
in

viceable ser-

inspiring

and

accuracy

the

establishment

of

generalizations.

(15)
which

Traduction
is neither less

is the

process
nor more

of

reasoning

to

conclusion

general

general than

the

premises.

Traduction
from of

includes
to

general

reasoning general. Perfect

the

from

particular to particular or induction is in reality a form

inference, is the
reverse

traduction.

Induction, though
most

most

useful

form

of

untrustworthy;

whereas

traduction

is just the

of

this.

Review

Questions

383

18.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS.

(1) (2)
and

Define

and

illustrate

reasoning.
and

Distinguish by definition
deductive

illustration between

tive induc-

reasoning.
"inductive hazard" and show its
use

(3)

Explain

the

to

man.
was

centuries Aristotle's Deductive (4) ''For twenty the logician'sbible." Explain this.

Logic

(5)
processes.

Show

that

induction

and

deduction

are

contiguous
inference

(6)
and

Distinguish between
as a

induction

as

mode

of

induction

method.

(7)

State

and

explain

the

law

of

universal

causation.

Illustrate

fully.
evident
and

(8)
(9)
of

Make State

that

cause

may

involve

many

antecedents. of

explain by illustration
illustration the

the

law

uniformity
"fact of

nature.

(10)
causation"

Verify

by

notion

that

the

conditions
of

all induction.
the
two

(11) Which "uniformity"? (12) (13)

man

laws

is

empirical, "causation"

or

Why?
that should induction the law is
of
a

ShoW

form

of

thinking.
nature

Why
nature

uniformity of

convince

that

is honest? that the law

Illustrate. of universal causation stirs the

(14)
of

Show

spirit

discovery.

(15) (16)
determine

Name

and

illustrate the the form

three

forms

of

induction.

Why
the

is it that inductive

tendencies which he the

of

the

investigator often

adopts?
three-fold
outcome

(17)
induction

Explain

by

illustration

of

by simple enumeration.

(18)

Selecting some
or

class

room

experience, illustrate analogy

by example

type.
and
upon

(19) (20)

Define
Remark

exemplify types
the
errors

as

used
to

in

logic.

incident

analogy.

384
(21)
offers. Summarize

Inductive

Reasoning
which induction

the

advantages

by analogy

(22) (23)
the other

State

and

exemplify the requirements

the

of

true

analogies.
over

Indicate
two

superiority of
Illustrate.

induction

by analysis

forms. and

(24) (25) (26) (27)

19.

Define Under Define Indicate

illustrate perfect induction. circumstances

illustrate

what
and

is

perfect induction

justified?

traduction. forms
of

the

various

traduction.
INVES-

QUESTIONS
TIGATION.

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

(1)

Show

the

connection

between

illicitminor

and

the

ductive "in-

hazard."

(2)
truth.

Show

by

illustration

that

time

tends

to

universalizie

(3)
the

"Induction mind."

and

not

deduction
correctness

is the of

natural

method

of

child

Prove

the

this statement.
we

is the process of inference by which (4) "Induction Prove general truths from particular facts or cases." is not strictlycorrect according to definition.

get at this

that

(5)

As

related
of

to

establishing general truths, what

and

are

the

special functions
(6)
more or

induction
an

deduction?
must

Show
less

that

inductive

inference

of

necessity be
universal
of

uncertain.
any

(7)
causation
page

Is

there
and

distinction reason?

between

the

laws Elements

of

sufficient

Hyslop's

Logic,

329.

are

causation and that universal (8) Show Hyslop, p. 330. complementary laws.

uniformity

of

nature

(9) (10)
(11)
what

Relate

the

"fact

of

causation"

to

the
and

laws

of

thought.

Distinguish
When
of

between

empirical
the

"a

priori" laws.
of

Harvey
induction
form of

discovered did
he

circulation

the

blood,

form

use? follow in proving

(12)
that the

What earth

reasoning did Columbus is spherical?

Questions

for

Original

Thought

385

(13)
largely
illustration
to

"It his

is

said habit truth of

that

the

greatness

of

Darwin

was

due

never

ignoring
this assertion.

an

exception."

Justify

by

the

of

(14)
conditions

In

analogical
would
one

reasoning
illustration be

by
as

example, convincing differences, Suppose

like this
"

under

what

as

many?
the the

(15)
of the of Differences=8

"Considering
argument favors

the
Mars'

similarities

and

weight
tion propor-

habitability."

probability :7;
Mention
of
a

were

something might
or

Resemblances: be erroneous?

wherein

the

conclusion

(16)
the

mark Mars

characteristic

which

would

make

habitability
(17)
Select
to

incompatible?
for
to

topic

investigation
analogy;
expect
is
to

which

is

peculiarly

adapted (18)
two

enumeration;
uniformities
of

analysis.
find in

"The

we

to

the
the

world
term

take

main the

aspects, other

one

which

indicated

by
Aikin's

thing
of laws

and

by
p.

the 233

term

circumstance" the

Principles

Logic,
of

1905;

In

light

of

the of

two

fundamental

universal the

causation

and

uniformity

nature

explain

and

trate illus-

quotation.

(19) Hibben,

Explain
1908;
p.

the 317.

principle

of

teleology

as

related

to

analogy.

CHAPTER

18.

THE

FIVE

SPECIAL

METHODS

OF

OBSERVATION

AND

EXPERIMENT.*

1.

THE

AIM

OF

THE

FIVE

METHODS.

The

primary

forms

of

induction
and

have

been

divided

into

simple
these

enumeration, forms
are

analogy
the
two

analysis.

Conditioning
of
nature

laws,

uniformity
laws
to
are

and
cerned con-

universal

causation. with
causes,
we

Since
may

these refer

always
as

them

together
Wherever

expressing
there laws is
a

the

fundamental

''fact of
no

causation." how

causal

connection,

matter

slight,these

obtain. "the fact of causation"

most

Though
forms form
a

probably conspicuous
the kind main
;
an

conditions in is the
to

all third

of
;

induction, it is

namely,
causal

Analysis.
of

Here
some

aim aim

lish estabmay

connection

which

be

accomplished

through
to

the this

medium

of

observation Stewart of

and Mill

experiment.
formulated These titles
: are

Incident five known

notion, John
methods the

experimental according
to

induction. distinctive

following

i.

The The

Method Method

of of Method of of

Agreement.
Difference. of

2.

3. The
4.

Joint
Method Method
be

Agreement

and

Difference.

The

Concomitant Residues.
the Five

Variations.

5. The
*

Those

might

named

Special

Methods

of

Induction

by

Analysis.

388

Methods

of
A
A

Observation

and

Experiment P3 P4

L M O P

Second

statement.

Px
P2

A A A A the sole

BCD
D L E F

P3 P4
In the first case,

M P

Q
antecedent the
cause

invariable is

is A, of P. is

and, therefore, we
In the second the
case,

infer that A the

probably

invariable P.

consequent

being A,

probably (3)
The On

effect of

Concrete Problem:

first examples illustrating Cause of

statement.

John's

tardiness.
are

investigationthe
has his then father's

various
at

antecedents

these:

(1) John
he carries
; and

his breakfast

seven;
to

(2)
and the

after breakfast

dinner
to

him

(3)

feeds

the the

hens woods

(4)

goes

school

by

path through
is

and

around
as

the mill
a

pond. John tardy.

the

Phenomenon

consequent.
with in the

Determining brings
at
a

to
a

do

away

tardiness, the teacher

one

about

variation

antecedents, varying
above.

time wit
:

taken

in the order

indicated

To

(1 )

Varying John
Other

the first antecedent. breakfasts antecedents is

at

6:30;
the
same;

(Phenomenon) (2)

But

John
the

tardy.
antecedent. carries the dinner
same

Varying
The Other

second

younger

brother

antecedents is

the

(Phenomenon)

John

tardy.

Method

of Agreement
the third antecedent.
cares

389

(3)

Varying
Another Other

brother antecedents

for the hens

same

the

{Phenomenon)
The
to

John
now

is still tardy. that the tardiness around the is due

teacher the route

is

quite certain
the woods

through

and

pond.
italicized
case

Using,

as

symbols,
of

the

initial letters of
as

the

"key-words"
of tardiness

the antecedents be

stated follows

above, the
:

may

symbolized as

Key

words

Symbols
s

seven

dinner hens woods

d h
w

tardy
Antecedents
s e s s

tl" t2, t3
Phenomenon

d h d h b h

tx 12 13 14

w w w

V
the

standing
invariable

for route antecedent.

through

the

woods,

is

seen

to

be

(4)

Concrete

example

the illustrating

second

ment. state-

The

Problem:

To

determine

the

effect

of

direct

primaries.

390

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment

First trial. Antecedent

i.
2.

Consequents
Greater

Direct

primary
3. 4.

candidate, Greater interest shown, Better men nominated,

expense
to

"Bumper"
Greater

crops.

Second

trial.

Direct

primary

"

candidate, Greater interest shown, 2. nominated, 3. Better men

1.

expense

to

4.

Crops below
No

average.

Third

trial.
1. 2.

greater expense,
interest
men

Greater

Direct

primary

shown,

3. Better
4.

nominated,

Crops
No No

average.

Fourth

trial.
1.

greater expense, greater interest,

men

Direct

2.

primary

3. Better
4.

nominated,
is,"Better

Cropsaverage.
men a

It is

seen

that the invariable consequent We

may,

nominated."

conclude therefore,

that this is

probable effect (5)

The

of "Direct

primaries."
of method of agreement. of agreement

features Distinguishing

essential characteristics of the method

are

three:

The phenomenon always occurs. First,

Second, There is at least

one

invariable antecedent.
vary.

Third, The other antecedents

Method

of Agreement attending symbolized

the

391

Giving
it may
;

attention be noted

to

the

illustrations

that
case

"P,"

phenomenon,

always happens
is

while

in the

of the first and

symbolization,"D"
is the invariable

the invariable
are

antecedent

"A, B, C, E, G, L, M, F, I"
"K"
cedent ante-

the variable

antecedents. and

of the second
are

"H, I, L, T, M, W,

X, Y, Z, S"

the variable

antecedents.

Antecedents
1.

Consequents
E G M M

A A L A L H

B B B F B

C C C G C

D D D D D L

Vx P2 P3 P4

I T W

P5 Pt P2 P3

2.

I K

KLMT M X T T H W L K L K Y K

W Z S and

P4 P5 Experiment.
to

(6)
On

Matter the

of Observation

studying

problem

relative

the

tardiness

of

John, it appears
the work would

that in be

obtainingthe
a

various of

antecedents

largely

matter

observation.
the woods, evident. these
one,

Carrying
etc.,
are

the father's dinner, the route facts when which observation

through
make
vary

would
to

However,

it becomes
a

necessary

cedents ante-

with

view

to

finding the
as

invariable
a

the

procedure
observation.

is

experimental
Moreover,
the

well

as

matter

of the

casual direct
matter

in

connection would be

with

primary problem

question

largely a

392

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment
would obtain from
as a

of

experiment; though
We of and

observation
may

subsidiary condition.
the method

conclude
both

this that and the

agreement
since the

involves student

observation that

experiment;
other in methods

will discover
we are

impose

similar

demands,

justified
as

designating these
of observation

five
as

specialmethods
as

of

induction

those

well

of

experiment.
of the Method of

(7)

Advantages

and

Disadvantages

Agreement.
The
concrete
cases a

given simple

to

illustrate the of

method

of

agreement
and
not

present

combination such

antecedents

consequents.

In

life,however,
in
a

simplicitydoes
the method of

usually
be

obtain

and

consequence

agreement
may

gives

rise to
as

few

serious

difficulties.
causes;

These

summarized antecedents

(a) Pluralityof (c) Complexity

of

(b)

material Im-

phenomena;

(d)

Uncertainty (a)

of conclusion.
causes

Pluralityof
the

is mentioned

by

Mill the

as

stituting con-

"characteristic As the
term

imperfection" of

method
causes

of

agreement.
a one

signifies, pluralityof
a

represents
more

condition
cause,
or

where where

given phenomenon
different
"A poor
causes

has

than
same

produce
may

the due

effect.

For

example,

crop"

be

to

drought, neglect, pests,

ill health; dislike for

etc. ;

heat

may

be caused home
one

by
ditions; con-

combustion. friction, electricity,

Unfavorable teacher
"

any

of

these

might (b)
a

be

followed Immaterial

by irregularattendance.
antecedents and
are

those the

which
most

precede
favorable said

given phenomenon
no

yet, under
connection

situations, have

causal

with

phe-

Method

of Agreement
the
a

393

nomenon.

For rain may

example,
have

various south
car

antecedents

of

the

heavy
take
an

been

wind, forgettingto having

to

umbrella, missing the

and the

walk,
the

etc.

Clearly these antecedents,

are

with

exception of

first,

immaterial.

(c)

The

law

of agreement receive
to

demands

that all the material the situation

antecedents is too of

consideration, but often

make
an

complex
would of "the

this

possible;a
to

fair illustration all of the

such

be

attempt
cost

ascertain

antecedents

high

of

living." precludes the possibility

carry

(d)
of
to

The
error

law
;
as

of agreement it is

never

quite impossible to

the

sis analy-

the

point of

absolute

certainty.Of
method

all the methods,

"agreement"

is the

least reliable.

Despite the foregoing

is of

objections, however,
because of its

the

positive
the

value
to

suggestiveness ; opening
it

door

plausiblehypotheses
basis.

a gives the investigators working

3.

METHOD

OF

DIFFERENCE.

(1)

Principlestated.
"If
an

Says Mill,
under does
one,

instance

in which and
an

the

phenomenon
in which
common save

investigationoccurs,
not

instance in

it

occur,
one

have

every

circumstance in the

that

occurring only
alone
an

former;

the

stance circum-

in which
or

the two

instances

differ is the effect of the cause, of the

the

cause

of

indispensablepart

phenomenon."
To

put this in simple

terms:

Whatever

is

invariably

394

Methods

of
the

Observation

and

Experiment
and
occur,

present zvhcn
when

phenomenon
does

occurs

sent invariably abother

cause

the phenomenon

not

stances circumor

remaining
effect of (2)
the

the

same,

is

probably

the

the

phenomenon.

Method

symbolized. symbols
as were

Using

the

same

used

in

"Agreement."

Antecedents
A
"

Consequents
D
"

BCD
or

P
_

-BCD
A

In

the

first instance since

is

probably
when
occur. case.

the
the

cause

of

the

phenomenon,
occurs

it is present
when

phenomenon
For
a

and A

absent

it does

not

similar

reason,

is the effect in the second illustrations. teacher would

as

(3)
(A)

Concrete
A

wise

in

ascertaining the suggested

at
once

cause a

of

John's
of
route.

tardiness

have

change words key:

Using

symbols

the initial letters of the

case,

of the antecedents
s

in the

the

following results
t
"

wr

sdh"

(B)
Problem:

First

trial.

Unprepared

home

work.

Antecedents
1.

Consequents
of lesson,

Length

of

lesson,

2.

Definiteness

") |Work
same.

not

properly

3. Amount 4.

of interest shown, the

[ prepared.

Physical condition

396

Method

of

Observation

and

Experiment
whether
test

example,
or

the

physician may
instances."
cases

not

know
a

it is
; such
a

laria ma-

typhoid fever tillhe takes

The

blood various

test

"crucial typifies
are

tests

in chemistry
quence, conse-

likewise

of crucial
use

instances,and, in
more

this science
any

makes

of "Difference"

than

other

method. features of Method of Difference. of the Method does of

not

(5)
There

Characteristic
are

three these

marks distinguishing
are,

Difference:

(1)

The

phenomenon
is variable;

always happen; (2)

other The antecedents
are

One
more

antecedent
or

(3)

The

less invariable. will make these three

following symbolizations
evident
:

characteristics

Antecedents

Consequents
P

(1)

ABC A
"

C
B B

"

(2)

"

C C T
"

"

(3)

L L

M M

K K Compared.
"

Agreement

and

Difference of be In

(a) The methods complementary as may

characteristic features:

Agreement
discerned

and

Difference

are

by comparing
the does

their

Agreement
the there there

phenomenon
not
cedent; antecedent anteor are

ahvays always

occurs;
occur :

in Difference In

phenomenon
is
one one

Agreement

invariable variable
are more

whereas
:

in Difference

is

In

Agreement

the other

antecedents the other

less variable; but

more or

in Difference

antecedents

less invariable.

Method

of Difference
the Method of is

397

(b)
whereas
cannot

According
that what the Method

to
can

Mill be of

Agreement
not

sists in-

eliminated
Difference

connected;
that what

implies

be eliminated The Method

is connected. of it is The

(c)
4

Agreement

is

more

method the

of covery dis-

observation, since

chiefly concerned
Method of

with

of
a

causes.

Difference its usual

is distinctly aim is to

method

of

experiment, because

discover

effects.
The Method is to of

(d)
the in what instances

Agreement
several but

is

so

called
to

because

object

compare

instances in the
case

determine Difference

respect they agree;

are

of

compared

to determine

in what

respects they

differ. (e)
The conclusions of the Method those should of of Difference volve in-

greater

certaintythan
former method

Agreement
be

and,
when

therefore, the
there is
a

adopted

choice.

4.

THE

JOINT

METHOD

OF

AGREEMENT

AND

ENCE. DIFFER-

(1)
The and the

Principle stated. uncertainty

of the times conclusions of of

Agreement

at impossibility

employing directlythe
the
use

Method

of of

Difference,give Agreement
As and

rise to

of

the
as

bination com-

Difference the

known

the

Joint

Method. the

stated Method

by Mill,
is this:

tioning principle conditwo

or more

Joint

"If
occurs

stances inone

in which

the

phenomenon
while

have
more

only

circumstance

in

common,

two

or

instances

398
in
save

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment nothing
in

which the which

or

it does absence alone the

cause

not

occur

have

common

of the
or

that
two
an

circumstance, the circumstance

sets

in

of

instances

differ

is the

effect of the

indispensablepart
More

of the cause,
may
one

phenomenon."
in this wise: is

brieflythe
many

notion

be

stated

Among

instances, if
when
the

cumstanc cir-

invariably present
when is

the

phenomenon
does
or

occurs, not
occur

and

invariablyabsent
this circumstance

phenomenon
the
cause

probably

the

effectof
This Method
are more

the

phenomenon.
from that the the
one

principle differs
of Difference and in
more

underlying

the

instances The

considered

varied

numerous.

principleof
the the A

Difference

requires but
demands
occurs

two at
one

sets

of

instances, while
two not

Joint

Method

least when

three;
it does

when
occur.

phenomenon

and

study of the symbolizations and

this distinction.

illustrations

will

clarify

(2)
If
we

Joint
use

Method

symbolized.
and then

circumstances
and

phenomenon
one

in

place

of

antecedents

consequent,
for

symbolization may
the invariable

be

made

to

stand
or

ascertaining either
consequent.

antecedent,

the

invariable

Circumstances
1. 2.

Phenomenon

A A A A

B D L

C E M P P

Px
"

F N

P2

3.
4.

P3 P4
-

O O

Q Q

5-

The

Joint Method

of Agreement

and

Difference

399

6. 7. 8.

L
D B

M
E

N
F D

"

"

"

It is obvious groups whereas third and

case,

that

the

second, third first,

and

fourth

of instances

illustrate the

of Agreement; principle
second

the first and

eighth,the
the fourth Difference.

and

seventh, the

sixth,and

and

fifth illustrate in each

the

principleof
Concrete

(3)
The

Examples
Too much

Joint illustrating whispering.

Method.

problem:

Antecedents
1.

Consequent
work,

Insufficient Lack Seated of

interest,
near a

iMuch

whispering.

friend. J

2.

More Lack Seated

work,
of

interest,
near a

Much

whispering.

friend.

3. More More Seated

4.

work, interest,
near a

whispering. ["Much friend.)

much }"Not

More More Not

work,
interest,
seated
near

whispering.

friend. J
much J"Not

5. More Lack Not

work,
of

interest,
near

whispering.

seated

friend. J
much |-Not friend.]

6. Insufficient Lack Not of

work,

interest,
near

whispering.

seated

400

Methods

of Observation
be concluded

and

Experiment
the undue
amount
near

From of

this it may

that

whispering
other.

is caused

by seatingparticularfriends

each The

problem:

Poor

recitations.

Antecedents
i.

Consequent

Long
Fear

lesson,
of lesson, J-Poor recitation.

Faulty assignment of
teacher.

2.

Lesson

made

shorter,
"Poor recitation.

Faulty assignment,
Fear 3. Lesson A
more

of

teacher.

made

shorter,

careful

assignment,

recitation. [-Poor

Fear
4.

of

teacher.

Lesson A
more

made

shorter,

careful

assignment,
teacher.

recitation. J-Good

Removal 5. Lesson

of fear of
made

J
Good recitation.

shorter,
teacher.

Faulty assignment,
No

fear of

6. Lesson

long,
Good recitation. teacher.
cause

Faulty assignment,
No Fear

fear of

of teacher

is the

of the poor

recitation.

(4) Being

Distinguishing features.
a

combination
possesses

of

Agreement

and

Difference of each,

the

Joint Method
more or

the characteristics The

:

though
may be

less modified.
as

marks distinguishing

summarized

follows

The

Joint Method

of Agreement

and

Difference

401

(1)

Of

the first group The One The

of instances
must must

(1) (2) (3)

phenomenon
antecedent other

always
be

occur,

invariable,
be
more or

antecedents

must

less

variable.

(2)

Of

the second The One The

group

of instances
must must
never

(1) (2) (3)

phenomenon
antecedent other

occur,

be variable,
must

antecedents

be

more

or

less

invariable.

Briefly,the
must

one

principle concerned conjunction

antecedent between

is this: the of

There

be

an

invariable and the

non phenomebeing
the

involved
cause.

suspected

(5)
Method.
Since

Advantages

and

Disadvantages

of

the

Joint

the

Joint

Method

permits

consideration
as

of the

negative aspect
the

of the

question as testing the

In

well
many

the affirmative, instances conclusions those of

cerned con-

opportunities for
are

doubled. Method
are

consequence,
more

the

of the
to

the

Joint

positive than
that this tend Method
to
same

other

methods.

It follows instances would the

opportunity
the other

multiply the pluralityof

of

lessen of

jections ob-

raised

against

Agreement;

viz.,

causes,

immaterial

antecedents, complexity

phenomenon.
The student and
must
concrete

regard

the

given
as

illustrative of the

sym-

bolizations

examples
are

being

plest simthan of

form;
the rule.

in life such

the

exceptions

rather the
cause

When

investigating questions,like

402

Methods

of Observation
the living,

and

Experiment
reason

the

high

cost

of

effect of

the high tariff, is often

a

for the

typhoid epidemic, etc., there

which makes the
a

confusion factory, unsatis-

of circumstances
even

Joint Method

though

it furnishes instances. which the

largeropportunity for

the

of multiplication

The

strongest
is when

case

Joint

Method

is able

to

present
in
every

the

negative instances
the
one

repeat the positive

of the variable

detail,with
To wit:

exception

antecedent.

Strong Argument:
Circumstances
A B

Phenomenon

Px P2

ALM
"

LM BC

"

"

"

Weak

Argument:
A ALM
"

C
:

Fx P2
"

R TK the

"

"

Despite
Method
are

disadvantages, the
or

conditions

of

the

Joint

more

less

ideal; since the positivebranch

the negative such.

of the argument
branch

suggests the hypothesis,while

or

proves the accuracy

inaccuracy of

5.

METHOD

OF

CONCOMITANT

VARIATIONS.

(i)

Principle stated.
is this
:

Mill's statement in any

manner

"Whatever

phenomenon

varies
in
a

whenever

another

phenomenon

varies

404

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment

Problem:

To

ascertain

nature

of sound.

Antecedent Bell
rung

Consequent
a

when

within

glass jar
Loud
out

filled with Some

air, pumped
of the

sound.

of the air

jar,
More
The air

Sound

not

sg

loud.

pumped

into jar
must

again,
that

Sound

louder

again.
to

conclusion the

be of

air has

something

do

with

production
To
find

sound. feed for

egg

Problem:

best

production.

ioo ioo ioo ioo

lbs. beef lbs.

scraps,

wheat,
30

doz.

lbs. oats, lbs. corn, lbs. beef lbs.

scraps,

eggs.

50
100 100 100

wheat,

lbs. oats, lbs. corn, lbs. beef lbs.

scraps,

"2J doz.

eggs.

90
100 100

wheat,
"28 doz.
eggs.

lbs. oats, lbs. corn, the variation in the

amount

100

Since

of

beef number

scraps

is

accompanied produced,
to

by

like variation be assumed that

in the beef

of
are

eggs

it may
egg

scraps

tial essen-

large

production.

(4)

Distinguishing features.
The

phenomenon

always

occurs

but

in

varying

degrees ;

Method

of

Concomitant

Variations

405

One The

antecedent other

varies in
are

degree ;
invariable.

antecedents and

(5)
is the
or

Advantages

disadvantages.
is

Concomitant

Variations
to
use

applicable in
Recourse
can are

cases

when

it
to

impossible
latter when

Difference.

is made
to

the
at

phenomenon
there

be

made

appear

disappear
to

will, but
cause

times
to

when

it is

impossible altogether. degrees

of

the

phenomenon
in the
case

disappear
the

For heat take

example,
in the
room

of be

varying

it would
out

scientifically
room

impossible to

all of the heat

of the
away

or

in

experimenting

with

to gravitation,

do

with

its influence

is beyond entirely, evident where

that

the power

of
may away

man.

It is thus in
cases

Concomitant conditions

Variations forbid

be used

the

doing

entirelywith

the prenomenon. The

to

specialfunction
establish
cause

of
exact

Concomitant

Variations

seems

be to

the and

quantitativerelation varying
effect. bodies
to

between

the As

varying
a

the

To

illustrate:
each

general
in and

law

it is known

that

attract

other

varying degrees according according

to

their

distances

apart

their has

relative been
:

tant sizes; by Concomidefinite

Variations
value

this law reads

given

tive quantitaother

and the of

like this

"Bodies
masses,

attract

each

directlyas
the
square

product
the that
may

of their

and them."

inverselyas
This tration illusantecedent

distance the

between variation
or

suggests
and

between

consequent
error

be direct
common

inverse. is the assumption

two

The

most

in this method between

that

the

quantitativerelation

varying

406

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment

phenomena
For

will

always

be

according
reduced

to

constant

ratio.

example,
to

when

being
water

from

high temperature
but
at

39

1-50 F.,
commences

steadily contracts; expand

of
event

39 Thus

1-50

F. it

to

until it becomes is
constant

ice.

the

ratio of

contraction
In any

water

only
ratio
to

within of the

certain
can

limits. with

the

established

variation instances
to

absolute

safety be applied only disadvantage

of
two
no

investigated.
method,
is the

Another situation

dent inci-

this

elements causal

varying together constantly, and

connection whatever.

yet

having

6.

THE

METHOD

OF

RESIDUES.

(1)
As

Principle stated.
stated

by

Mill
any

the

principle of
such
be

residue

is this: is known
cedents, ante-

"Subtract

from

phenomenon
to

part

as

by previous inductions
and

the

effect of

certain is the

the residue

of the

phenomenon

effect

of

the In

remaining
form those certain

antecedents." the notion is this: Subtract

are

simpler

from
to

any

phenomenon

parts of it zvhich

known

be

the the

effect of

antecedents, and

what

is

left of

phenomenon (2)

is the

effectof

the

remaining

antecedents.

Principle symbolized.
Antecedent
A B

Consequent
x

y
z

C The total
cause

of

the

phenomenon

xyz

is

ABC.

The

Method

of

Residues

407

But

it is known the
cause

that the of
y

cause

of

is the antecedent
B ; hence

whereas concluded

is the of
z

antecedent is the

it is

that Concrete To

the

cause

antecedent

C.

(3)

illustrations. find the

Problem:

weight

of

coal.

Antecedents

Consequents driver,
wagon,
=

Weight Weight
Weight

of
of

4200

lbs.

of of of

coal.

Weight Weight
Hence 4200 lbs.
"

driver,
wagon.

__^ 200 ibs.|_ \~^200O lbs.("

)

we 2200

may

conclude

that

the

weight

of

coal

is

lbs.,or
most

2000

lbs. instance in

Perhaps

the

noted
was

history

of

the in of of the

of application the

this method, of

the In

one

which

resulted orbit

discovery
it and
was

Neptune.
found known that

calculatingthe
combined
not
was

Uranus,
the
sun

the

attractions
account
some

the

planets did
took. There that

for unknown

path

which
at
was

Uranus work. due orbit

influence attraction

Assuming
to

this of

unaccountable another

the

presence
an

planet by
the

beyond
name were

the of

of and

Uranus,
later the

Englishman
Frenchman

Adams,
to

Leverrier,
the scope tele-

able

indicate

by

the

principleof Residues,
be.

spot where
toward

this planet should this

By directingthe
was

point, Neptune

discovered.

(4)

Distinguishing features:
The The

phenomenon
antecedents

always
are

occurs,

usually invariable,

408

Methods

of
of

Observation

and

Experiment
known
to

Some

the
of

antecedents
a

are

be

the

cause

part

of

the

phenomenon.

(5)
The

Advantages
Method of
what

and

disadvantages. gives
over

Residues is left have

three

distinct

results:

First, it tells
of the

after

all the

other

parts
it

phenomenon
much

been
and

explained.
third, it

Second,

tells how
to

is left over,
of

calls

attention For
ample, ex-

the

unexplained parts
in

the

phenomenon.

the

first

concrete

illustration, by subtracting
the total
not

the left able

known
over

quantities from
is found
to

quantity, what
so

is
are

be
exact

coal;
amount

only
of of

but This

we

to

calculate the

the

coal. the

trates illusof that

first and

second

results

Method
seen

Residues. residues is

(Like
The of

concomitant in of

variations

it is

serviceable

given Neptune

definite quantitative
illustrates well the
for
a

values.)
third
every

discovery
force, it
which of

result other
at

this method;
was

i. e., after found

never

accounting
was

that been

there

yet

force this

work

had

explained.
which

It is has "Most

third

feature in

unexplained

residues

placed
of the

"Science

its present which the

advanced

state."
are causes

phenomena
and when with

nature

presents
all known

cated; compliare

effects and

of

estimated facts
are

exactness,

subducted, the
in the
to

residual

constantly appearing
and
says

form the
most

of

na phenomeimportant
all of in this

altogether new,
conclusions."
the
way.

leading John

So in

Herschel. have
not
come

Almost about
as

discoveries
If
a

astronomy
does

heavenly body
to

behave then

it should either the

according

the

established

theory,

The

Method

of Residues
is
some

409

theory is
which

wrong
to

or

there

residual Its

phenomenon

needs

be

explained. important

suggestiveness is,
of

therefore, the

most

function
one

this method, makes dent eviual resid-

though

this

very

feature

is the

which

its greatest

disadvantage.
may

The

unexplained lurking

phenomenon
a

be

very

complex
a

and, therefore,
element

careless in

observer

is apt to the
true

overlook

which

realityis

cause.

7.

THE

GENERAL METHODS.

PURPOSE

AND

UNITY

OF

THE

FIVE

Thinking
of

has

been

defined

as

the

deliberative

process

affirming and
five methods

denying
are a

connections.
matter

It is obvious

that

these

of

affirmingand
and
are

denying
As

connections
soon as

between looked and

as

antecedents for connections

are

consequents.

the

established, the
to

antecedents each other

consequents
causes

known
In

be

related

to to

and

effects. the Method

this of

attempt

find and

prove

connections in

Agreement

is and

chieflyvaluable
the method the of

suggesting
in

workable

hypotheses,
of

difference
or

ment, verifying,through experithese

correctness

incorrectness

theses. hypo-

In

substance
:

the

principleconditioning both
is
and

methods when zvhen is the

is this the the

cause

"If

single antecedent
is present is absent

invariablypresent invariably absent

this antecedent

phenomenon phenomenon of
the the
two

then To there the

phenomenon."

put it still more

is
two
a

briefly:
It is

Between

if

phenomena conjunction between

causal

connection,

is invariable.

4io

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment
the
cedent ante-

the

business and
as

of

Agreement
to

to

single out

one

of Difference
as

show, by presenting the

side of the
case,

tive nega-

well

the
the

affirmative
one

that

the

conjunction of
phenomenon
a

antecedent The and

and

the

particular
is merely into of

is invariable. of Agreement
and

Joint

Method

combination varied

Difference The
are

carried methods

more

complex
and

situations. Residues former

Concomitant

Variations

merely
used when

fications modithe and

of Difference;

the

being
the

chief feature
the latter when

is the

fluctuationof
to

phenomenon,
is

it is desired

find what

left over.

Agreement

suggests the hypothesis,"difference'' proves

is

it; the joint method

concomitant

"difference"more
is residues is is

or

less

cated, complito
to

variations

"difference" applied "difference" used

phenomena, fluctuating find what

and how much

leftover.
of observation student. and

Agreement
the

is the method and

are

belongs
and

to

physician

nature

Difference which
are

the

Joint Method
the method itself method
astronomer to

experimental devices
chemist. Concomitant and

used

by

and physicist of the of

Variations

is the
attaches

unstable economist

phenomena
and

naturally
Residues

statistician. and

is the

"lurking exceptions"
and mathematician. "what

is favored

by

the the in

Residues, being
most
common

method

of

is left over,''is the

daily affairs.*
All the

five methods
to

are

forms of of

inductive

thinking by
law

which

lead

the establishment

causal

connections

of

* All residue.

cases

of

finding

the

net

proceeds

are

examples

of

the

412

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment

Distinguishing features Advantages and disadvantages (6)

The Method
of

Residues

Principle stated
Method Concrete

symbolized
illustrations

Distinguishing features
Advantages
and and

disadvantages
Unity
of

(7)

General One

Purpose
fundamental

Five

Methods

principle

9.

SUMMARY.

(1)
forms

The of

fundamental

fact is most

of

causation

underlies
in

the method
one

three
of

induction, but
may

conspicuous by
recourse

the
to

analysis and experimental

be

ascertained

of

the

methods.

(2)
summed

The
up

principle
in
a

of

the

method
:

of The
its

agreement sole

may

be
cedent ante-

the

two

statements

invariable
and the

of

phenomenon
of
may
a

is

probably phenomenon

cause

sole

variable in-

consequent These
The
two

is
and

probably

its

effect.

statements

be

symbolized
of the

illustrated.
of agreement
one
are

essential

characteristics

method is
at

the

phenomenon
the

always
other of

occurs

; there vary.

least

invariable

antecedent;
The
may

antecedents

method

agreement
methods

together with
of

the other
as

four
as

methods
methods

justly be termed
observation.
The

experiment

well

of

difficulties of
of
causes,

the

method

of

agreement

are

in

the

main

plurality phenomenon
may

immaterial
of

antecedents,
conclusion.
a

complexity
These which

of

and

uncertainty
as

difficulties
may

be

summarized
causes

involving preceded
as

phenomenon
prevent

have
sequence; con-

several

; may

be
so

by conditions
to

of

no

causal

may

be

involved

exhaustive

tion; examina-

and

may

give unreliable
is valuable

conclusions.
to

Agreement

chieflyin furnishing
this

the

investigator

plausible hypotheses. (3)

The

principle of
when

difference

is

"Whatever
and

is

variably in-

present

the

phenomenon

occurs

invariably

Summary
absent

413

when

the phenomenon the

same,

does

not

occur,
cause

other
or

circumstances effect of
the

remaining
Like

is probably

the

the

phenomenon."
agreement, difference admits
of

symbolization

and

tration illus-

by
The
one

concrete

examples.

chief

difficulties
at

attending difference
a

are:

in nature
and
to

ing varyto

antecedent antecedents

time
are

is

overlook

which

infrequent, closely related

method of
of

it is easy

the

case

under

investigation.
Difference sciences. The
does

is the

most

common

the

experimental
are,

characteristic
not

features
one

difference
is

the

nomenon phe-

always

occur,

antecedent

variable, while

the

others

are

invariable.
of

The

methods

agreement

and
to to

difference eliminate
one

are

complementary
antecedents

processes.

Agreement
while
of The

attempts
aims

all the

but
is
a

one,

difference

eliminate

only.
is
of
a

Agreement
of
periment. ex-

method

observation, while
conclusion that
of of
may

difference method
of

method difference

the the
be

gives

greater

certainty than
The instances if

method
stated

agreement. this
way:

(4)
n

joint method
one

in

Among
when

any

circumstance
and

is invariably present when

the

the

phenomenon
does
not

occurs

invariably absent
is

enon phenomcause
or

occur,

this circumstance

probably

the

the effect of the The

more

phenomenon.
of the

instances varied than

joint method
of

are

more
or

numerous

and

those has

either

agreement

difference. of both

The

joint method
and

the

distinguishingcharacteristics

agreement Because

difference.

it furnishes

varying the instances

objections than
The

opportunities for multiplying and fewer presents involved, the joint method
greater
of the
of
two

either

separate

methods. suggests This

makes

positive branch
ideal. The
:

the

joint method
proves

the

sis, hypothe-

while somewhat

the negative branch

it.

the method

(5)
follows varies other.

If

variations principle of concomitant may when one phenomenon varies alone, and
one

be

stated

as

another effect when of

also
the

alone, the
This

is either of

the

cause

or

the

is the method

fluctuation, and

is used

it is

414

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment
in

impossible
the
case

to

make

the

phenomenon
concomitant
between

disappear altogether, as
variations
cause

of

difference. function
of

The
exact

chief

is

to

establish

quantitative relations
The

and

effect. Subtract
to

(6)
of

principle
those

of

residues
of

is this:
are

from
be

any

phenomenon
certain the effect of
most

parts

it which what

known of

the

effect is

antecedents,
the

and

is left

the

phenomenon

remaining
feature the

antecedent. of

The attempt

valuable

residues

is its

suggestiveness ;
has led
to

an

to

explain

"residual

phenomenon"

many

important (7)
of

scientific discoveries.
five

The

methods

are

concerned

with

the

establishment suggests methods

causal

connections while

between

phenomena.
proves it.

Agreement
The other

the
are

connection modified
form

difference
of

applications
which the

difference, necessitated
may

by

some

peculiar
the
one

phenomenon
is: "If

take.

statement

of
two

principle involved
is invariable the methods
are

the is
a

conjunction
causal

between

phenomena
All of

then

there
of

connection."

forms

inductive

thinking.

10.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS. "the
fundamental fact of

(1)
(2)
induction

Explain
Show

fact of causation." causation is most

that

the

conspicuous

in

by analysis.
Name the five special inductive methods
of

(3)
and

observation

experiment.
State, symbolize,
Give
and

(4)

illustrate the

method do
not

of

agreement.
function
as

(5)
causes.

examples

of

antecedents

which

(6)

Show

that
and

the

"special methods"

are

matter

of

both

observation

experiment. distinguishing features

to
causes

(7)

Give

the

of

the

method

of

agreement;

illustrate by reference the of plurality

the

symbols.
; immaterial

(8)

Exemplify
of

antecedents

complexity (9)
Show

phenomenon.
that the

conclusions

of

agreement

are

largely

hypothetical.

Review

Questions
illustrate the method of of

415

(10) (11)
only
one

State, symbolize, and

Show

difference.

by illustration
should be that

that, in the method

varied
at
a a

difference,
of

antecedent

time. method

(12) (13) (14)

method

Show

difference

is naturally

ment. experi-

Explain Bacon's
Name
of and

use

of the term

"crucial

instances." features of the

explain the

characteristic

difference. that
and

(15) (16) (17)

instances

Show

agreement

and

difference

are

complementary.

Explain
What
:

illustrate the
may

joint method.
drawn

inference

be

from

the

following

Antecedents ALMT BLME BCME AM

T H

Consequents
pqrg
zqrx rzxy p

g
cross
a

(18)
hundred
at
same

"Mr. in

Darwin, in his experiment on the vegetable kingdom, placed heads,

thus
one

and
net

self fertilizatio about

bees.
one

flower
same

protecting
hundred

them other be

from flower

the

He

the

time

placed

heads
to

of

the

variety of plant where

obtained
the

they would

exposed

the

bees.

The protected flowers failed following result: others The to 2,720 seeds. yield a single seed. yielded about Thus cross-fertilization was proved." (Hibben). What method Summarize Show
or

He

did

Darwin the the

employ?

Symbolize the experiment.

of

(19) (20)
agreement

distinguishingmarks joint method

is
more

the joint method. ideal than either

that

difference.
and

(21)

State

give

concrete

illustrations

of

the

law

ot

comitant con-

variations.

(22)
(23)

What

is the

chief

function of

concomitant

variations?

Illustrate. Give instances

easy
to
:

where
use

it would

be

impossible
between

to

use

difference,but (24)
and

concomitant

variations.
cedent ante-

Explain this
consequent

"The
may

quantitativevariation
be either direct
or

inverse."

416
(25.)
(26) principle (27)
methods.

Methods

of

Observation

and

Experiment
the

State What of

and
are

explain by
the

illustration and

method

of

residues.
of

advantages

disadvantages

the

residues?

State

the

principle which
the
walks

virtually sums

up

the

five

(28)
methods

Write
to

briefly

on

practical applications of
of life.

the

five

the

ordinary

11.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)
and

Trace

the

connection

between

the

method

of

agreement

induction

by simple
that

enumeration.

(2)

Show

Mill's of

methods

may

properly

be

termed

"Inductive

Methods
may

Scientific shown

Investigation."
that than Board
of

(3)
of

How

it be
to

by "agreement"
to

the
we

high

cost

living is (4)

due

the

tendency
are a

spend
of

more

earn?

Assume
you
means

that you desire

of
to

member
the

the

of

Health,

and

that

ascertain

cause

the

diphtheria
conclusion
mean

epidemic by (5)
that
death
to

the
error

principleof agreement.
involved there before
be

What sit
one

is the
at

in
are

coming
of

to

the
may

table the how the

where

thirteen,

the

of

of

thirteen

the end

the year. the the method of

(O
of

Indicate

it could

difference, that yellow (7)

who and then the fever.

mosquito

shown, by is responsible for

this

propagation

"Another
some

experiment
food of which
a

similar

to

was
are

tried by fond
of
on

Plateau,
a

put

cockroaches circular the

for wall

table
He

surrounded put
some

it with

low
on

cardboard.

cockroaches
made

table; they evidently scented

it.

food,

and

straight

He

then
with

removed

their

antennae."
method ("} which used. "In

(Hibben).

Complete

and

give

explanations the

some

cases

it be

is impossible
cause

to

remove

an

element

is supposed
and

to

the

of

an

effect under

investigation."

Explain (9)

illustrate.
care

"Extreme

must

be

taken

that, in the withdrawing

of

Questions

for

Original

Thought

417

any

element, supposed

no

other he
a

element
had of

is

inadvertently

introduced."

Tyndale
after

proved
boiled

spontaneous
water
a

generation, wisp
life
he of

when, hay,
he

sealing
after

in

jar

baked the the

found,
In

many

days,
the

indications
to

of

within carried

bottle. former

transferring
the "The
to
room.

hay
What

the

bottle,
was

across

element determine

inadvertently
the
vary,

introduced?
relations the limits
utmost

(10)

attempt which
soon

to

numerical

cording ac-

two
as

phenomena
our

requires
the connection

caution observations."
law of

as

inference

outsteps

of with

our

(Fowler).
variations. the effects of

Explain

this

in

the

concomitant "When
and

(11)
exactness

all

known residual

causes

are

estimated

with
pearing ap-

subducted,
form

the

facts

are

constantly
new,

in
to

the

of

phenomena
conclusions."

altogether
Make
to

and

leading

the

most

important
which
has

clear

by

illustration
of

this

quotation

reference

the of of

principle phenomena."
the

residues.

(12) (13) following

Explain Investigate problems: (1)

"All

"invariable

conjunction
means

by

of

one

five

methods

the

vegetables during

which the last

grow
two

to

root

should

be

planted
moon."

days

of

the

waxing

(2) (3) (4)

"In

this

section is

the

south

wind of

is

the

storm

wind."

"Mischief "Bad "An

the

outcome

misdirected treatment."

energy."

boys
ounce

usually
of

receive is

unjust
worth

(5)

prevention

pound

of

cure."

CHAPTER

19.

THE

AUXILIARY

ELEMENTS

OF

INDUCTION.

OBSERVATION

EXPERIMENT

HYPOTHESIS.

1.

THE

FOUNDATION

OF

INDUCTIVE

TIONS. GENERALIZA-

Induction facts. the

over

is the

process

of is the

universalizing particular fact. Through

then tion observathem
mind more anythe

The

starting point

investigator gathers facts, and

a

works The facts without

with

view

of

finding uniformities. generalizations without

cannot

build than
a

inductive
mason can

build

brick

wall

bricks.
A

fact
may

is any be
and

particular thing acquired by imagination)

which
means

made of

or

done the the

or

is that

which

presentative
mind. The of

(perception
state

powers

of the

of is

awareness

results notion.

from This

observation

facts

an

individual inductive notions of

presents
a

another
matter

aspect

of the

process

namely, "It is

of

building general by
the observation
D

from facts."

individual To

notions, acquired
I note
me,

illustrate:

that hence A of

A, B, C and
I
come

are

honest

in their that
some

dealings
men

with
are

to

the

conclusion

honest.

fact the of
mind

is

something

done, consequently the actual

C and is
an

doing
Each

honest
awareness

things by A, B,
of each
a

are

facts.

state

fact

individual in these
men

notion. facts
are

The rives de-

now

discerns

uniformity
that
418

and

the

general

notion

"some

honest."

420

The

Auxiliary

Elements

of

Induction

of
a

definiteness, however,

any

observation
may

which be

involves
as

manipulation of circumstances,

designated

experimental.
4. RULES FOR LOGICAL OBSERVATION AND MENT. EXPERI-

To
easy
to

the uninitiated,the

matter
one

of

observation
two

seems men swear

an

task, and

yet when

hears

honest have
come

diametricallyopposite observing "Eyes

as can a

facts which

to

them is

from shaken.
as

the

same

phenomenon,
but
see

his
a

faith

have

they
one.

not" the and

is

logicaltruth
of the
not

well

moral

Only
upon;
even

observation

trained

be the

depended layman,
of

yet this should

a

discourage
effort increase his

for

he, by

little conscientious
may

towards
store

careful
accurate

observation,

greatly
to

knowledge

and

add

the

joy

of

living. attending
matters

The

rules
of

are

usually heeded
and

by

the

trained

scientist in First

observation

experiment:
be

Rule.

The

observations

should

precise.
must

The
curately ac-

time, the place, the surrounding conditions

noted. devised because Instruments

be

Many
of the

artificial contrivances desire of the

have be

been
cise. pre-

scientist to

like the he

balance, the thermometer, invented,

for
an

the

microscope,
and A For methods
common

etc., has has method

to

and

various sake of

devices

he

adopted
to

the

precision.

is

take

average

of
class

observations. work the of

a

example,

estimate should

justly
not

the

student, the teacher

of
one or

be
must

content

with the

ratings

two

but recitations,

average

ratings of

Rules

for Logical Observation Again,

and

Experiment
be led
to

421

many

recitations.

child may
sum

discover

approximately
of and
a

the value

of the the

of the interior of many that the

angles

triangleby measuring
then
are

angles
assume

triangles following
ing divid-

strikingan
obtained

average;

results

by

such

procedure: (1) 178, (2)

181, (3) 179, (4) 180, (5) 182; adding these and

by 5 gives
Second Rule.

180. The observations should

case concern

only
All
to

the material
non

circumstances be For

of

the

in hand.
serve

the tract dis-

essentials may attention.

ignored, as

they
in be

only
to

example, (1)
sounds in
must

order

get the
save

"right count"
of the

all other

ignored
of

that
water

firegong; building of

(2)
a

finding the depth

ten

the
away

for the the

dam, soundings

miles On

from

objectivepoint could
easy
to overlook

be of little value. certain

to

the other To

hand, it is
observe

lurking essentials.
to

such, it is
terms
a

necessary

resort

what

the

chologist psy-

"preadjustment
what
we

of
are we

attention."

We We The know
a

must
must

know have
a

with

exactness

looking
wish
to

for.
see.

mental in the

image
it

of what of
a

astronomer

discovery

new

planet must
have

the

exact

spot where

ought

to

be, and

clear

mental is
to
a

image

of its appearance. the

case

This

expectant attention
is anxious is

necessityin
make
no

of the

physicianwho
If he

mistakes he

in his
must

diagnosis.
a

looking

for

pneumonia,

have

very

distinct

auditory
be
marked, re-

image

of the sound

of that

an

affected

lung.

It should

however,
with
are so

this very

preadjustment of
to

tion, atten-

the untrained,
to
see

frequently leads
we are

illusion.

We

anxious

what

looking

for that nine-

422

The

Auxiliary Elements
we

of
is

Induction

tenths
easy

of what it is
to

believe into
a

we

see

only

inference.

How that is
see

read
to

phenomenon
read
own

something
the

entirelyforeign only
the

it;

to

between ideas.

lines; to

reflection of what of
we

our

"Verily
so

the mental that

we

picture of
are

wish

to

see

becomes

vivid

positive
sees

the

thing being
and the
what

external."

Thus

the

drunkard

snakes

superstitioussee
is
error

ghosts.
is

Reading probably
observer. Third varied
as

into the external the

most
common

only vivdly internal

with
the

untrained

Rule. much
as

The

observed

circumstances observe broaden

In
a

should
a

be ferent dif-

possible. To
may
not

fact from the

viewpoint
but
true

only
it

tion, original no-

it may of

change
the

entirely.
a

order

to

gain
on

notion

effect of it becomes different

particularnostrum
necessary
to

the

human with

organism,
persons

experiment
different constitutions. safe those and who

of

ages,

living
different

under

environments,
Those
sane are

and noted
upon

inheriting
for

who

are

pronouncing broad, questions are

judgments

momentous

"all-angledobservers."
Fourth Ride. The observed all of

phenomenon

should, if

be possible, In

isolated the
must

from
action

interferingphenomena.
a

studying
or a

drug

or

food,

all other

drugs
on

foods

be eliminated. be in
a

The

effect of

tion gravitathe the

body
are

cannot

recorded
vacuum.

accurately unless
When

experiments
deflections
be

made

studying

of

the

compass,

all

magnetic

substances

must

removed

from

the field.

Common

Errors

of

Observation

and

Experiment
AND

423

5.

COMMON

ERRORS

OF

OBSERVATION

MENT. EXPERI-

The

rules

for scientific observation

errors

have

tain suggested cer-

common

which

may

now

be considered.

(1)
There

Preconceived is not which facts.

an

ideas.

unholy
be

belief

nor

an

unwholesome
means

theory

cannot

bolstered that

up

by

of of

parent ap-

For
as

example,
"Salem observed.
to

monstrosity
was

Puritan

thought by
mind
goes

known

Witchcraft"

substantiated made
up

facts

honestly
it is into

Again, having
"so and and

his

that
out

going

be

so," the statistician

and

the

highways
his

byways
the voters that

gathers
the

the

facts which

vindicate

judgment.

Further,
are

crat demo-

finds that the while

voters

majority of

democrats;
of the

the
are

republican
for from

is confident

two-thirds is the

republicanism.
a

Here of

again

fallacy
We
see

springing
what is
we

preadjustment
see.

attention. trained

want

to

Only
make

the
use

highly
of
easy

observer
tion, atten-

able, with
and
even

impunity, to
with

preadjusted
to
remove

him, it is

not

from

the situation The

open may
to true

beliefand
observer

prejudice.
his work
may

undertakes the eye dust his

"

with

his mind it

anything which
into the

bring him, though theory

a

topple

dearest the mind

and

most

cherished

belief; he proceeds

"clean

white

page.}} (2)
This be The
error

"observed"
has

and

the "inferred"
some

confused. It may

already received
is

attention.

remarked

sidered, confurther, however, that, psychologically a

observation

matter

of

interpretingthe

new

424

The

Auxiliary
the old.

Elements

of

Induction

by

means

of

Of

necessity the
the

interpretation,
of the
to

whatever

it may

be, will

assume

complexion
mind

particular "old
use.

knowledge"
man

which what the

the his

is able

In short, a has trained

will
to

see

previous

ment environ-

him

see;

conscientious
see

gardener
but the

sees

the weeds,

whilst

the artist may

nothing

flowers.
be In
a

It follows, therefore, that

matter

all observation based all I

on

must

largely a looking at patch

of

of

inference for

experience.
is the

the moon,

example,
and

actually see
of

color; the
a

form

distant

location

moon

being
The

matter

of

experience.
to

inference
is necessary

referred for

in this

heading

is

not

that

which

perception,but
To

that which It is

is suggested
men

by perception.
are

illustrate

icy;

three

running
the down."

for

car;

Smith

raises his arm; "Smith

Jones slips
knocked the
at

to

ground;

and Brown

Brown

that testifies,

Jones
proper

observed, that Smith

assumed down

attitude and
; and

that then

Jones conveniently went inferred the

rest.

the

right time (3)

Ignoring
comes

the

exceptions.
an over

This

through
this mental will
so

anxiety

to

prove

our

theory.
are

With

attitude,the observations

which

corroborative

completely
to
seem

fill the mental of

no

field,

that the This As

a

exceptions are
for

made

consequence.
to

accounts

the
some

superstitionattached
one

thirteen: who had

coincidence
eaten

at

some

time there

died
were

previously

at

table

where

thirteen. this happened

so

Perhaps during
on

the
or

life of the superstitiousone three

two

occasions, but
he

the dozen

fact times

presses im-

the

subject that

ignores the

when

Common

Errors

of

Observation

and

Experiment

425

death

did not
are

follow.

Other

generalizations belonging
never

to

this class there

must

(1) people

die

at

flood

tide; (2)
the first
a

be three
new moon

accidents
over

in succession; the
to

(3)

sight of
omen

the

right shoulder
root

is

good
horse

(4)
the in

seeds last

which

grow

do best when
moon;

planted

during
chestnut

days

of

the

waxing

(5)

pocket guards against sore

and undue interest.
over error

throat,etc.

(4)
The A

Sympathy
influence

of the heart
to

the brain when

is well known. he

physician

is liable
one

this
own

attempts
not

to

prescribe for
warps accuracy

of his

family. Sympathy actuallyinterfere

only
the

the

judgment
of
an

but it may observer's

a

with

honest and

perceptive powers.

(5)
These

Inattention short

fallible memory.
too

comings

are

apparent

to

demand

cussion. dis-

6.

THE

HYPOTHESIS.

Having
for
a a or cue

observed

the

facts, the
same.

mind

naturally seeks
the facts
as

explanation
and

of the

Hence
a

taking

bringing

into

play

constructive which is

imagination,
is then known

plausiblesupposition is advanced, disproved.

Such
a

proved
as an

supposition

hypothesis.
Definition.
An

hypothesis

is

supposition advanced

for purposes of explanation and proof.

First travels thousand illustration. from the
sun

The
to

facts

are

known
at

that
rate

light
of 186

the

earth, and
These

the

miles

per

second.

facts suggest the

prob-

426
lems:

The

Auxiliary
does of

Elements

of

Induction

(1)
this

How

the

light reach
so

the

earth? the
or

(2)
rate to

Why
at

rate

speed ; why
travels? To

much

faster than these

which

sound the
rare

solve

problems,

explain
viz., "A
transmits has
never

facts, the
medium

"ether" called heat

hypothesis
ether

is advanced:
space

pervades
This

and

the

lightand

of the sun."

hypothesis

been

conclusivelyproved.
Fact
:

Second

illustration.
eyes,

The

child leans
to

forward which The

and has is

squintshis
been
near

when

attempting
board
;

read

work

placed on sighted.
INDUCTION

the black

hypothesis:

child

7.

AND

HYPOTHESIS

DISTINGUISHED.

Induction the

is

matter

of

realizing generalizationsfrom
The
an

observation but
we

of

facts.

product

of

such

is

an

duction ina

know

that

hypothesis
What
term

is likewise

based generalization
An

upon
a

facts. broader is

is the difference than

or

induction, as such, is
soon as

hypothesis.
it induction. of

As
ceases

the
an

hypothesis

proved

disproved,
an

to

be

hypothesis,but
advanced be

still remains for purposes

An

hypothesis,being
ceases

tion explanaanalysis,

to

an

hypothesis when,
as soon

in the last
as

it fails is shown

to

explain. Moreover,
to

the

hypothesis

be

an

undoubted marks.

tinctive truth, it also loses its disAn

hypothetic
tentative induction.
:

hypothesis

is

merely

Illustrations

(1)
from is

The

hypothesis

is advanced

that After be
an

the the

fire started

the coal range

in the kitchen.
to

incendiary

caught, this supposition ceases

hypothesis.

428
clouds the
cannot

The

Auxiliary days
was

Elements

of

Induction

on

dark Even

the

angry

voice
a

of

the

God

of

skies. be

in this there

day
comes

when the

complex temptation
an

situation
to

explained
the
in

draw

entirely upon
which

imagination,and
every
sense

advance the there

at

hypothesis
The
missible per-

is absurd

of that

word. be
some

hypothesis demands
for the
as

ground
be used

conjecture.
foundation build.
we

fact

or

two

least must

the

for whatever On the other

to

the constructive hand the

tion imaginataught

may
us

past has

that

cannot

afford The

be too ideas

exacting in
of of
as a

the enforcement

of

this

rule. and

Copernicus, Newton,
the world's best ridiculous. truth" cated edu-

Harvey, Darwin,
thinkers, were
There
in the

many upon

another
at

looked
a

first

being
and

is

always

bare
no

of possibility broad minded

"lurking

conjecture,and
man can

sanely

afford to scoff blindlyat something

him
mere

which willful

may

seem

to to

fancy.
ever

Prejudice
been

and

blindness blocks

truth, have

imminent

stumbling

in the The This

path

of progress. be

(2)

hypothesis must
means,

capable of proof
it is
or

or

proof. dis-

that where
in
one

possiblethe hypothesis
our

should

touch,

form is

another,
unlike
any

ence. experi-

If the
we

hypothesis

wholly

experience
ascertain,
it is
must
or

may

have

had, it becomes
or

impossible
the

to

whether

it agrees
to
some

disagrees with
A

facts,which

supposed
furnish

explain.

legitimate hypothesis
for
to

opportunity example,
of conditions

securing
advance
next
an

facts to

prove

disprove it. For

to

tive hypothesis relais

the
as

the

world

hardly
our

missible, per-

are "spirit-facts"

entirelywithout

field

The

Requirements of a

Permissible

Hypothesis
Heaven is

429

of

experience. Surely, one

us no

returning from
it; because
be used
to

could in

give

conception
mind

of

there

nothing

the carnal

that may function

interpretthe experiences City.

It should
to

that must

in the Celestial
must

(3)
take
reason

The

hypothesis

be

adequate.
facts.

into consideration

all the known fact is It would

It stands

that, if
is thus

one

known

ignored, the
to

entire procedure
suppose

vitiated.

be absurd

the

moon

to

be
no

inhabited

without

giving

heed

to

the

fact of

its

having (4)
The

atmosphere. hypothesis
must

be

as

simple

as

possible.
in themselves

We

must,
are

of course,
too

recognize situations
to

which

complex
of the

admit rule

of

simple conjectures.
the

The should

purport
not

fourth

is, that

hypothesis

be made

complex. unnecessarily
not

(5)
truth.

The

hypothesis should

contradict the law

any

verified tion gravita-

Any conjecture which

be
out

opposed
Of
course

of

would have and

no

of

place.

it is the
new

possible to hypothesis
show that

only apparent
the old law. clash exists.

conflicts between Further observation

should

such

10.

THE

USES

OF

HYPOTHESES.

The

hypothesis
:

is

serviceable

mainly

in

these

ticulars par-

(1)
When becomes
waste

As
one

working

basis. with
a

is confronted
to

huge

mass

of with

facts it
as

necessary

start

somewhere,
as

and

little

of

time than

and
a

energy

possible.

Almost which

anything
reaches

is better

haphazard

floundering

430

The

Auxiliary
So the

Elements

of

Induction

"nowhere." which then he

at

hazards investigator
to

tentative

theory, fails,
one.

once

proceeds

verify.

If verification for
a

he may As
a

discard

this first
to

hypothesis
truth.
to

better

(2)
Much

guide
be

ultimate

might By

said

relative of

the

use

of has

rejected
advanced

hypotheses.

means

these, science

step by step towards

As the has been

the
no

full
true

light of perfect knowledge.

scientist
cares

remarked,
for

to

overlook
some

opportunity

suggestive inspirationwhich
may

forsaken

hypothesis
attains the
so

afford
success

him.

Just
his

as

the

vidual indi-

best

by using

failuresas
climbs

stepping stones,
to

the true

scientific discoverer discarded

up

the

lighton

the

stairway of
false the

hypotheses. By
the situation

testing and
becomes defined. different and due
more

rejecting the
definite and

hypotheses, problem
no more

accurately
nineteen

"Kepler

himself before
was

tried he

less

than the

hypotheses
success

hit upon in
no

right

one,

his ultimate
to

doubtless

slightdegree

his unsuccessful As
a

efforts." of immediate truth.

(3)

discoverer the The and

may

Often,

moreover,

tive hypothesis leads directlyto posisupposition advanced

be of such conclusive
may

verification. truth lead

hit the
as

squarely ; easilyto
As will

peculiar nature

to

clear and

proof.
a

(4)
which solution. The while

affording a probable explanation of

not

problem

lend

itself

to

an

entirely satisfactory

theory
the

of evolution the

may

illustrate this fourth of

use

history of

discovery

Neptune

illustrates

the third.

Characteristics

Needed

by Investigators
BY

431

11.

CHARACTERISTICS

NEEDED

SCIENTIFIC

TIGATORS. INVES-

The

hypothesis is
The and the
to

referred

to

"as

the great instrument have

of science." the
to

greatest thinkers
conscience hazard then
a

of time

possessed
the known

courage

to

step from
as

the

unknown;

guess

to

the
to

meaning
a

of what
test.

they

saw,

and

subject their
involves three

guess

ous rigoron

This

procedure

elements

the

: ( 1 ) Power part of the investigator

of accurate A

tion. observa-

(2)
truth.

Constructive

imagination. (3)

passion

for

(1 )
of work which
to

An

hypothesis formed
facts is
not

without

an

accurate

edge knowlit may

only useless,
To advance
on a

but

often

harm. positive
are a

serviceable
as

suppositions
it is

not

grounded
without the of

fact, is

as impossible,

build
an

house

foundation.

The

hypothesis
the fact. of

is

image

constructive
must

imagination,but
on

pedestal of
The

this

image
in

rest

the

ground

investigatorwho
care

would

be

scientific must

exercise

scrupulous
and
a

securinghis
The rules and

facts
errors

through observation
involved in such

experiment.
have

procedure (2)

received

sufficient attention. his

"

After these

the
may

has investigator be few

"

facts

to

build
even a a

upon

; and

or

many may

sometimes theorize
is where
some as

single
work

fact

is sufficient
of

then them.

he

to

possible explanation
of the but born

Here To

the facts

real
are

genius
to

tells.

the

nothing
and
seen

words,

others Who

they
but
a

mean

universal could

laws have Who

great inventions.
the law of

Newton

in gravitation

the

fallingapple?

432

The

Auxiliary
could wax?

Elements

of
the be

Induction

but sound

an

Edison
wave

have It

seen

phonograph recognized
in
some

in

the this
;

and

must

that

remarkable and

imaginative insight is
not

inborn

cases

yet this does

preclude the necessityfor cultivating

it may be

this power, Here is

to

though
another

only

in

rudimentary
school the

state.

opportunity

for

the

teacher;

namely,

train in every

legitimateway

constructive

imagination. (3) Having

once

constructed
once

the

hypothesis,the
to

est honit

scientific
to
a

investigatorat
most

proceeds

subject
to
see

series of in
a a

rigorous
fact;
to
"

tests.
a

It is well mind
as

big
new

things
ideas
more as

little watered

have

fertile in But

garden
have
pass
a

this is

genius!
so

is it

not

incumbent

to to

conscience

keen, that nothing

has
not

will be allowed

for truth

which

received

ample
common an

verification?
as

Intellectual

dishonesty
one a

is
must

quite

as

moral

dishonesty. Moreover,
candor, and
cherished
away

tain main-

open
the
to
a

mind, absolute
most

willingnessto
it is much than it is
to

abandon easier forsake

theory.

Often

explain

contradictory facts

pet theory.

12. The

OUTLINE.

Auxiliary
Experiment
"

Elements Hypothesis.
of

in

Induction

"

Observation

"

(1)
(2)

The

Foundation

Inductive

Generalizations.

Observation.

Defined. Defined.
with

(3)

Experiment. Compared

Observation.
and

(4)

Rules

for

Logical Observation
need.

Experiment.

Their

Outline

433

First

Rule. Rule. Rule.

Second Third Fourth

Rule.
Errors of

(5)

Common

Observation Ideas.

and

Experiment.

(1) Preconceived
(2) Confusing

the Observed

with

the

Inferred.

(3) Ignoring the Exceptions. (4) Sympathy (5) Inattention (6) (7) (8) (9)
The
and and

Undue
a

Interest.

Fallible

Memory.

Hypothesis.
Denned
and and and

Illustrated.

Induction

Hypothesis Distinguished. Theory

of
a

Hypothesis
The

Distinguished.
Permissible

Requirements

Hypothesis.
of

(1) Conceivable,
(3)

(2)

Capable (4)

proof (5)

or

disproof,
dictory. contra-

Adequate,

Simple,

Not

(10) Uses

of
A

Hypothesis. working basis, (2) Guide

Discoverer
of
to

(1)

ultimate

truth, (3)
Probable

immediate

truth, (4)

explanation.

(11) Characteristics (1) Accurate

Required

by

Scientific

Investigators.
imagination,

observer, (2) Constructive

for truth.

(3) Passion

13.

SUMMARY.

(1)
Induction

Facts

are

the
a

foundation
matter

of of

all inductive

generalizations.
from of facts.
as

is largely notions

building general notions

the
observa the ion

individual

derived
is the

from
act

(2)
may
ness

Observation

of

watching

phenomena
of
c

they

occur.
on

It involves the
case

the voluntary

concentration

mscious-

in

hand. is the
act

(3)
the

Experiment
of

of

making

phenomena reality a
of

occur

for
of

purpose

watching

for

effects.
a

It is in

form

observation

which

necessitates

manipulation

circumstances.

434

The

Auxiliary Elements
man

of
to

Induction

(4)
The

The

average

is

not

given

careful

observation.
The tion observa-

rules

adopted
be

by scientific observers
should
concern

are:

(1)
be

should

precise; (2)
be of

only the
have
been

material

circumstances; (3) should

For and

varied; (4) should

instruments instruments

isolated. invented
ments, measure-

the sake
methods

precision
balance

many

devised; notably
as

for accurate and

such
the

the

and

thermometer, complicated

methods

like

method

of
a

averages.

Frequently adjustment
An

situation
of

may

be

so

as

to

demand
pre-

"preadjustment
may

attention."
to

With
error.

the untrained

this very

lead

serious

"all-angled observer"
Errors in

is the
come

most

trustworthy.
from

(5)

observation with
and
a

preconceived
the

ideas;

confusing sympathy; (6)

An

perception

inference;
a

ignoring

exceptions;
of

inattention;
and

fallible memory.
for purposes

hypothesis is

supposition advanced

explanation
(7)
An of

proof.
a

hypothesis is
its tentative
and

tentative it

induction.
to

As
an

soon

as

it is

deprived (8)
when

nature

ceases

be

hypothesis.

Hypothesis
reference
be A used

is made

used often interchangeably theory are of low probability.Theory to phenomena instances

should

only

in

of

high probability.

be permissible hypothesis must (1) conceivable; (2) capable of proof or disproof; (3) adequate; (4) simple; (5)

(9)

must

not

contradict

any

verified

truth.

in these ioui hypothesis is especially serviceable particulars: (1) as a working basis; (2) as a guide to ultimate

(10) The

truth; (3)

as

discoverer

of

immediate

truth; (4)
which These
of

as

affording

probable explanations.
(11) There
courageous
are

certain

characteristics
to possess.

an

honest
are:

and
doubted un-

investigator

needs

(1)
a

ability as
To
as

an

accurate
a

observer for

facts, (2)
fact

structive con-

imagination, (3)
build
an

passion

truth. is
as

acceptable hypothesis without

a

impossible
the

it is to

build

house
of

without

foundation.

The

genius, because
into
a

his imaginative invention

or

insight,transforms
law. the
need

simple fact
A
"a

complex

dishonesty" suggests prevailing "intellectual truth." greater passion for

of

436

The

Auxiliary

Elements

of

Induction

(2)
have
you

Give

three

different
Defend

definitions
your

of

induction.

Which

one

adopted?
Define and

position.

(3) (4)

illustrate
between
we

observation. observation
and

Distinguish
"In observation

attention.
we

(5)
is meant

find, in experiment

make"

What

by
Give

this? illustrations
of

(6)

falsehood

due

to

careless

tion. observa-

(7)
in

Argue

for

and

against

the

use

of

"expectant

attention"

observation.

(8)
you

"Nine-tenths this?

of Labor

what the

we

see

comes

from

within."

Do

believe

question. which,
if

(9)
scientific

Offer

suggestions

followed,

should

lead

to

observation.

(10)
to

"One fine
Is
art
an

must

be

just before

he

is sympathetic."

Relate

this

the

of

accurate
a

observation.

(11) (12)

hypothesis
school
room

generalization?
examples
of

Explain.
which

Give

hypotheses

lead

to

injustice. (13)
clear "An

hypothesis
assertion.

is

merely

tentative

induction."

Make

this

(14)

Illustrate of

inconceivable

hypotheses

by

drawing

on

your

knowledge (15)
imminent
upon

ancient
and

history.
willful
in

"Prejudice stumbling

blindness the

to

truth

have

ever

been

blocks

path

of

progress."

Expatiate

this. Are the the

(16)
from
reasons.

hypotheses

advanced

concerning
of

communications

spiritual world

capable

proof

or

disproof?

Give

(17)

Show

by

historical

examples

the

use

of

discarded

hypotheses.
(18)
"Genius Defend "The
man

is
your

another

name

for

hard

work."

Do

you

agree? (19)
make

position.
whom

to

nothing

ever

occurs

is

unlikely

to

any

important

discoveries."

Discuss

this.

CHAPTER

20.

LOGIC

IN

THE

CLASS

ROOM.

1.

THOUGHT

IS

KING.

"Our hour
a

habits groove

make

or

unmake in the
a

us." the life

nerve

"In

thoughtless

is imbedded of

substance, and

thereafter, nine-tenths

flows

through
and
a

that
most

groove."

Habit

is, indeed,
and the

most

powerful
come

tyrannical master;
and is
even more even

yet

it has

within that
at
a

the

servation ob-

experience
than in the
a

of

many,

thought

masterful
moment

habit.

Appearing
way,

the psychological

and
possess

pedagogical
mind
an

thought
to

may

be

made

to

with

force

sufficient of

break the

almost

any
to

habit. this
are

From due

ethical
an

point

view,
arouse

exceptions
of which

to

inabilityto

thought

sufficient result

strength.
are

Moreover,

mental

actions re-

in habit

originallybrought Speaking thought

That
not

about

through
terms,
if
or

some

thought
be affirmed

process.

in

general
and

it may

that

makes
our

habit habits
true

sufficiently strong
unmake
us

breaks

habit.
is it
our

make that

may

be
or

true, but
unmake

likewise

our

thoughts Thought
is

make

habits? made has

man

king; thought
and the if

has

king
so

of

the

animal the
not

kingdom,
of that

thought

figured

largely in
may
we

evolution
assume

human

animal
sway

in past ages, future class

ages
room.

it will is
a

the

in

like Here

manner?

Thought
which

product

of the

thoughts

make

habits, and
437

thoughts

which

break

438
habits schools think
on

Logic
have full sway.

in the

Class

Room

As

the

children
men

of the American of American

so

think

to-day, so
and This

will the
as

life

the morrow;

America vital

thinks
to

will she

ultimately do.
which
may

lends

import

any

object

either

inspireor
OF

regulatethought.
INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION.

2.

SPECIAL

FUNCTION

As This

commonly implies the

directs

treated
two
means means

logic
of

is

regulative subject.
and correction. of

aspects

direction and

Logic
and
a as

by
by

of the laws

forms

thought,
To directive

corrects

of the rules of

rightthinking. logic are

of remark

certain
well
as

degree

both

departments
; but

of

corrective

it is

worthy

ductive that in-

logicemphasizes lays
shows
stress

the

former, while

deductive

logic

upon
man

the has

latter.

It is inductive
new

logic which
inductive the discoverer

how

acquired
of On

knowledge;

logicexplains the
and

mode

procedure adopted by
the other of criticism.
to

the inventor. science

hand, deductive
Induction and
correct

a logic is distinctly

directs
new

to

new

truth; deduction

aims

modify

truth.

3.

TWO

TYPES

OF

MIND.

Though
there
are

there but
two

are

many

special forms

of

thought, yet
induction and deductive
two

general forms; namely, thought

old. seeks the the

deduction.

Inductive
corrects

new;
are

thought
of mind former with

Similarly,there

types
The

the inductive
out

type and
new

the deductive

type.

reaches

for

things,the
the politics
a

latter is satisfied
man or

ordering

the old.

In

with
a

the

ductive in-

type of mind

becomes

"Liberal"

"Progress-

Two

Types of Mind
with
or

439

ive"; while
becomes conceded best
a

the

man

the
a

deductive

type

of

mind

"Conservative" that both

are

"Standpatter."
in the need but

It must

be
the

needed We

development of
an we

form
as

of Democracy.

unfettered
also need

dom freean

advocated freedom
as

by Jefferson; taught by

ordered

Hamilton.

4.

TOO

MUCH

CONSERVATISM

IN

SCHOOL

ROOM.

Since

the
"

beginning
the who

these

two
wants

mental
to

types have
do

been the

in evidence conservative it is

liberal who
wants
or no

things,and
the

to

weigh things. With

the
too
are

liberal,

fightwhether
the

; with

conservative,it is fight
formidable. needed
to

provided

enemy

is not both

The balance

one

dares; the other cautions:

world. Liberalism school receive
room,

the

and and

conservatism
to

may
a

be

fostered each case? the

in

the

maintain attention.

true

balance the and

must

its share of

of

Is

such

The

passing
of

"district-school-individualism

coming
the the it
seems phasis em-

"graded-school-collectism"has
from liberalism
to
to

transferred
"

conservatism

from

ductive in-

type
to

the

deductive
to

type.
the the

In

this

day

be

more

important
have it

have In

child's work

orderly.

than
papers

to

original.

main,
not

examination for

call for

correct

knowledge
are

and
on

thought;
not
on

in the

main, promotions
The

based

accuracy,

initiative.
schools
are

conservative
out too

type being in control, the

many

sending

"Decluctives,"
more

not

enough
and

"Inductives."

The

world

needs

Columbuses

Edisons.

440

Logic
THE METHOD OF

in the

Class

Room

5.

THE

DISCOVERER.

A
too

change
didactic
must

must

come.

The

methods

of instruction

are

and

not

inspirational. Greater sufficiently

to

attention
to

be

given

the

of discovery and spirit The teacher less and If

we are

less less

the

spiritof
more;

correction.
must

must

lead

and
must

follow

correct
more.

suggest
to

more;

tell less and

to

direct

give greater
aid mode in of

attention

the

trainingof discoverers, logic may

to

this crusade

by callingattention
the discoverers the

the

common

procedure which
This is
a

of the past have

adopted.

topic for legitimate

the discoverer's

since induction, logician, have

ever

deduction, hypothesis,and
tools in

proof
with

been
a

common

workshop.
the for seeks
:

With
common new

view mode

to

becoming

better

acquainted
man

of
us

procedure of the

who

truth, let

study
(1)
The present
from for
a

two

instances typical

The

Discovery of Neptune.
of it
was

discovery
century
his

Neptune
found

was

double Uranus
cause

one.
was

that the

Early in the straying widely

was

theoretic
time

positions, and
Two in
to

of

this deviation Adams 1843 and

in

long
and

unsuspected.
find
an

astronomers,
former
cause

land Englatter

Leverrier

France, the
out

in of

the

in the

1845, undertook supposition

reached
to

the

this

perturbation, on
Uranus.
astronomers

of his

undiscovered

planet beyond
the

Adams

result

first,and
of all the

English
in that
of

began sky.
sent
an

search
a

for the careful

on

suspected
map

planet with
stars

their telescopes, by part his

of

first making
But

the

Leverrier,
result
map
to

reaching the
formed this
was

conclusion
where of with
at
once

search,
that in

his
accurate

the
had

Berlin

observatory,

it chanced
stars

just been comparing

all the

the
new

suspected September,

region.
1846.

On called

the

sky, the
discovered,

planet, afterward

Neptune,

23d

Too

Much

Conservatism

in

School

Room

441

(2)
"M.

Bees

are

guided by
took
a

in their

flight by
of in

knowledge

of

their

surroundings,
Romanes

not

general
a

sense

direction.
a

score

of
to

bees

box

out

to

sea,

where
of
on

there them the lot

could

be

no

landmarks Then
of

guide the insects home.

liberated
a

None bees
another

returned seashore
on

home.
and
none

he these

second

lot of

returning, he
and from

liberated None
to

the lawn

between

the shore distance

the house. the

lawn

of

these
was

returned, although
not
more

the

the

hive

than

two

hundred the flower

yards. garden
to

Lastly he
on

liberated bees
side
of

in

different and these

parts of
at
once

either

the

house,

returned

the

hive."

(Hibben.)

of instances multiplication
to

would of

only give stronger procedure adopted

to

evidence

the

fact that the mode and inventor antecedent

by

the

discoverer

conforms

these

three
an

general steps: hypothesis, (3)

to

(1)

facts, (2)
It will be three
to
our

forming

verification.

advantage

study (1)
In the

somewhat

in detail these facts.

steps.

Antecedent

of Neptune discovery,

the decisive deviated

or

crucial his

fact
true

was

the

knowledge
the
sun.

that

Uranus This

from
was

path
the
not

about

knowledge
of been

obtained But could

through

observation of

and the

mathematical

calculation. another for the

hypothesis
have been of

existence had it not

planet
more

formed

mental fundaetc.

facts
For be the sake

inertia, gravitation,fallingbodies,
definiteness antecedent facts and facts may
or

of

thus

divided The

into

foundation
are an

crucial of the

decisive The

facts.

latter fact

outgrowth
second

former.

foundation knowledge
doubt, the

of

the

illustration

is Romanes'

of animal observation home.

instinct;while
that
case

the crucial

fact is,no

bees

fly in

circle before

startingfor

In the

of Newton's

discovery of

442

Logic
law of

in the

Class Room

the

the fallingof gravitation, his

the

apple

was

the

crucial

fact; while
to

knowledge

of

terrestrial

gravity

proved
A

be the vital foundation

fact. leads

crucial

fact
a

is

one

which

immediately
It is not
a

to to

the be

formation of
inferred
one

reasonable this that The the

hypothesis.
same

from

fact becomes the

crucial crucial

to
a

all alike.

of falling With

apple was
with Both the the

only only

to

genius

like Newton. become

the average

dinary extraor-

facts

crucial; but
become crucial. foundation into
a

genius
scholar

any

ordinary
the latter may world

fact may
may

and the

genius

have

the

facts, but
fact
or

only
a

be able to read

dry

event,

new

of truth.

(2)
From of

Forming
the

an

Hypothesis.
of

viewpoint

logicalcorrectness,
due look the attention
at

the

matter

hypothesis has
we

received
now

in

an

antecedent the fact

chapter;
eyes
at

need

to

the

subject through
crucial is

of the discoverer, not

an

logician. The perplexity which

state

first creates with

an

intellectual

panied accom-

uneasy,

dissatisfied the
some

of
to

mind.

This

unsatisfied

feeling
As
a

drives

intellect

protracted
constructed is where

thought.
which
seems

final result

hypothesis is
fact.

to

explain
in
a

the

crucial vital

Here No

analogy
is been

functions

most

manner.

hypothesis
fact. It has

forthcoming
remarked

unless

it resembles that

the crucial

elsewhere of

analogy
So is it

is the basic element that transpires, mental the which the fort efwell
the

in the

forming

hypotheses.
to,

protracted thought referred

to

virtuallya
between

detect crucial

resemblances significant

known

fact,and

some

hypotheticalfact

444

Logic

in the Class

Room

illustration of this form. noted that Romanes' mode

Possibly the
of and

student

has

already
to

procedure

conforms
In

the
case

"jointmethod
of rational

of agreement

difference."

the

proofs

the

hypothesis is subjected to
of fair

ive deduct-

demonstration, either of the form

or

syllogistic ment argusample of this

of universal and the

mathematical verification When

calculation. is Newton's he decided

kind

of

discovery
that the
same

gravitation.
undertook

the

moon

apple might be
he
to

controlled establish first his

a

by
his

universal

force,

hypothesis by
to
new

mathematical

calculation.

At after

figures seemed
of
ten

disprove
data

his

theory, but
to

wait the

years,

relative

the

diameter
In

of the

earth, removed
of

the of

apparent

crepancy disthe

case

the

discovery
and led to
a

Neptune,

verification

was

both

rational

empirical.
the

matical Mathethat

(rational)calculation
the
new

assumption
With

planet must
was

be at such enabled

point.
turn to

this knowledge the

was

the observer

to

his

telescopeto

spot

indicated

and

there,

true

the

calculations,

Neptune
To
a

(empirical).
The certain method of the discoverer involves fundamental
a

summarize: of

knowledge
of

tion facts; the observathe

crucial

facts;

mental

unrest;

constructing
cation finallyverifimathematical

of

an

hypothesis through analogy; by

either

and

appeal

to

experience, or

demonstration.
6.

THE

REAL METHOD

INDUCTIVE NOT
IN

METHOD VOGUE
IN

OR CLASS

DISCOVERER'S ROOM
are

WORK. two

It has mind

been

remarked

elsewhere liberal and

that there the

eral gen-

types, the

conservative.

Also

Real

Inductive

Method

Not

in

Vogue

445

that the natural

method the

of

thought animating
method of is the
of

the former
of the
new

inductive; while

natural

thought
truth.
In

latter is deductive.

The

"liberal"
an

apostle of

truth; the "conservative"

types
are

apostle
balance service

safe

Both
quence conse-

needed both

; the

one are

to

the other. in the

methods be

of its

class

room;

here

each

should does is

given

proportionate place.
may
to not

That since

this condition much such "from attention

as

not

obtain

be apparent, inductive
to

being given
from the
etc.

certain

forms,

"proceeding
the

the

concrete

the

abstract,"
to

particularto unknown,"
text

general,""from
Likewise
to

the known
of

the related and

the

courses

study
use

the various

books, claim

advocate facts

the

of

the inductive
a

process.

Seemingly these
of the

point toward
tenets.

very

general
with of but
one

observance vital

inductive Induction it he

This

is true method

exception :
With

is the natural edge; knowl-

the

discoverer. class
room

acquires
is used
to

in the In
own

induction discoverer first hand;

impart

knowledge.
thinks
room,

life the

takes but is

the in
not

initiative,
the school
to

his

thoughts

above
the

the

kindergarten, the
even

child

allowed is

take for
over.

not initiative,

in his

play.
but

All

planned
of
must

him,

all doled

out, not
must

in the raw,

made partially
amount

The

teacher in
a

impart
and for

certain

knowledge
"set allow the

given time,
in this
race

consequently
second hand

she

pace"

facts.

To
own

the child to lead; to

give him
to
use

the benefit of his the God

to permit individuality;

him

given spirit
be

of

discovery

which

clamors
to
our

for

recognition; would
standards. If

suicidal

according

present

the

446

Logic
of the discoverer
not

in the

Class

Room

plan
could and and In FORM
a

were

followed, the
would

course

of

study

be covered; would be

children

fail of promotion; from both

criticism

forthcoming

principal

parent.
the
average

class

room

of
is

the
not

day

the

inductive
Like

prevailsbut
in
to

the SPIRIT

in evidence. entered

wolf

sheep'sclothing induction
that his

has

the class

room

devour raised

primal
race

force

in the child's

make-up,
Our

which
class in

has
room

above

his simian in form

to

ancestors.

methods,
train leader

being
in

inductive

but deductive

spirit, may
never a

the youngster

be

camp
The

follozver
call of the
more

but

thought

and
more

action.

day is for

more

initiative ; for
more

originality ; for
There that is
too

for individuality;
form and

enthusiasm. much native from

much

without refinement

the

spirit;so
those
one our come

bespeaks system
and native the and and
turies cen-

without mark

impulses
another.
are

abilities which books of

a

child

Like

library
when
next
more

children

classified
are

labeled,and placed
on

in the others shelf. How

dusted
more

the
we

higher
before the

many

must
as

wait

the schools

will adopt, in spirit life?

our

well

as

in

form,
ever come

pedagogical principlesof
when it may
are

Will

the time in

be said that all

leaders

thought

and

action

collegegraduates ?

7.

AS

METHOD TO

OF

INSTRUCTION

DEDUCTION

IS

SUPERIOR

INDUCTION.

The

inductive

method

is

pre-eminently
both he

the

method

of

the discoverer he

only when
the

it involves

the

form,

which
so-

follows, and

which spirit,

evinces.

The

Deduction

is

Superior
room

to

Induction

447

called
as

method

of

the is

school from in

is inductive
to

in

form, impart

the

procedure

particular facts
as spirit,

general

truths; but

deductive If it were
to

it is used the spirit,

to

knowledge.
be allowed initiative. whereas

inductive

in

child would his

own

acquire knowledge entirely through

is the method of
or

Deduction

of

instruction,
That the and
so

induction

is the method is instructed

to not

discovery.

child of the school

not

better
a

"deducted" situation further. made

a

generally allowed
that Because
we

discover, is
labor
process

parent ap-

need

the

point
been

the inductive

has of

method

of
over

instruction,it has been

deduction. is

robbed
as a

its chief of It

advantage
instruction,

Indeed,

method

deduction

reallythe superior method.

greater concentration, often
creates

requires less
more

time, demands
and interest,

arouses

situations

which

are

less involved.

8.

CONQUEST

NOT

KNOWLEDGE

THE

DESIDERATUM.

In
nature.

all great In in

inventions,man
the his

has

taken

his model

cue was

from the
cave.

inventing
has
to

telescope,his
nature's them.

eye;

building his house,

was inspiration

the

In then
met

reality man attempted

with
success.

accepted
From
spy;

suggestions, and
In this he he has has veloped delaid which attained of

improve

upon

the

crab

apple tree,
wild hen the modern
man

the 25
eggs
a

northern
year,

from

the

which hen has

he
a

has

evolved

produces

225

eggs
successes

year.

Moreover,

his greatest
nature

by enlarging upon by
unmixed of years, has

the

thoughts
the color

and
a

not

substitutions.

Burbank,
of

through

long

process

changed

448 flower, but

Logic
in

in the

Class

Room

accomplishing
of

this did

he with

not

use

some

hidden

tendency
cannot

nature?
a

Burbank,
color

dom, all his wis-

give

flower

unaided

by

"Dame

Nature."
When
man

commenced that
in energy
more

to

study

nature's
were

mode

of education,

he in time evolved and

a

saw

fearful
as

sacrifices
as

entailed,both itself;and
the
so

well

in life of

he

economical

way

leading
In

child he

through
has
In

the

experiences of
the

the

race.

consequence,

developed
the

present
of

splendid system

of

education.
are

evolution crucial

all great

there institutions, in the evolution he has erred

in

evidence

weaknesses, and
it appears education
to

of man's in

educational nature's

system

that

ing adoptcation. edu-

form of
has

without the young nature's

her

spirit of

In his
as man possible,

anxiety
word

have

acquire as
purpose.

much

overshot in
word

true

For is
tem systo

example,

the
;

big

man's

educational

system

knowledge

but

the

big

in nature's

educational

is conquest. reward
fellow

Nature his

gives man
man

knowledge simply
would

him the

for
reward

effort; but
without
men are

give

to

his
to

the those
men

effort. According
who
are

nature,

the strongest
to man,
common

overcome

most; who
know
as,

according
most.

the strongest

those

The the

educational
to

principles, such
and from the
known

"From
to

concrete

the

abstract etc.,
are

the

related

unknown,"

interpreted by
nature

man

from

the

viewpoint of knozvlcdge; whereas

are
a

would
"

teach
to

'that these
manhood.
a means

feasible
seen

way

to nature

develop power
uses

grow
as

It is
to
an

that

knowledge
man uses

onlv

end, and

therefore

when

Conquest knowledge
of his
own an

not

Knowledge only,he
is

the Desideratum

449

as

end

trying to
The

substitute results

a can

plan
be

for

nature's
man

plan.
time

best

secured

only
and

when
at

co-operates

zvith nature

in

veloping de-

the

same

regulating,the spiritof

conquest.
9.

MOTIVATION

AS

RELATED

TO

THE

SPIRIT

OF

COVERY. DIS-

It has fact"

been

remarked
to

in this mind

chapter, that
of the natural
power

the

"crucial coverer dis-

serves

stir the

born

to

an

raised activity

to the nth

of effectiveness.
to solve

Naturally,the mysteries which

of the mind termed "the the

intent of such crucial fact may

is activity

the
sion pas-

suggest.
it" is

This

to "know

more

about From is

appropriately
of the

mental

urge." urge"
hand;
know

the

viewpoint
an

pedagogue,

the "mental
at

simply

intrinsic interest of
an

in the situation
or

an

interest born

innate

acquired passion to
With
the
average

the truth.

child, the "mental appeal

to
some

urge" is strong
immediate make the the need school child's

only
or

when

the

situations The

vital

experience.
and curiosities

attempt

to

work natural the

term to

concrete

vital; to make
and real

it

answer

is dignifiedwith necessities, that this is

a new

name

"motivation."
an

It is obvious To motivate which

for
to

old condition. it
an

the work, situation

means

give

attractiveness born

any

might

have would learn

for
use

the

true

discoverer method the

and

inventor.

//
be

we

the discoverer's

we successfully,

must
complished ac-

the art

of motivating

work.

This

may

by appealing to
and instincts,
to

the

to play instincts,

ness the busi-

the vital interests

of every

day life.

450

Logic
DISCOVERER'S METHOD ADAPTED

in the

Class

Room

10.

METHOD TO

OR CLASS

THE

REAL ROOM

INDUCTIVE WORK.

A
to

revolt

has

already

set

in

against this
to

insatiate

desire

teach

knowledge,
are

rather
a

than

teach of Less
more

the child.

Manywhich is
to

schools

permitting
every

study
life.

those

topics

vitallyconcern given
to

day

attention
attention of
to

being
self rected di-

formal

and discipline, will the

activity. Gradually
toward than the fitting in

scheme work

education the

be

the fitting child to

school

child, rather
this will
new

the school is

work.
us,

When then

thought
device
to

education method be

fully upon
toward
so

every

and

directed

giving

full scope
possesses

the

spiritof inquiry, which

normal child. for
us

completely

every

It

now

remains

to

indicate

ways

in which
may

the be

spiritof inquiry, or adapted

we

the

"discoverer's work. In it is the

method,"
first

to

school

room

illustration,
in the

shall outline school This

may

the where

topic as
be

generally given paid by

a

average

attention

is

to

development
outline mode of

work. which

will be

then

followed of the

second

suggestive

discoverer's

procedure.
First
I.

illustration.
:

School addition

Room

Method. fractions.

Aim

To

teach

of business

11.

Preparation:
(1)
3

(Only type examples given).

(2)
3 parts Rule:

(3)
Only
can

bushels

like numbers
be

-j-5bushels
8 bushels

-)-Sparts
8 parts

added.

452

Logic
"Now

in the

Class

Room

terms."

I wonder
as

how and
your

many

know "Don't
on
a

how
you

to

add

fractions, such
one,

2/5

1/5?"
answer answer

tell any
paper

Mary,
show

but it
to

just write
me."

piece of

and

(Mary's

shows

that she

has

thought correctly,but having "John

raised has the
his

figured incorrectly. John,

his
answer

after

hand, shows

to

the

teacher.)
us

rightanswer."
"I wonder will find the Discuss
secure

"That's how

fine,but
others

let

keep
are

the secret,

John."

many

there

in this class who Vital need

:

right way?"

etc., or
tions occupa-

with

the class the various

of life and
may

expressions of preference.
estate

Some
or

plan

to

be

real
etc.
us

agents, others
you

contractors
to

book

keepers,
"Let

"George,
suppose

plan
"Show

be
you

book

keeper."
of book

that

I have

given

the you
124

job
are

keeper
your wages

in

my

factory."
these it?"

that

worth

by adding
can't do

numbers: "Then
I

3/4,
want

647 2/3." you!"

II.
etc.

"What!

don't

Preparation : (2) Bring

to

the

foreground

the

necessary

tional founda-

knowledge.

Suggestions:
4

bushels bushels

parts
parts

+3

+2
10

7 bushels III. Presentation Make

:

parts

(3)
Add

evident

the crucial
2

fact. Suggestions:
3

fifths fifth

eighths eighth

+1
4

3 fifths

eighths

Discoverer's

Method

453

(4)
and takes This

Without suitable

further

suggestion,give
for

the

young
sum

coverer disof

opportunity
act

finding the

y%

y%.

In the in marks

of

discovering, an
climax of the
tact

implicithypothesis
lesson the

form

the

mind

through analogous reasoning.

"

point

the

supreme

moment,

when

the skill and

of the teacher have

a

is assessed comfortable is be

to the limit.

Just
where be

here

the child must

environment

perfect
forced; and

concentration there should

possible. nothing

Nothing

must

suggestive of disgrace or
is unsuccessful. books. If
more

bus shame, if the youthful Columfirst attempt

access

The

should
to

be without
may

help

is needed,

books

be

given.
then
as

If the
a

is investigation
resort

still without
may,

definite result, of

last

the

teacher

in the presence deliberation he has

the child,add after

fractions, solvingwith
until the child

example

example,

believes

discovered

the process.

(5)

Stimulate

desire to
to

verify the facts discovered.

Afford
tunity oppor-

Suggestions leading
for
The mathematical fractions and

verification: demonstration.

Illustrations:
in this way
"

"4

y% have

been 2/8

added

y4=

5/8
Use
assumes

is

now

made
"

of the crucial

fact,when

the

example

this form

eighths
eighths

+3
5

eighths

454

Logic
if the class has the

in the

Class

Room

Or
gram

been

trained

in the. of

use

of the dia:

following may

be the

form

proof

*{
HExplanation
parts
and
are

from

diagram.
3 the

see sum

that of

equals
and

2 2

equals

parts; the
name

3 parts

parts
hence Thus

5 parts.
answer

But

of the

part is eighths;
5

the the

5 parts may is
2

be written

eighths,or

y%

final form

parts Parts

+3
5 Give

parts=^
answers

opportunity

to

consult

in

text

books

as

further The

verification.
summary
to

and

applicationof adding
method,"
in
are

fractions

cording ac-

the

"discoverer's

virtuallythe
"school
room

same

as

the

corresponding steps

the

method." Second David well

Illustration of Discoverer's
P.

Method. Practice in of

Page

in his

Theory

and

Teaching
a

illustrates the exercise

discoverer's

method We

conducting
do

general
than
to

in nature him
of
:

study.

cannot

better

quote from
purpose of

''It is the of

the
the

manner

to give following remarks with reference conducting exercises

the

specimen
to

waking
us

up

mind

in the

school has

and

also

in the that
on

district. the
next

Let

pose supat ten

that the teacher

promised

day,

Discoverer's

Method

455

minutes

past

ten

o'clock, he shall request

five minutes
very to
announcement

the whole that excite

he
an

school
may

to

give
to

their show
in

attention them.
and

something
will

have

This
at

interest

both

when the curiosity) (playing upon ; and in the morning they will be more than the children wakeful come At the precise time, the teacher usual tillthe fixed time arrives. gives the signal agreed upon, and all the pupils drop their studies When there is perfect silence and and sit erect. strict attention

school

home

by all, he
holds it up familiar

takes

from

his

pocket

an

ear

of

corn

and

in silence
for

before

the

school.

The

children

smile,
in

it is

object (foundational knowledge

not

already

hand)

; and

corn." to be fed with they were Teacher. "Now, children,"addressing himself to the youngest, "I am going to ask you only one question about this ear of corn. I ask the If you can answer it,I shall be very glad. As soon as under question, those who seven are old, and think they years raise their hand. What is this ear give an answer, can of may

they probably did

suspect

corn

for?"
Several of the children after another
one

to

hands, and the teacher points in order, and they rise and give their
with. the
cows.

raise their

answers.

Mary.

It is to

feed the

the

geese

John.
Sarah. Laura. it
to

Yes, and My

hens, too, and

corn

pigs.

father

gives
to eat.

to

the

It is good

They shell

it from

the cobs make

and bread

send

the meal
am

mill, and
and
sorry
we

it is ground
eat

into meal.

They
have
I

of

the
"I
use

it. that
none

to

tell you

of

you

mentioned

the

was

thinking of, though,

I shall
now

I of

confess,
corn

expected desk, and

You

it every
no

minute. of you take The mother into

next
a

put the
to
me

ear

in my

one now

must

speak
studies."

about

it till to-morrow.

may

your

consequence

of this would brothers of the

and

be

that various

father, families,
themselves
:

and

older

would sisters,
on

resolve of
corn

committee

whole

the

ear

and

by the
to

morning
with

several
on

children

would The the

have hour first

something
would

further

communicate awaited

the

subject.
and

this

day

be

great

interest

signal would

produce

perfect silence.

456
The

Logic
teacher it before
now

in the

Class

Room

takes

the

ear

of

corn a

from
number
to

the

desk of

and

plays disare

the
as

school;
if eager
for
says

and be

quite
the

hands other

instantly raised they

The
you
use,

to

first

tell what

use

have

discovered
now

it.

teacher have

pleasantly,"The
I have
no

use

I
a

am

thinking
course

of

all observed,
but I
as

doubt;
of

it is

very
common

important give
it.

indeed;

it

is
not

little out
be

the
you

(crucial facts)

shall

surprised

if

cannot

However,
"It

you

may to

try." boil,"
says

is good
as

little Susan, it is for

away
a

almost

springing
to

from
says

the

floor

she
"I

speaks.
saw

"And
carry

squirrels
whole

eat,"

little Samuel.
from the

one

mouthful

day yester-

cornfield." other teacher

answer

Others
name

still mention
one

uses.

Perhaps, however,
in

none

will

the

the

has if

his

own

mind;
is
you

he

should

cordially welcome
that I
was

the
been
was

perchance it
"I have
one

given.
that

ing (Supposthe
answer

it has

not

given.)
a

told

thinking
The
: use

of

very

simple
be
a

; it is

something
when of the
ear

you

have I tell is

all observed
you.

and I

you

may

little

disappointed
for

have

been It is

thinking of
for seed,
to

corn

this

It

is to

plant.
corn."
as

propagate the knew

that

species of
may

plant called

(Verification.)Here
as

children
that

look
The

disappointed
teacher
corn;
ears

much
: one

to

say,

We
a

before.
use

continues
for if
grew
more

"And
year
year

this
none

is

very

important
be be

for all

the
the

for

should should
uses

planted,
consumed,
named
more

and
we

that
no

the
corn.

before other
to

should merely
ear

have

The
mean

you

have

were

secondary.
corn.

But
next

make
Do

something
other

of

my

of

My
new

question is:

plants have

seed?"

Here

is

field of inquiry, etc., etc.

From

the

standpoint of

"the

greatest

amount

of knowledge of presentation time and from is, the

"

in the shortest
consumes an

possibletime,"
inexcusable

this mode of

amount

therefore, "impracticable." But

when

viewed

ground

of

and initiative, interest,originality, of the "new

conquest

the watchwords is
no

thought
or

in education" The

; there

real

waste

in either time

energy.

and spirit

Discoverer's

Method

'

457

method

of

the discoverer the

will

no

doubt

be the educational

slogan of Epitome
room:

future

age.

of Discoverer's

Method,

adapted

to

the

class

(1 )

Motivate
to

the

topic to

be

presented.
the

(2) Bring (3)

(4)
Make Furnish

mind, if necessary,

"foundational

facts." evident every of the "crucial fact." for

a

opportunity
the

first-hand

covery dis-

"lesson-point" (establishing

hypothesis through analogy).

(5)
The

Let

the

hypothesis be
must

verified. be
one

entire

situation

of freedom, zeal,

and originality,

initiative.

11.

THE

QUESTION
ONE

AND OF

ANSWER DISCOVERY.

METHOD

NOT

SARILY NECES-

No than mode
art

one

mode

of

presentationis
answer."

more

universallyused advantages
is
an

the
are

"question and
many

The who

of this in the is

and

the teacher
the
common

adept

of

questioning,from
The is questioning,
use

standpoint of knowledge,
error,

generallyefficient.
to

however, incident

much the

that of

questions." asking "telling along

have the
a

By

of

such, the class is forced

so

desired

channel where

of the

thought

rigorously as
rules

to

condition It is possible

spirit of inquiryis entirely wanting.

to

to

conform the

the all

of

good questioning,and
initiative. method From demands than

yet rob

class of

and originality discoverer's of

the teacher's few

viewpoint, the

questions;

it is the method

suggestionrather

458
of

Logic

in the

Class

Room

one

questions. Avowedly
ask the and
answer

in this
own

method, the children

should from

their

questions.
are a

Viewed of

ground (i)

of

discovery
may

there

three

modes

presentation which
These
answer are

represent

progressive
the In

series. and first

the

lecture the mode

mode,

(2)

question
the
; in the

mode,

(3)

by suggestion.
the discoverer of spirit of this
room

there
there

is littleof the is
a

of spirit of the

second

trifle more there select

the

discoverer; while
student
a

in the third advised

to

is much
some

spirit. The
topic with

is
to

class
modes

view

these illustrating

three

of

presentation.

(6)
vogue

The
in

real inductive
room

method

or

Discoverer's

Method

not

in

class
a

work.
of

(7)
(8)

As

method

instruction, deduction

is

superior

to

induction.

Conquest,

not

knowledge,

the

desideratum.

460
to

Logic
experience,
the class

in the

Class Room

recourse

or

empirical;
induction
are

and

appeal

to

reason,

or

rational.

(6)

In

room,
we

is used
the

in

form,

not

in the

spirit; in
camp

consequence

neglecting

generals

for

followers. The while inductive the method is logically the

is the been

(7)
In

method
of
to

of

covery, dis-

deductive both

method
have

method
devoted

instruction.
the
matter

the class room, instruction.

methods
of

of

Because
over

this, induction

has

been

robbed

of

its chief

advantage
Man

deduction. his and

way

(8)
the

has
of

attained
nature

greatest
not

success

by enlarging
substitution.
the

upon

thoughts
upon

by
of

an

absolute

In has

enlarging adopted
In

nature's of
of

educating
has

child,
is without

man

her

form

procedure, but
man's seek
way;

lost her

spirit of

work.

his

scheme

education,
To is man's

watchword

knowledge, inspiring
way
a

while

nature's

is conquest. conquest

knowledge
whereas

the

spiritof
must

nature's
as

is to

encourage

the spiritof conquest co-operate

with

by using knowledge
if the best

reward.
to

Man

nature,

results

are

be

secured.

(9)
endow with

In the

the

case

of

the

true

discoverer, it is
with
need
to

not

necessary

to

object of subject
to

his thought
may

added be

attractiveness;
stimulated
be

but

the

child
the

enthusiasm in

vating" by "moti-

hand. vital

This

may

accomplished

by

appealing
innate

directly
of

the

needs, worldly against that

so

and necessities,

cravings
A revolt

the is in

child

mind.

(10)
teach schools

evidence has
been

insatiate

desire

to

knowledge,
are

which

marked of
work

in the past. which look

Already
toward

conquest
When

introducing departments rather than knowledge.

adapted
to

the

school

room

the

discoverer's

method

naturally resolves
(1) "Motivate" (2) Bring
to

itself into these the mind

five steps:

topic for
"foundational

presentation.
facts." fact."

(3) Vividly make (4) Lead

to

evident

the "crucial

discovery of

"lesson-point."

(5) Afford
(11) The

opportunity for verification.

and
answer

question

method

of

presenting work,

Summary
does
not

461
to

necessarily give full

by the
matter true

scope

the

spirit of inquiry

as

emulated As the which

a

born

discoverer.

spirit of
may

be

affording opportunity for the development of three modes of presentation discovery, there are arranged in a progressive series :
of

(1) The
for

lecture

mode

in which

there

is little opportunity

mode question and answer which permits some opportunity for discovery. (3) The mode by suggestion which permits ample opportunity for discovery.

discovery.

(2) The

14.

REVIEW

QUESTIONS. that

(1) (2)
and

Show

thought
directs truth."

may
to
new

be

made

to

make

and

break
to

habit.

"Induction
new

truth, deduction
conservatism
to

aims

modify
and

correct

Explain and
and

illustrate this. induction

(3) (4)
of

Relate

radicalism

deduction. Show that in the present

day school
is
a

the spirit situations,

deduction

(5) (6) (7) (8)

prevails. Describe a discovery which

method. with Indicate method.

typical illustration of the general steps in the

between

discoverer's

explanation the
the

coverer's dis-

Show
facts"

by
and

illustration

difference

tional "founda-

"crucial facts."

the "crucial fact" leads to the construction Explain how of an hypothesis. of verification. (9) Explain and illustrate the two ways it is used the inductive method as (10) Distinguish between in the class
room,

and

the

inductive

method

as

used

by

the

discoverer.

(11) Show

that

in

his

inventions,
and show

man

enlarges

upon

the

thoughts of nature. (12) Explain "motivation"

an

that it is

new

name

for

old

situation.

(13) In adapting the discoverer's

are

method

to

class work, what

the

successive

steps

to

be

followed?

method (14) Show by illustration that the question and answer the spiritof discovery. is not which necessarily one encourages

462

Logic

in

the

Class

Room

15.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

GATION. INVESTI-

(1) (2) showing

deduction

"Our Select that is "There

and

pet
some

thoughts
class is
less

control
room

us."

Discuss
for

this. the
purpose

experience

of

induction
more or

especially directive
corrective in of
nature.

in

nature,

whereas

(3)
Inductives

are

just

two

kinds

people

in

the

world,

the

the the

Deductives'' schools

Explain.
out too

(4)
Argue

Are the
"It

sending

many

Deductives?

question.
is

(5)
the

the

business

of

the

teacher

to

teach

himself

out

of

business."

Explain.
up

(6)
a

Look
of

the

discovery
that
in

of
event

the well

laws

of

the

pendulum,
the fact
of

with the

view

showing
steps the with
this

the the

illustrates method.

three

general
"With
but

discoverer's

(7)
crucial;
crucial."

average,

only
any

extraordinary
ordinary
fact

facts
may

become become

the

genius

Make

clear.

(8) (9) (10)

in the

Explain
Illustrate Show class

"mental

urge."

Illustrate. also "rational

"empirical
illustration falls far

proof,"
that short the

proof."
method
as

by
room,

inductive

used of the

of

being

the

method

discoverer.

(11)
rather

Indicate than Show Outline the

by

citing
makes
would for

historical for

examples,

that

conquest

knowledge
how
a

manhood.
a

(12)

you

motivate

topic in geography. topic in

nature

(13)
to

plan

teaching

some

ing accord-

discoverer's
a

method.
in

(14)

Select

topic

arithmetic,
of the

for

the and

purpose
answer

of

giving
mode"

comparative

illustration
and

"question

of

presentation,

the

"mode

by

suggestion."

CHAPTER

21.

LOGIC

AND

LIFE.

1.

LOGIC

GIVEN

PLACE

IN

SECONDARY

COURSE.

"To

prepare

for

complete living" seems

any

to

be

the

mate ultidoes

aim
not

of education, and
to

school

subject which
from of the

aid

this

end

must

be for

eliminated the sake

courses

of
not

study.
do
to

"Knowledge
age
must

knowledge"
A

will in

in this survive

of

practical efficiency.
show indications
man

subject

order in

of doing
If

its share
can

this

larger

business

of

building.
itself in
no

it

be

made
to

evident
an

that

logic lends
may
not

undecided in
a

terms

such

aim,

then be

its

incorporation

secondary highly

course

of

study

only justified but

more

appreciated.

2.

MAN'S

SUPREMACY

DUE

TO

POWER

OF

THOUGHT.

That is due

man

is the

supreme
:

agent
to

of

intelligent progress
of the natural
; third,
as a

to three ;

factors
to

First,

the existence of
man

world
to

second,

the existence Given

it is

himself the world

man's
to

to ability

think. and life,

life and

place

evolve

that

barely possible that thought

he could animal
us

man never

might
have

have become

survived, but without

supreme.
Man is

king of

the Let

dom king:

because

of
when
was

his power

of thought.
was a nor

illustrate land
;
we

Ages
when

ago

England
no

part of the main

there

North

Sea
463

English Channel

464
are

Logic
told that there lived

and

Life
forest
tracts
as

in the

there

about

many

large and
lion, and
and tusks claws
a

ferocious

animals There

; such

the elephant,

the

the

tiger.
a

lived also in the animal.

to

region
creature

smaller had and

no no

apparently
to

weaker
no

This

hook

with,
with has

great jaws
an

crunch

with, \
have

to tear

; and
no

eye

witness

would

said "Such enemies the of

weakling
become
a

chance possible

against these
and

|
1
"

his; he and

his descendants extinct." The

will succumb

specieswill
a

region was changed

What

tropical ;
the
tern-

but, of
perature
The south built
name

sudden,
from and
a

cataclysmic twist
to
a

torrid

frigidstate.
either but this

happened
to

f
'"

large
or

ferocious
to

animals

migrated
on

the
j

froze

death;

weakling put
as

furs,
His

and fires,
was

remained and brain

in the

jungle
no

its

king.

fe

man,

though
to

he had

horns
gave

to hook

with,

he

possessed a
over

think

with; this

him

acy suprem-

the the

forces

of

nature.

From has been

beginning

the

adaptation of
man's has

the lower been

more man

animals
or

physical; whereas By
arrow means

less made

intellectual. the bow and then mile

of deliberative which could the kill

at

thought
a

\
^

distance rifle which

man

of

200

yards;
kill the
a

he
away.

invented

repeating
has

may

Thought
the

taught

to

harness

forces

of has

nature

in the form
man

of all kinds
to

of invention.

Thought pierced
dark

given fog
of

power

build

bridges

and has the and the

to palaces,to paint pictures,

chisel and

angels. Thought brought light to

has build nations earth.
one

the

ignorance

spots of the globe. Thought

the of good spirit has been will
on

established

Through

long

years,

thought

the

tool

of conquest

Man's

Supremacy
enabled
man a

Due

to

Power

of Thought himself, out

earth.

465
of the

which

has

to

build

for
on

furnishings of nature,
Can
not

heaven

you

recall ?

department
Can
you

of life which
a

thought

has

embellished

recall of

singlefactor

that has

been Steam unites

as

raised to the nth power and the

without efficiency

thought?
world,

electricity plus thought lights world,

feeds
men

the

and

clothes who think the

the
are

world.
ever

To-day,
at
a

in the

olden This

time,
holds

mium. pre-

true

from

Shopkeeper

to

the

Magnate
to to

of

Wall

Street; from
; from

Basil, the

Blacksmith,

Edison, the King Inventor

Reuben, the Farmer,

Burbank, the
IMPORTANCE

Wizard.

3.

OF

PROGRESSIVE

THOUGHT.

Man
average

not

only
of

thinks

but

he

thinks

progressively.The
is

horse

to-day,for example,
was

probably
of the

no

more

than intelligent Alexander the

the

average
war

equine

time

of
tained at-

Great,
fame. is

whose

horse, Bucephalus,

historical
man

the Yet, intellectually, above the

average
man or

average of ander's Alextionary. sta-

of

to-day
time.

far

"Horse-knowledge"
instinct each its ancestors of

is

more

less
use

Through
the

generation makes
without
is
a

of

knowledge
But

any

noticeable

accretions. of

"man-knowledge"
Man

growing product
edge the knowlbit of his is and this

progressivethought.
of his

appropriates all
adds
to
a

forbears, and

then think

own.

By
to

being
stand

able

to

man progressively,

enabled thus We
to

upon

the shoulders of
a

of his
vision.

ancestors

take
are now

advantage

broader

led to the conclusion

that man's

supremacy

466
is due
not

Logic only
to

and

Life
to

his

to think, but ability

his power

of

progressive thought.
4.

NECESSITY

OF

RIGHT

THINKING.

In that

the

main, man's
run, not

thinking
it has been of
as

has

been

for
to

his his

good; general

is,in the long

If this had back has
to

contributed
so,

progress.

long since

would

he have animals.

dropped

the been

level

the

non-thinking
process

Thinking
or

defined

the

of

affirming
a

denying
of

connections.

Right thinking is, therefore,

or

matter

affirmingthe right connections

To of

denying

the

wrong

connections.

: right thinking put it differently

is the process whereas best means,

wrong
or

adjusting the thinking

is
a

best
matter

means

to

right end;
the end. ing thinkas

of

overlooking
to
a

directingimproper
proper
In the

means

wrong

Right thinking involves

the

adjustment ;

wrong

improper adjustment. physical, improper

of this
contractor
an :

intellectual world
means

in

adjustment

extinction.

Illustrations

(i)

undertakes old wall

must

to

build

skyscraper.
The

In the excavation

is discovered. make
a

thought
out

of the this build

course

contractor

is,"I

pot of money

of

job, and
on

since this old wall thus

save me

is in the

right spot
"

I will
In

it,and
of
ten

'five hundred/

the
"

years,

without

warning,
and children
to

the
are

building topkilled. for life. The If "I

pies over
contractor

and

fiftywomen
and

is convicted had
a

sent

prison
for

the
want

builder
to

thought

the

right thought; namely,

will stand his fellows

put up
have

buildingthat
the

generations,"
and I

he would

survived

competition of

468
rationalizes He then With marshals bombards the

Logic
every
new

and

Life
he

proposition before
the mind the favorable with of
an

adopts it.

before them
eye

points

and

every

conceivable
open

objection.
minded favorable

steady weighs

honest, earnest,

he critic, and then

the

unfavorable

against
of the
save

the

accepts the indications

If

balance
to

ocally. unequiv-

logic did nothing

rationalize toward its share

else

inspire young undertaking, it

people
would

to

thus

every

doubtful

do

world

betterment.

6.

THE

RATIONALIZATION

OF

THE

WORLD

OF

CHANCE.

Man "take Without horrors

a

seems

to

be and

natural herein

born

gambler.
of his stock the the

He

loves

to

chance"

lies much

unhappiness.
the like here

discussing the
of the of the how
may
to

evils of

exchange,

gambling den,
race

and
may

unbusiness

procedure
to

track, we

merely attempt of
the the

show

the be

rationalization
in

conception of glare
of

chance

instrumental

dimming

gambling (i)
The
any
so

the average

youth.
of the term chance. find
to
a cause

The
term

meaning
chance

impliesan
Whenever In

to inability
we

for
do

jl

particularevent. through ignorance. according

would have has
a

trust

luck, we

reality every
if
we

thing in

this world infinite

is ordered

to

law, and

possessed
us,

knowledge concerning
"chance" of

these
no

laws, then, for

One

the word

meaning.
to

accomplishment f superstitionand
the

knowledge
"Not

been of

rationalize lies upon for its

chance.

grain

sand
account

beach,

but

infinite knowledge would

the
cause

lying there
the
same

; and

of every

leaf falling

is

guided by

prin-j:

The

Rationalization

of

the

World

of Chance
of

469

ciplesof
bodies."
That wholesome
so
"

mechanics

as

rule the of

motions

the

heavenly

Jevon's
chance truth is

Prin.
a

Science, vol. I, p. 225.

of

literal confession
to

ignorance, is
If
we were never

for all

bear

in mind.

not

ignorant of atmospheric conditions, we

in the rain without the laws
to
an

would
we

be fectly perour

caught
and

umbrella; if
we

knew

of

mechanics,
car

would would

not

speed

car

trust

luck that the

hold

together.

(2)
The

Chance

mathematically

considered. of chances" sufficient here has

to

principleof
elsewhere.

the "calculation It will be

a

been trate illus-

discussed the

principlefrom
that
a a

mathematical
to

point of dispose

view.
a

Suppose
dollar watch
a

jeweller desires
raffle. of He
may

of

tenbers num-

by

place a hundred
to

in
on

box,
of
1

one

which of and

corresponds drawing
may I may be the

the

number

the watch.
one

My
a

chance

right number
the

is

out

hundred

expressed by
the

fraction
.

The
100

fact that

draw

right num-

ber The

on

the

first trial of
run,

or

on

the ratio

last trial is immaterial. "one

out

real

meaning
This

the

of

hundred" I for for

is,that in the long

but
once.

I shall lose 99 if I pay 99 times

times

where

gain
each the

implies,that
pay

25
25
a

cents cents

draw, I shall in the end

watch,

or

I will have and of

paid $24.75 f"r gambling.

no

ten

dollar

watch.

(3)

Chance

In all forms
one man

gambling
other
man

wealth loses.

is In

produced.
addition scheme

What
to

gains

the which

this
must

the

institution

projects the gambling

470

Logic
supported.
can on

and

Life
more

be

In

consequence,

money

must

be

lost

than

possiblybe gained.
the basis his
career

This

leads

to

the conclusion

that

of

averages

he who the

would

gamble

must

terminate

"behind

game."

Statistics

verify

this conclusion.

(4)

Chance

and

investments.

Interest,which

is money

paid

for the exceeds

use

of money, the

is and The of

high
low

when when

the demand the

for money

supply
the lack
means

supply equals or supply

is short of the the is the part
to

exceeds

the demand.
to

fact that the confidence

he
on

largely due
Thus

investor. risk.

This the

that

is

unwilling
rate

take

principle: of interest,

"High

of interest,great risk;

lozv rate

little risk."

7.

THE

RATIONALIZATION SOPHISTRIES.

OF

POLITICAL

AND

NESS BUSI-

"Win modern
as

right

or

wrong"
the

is

nut

shell
are

statement

of

sophistry.
two

Corollaries

to

this

such

aphorisms good
and of
;

"Of

evils choose
etc.

lesser"; "Do
these

evil that

may

come,"
and the
;

Armed

with

the platitudes

modern

business
squeeze economy

political octopus
life
out

will

play

the

bully
name

of
for

the

little fellow
to

in the

will pay bad

laws
a

editorials

elect the

"right man"
;

will evade and

name

so-called ; institute lobbies thousand

or

buy

votes

perpetrate
of

other of

immoral

deeds

in

the

"good
truths

business"
are

"party loyalty."
of all kinds
"Do

Half

the
are

most

atrocious
most

of evil
"Do

fallacies in that that

they

the

misleading.
of the whole

good

may

come"

is but

half

truth

The

Rationalization

of Sophistries
there the there is
no

471

evil that

good

may

come,
two

provided
evils choose shown that

other

way
plete com-

open." Again,
enumeration course" A

"Of

lesser, if a
is not
a

has

third

development
influence these

of

finer lead

of ability the
common

discernment citizen

under
to
see

right

should various

through
"blaze The either

sophistries practiced by corporate

him

greed, and
a

should

enable

by

means

of

the

ballot to

better

way."
a

"public is
cannot,
or

blunderbuss" will not, think skill and the crowd will

because his
own

the average

man

thoughts. By
interest in followers will be
more

developing greater
the

arousing greater
of camp

thinking process, democracy

RATIONALIZATION PROGRESS.

reduced; selfish bossism

efficient will

die; and
supreme.

truer

and

reign

8.

THE

OF

THE

SPIRIT

OF

Genuine

progress

comes new.

through
A love
a

happy
for the
means

combination

of the old with ultra

means

the

for the old love for

only, means
new

conservatism; whereas
ultra

only,
rational

radicalism;

love

both

liberalism. That forces

people
which Race be
"

love

the old way receive

may

be

attributed

to

two

will

attention

here.

(1)
It may

instinct. said that "life is

a

brief

space

between

two

eternities is
a

path

between

and infinity

infinitude." the the

"Man The which

pedestrian who
concern

perambulates along
him
not
so

way." path

eternities

much

as

472

Logic
between them. of

and

Life
former
western

stretches

In

day,

one was

of

the the
an

striking characteristics
beaten

the

plain
table-land

path stretching out

colored
a

along

the

like

elongated,dust path
would be file around distant

serpent; and
of buffalo
ant

often

following this
in

herd

winding
travelled the

its way from

single
by the

boulder

and

hill tillshut
man

view

horizon.

Thus

has

along ages."
those

the beaten Here who and have

path, following the

there gone
yes,
ours

"foot do

prints of
we see

and
on even

everywhere
the toe

signs of

before; father, grandfather, great grandfather;

to

marks

of those the
way,

primeval nobody
recesses

ancestors

of how
cave,
our

who
years
our

shambled
ago.

along
From thrown
as

knows of the about

many

the
a

dark lasso

have

forbears it
seems

of

blood the
grow

necks, and

if

we

must

follow
we

old, old
similar
our

way.

"Being
tree

acorns

of the ancestral

oak,"

oak

tendencies, livingover
"There lies in

again

the life of

itors. progen-

every

soul

the

history

of

the

universe."

(2)
But

Imitation. there is another

reason

for this ultra chief

every

tive conserva-

and spirit is
or

it is that nature's To
say,

mode

of instruction wood

by

means

of imitation.
seems

livingthing of
parents
are

field nature
as

to

"Your

always
learn the

right,do
lessons of

they
life." in

do
A
a

for this is the best way

man

to

thinks, feels and

manner we we

wills his way because his those other ; We

through
father who have

life

certain

largely
not

did likewise.
gone
on

Moreover, before, but

name

only

imitate each

counterfeit wide

fashion

is another

for

world

mimicry.

The

Rationalisation

of
those

the

Spirit of Progress
we

473

imitate

our we

friends walk

and

whom
we

admire;

we

talk

like them, It
now

like them, that

we are

live like them.

to

appears

held

the

path

of the past

by
we

means are

of thus

race

instinct and
to

the power that the

and of imitation, old

way

prone

believe

is

good
path
of

enough.
is the

It is evident The
a

that to get animal

out

of the beaten

dangerous.
race

wild

that deserts the

man

the habits who

dies the

premature

death, and

sesses posnew

temerity to strugglethrough
of

the thicket of of life.

things must,
follow the the

necessity,shorten
old rut" old

his span

To

the "same

is easiest for the teacher is safest

man

; to be

loyal to
But had the
to

"grand

party"

for the
every

politician. generation
deviation,
cause Be-

contrary, if every
the beaten
race

of
"

followed human
man

path blindly
now

without of

would

be

horde of

simians.

has

possessed the
the

power

progressivethought,
and has

he has made "The has

developed
himself old

of spirit

radicalism

thereby

supreme. way

anyway

"

the

old

way

right or
block.

wrong" Every
has

been

the
must

world's

biggest stumbling

innovation
to be

fight for its life. Every good thing

in its

condemned

day

and

generation. It
course

is
new

Huxley
idea
:

who

suggests three

stages for the

of

First,it is revolutionary ; second, it will make third, / have hand, the

whether
or new

littledifference; On the
a

always
anyway;

believed "we have been the

in it.
must

other

way

have

change
different and the

no";

"we

must
ever

something slogans of
not

despitethe cost," have

destitution. The
wars

waste

which

have

resulted been

from

prejudice of

ultra conservatism

have

brought

about

474

Logic
the

and

Life
ultra radicalism. The
of
an

through
impulse
unwise The much hold
men as

thoughtlessness of
freak and the the of

revolutionist,the
and love

anarchist, products

spirit of change.

discontent, spring from

world

needs

conservatism

and

radicalism
men

not

so can

it needs

rationalism. the old and out"

It needs

who

to

the

good of
neither rational

adopt the best of

nor

the new;
wear

who That

"rust

"waste

out"; but
must

out.

progress

may

obtain, there
the
new.

be
must

perfect dovetailingof the old with

leave needs the
to

Man
at
as

beaten blaze
out

path
a new

not

but altogether,
way
not
so

times. he needs

He
to

much

straightenthe bends,
fill in the
swamps
a

tunnel

through
old
way.

the A

mountains, and
ism" "liberal-

of the

rational the old

implies
a

willingness to follow
the

path

with

view

to

improving

imperfectionsthereof.

9.

RATIONALIZATION WORK.

OF

THE

ATTITUDE

TOWARD

On aim
not
as a

the of

assumption
may
to

that

true

happiness
that

is the ultimate which and does

not

life,we

conclude

anything
as a curse

contribute

this end

functions involves comfort

blessing. Happiness joy.

means.

physical comfort
of be is then the

and

mental moderate

To

have The

body given
does he

implies
of

poor

cannot

happy
not

because

bodily

want.

When for

"physical-man" healthy growth,

the

proper

nourishment

goad
till the On

"spiritual-man" with
his
wants
are

pricks
This
not

of
a

appetite and
of
nature.

pain

appeased.
is

is

law

other

hand

happiness

attained

through acquisition;

476
relative the
race.

Logic
term

and

Life
with
may

and

has

changed

the
not

development
live

of

"A

good healthy idea

In
consequence

longer than
the
a

twenty
has and been
a

years."
better

growth

toward

light

in accordance

with

man's

conception of
is
ever

higher

life; which

conception
the best

changing.
rewarded the of

Moreover,

growth

toward

is

always
that
way

by
road

real
to

happiness.
real conceived which
a

It therefore extends

follows

right
better

happiness by

along

the

things as Any
more

the

man. traveller,

force

tends

to

lift the
any

world

up

toward
tributes con-

lightis
to

and blessing, is
a success.

personalitywhich
When
same one

this end toward

to
meet

drops
time
to

pin

it

falls down
comes

the the

earth, at the

the

earth

up
law

pin.

This

is

according

versal the unimoves moves

of

gravitation. It
a

is true

that the earth than the

the the the

to

pin through
earth, and
earth.
move

much

greater space

pin
does

yet the fact remains

extent to

that the the smaller

pin

move

The

which
on

body
of

is able

the

larger,depends position.
influence does the the

the two

factors

weight
farther In

and away

relative

If the

pin
earth

were so

lighteror
much the the

it would
manner

less. "human-

like

"pin-man"
of this

influence

world." man's which

the

The

extent
or

influence

is controlled and of the the

by
for

weight,
he

his

"liftingpower,"
the

position pin

occupies; just as
is controlled

attraction and

earth

by weight

position.
power upon
to

The lift

facts of
not

history have
so

proved that man's

what is he has
as

depends
In

much

upon

what

he is.

short, lifting power

directlyin proportion to
to ability

personal worth.

Moreover, man's

draw

human-

Rationalization

of

the Attitude

Toward

Work

477

ity
best the To

up

may

be

increased Such
a

or

decreased

by
time

the

position
for the elicit

which

he

occupies.

positionmust
at

function
must

good

of the world, and

the
man.

same

highest development
Summarize:

of the

Individual First
"

success

involves these three

elements

A
"

man

of personal worth. position which

draws
out

Second
man.

the

best

in

the

Third

"

work

which

definitelycontributes

to

the

of uplift
A

the world.
now

definition is

in order
man

Success best

is the right
the

in the

right place doing his

for

highestgood of

the world.

11.

OUTLINE.
and

Logic

Life.
a

(1)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Logic given
Man's

place in
due

secondary
power

course.

supremacy

to

of

thought

Importance

of

progressive thinking.

Necessity of right thinking.

Indifferent The and careless of the

thought.
the
term

rationalization

world

of

chance.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (7) (8) (9)

The The
A

Meaning
Chance Chance Chance

of

chance.

mathematically considered.
and
and

gambling.
investments.
of

rationalization rationalization rationalization

business

and

political sophistries.
progress.

of the

spiritof

of the attitude

toward

work.

(10) The

logic of

success.

478
12. SUMMARY. To
must

Logic

and

Life

(1)
logic

justify its having

lend
is

place

in

any

course

of

study,

itself to

character animal

building. kingdom
of because of

(2)

Man

king
and

of the his

the

his power
more ever
or

of thought.

From

beginning his adaption has

chief
weapon

been has

less intellectual
his

conquest

been

thinking brain.
(3)
Man's but also
supremacy to

has

been

due

not

only

to

his ability to

think, (4)
to
a

his power

of

progressive thought.

Right thinking is the process of adjusting the best means thinking involves improper adjustment, right end. Wrong
in turn A results in

which

extinction.
man

(5)
and

"logically-minded"
he

rationalizes

every

new

sition propoutmost

before
care

adopts
he

it.

That

is, he analyzes with

all the
them into of

the

with

unprejudiced
then and

frankness

favorable the

and

favorable un-

situations;
honest

throws the

balance

of

judgment
Chance
is

adopts

indications

said

balance,

unequivocally.

(6)
infinite

confession
term

of

ignorance.
would have

If

man no

possessed

knowledge, the
of

chance

place in

his

vocabulary.
The
games

chance

are

money

making
basis
of

schemes
averages,
career

supported
the "behind
bler, gam-

by

the

gambling
in
the

fraternity.
run, must

On

the

long

terminate

his

the

game."

High (7)
efficient

rate

of

interest

implies great

risk; low

rate

of

interest

little risk. "Win

right

or

wrong"
the obtain.

epitomizes the teachings

of better

of
a

ern modmore

sophistry.

With
will

coming

thinking,
old

democracy
Rational

(8)
seems

progress

combines the
or new.

the

best

of

the

with

what

to

be love

the for

best

of

Blind
forces An

the old,

ultra
power way
new

conservatism, is
of

due

to

the

two

of

race

instinct and
to

imitation.
may
mean

adherence whereas

the

"old the

anyway"
way,
waste.

sion; retrogresof

following
involve

simply

because

its

newness,

may

unnecessary

Summary
(9)
organs

479

Work
of

which the work

one

is

not

drudgery;
powers

work of the

which mind

causes

the

body
to

and

the

to

function
work

normally;
which
and

which the

gives

comfort

without

luxury;
of

forces

highest

actualization

his

physical
is not worth

spiritualpowers (10)
standard than
of

is man's

greatest

blessing.
a

Logically considered
success.

personal aggrandizement
Success involves

true

personal

rather

personal holding.
is measured

Success toward

by

man's

ability to

help the

world

on

better

things.
right
of
man

Success the

is the

in the world.

right place doing his best for

highest good
REVIEW

the

13.

QUESTIONS.
is

(1)

What

the
to

ultimate

aim

of

education?.

Show

that

logic contributes (2)

best Prove

this end. man's

power

that
of

of

thought

has

ever

been

his

weapon

conquest.
distinction between

Exemplify the progressive thinking. (3) (4) (5)

before of this. Define "A

non-progressive and

right thinking. Illustrate.

man
a

logically-minded
Give

rationalizes
concrete

every

new

project

undertaking it."
"Chance this.

instance

in explanation

(6)

is

literal confession

of

ignorance."

strate Demon-

(7)
chance those

Give
are

mathematical

illustration

proving that schemes

for the benefit

of
of

who The

simply money project them.

average

making

devices

(8)
the

gambler
this.

must

terminate

his

career

behind

game.

Prove should that

a

(9)

Why

high
a

rate

of

interest
a

imply great

risk?

(10) Show

half

truth

is

most

misleading fallacy.

(11) Illustrate (12) Write

a

business theme

sophistry. Explain.
on

brief

"The

Rationalization

of

the

Spirit of Progress."

480
(13) Under
blessing? (14) Define
success.

Logic
what conditions

and

Life
work

may

become

man's

greatest

Illustrate.
of
your

(15)

In

the

light

definition
is not
to

of

success

discuss

the

following:

"The. only failure

try."

14.

QUESTIONS

FOR

ORIGINAL

THOUGHT

AND

TIGATION. INVES-

(1)

"To

prepare and
some

for

complete
this

living" is the

end

of

tion. educa-

Interpret

discuss

quotation from
or

Spencer.
which
"

(2)
the
power

Mention
of

discovery

invention

represents

progressive thought.
adaptation has
the
camel been

(3)

"Man's
of

largely intellectual while physical." Explain.

son

the

adaptation

has

been

(4)
shoulders

Interpret
of the

the

expression, "The

stands

upon

the

father." instances where man's

(5)
for

Illustrate

thinking has

not

been

his best

interests. how
wrong between

(6) (7)
(8)
low
rate

Indicate

thinking led

to

the

Civil War.
and

Distinguish
Name
of

legitimate speculation
the

gambling.
in
a

and
interest. may

explain

logical elements

involved

(9)

How

training in right thinking lead

to

more

efficient

? citizenship

(10) "There
Show the truth

lies in
of

every

soul

history of

the

universe/'

this. that imitation is

one

(11) Show
chief
modes

by
of

illustration instruction. the

of

nature's

(12) Explain (13) Mention

(14) Is
his best
in
success

meaning

of

drudgery.
work is
a curse.

instances

where

possible when
wrong do
you

the

right

man

is

found

doing

the

place?
consider the
most

(15) Whom
Give
reasons.

successful

American?

General

Exercises

481

GENERAL

EXERCISES CATEGORICAL

IN

TESTING

THE

VALIDITY

OF

ARGUMENTS.
to

Let
well
as

the student
to

give attention form.

are

the

fallaciesin meaning

as

the

in fallacies those who

1.
can

None

but

contented

with

their lot in life

will justly be considered happy. But the truly wise man with his lot in life,and, therefore always make himself contented he may justly be considered happy. Keynes. 2.

Suffering is
every
young
son

title

to

an

excellent

inheritance; for

God

chastens 3. No

whom
man

he is

receives. for

Keynes. only

wise;
that

wisdom,
4.
was

and

experience

comes

only
"a

with
man

experience Keynes. age.

who sold
a

can

give

Dr.
not

Johnson

remarked
an

penknife

necessarily
this remark

'iron-monger."
directed?
seditious the state;

Against

what

logical
of

fallacy was
5. which be This
may

Explain.
hence

Keynes. spread

pamphlet
be

contains
to

doctrines, the
the

dangerous

pamphlet

must

suppressed.
6. Good

Keynes. complain of their tools: of their tools; therefore, my pupils are

do
not

workmen

my

do

not

complain
workmen.

pupils probably

good
7.

Keynes.

Knowledge knowledge
who

gives

consequently, ,sincepower is desirable. Keynes.

power;

is desirable,

8. alone

Some
are

truly wise are not learned; but the virtuous not always truly wise; the learned, therefore, are
are

virtuous.
9. them those times. 10.
to

Keynes.

The

spread of education
their them

among

the lower

orders had

will make
on

unfit for
among

work;
who

for

it has
to

always

that effect
it in

happen

have

acquired

previous

Keynes. Slavery is
abolished.
a

natural Russell.
success

institution

and

therefore

ought

not

be

11. The
your

yardstick of

is the

dollar,and

you

have

made

millions.

482
12. "All

General

Exercises

who
a

talk well

are

not

and necessarily intelligent,

is

certainly
13. Gold

spell-binder."
and silver of
are

the

wealth

of

country;

consequently,
must
mean

the

diminution

gold and
of

silver
a

by exportation
Russell.

the

diminution 14. A known

of the wealth miracle is

country.

unbelievable, because
happen

it fails to

conform

to

laws

of

nature.

15. Improbable
every

events

day

is

probable event;

what day; now, happens are therefore, improbable events

every

probable
16. What

events.

fallacy did Columbus

end

commit end?
is
sure

when

he

made

the

egg

stand

on

by breaking
holder of
a

one

17. Some
as

ticket
am

to

draw the

the

prize; and,

am

ticket holder, I the

members of

sure

to
are

draw

prize. Russell.
hence
you may

18. All
trust

the

jury

just men,

the

foreman.
the
star

19. Select
team

players of the country

be
on

and

you

will have

which the

cannot

beaten. this street is

on

20. All

houses

present

pretty
a

picture; this
fine

house, therefore, which

21. What hear
22.
not
a

this street, will make all your

picture. day
we

is the

good

of

teaching, for

every

of You

wrong
are

doing
not

made I

possible by education.
am;

what

am

teacher; hence
admit the

you

are

teacher.
student

23. The
progress,

for he

history is compelled finds that society has never

have
been

of

to

law

of

stood

still. Russell. the

24. This
it is

bill must

designed

to

bleed
state.

people

cause be-

supported
close the

by the grafters of the

saloons
on

25. "To of the

Sunday
those

is contrary 'farmer

to

the

wishes

people of the city; hence

off."

legislators'should

keep hands
26. and 27. and 28.

Success
you
are

is the

right
to

man

in the limit.

right place doing his best,

working
to

the

Early
wise.

early to rise,makes one healthy, wealthy It is, therefore, easy enough to get rich.
bed and

Honesty

being the best policy, I

must

tell the

truth

to

my

484

General

Exercises

GENERAL

EXERCISES

IN

TESTING

THE

VALIDITY AND

OF

HYPOTHETICAL,
DILEMMATIC The
in

DISJUNCTIVE
ARGUMENTS.
to

student
as

must

remember
as

give attention

to

the

fallacies

meaning
1. If I

well
at

to

the

in fallacies
is

form.
if I he speak briefly,

speak

length, he
I will
not

bored;
at

is

offended;
2. is
If

therefore

speak

all.

virtue

is involuntary, vice
virtue is also. progress

is also

involuntary, but

vice

voluntary, hence
3.
If be
man

man

cannot

make
a

toward
no
man

either
every

brute

or

divinity; but
such

perfection,he must is either; therefore

if

is capable of education is

progress.

Fowler. is
unnecessary;

4.

If

popular,
will
not

compulsion
be tolerated. this

unpopular,
5.
you

compulsion
are

Fowler.
you

If
are

you not

to

recover

from

then illness,

will. is the

If
use

to
a

recover,

then

you

will not, hence

what

of

calling in
6.
If
your your
or

physician?
act
was

right, your
will
can

conscience
you.

will

approve your act

it; if
was

wrong,

conscience
so

prick
he

Either
your

right
7. like 8. will
a

wrong,

you

depend
then

upon

conscience. he
acts

If

he

is intoxicated
man.

is not

responsible but
who been

sober If

the

Elixir in

of

Life
now

is of
my

any

value, those
who the has elixir

take

it

improve
curative If you
I
am

health;
in

friend therefore

taking
value

it has
as a

improved

health, and

is of

agent.
will

Hyslop.
to

9. because

settle down

business, you
too

may

still win
work
to

out,
be

confident

it is not

late

for

hard

effective.
10.

If

the

end

justifies the
may

means

then in any

money

used

for

any

object of charity
11.
If

be

secured
money

way. I

might
money

is

right then
of

talks,but

find that

sionally occa-

proves

ineffective. those who

use

12.

If

the

majority

public houses

are

pre-

General

Exercises

485

!
pared
not to

close

them,
for is such both

legislation
a

is

unnecessary,

but

if

they
them

are

prepared
pressure If

measure,

then
and

to

force

it

on

by

outside

dangerous
is

unjust.
in
matters

Hyslop.
of that

13.

the then
to

conscience sin one's is

infallible

right
which educated

and is

wrong,

just

one

thing;
We

namely,
believe

doing
that

contrary conscience

conscience.

an

is

infallible.

14. be about

If

the

earth
times

were

of
dense

equal
as

density
but

throughout,
it of is about

it

would times

2l/2

as

water;
must

Sl/2

as

dense;

therefore

the

earth

be

unequal

density.

Hyslop.
15.
death The is the end end of of human human life is

either therefore

perfection
death is

or

happiness; tion perfec-

life,

either

or

happiness.
That

Creighton.
either lost his head
down
was

16.

chauffeur would

or

drunk

because

no

sane

man

deliberately
on

run

an

innocent

child.

17.
will

If

you prove

argue

subject
fool;
for

which this

you

do mistake

not

understand,
which fools

you

yourself Keynes.

is

always
18. agreement,

make.

If

you
or

are

man

of have

your
any

word,
self tell

you

will

live

up

to

your

if Now

you
your

respect,
me

you

will

do

the

manly
in the

thing.
habit of

neighbors good
your

that

you

are

man

making

promises.

486

Examination

Questions

SETS

OF

EXAMINATION
SCHOOLS

QUESTIONS
AND

FOR

TRAINING

COLLEGES.

Answer

ten

questions.
Set I.

Time,

hours.

1.
Define
and

illustrate the
process.

obversion

and

state

the

principle which

conditions

2.
Give directions
for

making
to

the

following propositions logical:

may
are

(1)
(2)

Only
All

first class passengers claim

are

ride
not

in

parlor

cars.

who

be

pious

pious.

(3)

"Blessed

the merciful."

3.
Write
a

theme

of

200

words

on

"Logic and

Life."

4.
Put "We
are

into
are

form syllogistic
an

and
open

test

the

of validity
because

this argument.
nests

near

going to have the ground."

winter

the hornets'

5.

Justify the
courses

teaching of

in Educational

logic in Theory.
6.

an

institution

which

offers

Correct

the following definitions,

A
man

stating the rules violated: cognitive

powers

(1) (2) (3)

is

an

organized rationally.

entity whose
flies.
man

function A A bird is
an

animal is
an

that

scholar

educated

with

ments. scholarly attain-

7.
Prove that in the first figure the minor

premise

must

tive. be affirma-

8.

Investigate a
canon

case

of

habitual

tardiness

by making

use

of

the

of

difference.

Examination

Questions
9.

487

Describe

with

illustrations the

various

ways

of

begging

the

question.
10.

Why
mode of

should

classification
case

rather of

than small

logical division
children?

be

the

procedure in the

Illustrate.

11.
Illustrate the

following:

(1)

non

connotative-

term,

(2)

distributed un-

middle, (3) fallacy of accident.

Set Answer Throw

ten

II.

questions.

Time, 2 hours.
the form of
a

the

following into

syllogism and

cise, criti-

giving

reasons:

1.
"I do
not

know

how

to

teach

school

as

have

had

no

experience."
2.

"Only the honest

should

be in business

and

you

are

not

honest."

3.

Why

should

all teachers

study logic?

Give

arguments

in full.

4.
Describe
Mill's methods of

induction

and

illustrate

one.

5.
Give
and

explain the rules of logical definition.

6.

illustrate by circles the and Explain the distribution of terms meaning of the four logical propositions.

7.
(1) teaching, (2) extension (3) obversion, (4) hypothesis, (5) relative term.
Define the

following:

of

terms,

8.
Give
a

class

room

illustration of

the

Complete

Method.

488

Examination

Questions

Distinguish analysis and

between

(1) distributive

and

collective
and

terms,

(2)

deduction,

(3) logical division 10.

classification.

Illustrate

the
law

following:
of

analogy, (3)
term.

contradictory proposition, (2) identity, (4) singular term, (5) univocal

(1) 11.

Convert, if possible,the following:

(1) (2) (3)

Some All All

men

are

honest.
not

that

glittersis
are

gold.

kings

fallible.

Set

III.

Time, 2 hours.
1.

Investigate by the Joint Method is John absent so often?" "Why

2.

of

Induction

this

question

(1 contradictory propositions, (2) Explain and illustrate: illicitmiddle, (3) obversion, (4) contraversion, (5) synthesis. 3.
State and

exemplify the rules of logical division.

4.

Write

theme
as

of at least
the

150

words

on

one

of A

the

following:
View

(1) Induction
of Success.

Discoverer's

Method.

(2)

Rational

5.
Define

logically:

(1) teaching, (2) deduction, (3) education, 6.

(4) analysis,(5) Distinguish

money.

between

the

extension

and

intension

of

terms.

7. Exemplify:
(3)
non

(1)

an

absolute terms,

term,

(2) the

connotative

(4)

fallacy of

method, pothesis accident, (5) hycomplete

Examination

Questions
8.

489

"Educated the
customs

among

savages,

he

could

not

be

expected
Reasons.

to

know

of

polite society." Is this valid?

9.
that that either
not

The but

signs indicate
the past
proves

you you

are are

stupid
the

or

unprepared;
Test the

former."

validity.
10.
Discuss The

comprehensively one Fallacies. (2) Thinking.

of

the

following topics: (1)

Arguments.

(3)

Abbreviated

Set IV. Answer

ten

questions.
1. (1)
terms, the
law
a

Time,
of

2 hours.

Exemplify:
intension of

variation

in

the

extension

and

(2)

distributed

predicate.
teacher
to
cause are

2.
Indicate
assumes

with that

explanation
the
room.

the of

logical errors:
the school" is

(1) A going

"bad

boy

trouble

in

her

fair minded

men,

of the Commission (2) All the men hence they will render a fair decision.

3.
What in

experimental method
Illustrate

of

induction

is the

most

positive

its conclusion?

this method.

4.
State and illustrate the rules of

logical definition.

5.
Obvert each of the four

logical propositions. Explain

:

the

principle involved.
Test the

validity of the following arguments 6.

"Horses, not
"Only
done
a

being human,

cannot

reason."

7.
the hard industrious deserve in your
to

succeed

and

you

have

never

day's work
had
of

life."

8.
"If
you

been the

wise,

you you

would
were

have
not

refused wise."

to

stoop

to

the methods

firm, but

490

Examination

Questions
9.

From

this
owe

premise

construct
some

valid

syllogism:
advantage."

"All

large

cities

their

size to

commercial

10.
Define
and

illustrate the term,

ing, following: analogy, hypothesis, thinkterm.

connotative

relative

11.

Distinguish
division
and

between:

(1) Analysis and

(3) Relative
Set V.

deduction.
and

(2) Logical identity.

classification.

absolute

Time,
Test the

hours.

validity, giving
teachers
you
are

reasons

1.
All

successful
because

are

industrious,but

you

are

not

trious indus-

not

successful.

2.

John
therefore

was

troublesome

boy

in

the

first and

second

grades,
teacher.

he

is

going

to

make

trouble

for the third grade

3.

Teaching
reasons.

is the

art

of

imparting knowledge.
out

giving Criticise,

Define

correctly, pointing 4.

the

essentials.

Explain the extensional

the law
of

and

intensional

use

of

terms

and

trate illus-

variation.

5.
Describe the Mill's

experimental

methods

of

induction.

Symbolize

joint method.
G.
the

Define

following: analysis, law 7. thought.

8.

of

obversion. identity,

Illustrate

the

laws

of

Write

on

one

of

the

following topics: (1) Complete

9.

Method,

(2) Right Thinking.

"The

science

of logic

never

made

man

reason

cuss rightly." Dis-

this

question.

492

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Aikins. York. Bain. Co. The

Principles of
1905.
and

Logic.

Henry

Holt

and

Co., New
Green and

Logic, Inductive
1902.
The 1910.

Deductive.

Longmans,
The

Bosanquet.
London.

Essentials

of

Logic.
London. The

MacMillan

Co.,

Bradley.
York.

The

Principles of Logic. Introductory

1886. MacMillan

Creighton.
Dewey.
Press. Fowler. Oxford. Hibben.
New

Logic.

Co., New

1905. Studies
1903.

in Logical Theory.

The

University of Chicago
and

The

Elements 1905.

of

Deductive

Inductive

Logic.

Logic, Deductive
York. Elements 1906. of

and

Inductive.

Chas.

Scribner's

Sons,
York.

Hyslop.
1905.

Logic.
of

Chas.

Scribner's

Sons, New
Book

Jevons-Hill.
York.

Elements

Logic.

American

Co., New
1906. Oxford.

1883.

Keynes.
Lotze. 1888. McCosh. 1906.
Mill. A

Formal

Logic.
Translated

The

MacMillan

Co., London.
2

Logic.
Laws

by

B.

Bosanquet,
Chas.

vols.

of

Discursive

Thought.
2

Scribner's

Sons.

System

of

Logic,

vols.

Longmans,
MacMillan

Green

and

Co.,
York.

London. Russell.
1908.

1904.

Elementary
Logic.

Logic.
Bell

The

Co., New
1900.
2

Ryland. Sigwart.
Swinburne. 1904.

George
Co. 1895.

and

Sons, London.
Helen

Logic.
Picture

Translated

by

Dendy,
Green
and

vols.

The

MacMillan

Logic.

Longmans,
Chas.

Co., London.
York.

Taylor.
1911. Venn.

Elementary
The

Logic.
Chance.

Scribner's

Sons, New Co., New

Logic

of

The

MacMillan

York.

Outline

of Briefer Course

493

OUTLINE

OF

BRIEFER

COURSE.

Subject.
I. THOUGHT AND ITS LAWS

Page

Logic
The

Defined Process
. . .

3
.12

Thinking
of

Stages in Thinking
Law Law Law
II. LOGICAL

25
32 35 Middle
.
.

Identity
Excluded
TERMS

of Contradiction of
.

-39

All
III.

of

Chapter
AND

4
INTENSION OF TERMS

47

EXTENSION

All
IV.

of

Chapter 5

62

DEFINITION

All
V. LOGICAL

of

Chapter
DIVISION

6
.

"

JJ
CLASSIFICATION

AND

All
VI. LOGICAL

of

Chapter 7
PROPOSITIONS

105

All of
VII. IMMEDIATE

Chapter

Except Section

120
. .

INFERENCE

All
VIII. MEDIATE

of

Chapter
INFERENCE

10

170

All of

Chapter

11

Except Section

8
. .

192

494

Outline

of Briefer

Course

Subject.
IX. FIGURES AND MOODS

Page

The The

Four Moods

Figures
of the

of

the

Syllogism
.

218
.
.

Syllogism
of the Moods

.221
.

Testing
X. INCOMPLETE

the

Validity
SYLLOGISMS

223

Enthymeme Polysyllogisms
Sorites

247 250 251

XI.

CATEGORICAL

ARGUMENTS

TESTED

All

of

Chapter

14

263
DISJUNCTIVE ARGUMENTS

XII.

HYPOTHETICAL

AND

All

of

Chapter
and 17

15

Except
.......

Sections

13,

14, 288

15
XIII. THE

LOGICAL

FALLACIES

All

of

Chapter

16
. . . .
.

322

XIV.

INDUCTIVE

REASONING

All 8

of and

Chapter
9

17

Except

Sections

3, 4., 7,

355
OF OBSERVATION AND

XV.

MILL'S EXPERIMENT

METHODS

All

of

Chapter

18

386
AND HYPOTHESIS

XVI.

OBSERVATION,

EXPERIMENT

All

of

Chapter

19

418

INDEX

56. Terms, 51. Terms, Accent, Fallacy of, 330. Accident, 81 ; Fallacy of, 334. 127. Affirmative Proposition, Method 387. of, Agreement, All Few, Logical not, Some,
Absolute Abstract
"

of Syllogism, 209; of Figures, 226. 48. Categorematic Words, 263 ; Categorical Arguments, cises, ExerTested, 263; General

Canons

Four

481.

Categorical
122;
Cause, Chance,

Significance of, 133. Ambiguous Middle, 328.

121 ; Four Four Kinds,

fined, DePropositions Elements, fication 126; Classiof

Amphibology,
Analogy, Analysis,
a

329.

of, 128.

368. Definition

of, 97; As by, 138;

Method,

97; Induction Propositions,

373.

Analytic

97. Method, 289. Antecedent,

False, 340. Rationalization of, 468. Child, Thinking of, 20. in Probando, 343. Circulus with Classification Compared 112; Kinds, 113; Division, 114. Rules of, 114; Use,

Fallacy

Apprehension
24.

and

Thinking,
258;
263
;

Co-extensive Collective

Propositions, 142.
Terms,
50. in Three ing, Thinkments, Ele-

Arguments, Testing of
Incomplete,

Irregular,
Categorical, 247; General
of

Comparison,
25.

Stages

ercises, Complete Exdents Stu-

Method,
97.

481 ; Mistakes in Connection

with,

Composition,
Concept,

281;
308.

junctive, Hypothetical, 288; DisDilemmatic, 302;

Definition Product,

Fallacy of, 331. of, 17;

21.

Thought
Concomitant

Argumentum
ad

ad

populum,

hominem, 338; ad rantiam, 338; ad 338; verecundiam,

Aristotle's

338; ad ignobaculum,
339.

Variations, 402. 51. Concrete Terms, Two-fold Connotative Terms, Function of, 62; Definition
of, 52
;
a

List

of, 65.

Dictum,

208. tion, Induc-

Art, Definition of, 96. Elements of Auxiliary

418. B Bain 12. Quoted, Quoted, Celarent, Barbara,

447. the Desideratum, Conquest of Fallacy 289; Consequent,

False,

339.
Law

Contradiction, Contradictory
167.

of, 35.
53 ; Propositions,

Terms,

Propositions, 165. Contrary Fallacies 181 ; Contraversion,

359.

Ballentine

of, 327.
Converse

Begging the Bibliography, 492.

Bowen

etc., 234. Question, 341.

Accident, Fallacy of,

335.

Briefer

12. Quoted, Course, Outline

Conversion, 176; by Limitation, 178; Simply, 179; Fallacies

of, 493.

of, 327.

496
Copula, 123. Creighton Quoted,
D

Index

Elements

of

the

Logical Proposition,

4, 387, 485.

123.

a 96; as Deduction, Denned, tion Method, 97; Special Funcof, 438. of, 77; Definition, Importance the Predicates, 77; Nature of, 83; of, 82; Definition with Division, 84; Compared able, ServiceKinds of, 85; When 87; Rules of. 88; Terms which be Defined, 93 ; Cannot

Elliptical Propositions, 129. 247. Enthymeme, Epicheirema, 249. Episyllogism, 250. Question Epithets, Begging,
343. Essential
88.

Attributes

of

tion, Defini-

of

Common

Educational

Terms, 94. Denomination, Thought, 26.

Denotation and

Stages
Connotation

in
of

Etymological Definition, 85. Euler's 141. Diagrams, Evolution the and Thinking 19. Mind, Examination Questions, 486. Exceptive Propositions, 135. Law Excluded Middle, of, 39.
Exclusive

Propositions, 136.

Exercises, Testing Arguments,

Terms, 66. 481. Descriptive Definition, 86. Element in Experiment as an Definition Development, of, 94. Induction, 419. 110. Dichotomy, Intension and Extension of of, 393. Difference, Method pared, Defined, 63 ; ComTerms, Differentia, 80. in Comparison, 63; Used 308. Dilemma, 65 ; Other of ExForms pression Discoverer's Method, 440. of for, 66; Law Arguments, 302; Disjunctive Variation in, 66. Rules junction, of, 303; Logical Dis303; Reduction of, 307. Fact, Defined, 96. Distribution of ing, Reasonand Subject Fallacies, of Deductive of and Predicate 322; Paralogism Propositions, for Remember145 ; Schemes ing, Sophism, 322; Division of, of Immediate ence, Infer148. 323; Division, Definition of Logical, 326; in Form, 194, 199; pared 105; As Partition, 107; ComHypothetical, 291; Disjunctive, with Definition, 84 303; of Language, 328; from Enu in Thought, 334. Distinguished False meration, 106; Rules of, 108 Cause, 340. False with Classifica Compared Fallacy of, Consequent, 339. Use 114 tion, 112; of, Fallacy of, 332. Figure of Speech, Fallacy of,
Dressier

Quoted, 12.

333. of Figures Syllogism, 218; fect Special Canons of, 226; Perduction, and Imperfect, 235 ; ReRelative Value 235;

Education,

pared Defined, 94; Comwith Instruction, 95. Educational Terms Defined, 94.

of, 239.

Index

497

Formal Fallacies, 197, 324. Four Terms, Fallacy of, 329. Fowler Quoted, 4, 360. Divisionis, 108. Fundamentum

Induction, Defined, 96; as a Method, 97; Reasoning, 355; the and Hazard, 356; the Three fect, Forms of, 365; Per375; Special Function
of, 438. Inference, Definition of, 18; a diate, Thought Product, 24; Imme159; Mediate, 192.

General

Exercises

in

Testing

481. Arguments, General Terms, 49. Genus and Species, 78. Grammatical Subject and 125. icate, Pred-

Grammatical

Sentences, 131.
H

Hamilton Hibben

Quoted, 4, 12, 131. Quoted, 4, 441. Huxley Quoted, 473. 288; Hypothetical Arguments,
Kinds, 290; Rules
Fallacies, 291 ; Reduced gorical, Cateto ercise 293; Illustrative Exeral in Testing, 297; Genand

Species, 79. Instruction Defined, 95. Intension of Terms, 63. Integration, a Stage in Thought, 26. Inversion, 183. Inverted Proposition, 137. Irregular Arguments, 258. Irrelevant Conclusion, 337.

Infima

Jevons Quoted, 4, 25, 387, 468. of Joint Method Agreement

and

Difference, 397.
Definition

Exercises, 484. Hypothesis, Defined, 96, 425; and Theory, 427; Requirements of, 427; Uses of, 429.

Judgment, Thought

Product,
23.

of, 17; 22; Most

Fundamental

Element

in

Thinking,

Identity,Law of, 32; Absolute, plete, Incomand 33; Complete 33; Relative, 34. Illicit Major and Minor, 199;
Illustration of, 215. Image, Definition of, 17. Immediate Inference, 159; by

Quoted, 481, 485. Definitions,85. Knowing, by Intuition and by and Thinking, 2; Knowing 10; Thinking Compared, by Intuition, 11; Habitual, 11. tive, Knowledge, Defined, 95; IntuiKeynes
Kinds of 11.

170; by Opposition, 161 ; Conversion, by 176 ;t by Contraversion, 181 ; of Four Epitome Processes, 182 ; by Inversion, 183 ; Fallacies 326. of, Imperfect Induction, 361.
Indefinite Propositions, 129. Individual Proposition, Nature

Obversion,

Language
Law of

and 47.

Thought

arable, Insep-

Variation

sion in Exten-

66; Two
69 ;

of, 132; in

Opposition, 168.

Intension, Stated, Important Facts in, trated, Diagrammatically Illus70, 71.

and

498
Laws
of
of

Index

of

Sufficient

Reason,

40;

Moods

Universal

Causation, 361 ; of Nature, Uniformity Thought, 32

;

Syllogism, 221 Validity of, 223.

of
as

ing ; Test-

Motivation of

Related

to

Spirit

362.

Discovery, 449.
N

Laws

of

40;
43.

Schematic

Statement

Unity of, of,

Learning, Defined, 95. Logic, Defined, 3; Authentic Definitions of, 4; Grammai of of Thought, 3; Science of to Sciences, 3; the Value the to Student, 5; Related Other Subjects, 1; Specific Scope, 2. 437. Logic in the Class Room, Logic and Life, 463. Logic of Success, 475. Logical Definition, 85, 88. Logical Disjunction, 303. Logical Subject and Predicate,
125.
M

Negative Proposition, 127. Negative Terms, 53. Nego-positive Terms, 55.

Non-connotative

Terms, 52. Non Sequitur, Fallacy of, 339. the World, 36; Not, Bisects Uses Two of, 36. vidual, Definition, 14; IndiNotion, tinguished 14; General, 14; Disfrom Knowledge, 15; Distinguished from Idea, volved InTerms 16; Psychological in, 16.
O Rules of, Observation, 419; of, 423. 420; Errors Obversion, Definition of, 170; Fallacies of, 326. Opposite Terms, 53. of, 161; Opposition, Nature Scheme of, 163; Square of, 164. Outline of Briefer
P

Major
Material

Term,

196.

Fallacies, 323,
192;

324,
the

325, 328. Mediate Inference,

Rules of Syllogism, 192; 193. Syllogism, Method Defined, 96; Inductive and Deductive, 97; Complete, 97.
Method-

Course, 493.

Page

Quoted,

453.

Particular 144.

Propositions, 126; Affirmative, 143 ; Negative,

Whole

Defined, 96.

Middle
Mill

Term, 192, 193, 196. Quoted, 5, 359, 361, 387, 393, 397, 402, 406. Mill's Experimental Methods,
386. Miller

Partition, 107.
Partitive

Propositions, 133.
lated Re-

Percept, Definition of. 17; 18. to Thought,

Perfect Petitio

Induction,

375.

Mind,
10.
Minor

Quoted, 12. the Unity of,

and

Plurative
1 ; Knowing

341. Principii, Propositions, 132. Polysyllogism, 250. Tree

Thinking

Compared,

Pornhyry,
Positive
Predicables.

of, 111.
53.

Terms,

Term, 196. Mnemonic Lines, 234. Modal Proposition, 139. Modus Ponendo Tollens,
302.

etc.,

Defined, 77; 82. Named, 78; Illustrated, Grammatical and Predicate, Distribution of, Logical, 125;
145.

5oo

Index

Theory Thinking,
lustration

Defined,
Definition
of with with 12

96.

of, Process, Knowing,

12;

II

Uberweg
13 Undistributed

Quoted,

4.

Middle, of,
214.

199;

lustration Il-

Compared Compared
the Into

10 2

Intuition,
;

Uniformity
Process, One,
and and of

of

Groups
the

Nature,

362.

Many
Universal Affirmative 140. tion Sensation EvoluUniversal

18; Percept, Thinking Child,

in

tion, Proposi-

18;

Causation,
Negative
142.

361.

Mind, 20;
the
of

19;
Universal the

the

tion, Proposi-

Adult,
21
;

20;
and

and

Concept,
Universal

the

Propositions,

126.

Judgment,
24;

22

and

Apprehension, 25;
in

Stages 24;
Laws,

in,
Laws

the

Inference,

of,

32;

Unity
465; 466;

of

40;

Progressive,
of,

Right,
ent Indiffer-

Variations,

Method
402.

of

comitant, Con-

Necessity
and

Careless,
and

467.

Thought Thought
Traduction,

Language,

47.

is

King,
377.

437. Watts

Quoted,

4. 224.

Training,
Tree Truistic Truth
of

Definition

of,
111.

95.

Weakened

Conclusion, Quoted,
of
4.

Porphyry,

Whately Word-signs

Proposition,
Defined,
96.

139.

Categorical
122.

Propositions,

6 7

p^*

4*