Report

A PROJECT REPORT ON DESIGN, FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A PRESSURE TRANSDUCER FOR THE CONDITION MONITORING OF THE OIL LUBRICATION
SYSTEM FOR GENERATOR SET SUBMITED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF PUNE, IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING) SUBMITTEED BY: SUMEET GHODKE KEDAR LELE RAVISH NAGARKAR B8310830 B8310865 B8310874
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION SOCIETYS
MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHIVAJINAGAR, PUNE-05. 2011-2012
P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-05
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report entitled Design, fabrication and testing of a pressure transducer for the condition monitoring of the oil lubrication system for generator set submitted by Sumeet Ghodke, Kedar Lele, Ravish Nagarkar, University Seat No: B-8310830 University Seat No: B-8310852 University Seat No: B-8310864
is a partial fulfilment of BE Mechanical Engineering project work, under the University of Pune, year 2011-2012. Date: 16/06/2012 Place: Pune
Internal Guide Prof. M. M. Nadkarni
Head of Department Prof. Dr. A. D. Desai
Prof. Dr. Mrs. K. R. Joshi Principal PESs MCOE, Pune-5
EXAMINER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with great pleasure that we present the report on our project work at the end of the final year. We take this opportunity to share a few words of gratitude to all those who have supported us in making it possible. Our heartfelt gratitude to our project guide Prof. Mr. M. M. Nadkarni for his able and expert guidance. We would also like to thank Mr. V. S. Deshpande (M.D. Sam Integrations Pvt. Ltd.) for trusting us with this project and providing unconditional support and guidance. We are very thankful to Dr. Mr. Gajanan Ekbote (Chairman), Dr. Mrs. K. R. Joshi (Principal) and Prof. Mr. A. D. Desai (Vice Principal) for their moral support and encouragement. We are also indebted to our college including the staff members, technical assistants of various laboratories and other non-teaching staff for providing us with all the resources.
Place: Pune Date: 16/06/2012
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Tank Unit for gensets ............................................................................................ 13 Figure 2: S-series Fuel Indicator........................................................................................... 13 Figure 3: Fuel Indicator ....................................................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Drain Pump .......................................................................................................... 13 Figure 5: Fire Safety Equipments ......................................................................................... 13 Figure 6: Fuel Filling Neck.................................................................................................... 13 Figure 7: Oil lubrication system ........................................................................................... 16 Figure 8: Pressure gauge mounting on gen-set .................................................................... 17 Figure 9: Assembly of RICO pressure transducer ................................................................. 23 Figure 10: C-shaped bourdon tube ...................................................................................... 25 Figure 11: Helical bourdon tube .......................................................................................... 26 Figure 12: Spiral bourdon tube ............................................................................................ 26 Figure 13: Flat diaphragm ................................................................................................... 27 Figure 14: Schematic diaphragm pressure gauge ................................................................. 27 Figure 15: Convoluted diaphragm ....................................................................................... 28 Figure 16: Capsule............................................................................................................... 28 Figure 17: Set of bellow pressure gauge .............................................................................. 29 Figure 18: Single acting cylinder .......................................................................................... 29 Figure 19: U-tube manometer ............................................................................................. 30 Figure 20: Circumferential Stress......................................................................................... 33 Figure 21: Longitudinal Stress ............................................................................................. 33 Figure 22: Von-mises stress in cylinder ................................................................................ 38 Figure 23: Maximum principal stress on cylinder ................................................................. 38 Figure 24: Maximum shear stress on cylinder ...................................................................... 39 Figure 25: Total deformation on cylinder ............................................................................ 39 Figure 26: Sequence of operation for cylinder manufacturing ............................................. 41 Figure 27: Cylinder .............................................................................................................. 41 Figure 28: Sequence of operation for spring manufacturing ................................................ 46 Figure 29: Spring ................................................................................................................. 46 Figure 30: Piston with two grooves ..................................................................................... 48 Figure 31: Piston with one groove ....................................................................................... 49 Figure 32: Piston with two split ring and one O-ring ............................................................ 50 Figure 33: Teflon piston head and brass rod (Detachable) ................................................... 51 Figure 34: Threaded teflon piston head and brass rod (detachable) .................................... 52 Figure 35: Sequence of operation of Piston ......................................................................... 53 Figure 36: Threaded joint used ............................................................................................ 54 Figure 37: Von-mises stress on head hex ............................................................................. 55 Figure 38: Maximum principal stress on head hex ............................................................... 55 Figure 39: Maximum shear stress on head hex .................................................................... 56 Figure 40: Total deformation on head hex ........................................................................... 56 Figure 41: Von-mises stress on end hex ............................................................................... 58
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P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5 Figure 42: Maximum principal stress on end hex ................................................................. 58 Figure 43: Maximum shear stress on end hex ...................................................................... 59 Figure 44: Total deformation on end hex ............................................................................ 59 Figure 45: Sequence of operation for hex nut manufacturing .............................................. 60 Figure 46: Basic O-Ring........................................................................................................ 61 Figure 47: Basic Gland ......................................................................................................... 61 Figure 48: Gland and O-Ring Seal ........................................................................................ 61 Figure 49: O-Ring Installed .................................................................................................. 62 Figure 50: O-Ring under pressure ........................................................................................ 62 Figure 51: O-Ring Extruding ................................................................................................. 63 Figure 52: O-Ring Under Extrusion Failure ........................................................................... 63 Figure 53: Abrasion ............................................................................................................. 63 Figure 54: Compression Set ................................................................................................. 64 Figure 55: Chemical degradation ......................................................................................... 65 Figure 56: Explosive Decompression ................................................................................... 65 Figure 57: Extrusion ............................................................................................................ 66 Figure 58: Installation Damage ............................................................................................ 66 Figure 59: Outgassing/Extaction .......................................................................................... 67 Figure 60: Overcompression ............................................................................................... 67 Figure 61: Plasma Degradation............................................................................................ 68 Figure 62: Spiral Failure....................................................................................................... 69 Figure 63: Thermal Degradation .......................................................................................... 69 Figure 64: O-Ring ................................................................................................................ 76 Figure 65: Friction due to O-ring compression ..................................................................... 78 Figure 66: Friction due to fluid pressure .............................................................................. 78 Figure 67: Variation in Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) with Cylinder ID ................... 79 Figure 68: Protective cover for pressure transducer ............................................................ 81 Figure 69: Principal of linear potentiometer ........................................................................ 82 Figure 70: Principal of LVDT ................................................................................................ 84 Figure 71: Bonded resistance strain gauge .......................................................................... 85 Figure 72: Variable area capacitors ..................................................................................... 87 Figure 73: Test rig suggested ............................................................................................... 89 Figure 74: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 8mm ID cylinder ......................................... 94 Figure 75: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 10mm ID cylinder ....................................... 97
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: SAM Customers ..................................................................................................... 12 Table 2: Oil for different temperature ranges ...................................................................... 14 Table 3: Design selection chart ............................................................................................ 31 Table 4: Cylinder Thickness for 8mm ID Cylinder ................................................................. 35 Table 5: Selected thickness for 8 mm ID cylinder ................................................................. 36 Table 6: Cylinder Thickness for 10mm ID Cylinder ............................................................... 36 Table 7: Selected thickness for 10 mm ID cylinder ............................................................... 36 Table 8: Stresses on cylinder by ANSYS ................................................................................ 40 Table 9: Spring calculations ................................................................................................. 44 Table 10: Spring Manufactured ........................................................................................... 45 Table 11: Stresses on head hex by ANSYS ............................................................................ 57 Table 12: Stresses on end hex by ANSYS .............................................................................. 60 Table 13: Abressive Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions............................ 64 Table 14: Compression set failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions ................. 64 Table 15: Chemical degradation failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions ......... 65 Table 16: Explosive decompression failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions .... 65 Table 17: Extrusion Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions ............................ 66 Table 18: Installation Damage contributing factors and Suggested solutions ....................... 67 Table 19: Outgassing/ Extraction failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions ....... 67 Table 20: Overcompression Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions ............... 68 Table 21: Plasma Degradation contributing factors and Suggested solutions ....................... 68 Table 22: Spiral Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions .................................. 69 Table 23: Thermal degradation failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions........... 70 Table 24: Stick slip- Possible causes and troubleshooting tips .............................................. 70 Table 25: O-Ring Compression ............................................................................................ 72 Table 26: Recommended Maximum Compression for O-Ring .............................................. 73 Table 27: Comparison of dynamic seal type......................................................................... 74 Table 28: Comparison of commonly used materials for O-Rings .......................................... 75 Table 29: Important parameters for friction determination ................................................. 77 Table 30: Determined values for friction determination ...................................................... 79 Table 31: Values from graph ............................................................................................... 79 Table 32: Total available force for piston movement ........................................................... 80 Table 33: Observation Table for 8mm ID cylinder in reverse direction ................................. 92 Table 34: Observation Table for 8mm ID cylinder in reverse direction ................................. 93 Table 35: Observation Table for 10mm ID cylinder in forward direction .............................. 96 Table 36: Observation Table for 10mm ID cylinder in reverse direction ............................... 97 Table 37: FMECA Chart for Manufactured Pressure Transducer ........................................ 102
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TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATE ....................................................................................................................................... 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................ 2 LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. 3 LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................... 5 TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................................................ 6 SYMBOLS USED .................................................................................................................................. 8 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ 10 COMPANY PROFILE .................................................................................................................. 11 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT ..................................................................................................... 14 NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND ITS NEED ........................................................................ 15 INTRODUCTION: THE SYSTEM .................................................................................................. 16 STEPS OF PROJECT WORK ........................................................................................................ 18 BACKGROUND: ........................................................................................................................ 19
HOW OIL CONDITION MONITORING OCCURS?................................................................................. 19 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. MARKET SURVEY ..................................................................................................................... 22 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT MECHANISMS IN BRIEF ................................................................. 25 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER FOR TRANSDUCER ...................... 32 CYLINDER............................................................................................................................. 33 SPRING ................................................................................................................................ 42 PISTON ................................................................................................................................ 47 JOINT USED.......................................................................................................................... 54 O RING............................................................................................................................... 61 PREDICTING SEAL FRICTION ................................................................................................. 77 PROTECTIVE COVER ............................................................................................................. 81 MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT ........................................................................ 82 TESTING OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER ........................................................................... 88 COSTING .............................................................................................................................. 98 MAINTENANCE OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER ................................................................. 99 FAILURE MODE, EFFECT AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS ......................................................... 100 SWOT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................ 104 FUTURE SCOPE .................................................................................................................. 106 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................... 108
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25. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 109
ANNEXTURE-I: MATLAB PROGRAM FOR GRAPH GENERATION .................................................. 110 ANNEXTURE-II: SHENDE SALES CORPORATION CATALOGUE F OR O RINGS ............................. 111
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SYMBOLS USED
T Di t t l r p Syt Sper Ss G c D d Kw N Nt Lw Lc Li Lf Ps -torque -cylinder inner diameter -cylinder thickness -hoop stress -longitudinal stress -radial stress -poisons ratio -allowable shear stress -pressure inside the cylinder -tensile yield strength -permissible tensile stress -permissible shear stress -modulus of rigidity -spring index -mean coil diameter of spring -wire diameter -wahls factor -number of spring turns -total number of spring turns -working length of spring -clearance allowance for spring -initial compression of spring -free length of spring -pitch of spring
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F S Gd Srec ID Bd CS C GW F FC FH fC fH Lh Ar RPN S O D
-load acting on spring -stretch value for O-Ring -O-Ring groove diameter -recommended stretch value for O-Ring -inner diameter for O-Ring -bore diameter -cross section diameter of O-Ring -compression of O-Ring -groove width -total friction force -friction force due to seal squeeze -friction force due to pressure -friction factor for seal squeeze -friction factor for pressure -piston circumference -seal projected area -risk priority number -severity -occurrence -detection
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1.
ABSTRACT
Condition monitoring service gives an ongoing program of sampling, analysis and reporting of the system under observation. It provides the information you need to pin-point and solve equipment problems as well as implement a more effective maintenance system. In condition monitoring of oil lubrication system, there are various parameters to be analysed, pressure being the most important one. This pressure when continuously monitored, gives an idea about the health of the lubrication system. This confirms the importance of pressure gauges in condition monitoring of oil lubrication system. The main intention of the project is to design a pressure transducer to give the pressure readings for the condition monitoring of a lubrication system of a generator set. This objective is persuaded with design theory, ANSYS, manufacturing processes with a great fruit of success.
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2.
COMPANY PROFILE
A. History:
Having started the business under the banner of Ideas Toolings, SAM holds over 17 years of experience in this industry. Later in the year 2004, it merged as SAM Integrations Private Limited and have established as one of the premier manufacturers and exporters of a comprehensive range of Electro Mechanical Products.
B. Directors:
Chairman: Mr. V. S. Deshpande M. Des., IIT, Bombay. Having more than 27 years of hands on experience
Managing Director: Mr. N. B. Tembe B. Tech., Specialisation in production. Having more than 32 years of hands on experience.
C. Basic Information of company:

Business Type: Manufacturer Exporter
Ownership & Capital: Year of Establishment- 2004 Ownership Type- Private Limited Company
Certification & Membership: Certification Name- ISO 9001:2008 Start Date- 26-APR-11 Expiry Date: 11-JUN-14
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D. Customers:
R.T.S. Inc., MI 49015, USA Kirloskar Brothers Limited Shirwal Jakson Enterprises Silvassa Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. Cummins India Ltd Premier Engineering Works Nasan Medicals Standard Meter Mfg. Co. Shamraj Engineering Philip Harris UK Core Objects Fike Safety Technology Ltd, United Kingdom Kirloskar Engines India Ltd. Ashok Leyland Limited Powerica Ltd Silvassa, Banglore, Taloja Greaves Cotton Limited Sterling Generators Pvt. Ltd. Jeevan Diesels & Electricals Ltd. Mahalasa Acoustic Pvt. Ltd. Power Engineering (I) Pvt. Ltd. Maya Engineering Sunbeam Generators Pvt. Ltd.
Table 1: SAM Customers
E. Team & Staff:

Total Number of Employees-51 to 100 People
F. Application Areas:
The Electro Mechanical Products designed in the unit are evaluated for maximum durability, ability to withstand wear & tear and accurate performance. These features make SAMs products compatible to withstand most severe applications and environments. The product range offers solutions to the following areas: Generator Compressor Escalators Automotives Diesel Engines Other Industrial Applications
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G. PRODUCT RANGE AT SAM Tank Units for Gensets S-Series Fuel Indicator
Figure 1: Tank Unit for gensets
Figure 2: S-series Fuel Indicator
Fuel Indicator
Drain Pump
Figure 3: Fuel Indicator
Figure 4: Drain Pump
Fire Safety Equipments
Fuel Filling Neck
Figure 5: Fire Safety Equipments
Figure 6: Fuel Filling Neck
(Reference# 1)
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3.
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The pressure transducers used in generator sets for condition monitoring of lubrication system in the current industrial scenario consist of a diaphragm mechanism which gives minimum deflection with respect to the pressure, to measure this deflection to calibrate the pressure; we need some arm effect to get good range of output. This arm effect does add some rounding-off errors, which leads to unreliable output from the transducer, where transducer is a device which convert the parameter to be measured into a proportional electrical quantity which can be directly read using an indicator.So to overcome this error in readings it is required to look for some more appropriate mechanism which will lead to less errors or at least avoid some complications in the current designs followed by the industry.
A. Technical specification to be attained:

Pressure range: 0-5 bar Output deflection required: 15mm for 5 bar Accuracy expected: +/- 5% Temperature: 70C max Engine oil viscosity: Use an oil having viscosity best suited to the atmospheric conditions. Use of an all season SAE 10W/30 having low viscosity change with change in temperature is suggested. Viscosity SAE 30 or SAE10W/30 SAE 20 or SAE10W/20 SAE 20
Table 2: Oil for different temperature ranges
Temperature (C) 68F (20C) or higher 41F (5C) to 68F (20C) Below 41F
(NOTE: Do not use an engine lubricating oil with a SAE rating number above 30 in the engine.) So the prime objective of the project is to design such a pressure transducer which satisfies the technical specifications, minimizes the errors found in current industrial design and redesign the product. (Reference# 1)
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4.
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND ITS NEED
New product development is a vital part of any business. It doesn't matter whether the product is for consumers or other businesses, whether it is a tangible object or a service. The constant change in markets and technology require that companies take steps to meet new challenges. Developing new products and improving existing products is an important step in meeting this challenge. New product development can be just what it sounds like the creation of a completely new product that fills a previously unaddressed niche in the economy. Product development also includes reexamining an existing product to maximize its market potential through adding features, a design change or maybe just tweaking the marketing. Fortunately, product innovation is not a completely hit or miss proposition. There are steps a company can take to improve the likelihood of a successful development process. There is no one "best" method for developing products, and what works for one segment of a particular industry may not work for another industry, or maybe not even for another segment of that industry. The mix of elements will be different for every product development project, but companies can look to a basic framework to help keep all the different elements on track. The goal of the product development process is to end up with the best possible product. One that is well suited for the intended audience and contains features that is needed and desired. No matter how great the new product may seem, if the market rejects it, it's a failure. Taking the product development process seriously can go a long way toward making the end result a success.
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5.
INTRODUCTION: THE SYSTEM
In the system, the oil is forced under pressure through the oil line by a pump. In the oil line it passes through the filter and then to the manifold. The manifold supplies the oil to the main lubrication system and various components requiring oil. One oil line is passed to the pressure gauge which measures the pressure in the oil line produced by the pump.
Figure 7: Oil lubrication system
Looking at the schematic, many factors come into play when setting oil pressure. Each of the manifold outputs is designed for certain volume, and the individual calculated circuit resistances come into play to determine overall resistance to oil flow. This is much like having four or five hoses connected to one hose bib on the side of the house if one bursts, all will lose pressure. If one is plugged up, the pressure increases for the rest. This system is much the same. So if an output is clogged, like the governor line for instance, pressure will rise. If your transmission has worn out main bearings allowing much of the oil to slide back into the crankcase prematurely, pressure will be lower. The bottom line here is that any rather sudden rise or fall in oil pressure should be taken as a signal that your engines oiling system needs attention. This way pressure gauge plays an important role oil lubrication system. (Reference# 17)
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PRESSURE GAUGE MOUNTING ON GEN-SET
Figure 8: Pressure gauge mounting on gen-set
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6.

STEPS OF PROJECT WORK

Market survey Analyzing available market products Brain storming for all possible concepts of pressure transducers Studying for best workable concept Drawing the basic structure of the pressure transducer Optimizing the design with dimensions, material, joining processes, surface finish, etc. Manufacturing the prototype of the product Testing the product and reviewing design Working on the steps of aesthetics, durability, safety, recyclability, ease of use, etc. Finalizing the design with optimum parameters
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7.
BACKGROUND: How oil condition monitoring occurs?
An oil condition monitoring service gives you an ongoing program of sampling, analysis and reporting. It provides the information you need to pinpoint and solve equipment problems as well as implement a more effective maintenance system. Lubricating oils contain all the requisite additives to protect the equipment from wear, corrosion and excess friction. The additives in the oil are multi-functional, therefore, it is important they do not deplete (and is one of the reasons oil types should not be mixed). This is particularly important in long term usage.
A. Types of oil condition monitoring:

1. On-line testing 2. Off-line testing Visual darkening of oil A burnt smell to the oil An increase in viscosity Visual haziness Foaming
It is important that oil condition monitoring is completed on a regular basis to ensure that the oil quality is stable. Regular monitoring soon builds a history of the fluid condition allowing informed decisions to be taken. Continued operation with degraded oil will lead to accelerated wear of moving parts and filtration problems resulting in an accumulation of sludge in the tank and pipework.
B. Conventional analysis makes use of oil sampling techniques which suffer from some serious drawbacks:
1. It takes to process the sample; machinery can be damaged from poor lubricant quality. 2. Secondly, one can never be sure that the oil sampled is representative of the entire lubricating system. Various sampling techniques are used in an attempt to acquire the best sample, but there are still possibilities that the sample collected is not the most representative of the system.
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3. When a sample is taken, it is difficult to ensure no outside contamination from the sampling procedure, container or laboratory has been introduced. 4. Finally, off-line oil sampling and analysis can be costly. Real time monitoring is a vital tool, which can allow lubricants to be used to their fullest potential while minimizing machinery downtime, resulting in increased savings and productivity. Real time sensors provide the ability to conduct continuous
monitoring. This is beneficial on many levels, especially in responding to suddenly occurring faults and condition trending.
C. On-line oil condition monitoring

Oil is forced under pressure through the oil line by a pump. Filtered oil is then forced through oil lines to the manifold. The manifold supplies the oil to the main lubrication system and various components requiring oil. One oil line from manifold is passed to the pressure gauge which measures the pressure in the oil line produced by the pump. An oil pressure gauge gives an excellent indication of the health of various systems in the engine. The key is to establish baseline readings when the engine is healthy, and then be aware of any changes over the time.
D. Cause of low pressure:

The contaminant in oil line and mostly in the filter block the flow of oil in the system which tends to reduce the pressure at which the is to be supplied to the engine and other parts. Low oil level Damaged oil pan or pick-up tube High Oil Temperature- Generally not a big factor, but if you're pulling a trailer or running flat out in really hot weather, your oil can run well over 250F., and oil pressure will be lower. Worn Oil Pump - This could be anything from a slight reduction all the way to catastrophic failure (which is rare unless the pump has ingested bits of metal from some other failure).
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E. Cause of high pressure:

High oil pressure is not generally a concern, but if pressure suddenly increases, there may be a problem with the pressure relief valve. Switching to higher viscosity oil will also show higher readings.
(Reference# 17)
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8.
MARKET SURVEY
The project started with a search for all available and possible mechanisms for the particular objective of condition monitoring of lubrication system ie. pressure gauge. Starting with internet, we found many makers of such pressure transducers with different principles been utilized some of which are also used for automobiles application.
A. COMPETITOR MANUFACTURER
Pricol RICO Saudamini VDO
B. RICO COMPONENT ANALYSIS

ADVANTAGES Robust construction Small in size Ease of mounting
DRAWBACKS Hystersis due to torsional spring Not precisely and accurate Assembly not easy to repair Less life due to use of diaphragm
(Reference# 14, 18)
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Figure 9: Assembly of RICO pressure transducer
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C. DIFFERENT MECHANISMS FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Mechanical 1. Bourdon tube a. C-shaped bourdon tube b. Helical bourdon tube c. Spiral bourdon tube 2. Diaphragm a. Flat diaphragm b. Convoluted diaphragm c. Capsule 3. Set of bellow 4. Single acting cylinder 5. Manometer Electrical 1. Capacitive type. 2. Strain gauge. 3. Piezo-electric type. As the requirement is for the mechanical type pressure transducer, hence electrical types of pressure measuring elements are neglected.
(Reference# 2, 4, 6, 8)
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9.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT MECHANISMS IN BRIEF
A. Bourdon tube: i. C-shaped bourdon tube:
Eugene Bourdon invented this type of gauge in 1851. He stated that round tubing which has been flattened and bent into a circular arc will tend to return to its original shape when a pressure is applied inside it. The operation is similar to that of the paper coiled-tube blowers used at parties. In its simplest form it consists of a length of thinwalled metal tubing which has been flattened, to approximately an elliptical cross section and then rolled into a C shape, having an arc span of about 270.
Figure 10: C-shaped bourdon tube
The external pressure is guided into the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in a change in curvature of the tube. These curvature changes are linked to the dial indicator for a number readout.
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ii.
Helical bourdon tube:
Figure 11: Helical bourdon tube
Helical bourdon tube pressure gauge sensing element is formed in the helical spring shape. The distance of the bourdon tube from the center tube is very much more than the C-Type. The sensitivity of this type is more due to its angular length. When input pressure is applied, pointer will rotate along with its axis and pointer end showing reading on a scale which is marked in pressure units. It converts pressure to displacement; in this type of bourdon tube no additional gain mechanism is required.
iii.
Spiral bourdon tube:
Figure 12: Spiral bourdon tube
The radius of the tube from the centre is continuously vary in figure it increasing. The inner end of the tube is treated as reference and outer free end gives the displacement according to applied pressure. If a pointer is attached to the outer free end of the tube,
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then it directly gives the pressure measurement on a scale which is marked in pressure units. In some designs the free end of the Bourdon is wound round several times with the socket-pressure connection at the centre. Figure 13 shows the general idea of such an element. The amount of movement varies directly with the angle subtended by the total arc. By increasing the number of turns in the spiral or helix, a greater movement of the tip is obtained.
B. Diaphragm : i. Flat diaphragm:
Figure 13: Flat diaphragm
The flat diaphragm pressure gauge uses the elastic deformation of a diaphragm (i.e. membrane) instead of a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown pressure and a reference pressure. A typical Diaphragm pressure gage contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm, as shown in the schematic below. One side of the diaphragm is open to the external targeted pressure, PExt, and the other side is connected to a known pressure, PRef. The pressure difference, PExt - PRef, mechanically deflects the diaphragm.
Figure 14: Schematic diaphragm pressure gauge
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ii.
Convoluted diaphragm:
Figure 15: Convoluted diaphragm
The working principle is just the same as the flat diaphragm only the construction is different.
iii.
Capsule:
A capsule is formed by joining the peripheries of two diaphragms through soldering or welding.
Figure 16: Capsule
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C. The set of bellow:
Figure 17: Set of bellow pressure gauge
Bellow type pressure gauges use a spring loaded elastic material bellow to measure the pressure and the indication is with linkages.
D. Single acting cylinder:

Piston cylinder type is utilized in this kind of pressure gauge assembly, where on one side of piston there is the application of pressure and on the other side a counter weight is applied which also measures the deflection, hence giving pressure reading.
Figure 18: Single acting cylinder
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E. Manometer:
Manometers are working on the principle of hydrostatic balancing. The force acting due to one liquid column on the same level or reference balances the force acting due to another liquid column. The simplest manometer consists of a tube made of glass or other transparent material bent into the shape of a U and with both ends left open. A few spoonfuls of water poured into the tube is all that is required to make a manometer. The liquid-filled manometer is one of the most useful and inherently accurate instruments for measuring any variable that is a function of pressure. Because of its simplicity and accuracy the manometer is widely used.
Figure 19: U-tube manometer
(Reference# 2, 4, 6, 8)
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F. DESIGN SELECTION
Single acting Bourdon tube Parameter Set of bellow
Ease of manufacturing Ease of assembly Ease of calibration Design strength Output accuracy Product reliability Long product durability Low product cost
Table 3: Design selection chart
INFERENCE
Single acting cylinder assembly has the most no. of checks, which indicates that it has the most no. of desired properties with this mechanism. For this particular application of condition monitoring of lubrication system the output is required for the change in pressure not for accurate readings, hence the single acting cylinder mechanism is best suited for the application of pressure measurement.
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Manometer
Diaphragm
cylinder
10. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER FOR TRANSDUCER

1. Cylinder Design 2. Helical Compression Spring Design 3. Piston Design 4. Joint Used 5. O Ring Selection 6. Protective Cover 7. Electronic System and Pointer Arrangement These are the major components of the single acting cylinder assembly for the pressure transducer. Designing for strength, manufacturing, assembly, aesthetics and environmental impact completes the primary design of pressure transducer.
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11. CYLINDER
A. DESIGN OF CYLINDER i.
INTRODUCTION
Depending upon whether the cylinder wall thickness is appreciable or not, in relation to the inner diameter of the cylinder, the cylinder are classified into two categories: 1. Thin cylinder (Di/t>20) 2. Thick cylinder (Di/t<=20)
ii.
1.
STRESSES ACTING ON THE CYLINDER: CIRCUMFERENTIAL (OR TANGENTIAL OR HOOP) STRESS, t
Figure 20: Circumferential Stress
2.
LONGITUDINAL (OR AXIAL) STRESS, l
l
Figure 21: Longitudinal Stress
3.
RADIAL STRESS, r
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The magnitude of the radial stress is equal to the internal pressure at the inner surface of the cylinder and zero at the outer surface of the cylinder. As the cylinder is subjected to three principal stresses, different theories of failure are used in the design of the cylinder subjected to internal pressure. The selection of the theory depends upon two parameters:
i. ii. iii.
Cylinder material (whether brittle or ductile) Condition of cylinder ends (open or closed) Different theories of failures used in the design of the cylinders subjected to internal pressure are
1. Maximum principal stress theory (Lames theory) Used when the cylinder is made of brittle material like cast iron. 2. Maximum principal strain theory Cylinder with closed end (Clavarinos theory) Cylinder with open end (Birnies theory)
3. Maximum shear stress theory Used when the cylinder is made of ductile material like MS, brass etc. 4. Distortion energy theory As the cylinder for the particular application is to be made with ductile material, the theories used are A. Maximum principal strain theory (Clavarinos theory) B. Maximum principal strain theory (Birnies theory) C. Maximum shear stress theory D. Distortion energy theory
iv.
Formulae Used: A. Maximum principal strain theory (Clavarinos theory)
t=
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B. Maximum principal strain theory (Birnies theory)
t=
C. Maximum shear stress theory
t=
D. Distortion energy theory
t=
(Reference# 3, 9, 10, 12, 13)
The following table contains specifications for three categories namely plastics, metals, and glass-fibers. Specifications have been calculated for the given set of values:
v.
SET-1 1. Pressure=P = 5 bar = 0.5 N/mm2 2. Dia. Of Piston=Di= 8 mm 3. Factor of safety= 4
material
syt
per. stress (sper) (MPa) 120 50
per. shear stress (ss) (MPa) 60 25
thickness by clavarinos theory (mm) 0.014218550 0.034300754
thickness by birnies theory (mm)

0.016722480 0.040323599
thickness by maximum shear stress theory

(mm) 0.016771562 0.040610178
Steel Brass
(MPa) 480 200
thickness by distortion energy theory (mm)

0.014512351 0.035097611
Table 4: Cylinder Thickness for 8mm ID Cylinder
The cylinder is provided with a threading at both ends hence forming a critical thickness at that section. Thread used: M121.25
Page 35 of 112
The thickness allowance for the threads t=0.77mm Total thickness required= t+safe value of thickness from chart Material Steel Brass Total thickness required (mm) 0.77+0.01677=0.78677 0.77+0.04061=0.81061 Approximated thickness (mm) 2 2
Table 5: Selected thickness for 8 mm ID cylinder
(with considering the manufacturing limitation the thickness is assumed as 2mm)
vi.
SET-2 1. Pressure=P = 5 bar = 0.5 N/mm2 2. Dia. Of Piston=Di= 10 mm 3. Factor of safety= 4
material
syt
per. stress (sper) (MPa) 120 50
per. shear stress (ss) (MPa) 60 25
thickness by clavarinos theory (mm) 0.017773187 0.042875942
thickness by birnies theory (mm)

0.020903101 0.050404499
thickness by maximum shear stress theory

(mm) 0.020964452 0.050762722
Steel Brass
(MPa) 480 200
thickness by distortion energy theory (mm)

0.018140443 0.043872014
Table 6: Cylinder Thickness for 10mm ID Cylinder
The cylinder is provided with a threading at both ends hence forming a critical thickness at that section. Thread used: M141.5 The thickness allowance for the threads t=1.08mm Total thickness required= t+safe value of thickness from chart Material Steel Brass Total thickness required (mm) 1.08+0.02096=1.10096 1.08+0.05076=1.13076 Approximated thickness (mm) 2 2
Table 7: Selected thickness for 10 mm ID cylinder
(with considering the manufacturing limitation the thickness is assumed as 2mm)
Page 36 of 112
vii.
INFERENCE 1. With the consideration of material availability, ease of manufacturing and the critical thickness required for brass and M.S., they are selected for the prototype design purpose. 2. Not knowing the critical diameter for least friction between O-ring and cylinder the two diameters 8mm and 10mm are selected for analysis.
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B. ANSYS REPORT FOR CYLINDER STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Mat- Brass)

i. VON-MISES STRESS
Figure 22: Von-mises stress in cylinder
ii.
MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE STRESS
Figure 23: Maximum principal stress on cylinder
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iii.
MAXIMUM SHEAR SHTRESS
Figure 24: Maximum shear stress on cylinder
iv.
TOTAL DEFORMATION
Figure 25: Total deformation on cylinder
Page 39 of 112
v.
INFERENCE
Type Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Principal Stress -1.1213 MPa 0.28252 MPa Maximum Shear Stress 5.6626e-004 MPa 0.88713 MPa Total Deformation 0. mm 3.0369e-005 mm
Minimum 1.1252e-003 MPa Maximum 1.6202 MPa
Table 8: Stresses on cylinder by ANSYS
With reference to allowable stress on brass (50 MPa), the maximum stress developed in cylinder (1.6202 MPa) from ANSYS, the cylinder is safe.
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C. MANUFACTURING OF THE CYLINDER

Machines used: Lathe m/c, grinding m/c Operations performed: Turning, drilling, boring, threading, chamfering, grinding Sequence of operation:
START
RAW MATERIAL CUTTING . FACING
TURNING
DRILLING
REAMING
THREADING
FINISH
Figure 26: Sequence of operation for cylinder manufacturing
Figure 27: Cylinder
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12. SPRING
i. i. DESIGN OF SPRING INTRODUCTION
The design of a new spring involves the following considerations: ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Space into which the spring must fit and operate. Values of working forces and deflections. Accuracy and reliability needed. Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications. Environmental conditions such as temperature, presence of a corrosive atmosphere. vii. Cost and qualities needed.
The designers use these factors to select a material and specify suitable values for the wire size, the number of turns, the coil diameter and the free length, type of ends and the spring rate needed to satisfy working force deflection requirements. The primary design constraints are that the wire size should be commercially available and that the stress at the solid length be no longer greater than the torsional yield strength. Further functioning of the spring should be stable. Springs are fundamental mechanical components which form the basis of many mechanical systems. A spring can be defined to be an elastic member that exerts a resisting force when its shape is changed. Most springs are assumed linear and obey the Hooke's Law.
ii.
SPRING MATERIAL
The most extensively used spring material is high-carbon hard drawn spring steel. It is often called Patented and cold-drawn steel wire. This material has been used for most spring manufacturing due to its good response to spring requirements and hence it is selected for the particular spring design.
iii.

SPRING CHARACTRISTICS
End style- Square and ground end Right handed spring
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Spring material- Unalloyed, oil hardened and tempered spring steel valve spring wire (VW) Expected deflection- 22.5mm for 7.5 bar pressure
iv.
FORMULAE AND DATA USED FOR DESIGN
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Modulus of rigidity (G) = 83170 N/ Spring Index (C) = Wahls Factor ( )=
Number of Turns (N) =
Total number of turns ( Working Length ( Solid Length ( = =
)=N+2
*d
Clearance Allowance ( ) = 15% of working length Total Length ( Pitch (Ps) = +
10. 11.
Shear Stress (= ) (Reference# 9, 10, 11, 12, 15)
v.
SPRING HYSTERSIS
Hysteresis is the loss of mechanical energy under cyclic loading and unloading of a spring. It results from frictional losses in the spring support system due to tendency of the ends to rotate as the spring is compressed. Hysteresis for compression springs is low and the contribution due to internal friction in the spring material itself is generally negligible.
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Table 9: Spring calculations
vi.
INFERENCE
The highlighted spring designs are selected for the manufacturing purpose on the basis of its ease of manufacturing and dimensional limitations.
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vi.
MANUFACTURING OF THE SPRING
The spring is not manufactured in the firm, so it was order from the Bhalchand Spring Pvt. Ltd. The material available were stainless steel, M.S. and spring steel. The spring is the recommended one by the manufacturer and design data book, hence we preferred the spring steel for the application. Dimensions of the springs manufactured: Parameter Mean spring diameter Inner diameter Outer diameter Pitch Total no. of turns Wire diameter Free length Material Type of end Spring hand Spring 1 5.8 mm 5 mm 6.6 mm 3 mm 15 0.8 mm 42 mm Spring steel Square and ground end Right handed
Table 10: Spring Manufactured
Spring 2 8 mm 7 mm 9 mm 4.5 mm 10 1 mm 40.5 mm Spring steel Square and ground end Right handed
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SEQUENCE OF PROCESS
START
RAW MATERIAL CUTTING Stainless Steel / Spring Steel
COLD WINDING
STRESS RELIVING IN A FURNACE
GRINDING
SIZING
FINISH
Figure 28: Sequence of operation for spring manufacturing
Figure 29: Spring
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12. PISTON
A. PISTON DESIGN
i. INTRODUCTION
The function of piston is to take pressure of oil on one side and on the other side the spring force. As the stresses acting on the piston are very small compared to the piston strength hence the piston is not designed on strength basis. The more important aspects are mass of piston, no. of groves, piston end design, pointer attachment at the end of the piston rod, buckling reaction of spring on the piston rod. Factors considered in piston design: Mass of the piston: The mass of the piston primarily depend upon the material of the piston. M.S., brass, aluminum, delrin and Teflon are the materials which were available for manufacturing. As the application is in the oil the M.S. is prone to rust hence it is eliminated. Brass has been used for hydraulic cylinders hence it was of prime focus, but the density of brass is quiet high. Aluminum was quiet likely material for the application but the availability has been the problem. Delrin and Teflon were rejected based on its buckling tendency ie strength basis as the rod is likely to experience a buckling from the spring buckling as it is supposed to act as a guide for the spring. Hence brass is selected for the manufacturing. No. of groves: While testing on single grooved piston, it was observed that there was quite a lot of play at the end of piston, so double grooved piston is preferred. Pointer attachment: There have been many possibilities for pointer attachments but the threaded joint is chosen for its ease of handling for primary testing purpose. Piston rod diameter: The piston rod is supposed to be as thin as possible but the manufacturing problems constraints the size of the piston rod to 4mm. Hence 4mm rod is preferred. Groove width: Groove width for O-ring attachment is kept a bit more than the O-ring diameter so as to allow play for O-ring between the grooves, so as to avoid crushing stresses.
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ii.
DIFFERENT PISTON DESIGNS TRIED a) PISTON WITH TWO GROOVES
Figure 30: Piston with two grooves
Characteristics No leakage observed Robust construction Two O-rings helps in avoiding oscillation of piston
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b) PISTON WITH ONE GROOVE
Figure 31: Piston with one groove
Characteristics Leakage was observed after 3.2 bar pressure Robust construction One O-ring doesnt make it fully leakage proof One support allows piston to oscillate
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c) PISTON WITH TWO SPLIT RING AND ONE O-RING
Figure 32: Piston with two split ring and one O-ring
Characteristics Leakage was observed after 2.6 bar pressure Robust construction O-ring gives positive sealing
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d) TEFLON PISTON HEAD AND BRASS ROD (DETACHABLE)
Figure 33: Teflon piston head and brass rod (Detachable)
Characteristics Leakage was observed after 1.2 bar pressure Kinematic constraints are utilised for improving manufacturing No positive sealing With lack of precise manufacturing process the piston was prone to leakage
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e) THREADED TEFLON PISTON HEAD AND BRASS ROD
Figure 34: Threaded teflon piston head and brass rod (detachable)
Characteristics Leakage was observed after 3.2 bar pressure Threads reduce contact area, O-ring gives positive sealing Kinematic constraints are utilised for improving manufacturing With lack of precise manufacturing process the piston was prone to leakage
iii.
INFERENCE
Piston with two grooves was the best design which avoided leakage. It also has simple construction and does not need precise machining; hence piston with two groove design is selected.
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B. MANUFACTURING OF PISTON
The piston is manufactured on a lathe machine, so the primary drawback that came to the product was the accuracy of the dimensions. The piston is manufactured with brass as it was available at SAM. The threading at the end of piston for pointer attachment is made of M3 as it was the least tap available.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
Figure 35: Sequence of operation of Piston
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13. JOINT USED

A. INTRODUCTION
Currently the market trend is to make the product such that it wont be possible to open the assembly and repair or get the mechanism behind the joints. As the product is in the design phase we assumed the threaded joints to be most appropriate for the primary design. While thinking about the product to be manufactured we assumed plastic welding to be the most appropriate joining process, as the whole component is to be manufactured from plastic for the mass production.
Figure 36: Threaded joint used
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B.
i.
ANSYS REPORT FOR HEAD HEX

VON MISES STRESS
Figure 37: Von-mises stress on head hex
ii.
MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS
Figure 38: Maximum principal stress on head hex
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iii.
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
Figure 39: Maximum shear stress on head hex
iv.
TOTAL DEFORMATION
Figure 40: Total deformation on head hex
Page 56 of 112
v.
INFERENCE Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Principal Stress Maximum Shear Stress 3.5209e-007 MPa 1.4901 MPa Total Deformation
Type
Minimum 6.5967e-007 MPa
-1.2119 MPa
0. mm
Maximum
2.8344 MPa
4.7225 MPa
4.9975e-005 mm
Table 11: Stresses on head hex by ANSYS
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C. ANSYS REPORT FOR END HEX

i. VON MISES STRESS
Figure 41: Von-mises stress on end hex
ii.
MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS
Figure 42: Maximum principal stress on end hex
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iii.
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
Figure 43: Maximum shear stress on end hex
iv.
TOTAL DEFORMATION
Figure 44: Total deformation on end hex
Page 59 of 112
v.
INFERENCE Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Principal Stress Maximum Shear Stress 6.8174e-006 MPa 1.3525 MPa Total Deformation
Type
Minimum 1.1977e-005 MPa
-1.4534 MPa
0. mm
Maximum
2.345 MPa
1.8894 MPa
4.727e-005 mm
Table 12: Stresses on end hex by ANSYS
D. SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
START
RAW MATERIAL CUTTING Brass
DRILLING
BORING
TAPING
THREADING
FINISH
Figure 45: Sequence of operation for hex nut manufacturing
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14. O RING
A. INTRODUCTION
An O-ring seal is used to prevent the loss of a fluid or gas. The seal assembly consists of an elastomer O-ring and a gland. An O-ring is a circular cross-section ring moulded from rubber.
Figure 46: Basic O-Ring
Figure 47: Basic Gland
Figure 48: Gland and O-Ring Seal
i. a) b) c) d) e) f)
Advantages of O-Rings seals: They seal over a wide range of pressure, temperature and tolerance. Ease of service, no smearing or retightening. No critical torque on tightening, therefore unlikely to cause structural damage. O-rings normally require very little room and are light in weight. Where differing amounts of compression effects the seal function, an O-ring is not affected because metal to metal contact is generally allowed for. They are cost-effective.
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ii.
O-RING INSTALLATION
The rubber seal should be considered as essentially an incompressible, viscous fluid having a very high surface tension. Whether by mechanical pressure from the surrounding structure or by pressure transmitted through hydraulic fluid, this extremely viscous fluid is forced to flow within the gland to produce zero clearance or block to the flow of the less viscous fluid being sealed. The rubber absorbs the stack-up of tolerances of the unit and its internal memory maintains the sealed condition. Figure illustrates the O-ring as installed, before the application of pressure. Note that the O-ring is mechanically squeezed out of round between the outer and inner members to close the fluid passage.
Figure 49: O-Ring Installed
iii.
VARIOUS STAGES O-RING UNDER APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL PRESSURE
STAGE I- PRESSURE APPLIED The seal material under mechanical pressure extrudes into the micro-fine grooves of the gland. Figure illustrates the application of fluid pressure on the O-ring. Note that the O-ring has been forced to flow up to, but not into, the narrow gap between the mating surfaces and in so doing, has gained greater area and force of sealing contact.
Figure 50: O-Ring under pressure
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STAGE II PRESSURE LIMIT REACHED Figure shows the O-ring at its pressure limit with a small portion of the seal material entering the narrow gap between inner and outer members of the gland.
Figure 51: O-Ring Extruding
STAGE III EXTRUSION FAILURE Figure illustrates the result of further increasing pressure and the resulting extrusion failure. The surface tension of the elastomer is no longer sufficient to resist flow and the material extrudes (flows) into the open passage or clearance gap.
Figure 52: O-Ring Under Extrusion Failure
iv.
COMMON MODES OF FAILURE a) ABRASION
Figure 53: Abrasion
Page 63 of 112
Description: The seal or parts of the seal exhibit a flat surface parallel to the direction or motion. Loose particles and scrapes may be found on the seal surface. Contributing Factors a. Rough sealing surfaces. b. Excessive temperature. c. Process environment containing abrasive particles. d. Dynamic motion. e. Poor elastomer surface finish. Suggested Solutions a. Use recommended gland surface finishes. b. Consider internally lubed elastomers. c. Eliminate abrasive components.
Table 13: Abressive Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions
b) COMPRESSION SET
Figure 54: Compression Set
Description: The seal exhibits a flat-sided cross-section, the flat sides correspoding to the mating seal surfaces. Contributing Factors a. Excessive compression. b. Excessive temperature. c. Incompletely cured elastomer. d. Elastomer with high compression set. e. Excessive volume swell in chemical.
Table 14: Compression set failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions
Suggested Solutions a. Low compression set elastomer. b. Proper gland design for the specific elastomer. c. Confirm material compatibility.
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c) CHEMICAL DEGRADATION
Figure 55: Chemical degradation
Description: The seal may exhibit many signs of degradation including blisters, cracks, voids or discoloration. In some cases, the degradation is observable only by measurement of physical properties. Contributing Factors Suggested Solutions
Incompatibility with the chemical and/or Selection of more chemically resistant thermal environment. elastomer.
Table 15: Chemical degradation failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions
d) EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION
Figure 56: Explosive Decompression
Description: The seal exhibits blisters, pits or pocks on its surface. Absorption of gas at high pressure and the subsequent rapid decrease in pressure. The absorbed gas blisters and ruptures the elastomer surface as the pressure is rapidly removed. Contributing Factors a. Rapid pressure changes. b. Low-modulus/hardness elastomer. Suggested Solutions a. Higher-modulus/hardness elastomer. b. Slower decompression.
Table 16: Explosive decompression failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions
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e) EXTRUSION
Figure 57: Extrusion
Description: The seal develops ragged edges (generally on the low-pressure side) which appear tattered. Contributing Factors a. Excessive clearances. b. Excessive pressure. c. Low-modulus/hardness elastomer. d. Excessive gland fill. e. Irregular clearance gaps. f. Sharp gland edges. g. Improper sizing.
Table 17: Extrusion Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions
Suggested Solutions a. Decrease clearances. b. Higher-modulus/hard-ness elastomer. c. Proper gland design. d. Use of polymer backup rings.
f) INSTALLATION DAMAGE
Figure 58: Installation Damage
Description: The seal or parts of the seal may exhibit small cuts, nicks or gashes.
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Contributing Factors a. Sharp edges on glands or
Suggested Solutions a. Remove all sharp edges. b. Proper gland design. c. Proper elastomer sizing. d. Higher-modulus/hardness elastomer.
components. b. Improper sizing of elastomer. c. Low-modulus/hardness elastomer. d. Elastomer surface contamination.
Table 18: Installation Damage contributing factors and Suggested solutions
g) OUTGASSING / EXTRACTION
Figure 59: Outgassing/Extaction
Description: This failure is often very difficult to detect from examination of the seal. The seal may exhibit a decrease in cross-sectional size. Contributing Factors a. Improper elastomer. b. High vacuum levels. c. Low hardness/plasticized elastomer. or improperly cured Suggested Solutions a. Avoid plasticized elastomers. b. Ensure all seals are properly postcured to minimize outgassing.
Table 19: Outgassing/ Extraction failure Contributing factors and Suggested solutions
h) OVERCOMPRESSION
Figure 60: Overcompression
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Description: The seal exhibits parallel flat surfaces (corresponding to the contact areas) and may develop circumferential splits within the flattened surfaces. Contributing Factors Suggested Solutions Improper designfailure to account for Gland design should take into account thermal or chemical volume changes, or material responses to chemical and excessive compression. thermal environments.
Table 20: Overcompression Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions
i)
PLASMA DEGRADATION
Figure 61: Plasma Degradation
Description: The seal often exhibits discoloration, as well as powdered residue on the surface and possible erosion of elastomer in the exposed areas.
Contributing Factors a. Chemical reactivity of the plasma. b. Ion bombardment (sputtering). c. Electron bombardment (heating). d. Improper gland design. e. Incompatible seal material.
Suggested Solutions a. Plasma-compatible compound. b. Minimize exposed area. c. Examine gland design. elastomer and
Table 21: Plasma Degradation contributing factors and Suggested solutions
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j) SPIRAL FAILURE
Figure 62: Spiral Failure
Description: The seal exhibits cuts or marks which spiral around its circumference. Contributing Factors a. Difficult or tight installation (static). b. Slow reciprocating speed. c. Low-modulus/hardness elastomer. d. Irregular O-ring surface finish Suggested Solutions a. Correct installation procedures. b. Higher-modulus elastomer. c. Internally-lubed elastomers. d. Proper gland design. e. Possible use of polymer backup rings.
(including excessive parting line). e. Excessive gland width. f. Irregular or rough gland surface finish. g. Inadequate lubrication.
Table 22: Spiral Failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions
k) THERMAL DEGRADATION
Figure 63: Thermal Degradation
Page 69 of 112
Description: The seal may exhibit radial cracks located on the highest temperature surfaces. In addition, certain elastomers may exhibit signs of softeninga shiny surface as a result of excessive temperatures. Contributing Factors a. Elastomer thermal properties. b. Excessive temperature excursions or cycling. Suggested Solutions a. Selection of an elastomer improved thermal stability. b. Evaluation of the possibility of cooling sealing surfaces.
Table 23: Thermal degradation failure contributing factors and Suggested solutions
with
v.
STICK SLIP
Stick-slip is characterized by distinct stop-start movement of the cylinder, and may be so rapid that it resembles severe vibration, high pitched noise or chatter. Seals are often thought to be the source of the stick-slip, but other components or hardware can create this issue. Possible Causes Surface finish out of specification Poor fluid lubricity Binding wear rings Side loading Troubleshooting Tips Verify surface is neither too smooth or too rough
Change fluid or use oil treatments or friction reducers Check gland dimensions, check for thermal or chemical swell Review cylinder alignment, incorporate adequate bearing area Use material with lower coefficient of friction Slow movement increases likelihood of stick-slip High temperature softens seals, expands wear rings, and can cause thermal expansion differences within hardware Ensure valves are properly sized and adjusted Review system for harmonic resonance
Table 24: Stick slip- Possible causes and troubleshooting tips
Seal friction Cycle speed Temperature Valve pulsation External hardware
Page 70 of 112
vi.
O-RING FAILURE ANALYSIS
Prevention of seal failures through proper design, material selection and maintenance certainly minimizes the risk of failure. Attention to the condition of replaced seals, as well as the equipment performance over time, will result in improved process reliability, reduced operating costs and a safer work environment. O-ring seals often fail prematurely in applications because of improper design or compound selection. This section is designed to provide the user with examples of common failure modes. By correctly identifying the failure mode, changes in the design or seal material can lead to improved seal performance. From the end-users point of view, a seal can fail in three (3) general ways: Leaking Contamination Change in Appearance
vii.
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
One major factor in possible seal failure is the extreme and harsh environment in which seals are expected to perform. The sealing environment can consist of virtually anything from inert gases at room temperatures to aggressive chemicals at very high temperatures. The sealing environment may result in chemical degradation or swelling of the sealing components. Elevated temperatures may cause seal degradation, swelling or outgassing. And the pressure or more often, the vacuum environments can cause outgassing and weight loss.
Contributing factors to seal failure in the sealing environment include: Chemical the type of chemical(s) in service Thermal the operating ranges of the seal (also any thermal cycling) Pressure/Vacuum the range of pressures or vacuum levels in the process
viii.
SEAL DESIGN ANALYSIS
Analysis of the seal application is crucial to the understanding of possible failure. Most seal design is performed by component suppliers and equipment manufacturers.
Page 71 of 112
The seal design and application can provide information about the cause of failure: Static Seals axial and radial, confined or unconfined Dynamic Seals axial (open-close) or radial (reciprocating or rotary) Sealing Gland Dimensionsshape (square, trapezoidal, etc.), compression, gland fill, stretch Installation Procedures stretch
ix.
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR RADIAL SEALS
In radial seals, the gland is defined by the Bore Diameter on the outside radius, the Groove Diameter on the inside radius and the Groove Width in the axial direction (see schematic). a) INNER DIAMETER
In order for the O-Ring to fit snugly in the groove, it is desirable to circumferentially stretch the O-Ring slightly. The recommended amount of stretch S is between 1% to 5% , with 2% as the preferred stretch value.
Table 25: O-Ring Compression
The O-Ring inner diameter ID can be found from the recommended Srec and the Groove Diameter Gd,
By stretching the O-Ring, we ensure that the O-Ring will stay in the groove and will not fall out or otherwise twist in some unpredictable manner during assembly. b) CROSS SECTION DIAMETER
The O-Ring is compressed in the radial direction when seated in the gland. Hence, one can think of the O-Ring cross-section as being pinched between the Bore
Page 72 of 112
Diameter Bd and the Groove Diameter Gd . In order for the ORing to be compressed when in the gland, its cross-section diameter CS must be greater than the total effective depth of the groove,
The difference between CS and the effective gland depth represents the compression C of the O-Ring (a dimensionless quantity),
C is required to be greater than zero in order for the O-Ring to be compressed. The recommended upper limit of C depends on the type of seal. In static seals, where the O-Ring is not in axial motion in the bore, the recommended maximum compression is approximately 40%. In dynamic seals, such as a piston moving inside a cylinder, the recommended maximum compression is somewhat less at 30%.
Table 26: Recommended Maximum Compression for O-Ring
Typically, compression is a design input assigned by the design engineer. In this case, CS is found by inverting the above compression equation,
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To account for manufacturing tolerances, a range of cross-section diameters (CSmin to CSmax) can be provided by the following two equations, c) GROOVE WIDTH
When the O-Ring is compressed radially, it will expand axially (since most elastomeric materials are effectively incompressible). The Groove Width GW should therefore be about 1.5 times the O-Ring cross-section diameter to accomodate this axial expansion,
x.
Comparison of dynamic seal types:

Type Periodic adjustment required No No No Yes Moving friction Medium Medium Low Medium Tolerance required Close Fairly close Close Fairly close Close Space sequired Small Small Small Large Availability Cost
O-ring T-seal U-packing V-packing Cup type packing
Easy Difficult Difficult Difficult
Low High High High
No
Medium
Medium
Difficult
High
Table 27: Comparison of dynamic seal type
The comparison chart gives clear indication that O-rings and U-packing are the most suitable ones for the application but with availability and cost giving advantage to Orings, hence O-rings are selected.
Page 74 of 112
xi.
Comparison of commonly used materials for O-rings:
(P=Poor, F=Fair, G=Good, E=Exelent)
Chemical resistance
Abrasive resistance
Elastomer type Butadiene Butyl Chlorinated polyethylene Flurocarbon Flurosilicon Isoprene Natural rubber Neoprene Nitrile Polysulfide Silicon
E FG G G P E E G G P P
FG G F E FG FG FG FG G P FG
FG E FG E E FG FG FG FG P GE
G G PF PF GE G G FG G G E
F F G GE P F E F GE F P
G G G F E G G F F F E
P P GE E G P P G P P F
F G G E E F F G G P E
F E G G P F F G G E P
P P FG E G P P FG E E FG
GE G FG F P GE GE FG FG P P
E G G GE F E E G GE F P
GE E E E F F E F E E
Table 28: Comparison of commonly used materials for O-Rings
Taking into consideration the different properties required for the particular application, cost and availability, silicon and nitrile are selected. While testing on both the material O-rings, it was observed that nitrile gives more resistance for the piston movement inside the cylinder compared to the one with silicon O-ring. Hence Silicon O-ring is selected for the application. (Reference# 5, 16)
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Weather resistance F
Electrical property
Dynamic property
Flame resistance
Tensile strength
Cold resistance
Heat resistance
Impermiability
Tear resistance
Acid resistance
Oil resistance
Selection of dimensions of O-ring: Selection criteria: The O-ring diameter should be least possible so as to touch the least area and give least friction. The mean diameter of the O-ring should be less than the grove outer diameter. The excessive O-ring diameter should be 10% of the O-ring diameter. The grove provided should be wider than the O-ring diameter, so as to provide some play for O-ring and avoid excessive friction by compression of the O-ring. After following all these parameters the O-ring dimensions are selected by trial and error method. With experience the art of O-ring selection can be easily grasped.
The finalization of the O-ring is done by prior testing with some selected number of O-ring dimensions for finding out the pressure required for first displacement of the piston. This gives the idea about the friction offered by the O-ring while it is in compression. The care should be taken that, the O-ring should always be taken of lower size than the inner grove diameter so as to avoid loose fit, which gives leakage after some working hours. The O-rings are brought from Shende Sales.
Figure 64: O-Ring
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15. PREDICTING SEAL FRICTION

Friction and Wear
O-rings load a sealing surface due to their own resilience compounded with any system pressure. When the surface to be sealed moves relative to the O-ring, frictional forces are set up, producing two effects: one leads to wear and the other reduces the useful load which a cylinder can transmit. In dynamic applications difference must be made between break-out and running friction. Break-out friction must be overcome at the beginning of movement and also is known as start-up friction. Once movement is established the frictional forces drop to a lower level and gliding begins. This can be clearly seen in reciprocating cylinders.
Calculation Method from Literature

A commonly accepted method of predicting coulomb friction between a seal and a piston rod includes the use of curves that isolate the friction due to seal squeeze and the friction due to pressure. The friction value is given by the following sum:
F = FC + FH
Parameter Fc FH fC fh Lf Ar Value fc x Lf fh x Ar Given in fig: Given in fig: x Piston OD /4 x ((Gland ID)2-(Rod OD)2) Description Total friction force due to seal squeeze Total friction force due to pressure Friction (lb per inch seal contact length) Friction (lb per sq. inch seal projected area) Piston circumference Seal projected area
Table 29: Important parameters for friction determination
The friction per inch length (fc) of the seal due to seal squeeze is given in Figure 65 & Figure 66 gives the friction per square inch of the seal projected area (fh) due to
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cylinder pressure. Graphs shown below are taken for required surface roughness (200m).
Figure 65: Friction due to O-ring compression
Figure 66: Friction due to fluid pressure
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Measured Parameters Parameters Seal Thickness (in) Cylinder ID (in) Piston Rod ID (in) Seal Shore A Hardness Value 0.0709 0.394 0.256 70
Calculated Parameters Parameters Arq (in2) Seal Squeeze (%) Ar2 (in2) Value 0.0514
Chart Values Parameters Value
fc(lb/in2) 3 0.0727 fh(lb/in2)
0.184
3.623
Table 30: Determined values for friction determination
fc(N/mm2) 0.0323
fh(N/mm2) 0.025
Ar1(mm2) 33.161
Ar2(mm2) 46.935
Table 31: Values from graph
Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) Vs Diameter 4 Pressure Force (Fp) Friction Force (Fc)
Pressure Force(Fp) in N & Friction Force(Fc) in N
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
4 5 6 Cylinder ID in mm
10
Figure 67: Variation in Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) with Cylinder ID
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For Dp=8mm Total Frictional Force (F1) Pressure Force (Fp1) Avail. Force (Fp1 - F1) 1.641 N 2.513 N 0.872 N
For Dp=10mm Total Frictional Force (F2) Pressure Force (Fp2) Avail. Force (Fp2 F2) 2.1884 N 3.927 N 1.7386 N
Table 32: Total available force for piston movement
INFERENCE
From the above table we can see that to give the deflection at 0.5 bar pressure 10mm diameter cylinder has more force value as compared to 8mm cylinder, hence the 10mm cylinder is finalised.
(Reference# 5)
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16. PROTECTIVE COVER

The component manufactured for the primary testing was not manufactured with the protective covering as it was not a necessary component of the assembly. The protective covering is there for protecting the assembly from atmosphere to avoid the ill effects to the different parts. The protective cover is made in plastic so the main process of manufacturing is moulding. With the time constraints the moulding is avoided.
Figure 68: Protective cover for pressure transducer
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17. MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT

a) LINEAR POTENTIOMETER
DESCRIPTION Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable resistance. It consists of a sliding contact which moves over the length of a resistance element. This sliding contact connects to a plunger, which links to the object whose displacement is to be measured.
Figure 69: Principal of linear potentiometer
CHARACTERISTICS Wire-wound potentiometers have a linearity of about 1%, and the more expensive film types can be linear to within 0.01 %. The resistance of wire-wound potentiometers ranges from about 10 to 200 k, and for film types from about 100 to 1 M. The resolution of wire-wound potentiometers depends on the number of windings of the resistance element.
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DISADVANTAGES Potentiometers suffer from some non-linearity of the former, which affects the accuracy of the results. The sliding contacts and the resistance elements are often prone to wear, which adversely affects their performance. They also add some mechanical resistance to displacement. Problems may also be caused by unwanted electrical signals (electrical noise).
ADVANTAGES Linear potentiometers are often used where an electrical signal relating to displacement is required, but where costs should be kept low and high accuracy is not paramount. Remote reading or recording can be achieved by using the voltage change across the output as an input signal to a measuring or recording system.
b) LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
DESCRIPTION Linear variable differential transformers, consist of two closely coupled coils wound around a soft iron former. These are known as the primary coil and the secondary coils. When an A.C. voltage is applied to the primary coil, an A.C. voltage is induced in the secondary coil. This is because of electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current flows through the primary coil it produces an alternating magnetic flux. Because of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, an e.m.f. is induced in the secondary coil. Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that when a conductor moves through a magnetic field an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced across it proportional to the rate of cutting flux.
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Figure 70: Principal of LVDT
CHARACTERISTICS The LVDT is extremely sensitive and provides resolution down to about 0.05 mm. They have operating ranges from about 0.1 mm to 300 mm. Accuracy is 0.5 % of full-scale reading.
ADVANTAGES Because there is no contact between the magnetic core and the coils, there is very little friction and wear. They can be constructed to withstand shock and vibration.
DISADVANTAGES They require external power supply They are costlier as compared to other motion measuring devices.
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c)
BONDED RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE
DESCRIPTION Bonded resistance strain gauge measures change in the size of a solid object, due to the object being. They are bonded to the object so that as the object changes size, so do they. For convenience they are usually referred to in the shortened form, simply as strain gauges. Strain gauges are transducers that experience a change in electrical properties when their dimensions change. When resistance strain gauges stretch or compress, their resistance changes, and this change in resistance can be shown in terms of displacement.
Figure 71: Bonded resistance strain gauge
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CHARACTERISTICS The gauge factor G of strain gauges usually lies in the range 1.8 and 2.2. Resistances of strain gauges are available in the range 50 to 2 k.
ADVANTAGES There is no moving part They can be compact and inexpensive.
DISADVANTAGES They are sensitivity to temperature variations They have a tendency to drift are disadvantages in comparison to metallic foil sensors. Another disadvantage of semiconductor strain gages is that the resistance-tostrain relationship is nonlinear, varying 10-20% from a straight-line equation.
d) VARIABLE AREA CAPACITORS

This method of measuring displacement uses the electrical property of capacitance. Capacitance is the property of a system that enables it to store electrical charge. A capacitor is an electrical component having capacitance. Capacitors are formed by conductors separated by a dielectric. The figure shown below represents the conductors of a capacitor, in the form of plates, with a dielectric material between them. A dielectric material is a substance such as mica, glass or kerosene that can sustain an electric field. The two plates are moved relative to each other in the same planes to get the difference in charge conducted which gives directly the travel of one plate with respect to other.
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Figure 72: Variable area capacitors
ADVANTAGES It gives rapid response to changes in pressure. Response time as short as ten mili second is possible. It can withstand a lot of vibration and shock, as in a hard landing by an unmanned spacecraft on the surface of planet. It is extremely sensitive. It has good frequency response. It can measure both static and dynamic changes.
DISADVANTAGES The performance of a capacitive transducer is severely affected by dirt and other contaminants, because they change the dielectric constant. The sensitivity of a capacitive transducer is adversely affected by changes in temperature. Errors may be caused by erratic and distorted signals.
(Reference# 8, 19)
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18. TESTING OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

A. PRESSURE TRANSDUCER TESTS:
1. Calibration test: In increasing and decreasing order to find out the hysteresis, angularity, zero and span error. 1. Over load test: Apply 125% of the maximum Range and back to zero for testing of capability of gauge at overload condition. 2. Endurance Test of Fluctuating pr. Test: This test is done after overload test. In this fluctuating pressure is applied in 25% and 95% of the range at 60 cycles per minute. 3. Flick test: At zero input signal, bring the pointer by hand to hundred percent and leave, it should come to zero. Based on the specifications finalized by reviewing the optimum design and constraints over the product the said pressure transducer was manufactured to suit the design requirements. Further it was tested to study its performance over the given operation range for selecting the optimum design for cylinder diameter (i.e. 8 and 10 mm) and O rings.
B. TEST RIG:
As this has been a totally new project at SAM, we were short of a test rig. So we were asked to design a new test rig for this product. Accordingly we proposed a test rig as indicated in the drawing below:
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Figure 73: Test rig suggested
The test rig consists of a rotary type piston cylinder type manual pump which is required for applying continuous pressure on the pressure transducer. A fixture is for holding a pressure gauge to get reading, holder for holding pressure transducer and a fixed scale to get the deflection readings. It also has an exit valve to release the pressure and one opening for getting pressurized oil from the pump. A sink basin is provided for storing the oil at the bottom. A test-rig with an electric motor with positive displacement can be utilised for the test-rig with more effectiveness.
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Actual testing process: Considering the time limit, we tested on a temporary test rig which consisted of an oil drain pump, a product by SAM, which has an oscillating type of piston type pump. The pump was designed for sustaining 7.5 bar pressure, so we went on to work on this oil drain pump for our testing which required to be tested up to a pressure of 6 bar at least. The remaining piping arrangement was made with pipes. This was sufficient for the testing of the product.
C. ERRORS IN THE PRESSURE GAUGES I. Zero error

If zero-input is applied output should be minimum. If not it means the instrument is having zero error. The zero error may be positive or negative. It remains constant throughout the range. Methods for rectifying the zero error: Directly adding or subtracting the negative or positive error respectively to output. By moving the dial By moving the sensing element
II.
Span Error
Span error or multiplication error is the mismatching of the input span and output span. If both are same then, there is no span error but any difference is there then there is span error. Span adjustment will be done by changing the input lever length. If the length is more span will be less, and if the length is less span will be more.
III.
Angularity error (non-linearity)
Angularity error comes due to the link and lever mechanism because, same travel of the link, lever will not give same change in angle. Rectification of angularity error:
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Make the tip travel minimum. (less sensitive) Change the input lever length
IV.
Hysteresis error
It occurs due to the property of material used. It cannot be removed, so that in designing it should be taken minimum.
V.
Backlash error
Backlash error comes due to the play between moving parts.
D. OBSERVATION SET 1:
Specifications: Cylinder: 8mm (ID), M.S. Spring: Spring Steel (Dm=5.8mm, pitch=3mm, Nt=15, d=0.8mm, Free Length=42mm) O Ring: 5*1.6, Silicon
Observation Table: (Forward Stroke) Pressure\SET (Bar) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 I (mm) 0 0 0 1.5 2.25 3 3.75 4.5 5.25 II (mm) 0 0 0.5 1.25 2 3 3.5 4.25 5 III (mm) 0 0 0.25 1.25 2.25 3 3.5 4.25 5 Average (mm) 0 0 0.25 1.33 2.16 3 3.58 4.33 5.08
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2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6
6.25 7 7.5 8.25 8.75 9.25 10 10.5 11.5 12.25 12.75 13.5 14 14.75 15.25 15.75 16.5 17 17.5 18 18.5
5.75 6.25 7 7.75 8.5 9.5 10.25 11 11.75 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.75 15.5 16 16.5 17.25 17.75 18.25 18.75
6 6.5 7.25 8 8.75 9.25 10 10.75 11.5 12.25 13.25 13.75 14.25 14.75 15.5 16.25 16.75 17.25 18 18.5 19
6 6.58 7.25 8 8.66 9.33 10.08 10.75 11.58 12.33 13 13.58 14.08 14.75 15.41 16 16.58 17.25 17.75 18.25 18.75
Table 33: Observation Table for 8mm ID cylinder in reverse direction
(Reverse stroke) Pressure\SET (Bar) 0 0.25 0.5 I (mm) 0 0 0 II (mm) 0 0 0.5 III (mm) 0 0 0.25 Average (mm) 0 0 0.25
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0.75 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6
1.5 2.25 3 3.5 4.25 5 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.5 8.25 9 9.5 10 10.5 11.5 12.25 13 14 14.5 15 15.75 16.5 17 17.5 18 18.5
1.25 2 3 3.5 4.25 5 5.75 6.5 7.25 7.75 8.5 9.25 9.75 10.5 11.25 12 12.75 13.25 14.25 14.75 15.5 15.75 16.25 17.25 17.75 18.25 18.75
1.25 2.25 3 3.5 4 4.75 5.75 6.25 7 7.5 8.5 9.25 9.75 10.25 11.25 12 12.5 13.25 13.75 14.5 15.25 16 16.5 17.25 18 18.5 19
1.33 2.16 3 3.5 4.16 4.91 5.75 6.33 7 7.58 8.41 9.16 9.66 10.25 11 11.83 12.5 13.16 14 14.58 15.25 15.83 16.41 17.16 17.75 18.25 18.75
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Graph:
Pressure Vs Displacement curve 20 UPPER LIMIT LOWER LIMIT IDEAL LOADING UNLOADING
15
Displacement in mm
10
-5
3 Pressure in Bar
Figure 74: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 8mm ID cylinder
E. OBSERVATION SET 2:
Specifications: Cylinder: 10mm (ID), Brass Spring: Spring Steel (Dm=8mm, pitch=4.5mm, Nt=10, d=1mm, Free Length=40.5mm) O Ring: 6.5*1.8, Silicon
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Observation Table: (Forward stroke) Pressure\SET (Bar) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 I (mm) 0 0 0.5 1.5 2.25 3 3.75 4.5 5 6 7 7.5 8.25 8.75 9.5 10 10.75 11.5 12 12.75 13.5 14 14.75 15.25 16 16.5 17 17.5 II (mm) 0 0 0.5 1.25 2 2.75 3.5 4.25 5.25 5.75 6.25 7 7.75 8.5 9.5 10.25 11 11.75 12.5 13.25 13.75 14.25 14.75 15.5 16 16.5 17.25 17.75 III (mm) 0 0 0.25 1.5 2.25 3 3.5 4.5 5 6 6.5 7.25 8.25 8.75 9.5 10.25 10.75 11.5 12.25 13.25 13.75 14.5 15 15.5 16.25 16.75 17.25 18 Average (mm) 0 0 0.41 1.41 2.16 2.91 3.58 4.41 5.08 5.91 6.58 7.25 8.08 8.66 9.5 10.16 10.83 11.58 12.25 13.08 13.66 14.25 14.83 15.41 16.08 16.58 17.25 17.75
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5.8 6 (Reverse stroke) Pressure\SET (Bar) 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4
18.25 19
18.25 19.25
18.5 19
18.33 19.08
Table 35: Observation Table for 10mm ID cylinder in forward direction
I (mm) 0 0 0.5 1.5 2.25 3 3.5 4.25 4.75 5.5 6.25 7 8 8.5 9.25 9.75 10.5 11.25 12 12.75 13.75 14.25 14.75 15.25 15.75 16.25 17
II (mm) 0 0 0.5 1.25 2 2.75 3.25 4.5 5 5.75 6.5 7 7.75 8.25 9 10 10.5 11 12 12.75 13.5 14 14.75 15.25 16 16.5 17
III (mm) 0 0 0.25 1.5 2.25 3 3.5 4.5 5 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.5 8 8.75 9.5 10.25 11 11.75 12.25 13.25 14 14.75 15.5 16.25 16.5 17.5
Average (mm) 0 0 0.41 1.41 2.16 2.91 3.41 4.41 4.91 5.66 6.33 6.91 7.75 8.25 9 9.5 10.41 11.08 11.91 12.58 13.5 14.08 14.75 15.33 16 16.41 17.16
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5.6 5.8 6 Graph:
17.5 18.25 19
17.75 18.25 19.25
18 18.5 19
17.75 18.33 19.08
Pressure Vs Displacement curve 20 UPPER LIMIT LOWER LIMIT IDEAL LOADING UNLOADING
15
Displacement in mm
10
-5
3 Pressure in Bar
Figure 75: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 10mm ID cylinder
F. INFERENCE
From the plotted results we can observe that the cylinder with diameter 10 mm works better in the initial region of the graph and give deflection at about 0.5 bar compared to the one with diameter 8 mm which gives deflection at about 0.75 bar. The main reason behind this difference is the fact that the acting force is directly proportional to the square of the diameter and the frictional force is directly proportional to the diameter.
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19. COSTING
The table provided below lists the costs incurred during the project. SR. NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 COMPONENT Silicon (4.6*1.7) Silicon ( 4.7*1.7 ) Silicon (5*1.5) Silicon (5*1.6) Silicon (5 *1.7) Silicon (5*2) Silicon (5*2.4) Silicon (5*2.5) Silicon (7*1.5) Silicon (7*1.5) NBR (5 *1.5) NBR (6 *2) Viton (4*2) Viton (5*1.6) Spring (Spring Steel) Spring (Stainless Steel) Teflon Rod TOTAL QUANTITY 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 RATE (Rs.) 6.90 6.90 5.40 6.90 6.90 6.90 7.20 7.20 6.90 6.90 5.4 5.4 11.10 10 12 AMOUNT (Rs.) 13.80 13.80 16.20 27.60 20.70 13.80 21.60 28.80 20.70 20.70 16.2 10.8 22.20 10 24
15 16
3 1
12 310
36 310 627
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20. MAINTENANCE OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

A failure may be caused by excessive overpressure, excessive vibration, excessive instrument temperature, corrosion of the pressure containing parts, or other misuse. The life of the hydraulic components is directly proportional to system cleanliness. If the oil is kept clean, is in good chemical condition, and its viscosity meets the operating temperature range, it should be left in the unit. The transducer do not requires consistent periodic attention just the cleanliness of the system. It is recommended that you should change the engine oil on regular basis within recommended period of time to keep the transducer in healthy conditions. Problems must be addressed immediately as they may affect the safety of the entire generator. Important points regarding maintenance: Cleaning the oil sump before the recommended period Changing the oil at every recommended interval Avoid corrosive liquid getting close to oil tank Avoid dirt contamination to the oil as far as possible
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21. FAILURE MODE, EFFECT AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS

A failure mode, effect and criticality analysis (FMECA) is a procedure in product development and operations management for analysis of potential failure modes within a system for classification by the severity and likelihood of the failures. A successful FMECA activity helps a team to identify potential failure modes based on past experience with similar products or processes, enabling the team to design those failures out of the system with the minimum of effort and resource expenditure, thereby reducing development time and costs. Three important numbers used in the analysis are: 1. Occurrence In this step it is necessary to look at the cause of a failure mode and the number of times it occurs. A failure cause is looked upon as a design weakness. All the potential causes for a failure mode should be identified and documented. A failure mode is given an occurrence ranking (O), again 110. Rating Meaning: 1 2, 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8 9, 10 No known occurrences on similar products or processes Low (relatively few failures) Moderate (occasional failures) High (repeated failures) Very high (failure is almost inevitable)
2. Severity Determine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their effects. A failure mode in one component can lead to a failure mode in another component; therefore each failure mode should be listed in technical terms and for function. Each effect is given a severity number (S) from 1 (no danger) to 10 (critical). These numbers help an engineer to prioritize the failure modes and their effects. Rating Meaning 1 2 3 4, 5, 6 No effect Very minor (only noticed by discriminating customers) Minor (affects very little of the system, noticed by average customer) Moderate (most customers are annoyed)
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7, 8 9, 10
High (causes a loss of primary function; customers are dissatisfied) Very high and hazardous (product becomes inoperative; customers angered;
the failure may result unsafe operation and possible injury)
3. Detection The proper inspection method is needed to be chosen. First, an engineer should look at the current controls of the system, that prevent failure modes from occurring or which detect the failure before it reaches the customer. From these controls an engineer can learn how likely it is for a failure to be identified or detected. Each combination from the previous 2 steps receives a detection number (D). This ranks the ability of planned tests and inspections to remove defects or detect failure modes in time. The assigned detection number measures the risk that the failure will escape detection. A high detection number indicates that the chances are high that the failure will escape detection, or in other words, that the chances of detection are low. Rating Meaning 1 2 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8 9, 10 Certain - fault will be caught on test Almost Certain High Moderate Low Fault will be passed to customer undetected
After these three basic steps, risk priority numbers (RPN) are calculated Risk priority number (RPN) RPN play an important part in the choice of an action against failure modes. They are threshold values in the evaluation of these actions. After ranking the severity, occurrence and detectability the RPN can be easily calculated by multiplying these three numbers: RPN = S O D This has to be done for the entire process and/or design. Once this is done it is easy to determine the areas of greatest concern. The failure modes that have the highest RPN should be given the highest priority for corrective action. This means it is not always
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PART/FUNCTI ON O-ring sealing Pointer offset
Spring retraction
Bursting of cylinder Potentiometer wire slip
Bursting of joints
MODE OF FAILURE Stress (Hoop) Stress Play Shear failure
Fatigue failure
Crushing, chemical reaction
EFFECT OF FAILURE No lubrication No lubrication No output display
Piston locked in extreme position Loss of accuracy of the readings Wrong readings Oil with metal chips and chemicals Excessive pressure Excessive pressure Improper design 8 9 9 3 Improper glue, heavy force at the pointer 4
CAUSE OF FAILURE
Excessive loading
SEVERITY
OCCURA-NCE
more redundancy and limiting environmental stresses or operating range.
could be less severe failures, but which occur more often and are less detectable.
dates of implementation are noted. These actions can include specific inspection,
testing or quality procedures, redesign (such as selection of new components), adding
After these values are allocated, recommended actions with targets, responsibility and
the failure modes with the highest severity numbers that should be treated first. There
Table 37: FMECA Chart for Manufactured Pressure Transducer
DETECTIO-N
RPN (RISK PRIORITY NO) 168 27
72
27
48
224
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Check the oil regularly Check the oil pressure regularly
CORRECTION
Avoid excessive pressure
Check the oil pressure regularly
Providing pointer support
Use good quality adhesives, avoid high pressure of pointer
INFERENCE
From the FMECA chart it can be observed that O-ring failure and potentiometer wire slip are the major problems in the design of the pressure transducers. For dealing with O-ring failure, the most important parameter is the oil contaminant level. By keeping an eye on the oil within the recommended times, the O-ring failure can be avoided. For dealing with potentiometer wire slip, the adhesive used should be of industry standards and the pointer pressure on the potentiometer should be just sufficient.
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22. SWOT ANALYSIS

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses/limitations, opportunities, and threats involved in a project or in a business venture. Most commonly used as a business planning tool, SWOT analysis can be used to evaluate products, divisions, companies and entire markets. It can also be used as an investment tool, giving an investor a handy snapshot of the potential advantages or disadvantages of a company's current positioning.
THE COMPONENTS OF SWOT

Strengths Strengths are characteristics that give the subject a meaningful advantage or form the basis of above-average performance potential. In many cases, a subject's strengths will be the basis of its competitive advantage. Not only do strengths consider what a company does well, but why or how it does it well. Weaknesses In a SWOT analysis, weaknesses are vulnerabilities to the company's competitive position and/or opportunity to earn positive economic returns. Common weaknesses could include a unionized labour force, products that are essentially regarded as commodities, or the requirement to comply with expensive or elaborate regulatory regimes to sell its goods/services. Weaknesses can also refer to how the company is integrated and affected by economic conditions. An economic environment heavily burdened with competition, for example, would be considered a potential weakness of the firm. Opportunities Opportunities represent scenarios or options where the company can meaningfully improve itself. The introduction of a significant product can be an opportunity, as well as a restructuring or acquisition.
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Threats The threats portion of a SWOT analysis should answer the question "what could change for the worse?" with a particular company. Like opportunities, threats may be prospective or even theoretical, but they should offer more specificity than "something might go wrong." Increased government regulation, a failure to secure approval/acceptance for a major new product, or the introduction of a rival product/service would all represent meaningful threats to a company's competitive standing and economic returns.
SWOT ANALYSIS: Design and fabrication and fabricate a pressure transducer

for monitoring the condition of lubricating oil in a generator set. STRENGTHS Use of brass enhances the aesthetic appeal Reliable testing methods adopted Due to elimination of diaphragm, life of the product increases significantly WEAKNESS Advanced manufacturing processes are not used Required accuracy (+/-5%) is not obtained Vibration testing has not been carried out due to lack of the necessary testing apparatus
OPPORTUNITY If manufacturing capabilities are improved , accuracy will improve significantly Could be used for other low pressure range applications If the same product is manufactured in plastics would prove to be economical
THREATS If the oil used is having SAE rating greater than 30 then leakage failure is possible.
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23. FUTURE SCOPE

With the time limit for the project and the shortcomings of the machines with accuracy, there have been many different ideas for different components were left untouched. To improve the performance of the product these factors can be taken into consideration before analysis. 1. Cylinder: There have been many materials that could have been used for cylinder manufacturing, but some material require some great machines for manufacturing which are hard to find. Some materials require surface finish up to 2 but a lathe machine cant give such precision. The materials that can be used for further research: Delrin Teflon PVC Polyamide Glass filled nylin
2. Piston: Different materials that could have been used: Delrin Aluminium
Piston could have been made in different designs: Piston with detachable rod and piston head Piston with different combination of O-rings Piston without O-rings with Teflon Teflon piston head with different designs
3. Hex nuts: Hex nut can be replaced by using different joints like welding, press fitting etc.
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4. O-rings: Future scope in O-ring selection: Optimum dimensions for O-ring can be selected by doing a continuous trial and error as there are many parameters that can be varied. There are many other shapes in rings like u-ring, p-ring, etc. which can be utilized for study. As Teflon is the least friction exerting material, this can be used as split rings or by a complete piston of Teflon. 5. Outer cover: The outer cover can be designed with more care towards factors like ventilation, aesthetics, ergonomics, and proper design for assembly. 6. Pointer design: Currently the pointer is designed with the available pointer at the firm, but a more appropriate design can be made to suit the application. 7. Potentiometer arrangement: New and adventurous designs for the potentiometer arrangement can be implied.
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24. CONCLUSIONS
Our project at SAM Integrations Pvt. Ltd. was our first real exposure to the industrial world. Working on our project, we developed not only our theoretical knowledge, but our practical knowledge as well. The project output did not reach to the desired output specifications but the attempt to attain them was surely made with the short comings of precise manufacturing processes and material availability. While working on the structural aspect of the pressure transducer, we were able to understand all the intricacies of structural design and the practices followed in the industry. We were able to apply all the theoretical knowledge that we had gained in the past few years in designing a product that was actually going to be manufactured. All our basics regarding design were strengthened. Furthermore, we learnt the economic aspect of designing as well. The design engineers taught us the way in which the financial budget is maintained while still implementing the design i.e. where we can afford to save money and where we cannot compromise quality and safety, to deliver a product that works efficiently. While preparing industry level manufacturing drawings, we realized the precision and detailing required while preparing such drawings, which we in previous years had ignored to a great extent. At the end the project work was concluded with partial completion but working on our final year BE project has been a memorable and educational experience, that will surely help us when we enter the real world of mechanical engineering industry.
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25. REFERENCES
1. 2. SAM Integration Pvt. Ltd. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited-Trainning Manual on Process Measuring instruments- Course no. SA-C&I # 2.4 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Material properties- The DuPont Oval Logo, DuPont., The miracles of science. Diphragm design manual -Freudenberg and NOK Group Parker O-Ring Handbook -ORD 5700 Principles of Pressure Measurement- Franklin L. Scamman, MD CE319F - Elementary Mechanics of Fluids Laboratory UT Austin Macro sensors-Division of Howard A. Schaevitz Technologies, Inc. - Technical Bulletin 0103 9. Machine Design II- Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram
10. Machine Design- V. B. Bhandari, 11. Associated Spring Barnes Group Inc.- Engineering Guide to Spring Design 12. Design Data of Engineers- P S G College of Technology, Coimbatore 13. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/physical-properties-thermoplasticsd_808.html 14. Burch and Gruditski, Information system-Theory and practice 5/e. 15. Bhalchand Spring Pvt. Ltd. 16. Shende Sales 17. John Deere, Retraction manual 18. RICO 19. S. k. Sing Industrial Instrumentation and control, Tata McGraw-Hills
Page 109 of 112
ANNEXTURE-I: MATLAB PROGRAM FOR GRAPH GENERATION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. function g1() %To plot graph Pressure Vs Displacement P=input('Enter value of pressure in bar:') D1=input('Enter value of forward dispalcement in mm:') D2=input('Enter value of return displacement in mm:') D=input('Enter the value of diameter in mm:') ID=P*(pi/4)*D*D; NED=((pi/4)*D*D*P)-0.5; PED=((pi/4)*D*D*P)+0.5; plot(P,D1,P,D2,P,PED,P,NED,P,ID); xlabel('Pressure in Bar'); ylabel('Displacement in mm'); title('Pressure Vs Displacement curve'); legend('LOADING','UNLOADING','UPPER LIMIT','LOWER LIMIT','IDEAL',2); grid on; end
Page 110 of 112
ANNEXTURE-II: SHENDE SALES CORPORATION CATALOGUE FOR O RINGS
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A PROJECT REPORT ON DESIGN, FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A PRESSURE TRANSDUCER FOR THE CONDITION MONITORING OF THE OIL LUBRICATION

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHIVAJINAGAR, PUNE-05. 2011-2012

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-05

Internal Guide Prof. M. M. Nadkarni

Head of Department Prof. Dr. A. D. Desai

Prof. Dr. Mrs. K. R. Joshi Principal PESs MCOE, Pune-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

Place: Pune Date: 16/06/2012

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

C. Basic Information of company:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

Table 1: SAM Customers

E. Team & Staff:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

Figure 1: Tank Unit for gensets

Figure 2: S-series Fuel Indicator

Figure 3: Fuel Indicator

Figure 4: Drain Pump

Fire Safety Equipments

Fuel Filling Neck

Figure 5: Fire Safety Equipments

Figure 6: Fuel Filling Neck

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

A. Technical specification to be attained:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND ITS NEED

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

INTRODUCTION: THE SYSTEM

Figure 7: Oil lubrication system

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

PRESSURE GAUGE MOUNTING ON GEN-SET

Figure 8: Pressure gauge mounting on gen-set

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

STEPS OF PROJECT WORK

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

BACKGROUND: How oil condition monitoring occurs?

A. Types of oil condition monitoring:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

C. On-line oil condition monitoring

D. Cause of low pressure:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

E. Cause of high pressure:

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

B. RICO COMPONENT ANALYSIS

(Reference# 14, 18)

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

Figure 9: Assembly of RICO pressure transducer

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

C. DIFFERENT MECHANISMS FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT MECHANISMS IN BRIEF

A. Bourdon tube: i. C-shaped bourdon tube:

Figure 10: C-shaped bourdon tube

P. E. S. MODERN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE-5