(TE3N) Booklet

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2011 USAC
1 1.1 Introduction
LEAN MANUFACTURING
Lean manufacturing or lean production, which is often known simply as Lean, is a production practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any goal other than the creation of value for the end customer to be wasteful, and thus a target for elimination. Working from the perspective of the customer who consumes a product or service, value is defined as any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
Basically, lean is centered around creating more value with less work. Lean manufacturing is a generic process management philosophy derived mostly from the Toyota Production System (TPS) (hence the term Toyotism is also prevalent) and identified as Lean only in the 1990s. It is renowned for its focus on reduction of the original Toyota seven wastes in order to improve overall customer value, but there are varying perspectives on how this is best achieved.
Lean manufacturing is a variation on the theme of efficiency based on optimizing flow; it is a present-day instance of the recurring theme in human history toward increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas.
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The elimination of waste is the goal of Lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste: Muda Mura Muri Muda: is a traditional general Japanese term for an activity that is wasteful and doesn't add value or is unproductive and it is also a key concept in the Toyota Production System (TPS). The original seven muda are: Transportation (moving products that is not actually required to perform the processing) Inventory (all components, work in process and finished product not being processed) Motion (people or equipment moving or walking more than is required to perform the processing) Waiting (waiting for the next production step) Overproduction (production ahead of demand) Over Processing (due to poor tool or product design creating activity) Defects (the effort involved in inspecting for and fixing defects) Mura: is traditional general Japanese term for unevenness, inconsistency in physical matter or human spiritual condition. Muri: is a Japanese term for overburden, unreasonableness or absurdity, which has become popularized in the West by its use as a key concept in the Toyota Production System.
1.2
Lean Manufacturing Goals
The four goals of Lean manufacturing systems are to: Improve quality: In order to stay competitive in todays marketplace, a company must understand its customers' wants and needs and design processes to meet their expectations and requirements. Eliminate waste: Waste is any activity that consumes time, resources, or space but
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does not add any value to the product or service. There are seven types of waste. Reduce time: Reducing the time it takes to finish an activity from start to finish is one of the most effective ways to eliminate waste and lower costs. Reduce total costs: To minimize cost, a company must produce only to customer demand. Overproduction increases a companys inventory costs due to storage needs.
1.3
Steps to achieve lean systems

to create the ideal lean
The following steps should be implemented in order manufacturing system: 1. Design a simple manufacturing system 2. Recognize that there is always room for improvement 3. Continuously improve the lean manufacturing system design 4. Measure
1.3.1 Design a simple manufacturing system A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing is demand-based flow manufacturing. In this type of production setting, inventory is only pulled through each production center when it is needed to meet a customers order. The benefits of this goal include: Decreased cycle time Less inventory Increased productivity Increased capital equipment utilization
1.3.2 There is always room for improvement The core of lean is founded on the concept of continuous product and process improvement and the elimination of non-value added activities. The Value adding activities are simply only those things the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or integrated(Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system layouts at the customer's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.
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1.3.3 Continuously improve A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach a company's goals. The term "continuous improvement" means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product performance (Suzaki, 1987).
1.3.4 Measure A set of performance metrics which is considered to fit well in a Lean environment is overall equipment effectiveness, or OEE, which is a hierarchy of metrics which focus on how effectively a manufacturing operation is utilized. To keep things really simple, lean manufacturing has a base premise and overall goal to get more done with less and this is effectively done, by: Minimizing inventory at and through all stages of production Eliminating waste Reducing wait times, queues Shortening product cycle times from raw materials to finished goods
Lean manufacturing involves some real positive, productive changes in businesses that will have a measurable impact in the bottom line. Benefits of lean production could include: Reduced lead time, wait time and cycle time Liberated capital Increased profit margins Increased productivity Improved product quality Just in time, affordable, streamlined, cost-efficient processes, products and services Improved on-time shipments Customer satisfaction and loyalty Employee retention
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1.2
Homework:
Investigate the following terms related to lean manufacturing and give their definition: Just in time - Kanban - Andon Kaizen - Jidoka - Six Sigma Poka Yoke - Heijunka -5S
Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0Q-xaYior0&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU01D-jTZcE&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q89qAbAAR3Q&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdHGTCXcJQU&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKb84GafalI
Activities
Complete the next chart with the next definitions:
Lean manufacturing
Reduce Time
Continuously Improve
TPS
Improve quality
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2. 2.1 Introduction
PROCESS DIAGRAMS
The process diagrams are very important in the manufacturing industry because they give us a clear perspective of the processes with every step, including materials, time, distance and others. This helps the engineers to interpret and analyze the manufacturing process and make decisions that will improve the process without being there to watch how everything works. The diagrams are composed by three parts: - Header - Body - Summary In the header you will include all the relevant information such as: company name, analyst, date, process, area, page number, type of diagram, etc. In the body, you will draw the diagram that is required according the specifications of each type and of the process. And in the summary you will write all the steps that the process has, including time. Time is the most important factor because we use it to calculate the process efficiency and productivity.
Example: HEADER
BODY
SUMMARY
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2.2
Operations Diagram
This diagram is a graphic representation of the operations and inspections in a production process. In this diagram well include the following symbols: Description Operation: is when the process has materials transformation, or involves any action or activity for the creation of products. Symbol
Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also the quality of the product during the manufacturing process.
Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used when in the process you have to check the products during An operation.
Analyst: John Hamilton Area: kitchen Date: Nov. 20th, 2010 Type of diagram: operations Page 1 of 1
Company name: Johns house Process: making of hot chocolate
0.7 min 1 In a pot put 1 liter of water, in a stove With high fire, let it boil
1 min 2 Take the 0.30 pounds of chocolate out of the bag and put it into the pot
0.5 min 3 Get some marshmallows
7 min 4 Stir frequently and let the chocolate melt and get the desired consistency
0.5 min 1 Check if the chocolate is ready
0.8 min 5 Get a cup and serve
0.5 min 6 0.4 min 1 Check if its not too hot, Enjoy! Add the marshmallows
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Summary Description Operation Inspection Combined Totals Symbol # of steps 6 1 1 8 Time 10.5 0.4 0.5 11.4
2.2.1
Important considerations
Note that the time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in the right, as shown in the example. Process Flow Diagram
2.3
The process flow diagram is a graphic representation of the steps that follows a chronologic sequence of activities in a process or procedure, identifying them with symbols according to its nature, and also includes all the considered important information that is needed for analysis. This information could be distance, time, quantity, etc. This helps us discover and eliminate waste and delays, making the process more efficient and increase the productivity in the manufacturing industry. In this diagram we include the storage, operation, inspection, combined, delays and transportation symbols.
Description Operation: is when the process has materials transformation, or involves any action or activity for the creation of products. Inspection: is when we check how the process is going and also the quality of the product during the manufacturing process. Combined: this is an operation-inspection step and is used when in the process you have to check the products during An operation. Delay: this is used when nothing is being done in the process, It could be the wait for other paralell process to finish before Adding the product to the asembly line.
Symbol
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Transportation: is when the product is moved more than 1.5 meters to the next step. This is because the human body Can move something from one side to other between 0 and 1.5 m and its irrelevant according to standars. Storage: this is used at the beginning of the process when the Materials are taken from the raw materials storage and at the end Of it in the finished product storage.
As the operations diagram, it has the same parts: header, body and summary, and its important to include in the summary the time and distance that you have in the diagram.
2.3.1 Important considerations Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram always is going to be drawn from right to left, even if it has simultaneous processes or not. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. The distance is written meters and in the lower-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram, and when you have a simultaneous process you have to write the number on the left first and then in the right, as shown in the example.
Process Travel Diagram
2.4
This diagram uses the same symbolism as the process flow and also the same structure, the only difference is that we draw the diagram in a plan view of the manufacturing plant. Remember to always draw the symbols in a 1 cm2 area. This is a standard for all the diagrams that youre going to draw.
2.4.1
Important considerations
Time is given in minutes; this is a standard for all the diagrams. The diagram is drawn in a plan view of the manufacturing plant. The time is placed in the upper-left corner of the symbol. The distance is written in meters and the lower-left corner of the symbol. A brief description of every step of the process is written at the right side of the symbol. When numbering the process remember that you have to do it according to its function in the diagram and the sequence in the process.
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Example: (For space reasons, this diagram doesnt include the time and distance)
Company name: Industry S.A. Process: production of ketchup Analyst: John Hamilton Area: manufacturing plant Date: Nov 20th, 2010 Type of diagram: process travel Page 1 of 1
Summary
Description Operation Inspection Combined Transportation Delay Storage Totals
Symbol
# of steps 9 2 2 4 3 1 21
Time
Distance
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2.5
Homework
With the given videos, draw the operations diagram, the process flow diagram and the operations travel diagram. To make the operations diagram, use the following link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gneZc_hafDE To make the process flow diagram and the process travel diagram, use the following link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkHFNnOK3Bg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TI-dSckvw0Q http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5sNItVp9cA&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Y5Auwf0nXE http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3K3-stVK0lM
Activities:
According to the picture below, determine what symbol each operation needs:
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Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Tables storage Sawing and Comprobation Sawdust 6% Waiting to be processed Devastation and Comprobation Transfer to the pendulum (forklift) Waiting to be processed Sawdust 0.38% Cut and Comprobation Sawdust Cut and Comprobation Sawdust 0.32% Waiting to be transported Transfer to the assembly area (forklift) Waiting to be processed Waiting to be transported Transfer to the assembly area (forklift) Waiting to be processed Cross storage Transfer to the pendulum (forklift) Waiting to be processed
Assembly and Comprobation Sawdust and Tables. Waiting to be transported Transfer to the Store (forklift) Storage
Description
Symbol
No. of steps
Time
Description 2
Symbol
No. of steps2
Time2
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3. 3.1 Introduction
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control is a critical concept in every industry and profession. As globalization continues and the world become smaller, making it possible for consumers to pick and choose from the best products worldwide, the survival of your job and of your company depends on your ability to produce a quality product or service. In this chapter, we define the term quality, and we introduce some important quality control concepts and methods. For most people, quality is associated with the idea of a product or service that is well done, looks good and does its job well. We think of a quality product as one that lasts, holds up well under use, and doesnt require constant repair. A quality product or service should meet a high standard in many areas, such as form, features, fit and finish, reliability and usability.
3.2
Quality control concepts Costumer based: Quality is meet customer expectations. Statistical based: The less variation you have, the higher the quality of your product or service.
After an organization decides on a definition of quality, you need standards against which to measure your quality. The reason is because many standards are driven by the desire to safeguard and well-being of the people who use the products or services companies provide. Quality standards are also critical in support of international trade.
3.3
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance focuses on the ability of a process to produce or deliver a quality product or service. This method differs from quality control in that it looks at the entire process, not just the final product. Quality control is designed to detect problems with a product or service; quality assurance attempts to head off problems at the pass by tweaking a production process until it can produce a quality product.
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3.4
Measuring the quality

The old manager saying: You cant manage what you can measure rings especially true in quality control. A good measurement system helps you to know where youve been and where you are going. Costumers typically require that you measure certain attributes of your product or service against their specifications. So, working in quality control means that you have to determine what to measure, how to measure it and when to measure it.
Employee training is critical to ensure that everyone involved in your process measures the same specifications in the same way. You also need to collect data in a usable format so that you can analyze it to determine the effectiveness of your quality process. The effectiveness of your quality process is directly related to the quality of your data collection and analysis proce ss. If you dont have a good data, you cant make good decisions.
3.5
Evaluating the quality
The most common way to analyze the data you collect is to use statistics. Statistics serve many purposes within quality control: Statistics helps you to determine which processes or parts of processes are causing your company the most problems (by using the 80/20 rule 80 percent of your problems are caused by 20 percent of what you do). You can use statistics for sampling so that you dont have to test 100 percent of the items you make. Statistics can help you spot relationships between the values you measure even if the relationships arent obvious. They also allow you to identify small variations in your process that can lead to big problems if you dont correct them.
Although, much of statistics allows you to look back only at was happened in the past. Statistical Process Control (SPC) allows you to identify problems before they can negatively impact the quality of your product or service. The basic idea behind SPC is that if you can spot a change in a process before it gets to the point of making bad products, you can fix the process before bad products hits the shelves.
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3.6
Introducing Lean Processes
Lean processes are the latest diet craze in the world of quality control. Lean is a quality control technique you can use to identify and eliminate the flab in your companys processes. The flab is all the dead weight carried by a process without adding any value. Most company processes are wasteful in terms of time and materials, which often results in poorer quality to the costumer a concern of all businesses. Lean focuses in customer satisfaction and cost reduction. Proponents of the technique believe that every step in a process is an opportunity to make a mistake to create a quality problem, in other words. The fewer steps you have in a process, the fewer chances for error you create and the better the quality in your final product or service. You can apply the lean techniques in the following sections to all types of processes and environments ranging from offices, to hospitals, to factories. In most cases applying lean concepts doesnt require an increase in capital costs it simply reassigns people to more productive purposes and of course, lean processes are cheaper to operate.
3.7
Lean Techniques
3.7.1 Value Stream Mapping People think in images, not in words, so giving them a picture of how something is done is often better than telling them about a process. After all, the quote is Show me the money! not Tell me about the money! Value Stream Mapping visually describes a production process in order to help workers locate waste within it. Waste is any activity that doesnt add value for the customer. Typically, eliminating waste involves reducing the amount of inventory sitting around and shortening the time it takes to deliver a product or service to the customer upon its order.
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3.7.2 The 5S method Work areas evolve along with the processes they support. As an organization implements new actions and tools, you must find a place for them somewhere. Over time, clutter can slowly build as piles of excess materials or tools grow and gradually gum up the smooth flow of work. The 5S method is an essential tool for any quality initiative that seeks to clear up the flow of work. The 5S describe five Japanese attributes required for a clean work place: Seiri (organization) Seiton (neatness) Seiso (cleaning) Seiketsu (standardization) Shitsuke (discipline)
Removing the clutter from a process eliminates hidden inventories, frees floor space for productive use, improves the flow of materials through the workplace, reduces walk time, and shakes out unnecessary items for reuse elsewhere or landfill designation. 3.7.3 Rapid improvement events No one knows a process like the workers who touch it every day. They know how the work should flow, they can identify obstacles that slow everyone down, and they deal with problems that never seem to go away. A Rapid Improvement Event (RIE) is an intensive process-activity improvement, where over a few days a companys workers bone up on lean techniques and rebuild their processes to incorporate its principles. The workers take apart their work areas, rearrange items and reassemble spaces for more efficient work. The improvements are immediate, and the workers have ownership of the process and fine motivated to further refine it.
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3.7.4 Lean materials and Kanban A companys materials are essential for the organization to work well, but they also tied up a large part of a companys capital. And while the company does its business year in and year out, its materials are, stolen, damaged, rotting, corroding, and losing value in many other ways. A key part of the lean approach is to minimize the amount of materials (both incoming and finished goods) you have sitting around in your facility. Excess materials hide problems with purchasing, work scheduling, scrap rates, and so on. Eliminating this excess materials provides an immediate financial benefit to your company if you eliminate correctly. You dont want to eliminate so thoroughly that you cause shortages. One method you can use to fix the problem of excess materials without causing shortages is Kanban. Kanban is a materials system controlled by the customer. When the customer buys an item, action cascades back up the production line to make one more of that item.
3.8
Homework
Investigate and make a summary of the following topics: Total Quality Management (TQM) Six Sigma Toyota Production System (TPS)
Suggested videos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Z33tljMTQ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdhC4ziAhgY
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Activities:
Write in each screw a different description about Quality Control:
Complete with the description of each lean technique:
Value stream Mapping Rapid improvement events Lean material and Kanban
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Complete the chart with the 5s technique:
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4. 4.1 Introduction
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
You need energy to start your day. Your breakfast is the fuel your body needs to work. What would you do if you ran out of your favorite cereal? You could buy another box. But what if the store was all out, too? What if it wasnt getting any more deliveries? What would you do then? The answer seems simple; youd have to find another food for breakfast. The world faces a similar problem; our fuel resources are running low and could run out in your lifetime. Most everything in the world needs energy to work. Think about the energy you use each day: the lights you turn on, the bus or car you take to school, the computer you use for homework, the television you watch before bed. Even while you sleep, energy runs your furnace heating your house and the refrigerator keeping food from spoiling. It even runs the alarm clock that wakes you up in the morning. Now think about how many people live on the Earth. With a population of more than 6 billion, the world uses a lot of energy. 4.2 4.2.1 Todays energy sources = fossil fuels Coal
People mine for coal, a hard, black, rock, throughout the world. Power plants use coal to generate electricity by grinding it into a powder that is burned. The burned powder heats water to create steam. The power of the steam turns turbines. The spinning motion of the turbines generates electricity. A network of wires called power grid, bring this electricity to houses and other buildings. 4.2.2 Oil
Companies drill for oil on land or in the ocean and store it in large barrels or underground tanks. People turn oil into many products, including plastics. Your ballpoint pen, your nylon backpack, and even your fleece jacket are all made from oil. Some homes burn oil for heat and some power plants burn oil too. In many countries, however, oils main use is for transportation. Oil is
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 made into gasoline for cars, diesel fuel for trucks, and jet fuel for airplanes. 4.2.3 Natural gas
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Companies drill for natural gas the same way they do for oil. Natural gas is highly flammable. Gas stoves cook food with a lower flame. In the United States, and probably other countries, the houses heating system and water heater may use natural gas. Natural gas is also used in power plants to create electricity. 4.3 The problems of the use of the fossil fuels Fossil fuels have been a useful source of energy, but we need to rethink how much we depend on them. We need to consider three main facts. First, fossil fuel supplies are low. We use so much energy that someday well use up all of Earths fossil fuels. At the rate we use now fossil fuels, scientists estimate that the worlds reserve will last 40 to 70 more years. What will happen after all of the oil, coal, and natural gas have run out? How will we travel from place to place? How will we light our homes? How will we communicate with each other? The second fact is that the fossil fuels cost a lot of money. Countries buy fossil fuels from each other. Because the supply is low, they can raise their prices. If countries go to war or have a disagreement, they may not want to buy fuel from each other. No one will get what they need. Finally, burning fossil fuels harms Earth. Coal, oil, and natural gas create a lot of air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful emissions that cause asthma and other health problems. This pollution also leads to acid rain and snow. Many scientist and citizens are concerned about the carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide belongs to a group of gases known as greenhouse gases. As these gases collect in the atmosphere, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse, trapping warm air close to Earths surface. This warming is natural, and long ago it made the planets environment mild enough to support life. However, when human activities pump larger-than-normal amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, more heat is trapped, and temperatures can grow unnaturally high. As a result, there can be major effects on weather that may be devastating to the environment and all the people on Earth.
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4.4
The solutions What can we do about our energy problems? Instead of relying on fossil fuels, we need to examine our
green alternatives. Green energy is renewable it is constantly being replaced and wont run out. Natural forces, such as wind, water, and sunlight are green energy sources. Its not easy to switch to green energy; however, we rely on fossil fuels every day. People would need to spend huge amounts of money to change from one kind of fuel to another. We need to take action, but first, we need to understand our energy alternatives, then we can make the best energy choices to preserve our planet. 4.5 Solar energy Put on sunglasses, rub in sunscreen, and hit the beach. Its time to soak up some rays! The sun can give you a great tan or make you sweat playing Frisbee. The suns light and heat can also help us solve our energy problems. You have probably noticed wires running from your home to poles on the street. These wires connect you to the power grid of your community. Homes that use solar power, dont need as much energy from the grid. There are two types of solar power: solar cell energy and solar thermal energy.
4.5.1
How solar cell energy works
Years ago scientists developed solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells or PV cells, which can turn suns light directly into electricity. These small, flat devices made of silicon come in a variety of sizes. You may have seen PV cells in a calculator. Some billboards and streetlights use PV cells to operate. Most cells are 4 inches by 4 inches (10 centimeters by 10 centimeters) and grouped together in panels on the roofs buildings. The solar panel absorbs the suns light and transforms it into electric current. The electricity can then run lights, machines, and appliances in the buildings. The more PV cells, the more electricity panels can create. The cells generate electrical power when the sun is shining. But what happens at night or when the sun is covered by clouds? Batteries store the electricity; because solar panels absorb light, not heat, they still create electricity during a cold winter. As long as the sun is shining, PV cells are at work.
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Your family can install solar panels on your home, even though you are connected to the power grid. At times, the panels may even generate more power than your home needs. The power company then buys any extra power you create and puts it back into the grid for someone else to use. So by using solar panels you could help your whole community rely more on a green energy source. 4.5.2 How solar thermal energy works
Solar thermal energy uses heat instead of light. People can place thermal panels on their roofs to absorb the suns heat. Tubing filled with water runs under the panels. The sun warms the water. This water can then be used to make a cup of cocoa, fill a swimming pool, or run through a homes heating system. Thermal energy can also create electricity. In a solar power plant, the sun heats a liquid until it boils. Then the steam created from this boiling liquid runs a turbine to generate electricity. In order for the liquids to boil, these power plants use mirror to focus the suns heat and increase its strength. Some mirrors are c urved and shaped like a saucer. Others are shaped like a trough or placed in a line. Some new solar energy plants have a power tower. Thousands of mirrors surround the tower and focus the suns heat to the top.
4.6
Wind Energy Wind is moving air. The motion is caused by changes in air temperature. Warm air is light, and cold air
is heavy. When the land beats up during the day, it warms the air above it. This warm air rises higher in the sky; while cold air moves down to fill the space left by the warm air. This movement of air creates wind. Wind can be powerful, as with a destructive hurricane, but its power can also be used for good. Sailors use the wind to keep their sailboats moving. Throughout history people have used windmills to harness the winds energy for grinding grain or pumping well water. Today people use wind turbines to generate electricity.
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 4.6.1 How wind power works
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A wind turbine has what looks like an airplane propeller mounted very high in a tower. The blades of the turbine catch the wind and spin. The blades spin a shaft that is connected to an electrical generator. Wires connect the generator to the power grid to bring electricity to buildings in the area. To increase the amount of power, turbines are often grouped in wind farms. Most wind farms arent owned by electric power companies. They are owned by wind farmers who sell the electricity to power companies. Wind turbines work best where wind blows strongest. Wind is usually stronger the higher you go. Thats why turbines are often mounted on tall towers or placed on the top of hills. Some towers stand between 100 and 250 feet (30 and 76 meters) high. Shorelines and wide-open prairies are also good places for towers. Turbines dont work well in location of too many mountains, forests, or buildings, which block the winds flow. Some people place small turbines on their roofs and position them in a way to catch the most wind. 4.7 Geothermal energy Old faithful, Yellowstone National Parks most famous geyser, erupts with thousands of gallons of water and steam every hour to hour and a half. This popular Wyoming tourist spot is the home to more than 60 percent of the worlds geysers. In just one square mile (2.6 square kilometers), you can see more than a 150 of them. Some people think of Earth as a solid ball of rock, but it has many layers. At the center, Earth has a solid core. Around this core is an area of hot, liquid rock called magma. Above the magma is a layer of solid rock and magma called the mantle. The temperature of the mantle can be very high from 2,520 to 5,400 degrees Fahrenheit (1,382 to 2,982 degrees Celsius) depending on how deep you go. The surface of Earth, the crust, sits on the mantle. Water sometimes collects in the rocks underground and heats up. If there is a vent leading from this deep rock to the surface, superheated water shoots upward. Earths crust is thicker in some areas than others.
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4.8

Homework
Investigate at least 15 technical words from this chapter that you previously did not know and write the translation and definition of each Investigate about the following topics: magma, and mantle Watch the suggested videos. Then, answer this question: What could you do help to introduce people to living a "green" life? What are some ways to change their way of thinking and living?
Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIU5fFmDeSc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1HmY_ImHAg&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlG0xk93J-E&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&feature=fvw
Activities Write in each square and explain some energy sources:
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5. 5.1 Introduction
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the science that deals with the study of rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold bodies. The hot and cold bodies are called the source and the receiver respectively. Process heat transfer deals with the rates of exchange of heat as they occur in the heat transfer equipment of engineering and chemical processes. In all such cases, the temperature difference between a source and a receiver acts as a driving force for heat transfer. The major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer is that the former is concerned with the relation between heat and other forms of energy, whereas the later deals with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer. Thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium, so it cant be used to predict how fast a change will take place since the system is not in equilibrium in a process but it may be used to predict the amount of energy required to change the system from one equilibrium state to another. Consider the cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a jar of water. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar-water system but will not tell us how long it will take to reach the equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be after a certain time period before the attainment of equilibrium condition whereas heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both bar and water as a function of time.
5.2
Modes of heat transfer
There are three distinct modes of heat transfer from a source to a receiver: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction: it is the flow of heat that occurs, either due to the exchange energy from one molecule to another without appreciable motion of the molecules or due to the motion of free electrons if they are present. Conduction occurs on the molecular scale, molecules with a relative higher energy imparting energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. For example, the heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace or the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube occurs by conduction. Convection: it is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid by mixing (convection occurs through actual physical movement of warmer portions of fluid towards cooler portions of the same material). Convection is thus restricted to the flow of heat in fluids. If the fluid motion is caused by differences in density resulting from temperature difference in a fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection. If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external agency like pump, blower or agitator, the heat
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transfer is termed as forced convection. The heating of water in a cooking pan is an example of heat transfer mainly by convection. Radiation: it refers to the transport of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. The transfer of heat from the sun to the earth is the most important example of heat transfer by radiation.
In many of the applications of heat transfer in chemical engineering, heat will be transferred by combination of two or three of the basic mechanisms/modes of heat transfer. Consider a double pipe heat exchanger in which a hot fluid flows through the inside pipe and a cold fluid flows through the annular space. In this case, heat will flow by combination of convection and conduction from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. Here heat flows by conduction through the metal wall of the inner pipe and deposits on both sides of the inner pipe, and by convection through the fluid films. In the case of an insulated steam pipe, heat flows by convection through the steam film on the inside of the pipe, by conduction through the layer of scale and the metal wall of the pipe, and the layer of the insulation, and finally by convection and radiation from the outside insulation to the ambient/surrounding air. Hence, in this case, heat transfer involves all the three modes of transfer. This is also true with almost all heat transfer applications in the process industries. In a large of practical cases, one of the modes could be dominant, whereas in several cases it is required to deal with more than one mode of heat transfer, owing to significant impact of these modes on the overall heat transfer rates.
5.3
The laws of heat transfer
The foundation of heat transfer rest on a number of the fundamental and subsidiary laws. A fundamental law is the one which validity rests on the fact that it has not been proved to be wrong or false in the broad area of application of the subject under consideration. Therefore, these laws must be satisfied in solving any problem. On the other hand, a subsidiary law may be empirical in nature. The fundamental laws used in heat transfer are: 1. Law of conservation of mass 2. Newtons law of motion 3. Laws of thermodynamics The subsidiary laws generally used are: 1. Fouriers law of heat conduction 2. Newtons law of cooling/Newtons law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid.
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3. Laws of thermal radiation. 4. Equation of state
5.4
Fundamental laws
5.4.1 Law of conservation of mass

It states that the total mass of various components involving during a unit operation or unit process remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in any process is constant. Conservation of mass requires that the materials entering any process must either accumulate and/or leave the process. There can be neither loss nor gain. Thus for any unit operation or unit process: Input = output + accumulation or disappearance Examples: Consider a water tank containing some water initially as shown in Fig. 1.1 Water enters the tank at a rate of m1 kg/h and leaves the tank at a rate of m2 kg/h and accumulates at a rate of dm/dt. Then according to the law of conservation of mass,
Rate at which water enters the tank = rate at which water leaves the tank + rate of accumulation of water in the tank m1 = m2 + dm/dt m2 = m2 + A + dh/dt If m1 > m2 water gets accumulated in the tank and if m1 < m2 water gets depleted. For steady state operation when accumulation is constant or nil, the equation reduces to: Input = Output or m1 = m2, or
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Consider a stream tube (control volume) as shown in the figure 1.2. Assume that a fluid enters at a point where the area of cross-section of the tube is A1 and leaves where the area of cross-section is A2.
Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Let 1 and 2 be the densities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Assume density in a single cross-section is constant and u1 is constant across area A1 and u2 is constant across area A2. For steady-state conditions, the rate of mass entering the control volume equals that leaving. 1u1A1 = 2u2A2 uA = constant This is the equation of continuity. 5.4.2 Newtons second law of motion
It states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body of mass m is proportional to the time rate of momentum change of the body in the direction of resultant force. F = k d/dt (mu) Where F is the resultant of all forces acting on the body, m is mass and u is velocity. For the volume control show in Fig. 1.2 assuming flow to be steady and unidirectional in the X-direction, according to Newtons second law of motion, the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the x -direction is equal to the increase in the time rate of change of momentum of the flowing fluid. For example, sum of all forces acting in the x-direction equals the difference between the momentums leaving with the fluid per unit time and that brought in per unit time by the fluid. F = 1/gc (M2 M1) Where M = mu; m is the mass flow rate of fluid and u is the linear velocity of the fluid.
For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have: F = P1A1 P2A2 Fw - Fg
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Where P1 and P2 are pressures at entrance and exit; A1 and A2 are cross-section area at entrance and exit, Fw is the net force of wall channel on fluid and Fg is the component of force of gravity (for flow in upward direction). 5.4.3 First law of thermodynamics
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process, although the conversion of energy from one form into another is possible. The law can also be stated in the alternative way as the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. When system gains or losses energy, it must be exactly equal to the loss or gain of energy by the surroundings. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the conservation of energy. Let the initial state of a system be A. Let the quantity of heat Q be absorbed by the system. The result of absorption of heat is both to increase the internal energy and also to produce some mechanical work. Heat absorbed by system = increase in internal energy + work done by the system Q = U + W U = Q W This is the mathematical expression/statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In words, the equation states that the total energy change of a system is equal to the heat added to the systems minus the work done by the system. The equation applies to the processes involving finite changes in the system. For differential changes, this equation is written as: dU = dQ dW Taking derivatives from respect to time,
From the last equation we can say that the rate of increase of energy of the system is equal to the difference between the rate at which heat enters the system and the rate at which the system does work on the surroundings.
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5.5
Homework Investigate about the subsidiary laws of heat transfer. Watch the following videos
Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77R4arwD8G8&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pG-tkbQgMo&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0TurHQp_AE&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8jeHd3ZbsFg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz6wzOtv6rs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05S1xXFGpKk&feature=related
Activities Answer the following questions: 1.- What is radiation?
2.- Explain Newtons second law of motion:
3.- Explain First Law of Thermodynamics:
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6. 6.1 Introduction
SOLAR POWER
93 million miles from Earth, our Sun is 333,000 times the size of our planet. It has a diameter of 865,000 miles, a surface temperature of 5,600C and, a core temperature of 15,000,000C. It is a huge mass of constant nuclear activity. Directly or indirectly, our sun provides all the power we need to exist and support all life forms. The sun drives our climate and our weather. Without it, our world would be a frozen wasteland of ice-covered rock. Solar electricity is a wonderful concept taking power from the sun and using it to power electrical equipment is a terrific idea. No ongoing electricity bills, no reliance on an electrical socket free energy that doesnt harm the planet! 6.2 The principles of solar electricity
A solar panel generates electricity using the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon discovered in the early 19th Century, when it was observed that certain materials produced an electric current when exposed to light. To create this effect, two layers of a semi-conducting material have to be combined. One layer has to have a depleted number of electrons. When exposed to sunlight, some of the photons are absorbed by the material which excites, causing some of them to jump from one layer to the other. As the electrons move from one layer to another, a small electrical current is generated. The semi-conducting material used to build a solar cell is silicon. Very thin wafers of silicon are cut and polished. Some of these wafers are doped to contaminate them, thereby creating an electron imbalance in these wafers. The wafers are then aligned together to make a solar cell. Conductive metal strips are attached to the cells to take the electrical current. When a photon hit the solar cell, it can do one of three things: it can be absorbed by the cell, be reflected of the cell, or pass straight through the cell. If a photon is absorbed by the silicon, this causes some of the electrons to jump from one layer to another. An electrical circuit is made as the electrons move from one layer to another, creating an electrical current. The more photons (the more intensity of light) that are absorbed by the solar cell, the greater the current generated.
Solar cells generate most of their electricity from direct sunlight. They can also generate electricity on cloudy days and some systems can even generate very small amount of electricity on bright moonlight nights.
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Individual solar cells typically only generate tiny amounts of electrical energy. To make useful amounts of electricity, these cells are connected together to make a solar module, otherwise known as a solar panel or, to be more precise, a photovoltaic module.
Solar Cells
(really called "photovoltaic", "PV" or "photoelectric" cells)that convert light directly into electricity. In a sunny climate, you can get enough power to run a 100W light bulb from just one square meter of solar panel. This was originally developed in order to provide electricity for satellites, but these days many of us own calculators powered by solar cells. People are increasingly installing PV panels on their roofs. This costs thousands of pounds, but if you have a south-facing roof it can help with your electricity bills quite a bit, and the government pays you for any extra energy you produce and feed back into the National Grid (called the "feed-in tariff").
Solar Water Heating:

Where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels on your roof. This means you don't need to use so much gas or electricity to heat your water at home. Water is pumped through pipes in the panel. The pipes are painted black, so they get hotter when the Sun shines on them. The water is pumped in at the bottom so that convection helps the flow of hot water out of the top. This helps out your central heating system, and cuts your fuel bills. However, with the basic type of panel shown in the diagram you must drain the water out to stop the panels freezing in the winter. Some manufacturers have systems that do this automatically. Solar water heating is easily worthwhile in places like California and Australia, where you get lots of sunshine. Mind you, as technology improves it's becoming worthwhile in the UK.
Solar Boilers:
The main way that a conventional gas "combination boiler" continually wastes energy is by replenishing stored water as soon as the volume or temperature decreases. With solar powered boilers, this is instead fuelled by the solar power collected through panels on the roof of your home.
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The power collected through the solar tiles is used to fuel and therefore heat a separate water cylinder, thus saving energy throughout the course of every day. Another smaller tank, still powered by gas, is provided with most solar boiler installations as a backup.
Solar Furnaces:
Use a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's energy into a small space and produce very high temperatures. There's one at Odeillo, in France, used for scientific experiments. It can achieve temperatures up to 3,000 degrees Celsius. Solar furnaces are basically huge "solar cookers". A solar cooker can be used in hot countries to cook food. This one is in the UK, making tea and coffee, although it does take a long time!
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Bioethanol production
In recent years, largely in response to uncertain fuel supply and efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, bioethanol (along with biodiesel) has become one of the most promising biofuels today and is considered as the only feasible short to medium alternative to fossil transport fuels in Europe and in the wider world. Bioethanol is seen as a good fuel alternative because the source crops can be grown renewably and in most climates around the world. In addition the use of bioethanol is generally CO2 neutral. This is achieved because in the growing phase of the source crop, CO2 is absorbed by the plant and oxygen is released in the same volume that CO2 is produced in the combustion of the fuel. This creates an obvious advantage over fossil fuels which only emit CO2 as well as other poisonous emissions. In the 1970s, Brazil and the USA started mass production of bioethanol -grown from sugarcane and corn respectively. Smaller scale production started more recently in Spain, France and Sweden mostly from wheat and sugar beet. In recent years the concept of the bio-refinery has emerged, whereby one integrates biomass conversion processes and technology to produce a variety of products including fuels, power, chemicals and feed for cattle. In this manner one can take advantage of the natural differences in the chemical and structural composition of the biomass feed stocks. Bioethanol Production: The production of bioethanol from traditional means, or 1st Generation Biofuels is based upon starch crops like corn and wheat and from sugar crops like sugar cane and sugar beet. However, the cultivation of alternative sugar crops like sweet sorghum opens up new possibilities in Europe, especially in hotter and drier regions, such as Southern and Eastern Europe. Sweet sorghum requires less water or nutrients and has a higher fermentable sugar content than sugar cane as well as a shorter growing period which means that in some regions like in Africa you can get 2 harvests a year from the same crop. In addition to this, the development of lingo-cellulosic technology has meant that not only high energy content starch and sugar crops can be used but also woody biomass or waste residues from forestry. This development is seen as the 2nd Generation of Biofuels.
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What is Bioethanol?
The principle fuel used as a petrol substitute for road transport vehicles is bioethanol. Bioethanol fuel is mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process, although it can also be manufactured by the chemical process of reacting ethylene with steam. The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol come from fuel or energy crops. These crops are grown specifically for energy use and include corn, maize and wheat crops, waste straw, willow and popular trees, sawdust, reed canary grass, cord grasses, jerusalem artichoke, myscanthus and sorghum plants. There is also ongoing research and development into the use of municipal solid wastes to produce ethanol fuel. Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear colourless liquid, it is biodegradable, low in toxicity and causes little environmental pollution if spilt. Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and water, is a high octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol. By blending ethanol with gasoline we can also oxygenate the fuel mixture so it burns more completely and reduces polluting emissions. Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United States. The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle engines require no modifications to run on E10 and vehicle warranties are unaffected also. Only flexible fuel vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol and 15% petrol blends (E85).
Benefits
Bioethanol has a number of advantages over conventional fuels. It comes from a renewable resource i.e. crops and not from a finite resource and the crops it derives from can grow well (like cereals, sugar beet and maize). Another benefit over fossil fuels is the greenhouse gas emissions. The road transport network accounts for 22% of all greenhouse gas emissions and through the use of bioethanol, some of these emissions will be reduced as the fuel crops absorb the CO2 they emit through growing. Also, blending bioethanol with petrol will help extend the life of the diminishing oil supplies and ensure greater fuel security, avoiding heavy reliance on oil producing nations.
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By encouraging bioethanols use, the rural economy would also receive a boost from growing the necessary crops. Bioethanol is also biodegradable and far less toxic that fossil fuels. In addition, by using bioethanol in older engines can help reduce the amount of carbon monoxide produced by the vehicle thus improving air quality. Another advantage of bioethanol is the ease with which it can be easily integrated into the existing road transport fuel system. In quantities up to 5%, bioethanol can be blended with conventional fuel without the need of engine modifications. Bioethanol is produced using familiar methods, such as fermentation, and it can be distributed using the same petrol forecourts and transportation systems as before.
Bioethanol Production
Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes. Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-treated with acids or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant structure. The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down (hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the ethanol production plants boilers. There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from biomass. These are concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis.
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First, starch should be exposed from the peel of corn to contact with water. Also, grinding makes corn small pieces, which can increase its surface area. Then, the increase in its surface area can enhance the contact between starch and water. Two types of mills, a roller mill and a hammer mill, are usually employed. For an industrial use, a hammer mill is mostly used because of its accuracy and its application for large amount. A roller mill has some roll pairs consisting of two rollers. Corn is pressed by two rollers and crushed into small pieces. Around the rolls there are some trenches to improve the effectiveness of the crush. Also, the rotating speeds of two rollers are different in order to generate more stress on the corn. Finally, screening is implemented at the bottom of the mill. Then, the fine particles can pass the screen, and the big particles, which cannot match the required size, become the subject of the grinding again. 2. Fermentation: Yeast is a facultative anaerobe. In an aerobic environment, it converts sugars into carbon dioxide and water. In an anaerobic environment, it converts sugars into carbon dioxide and ethanol. Thus, for an ethanol industry, it is important to exclude significant oxygen from its system. This fermentation process is relatively slow process, so it is important for an industrial use to make it faster. Usually, a propagation tank is employed. In this tank, mash, water, enzymes, nutrients, and yeast are mixed to re-hydrate the yeast. 3. Distillation: After fermentation, we have to make the purity of ethanol higher. Distillation is one of the steps of the purifications. Distillation is the method to separate two liquid utilizing their different boiling points.
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However, to achieve high purification, several distillations are required. This is because all materials have intermolecular interactions with each other, and two materials will co-distill during distillation. This means that proportion between two materials, in this case ethanol and water, can be changed, still, there are two materials in both layers, the liquid and the vapor layers. 4. Dehydration As stated above, after traditional distillation, about 5% of water remains in ethanol. Especially, this water is a big problem for fuel ethanol because the presence of this amount of water enhances the molecular polarity of ethanol for example ethanol and gasoline are mixed, they separate into two phases, ethanol phase and gasoline phase. It is easy to imagine that this inhomogeneous fuel is not acceptable. Thus, dehydration can be another issue.
Bioethanol Use
Chemicals A number of chemicals are produced in the ethanol industry and potentially even more in the 2 nd. generation bioethanol industry, serving a wide range of uses in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, beverages and medical sectors as well as for industrial uses. The market potential for bioethanol is therefore not just limited to transport fuel or energy production but has potential to supply the existing chemicals industry. Transport Fuel: Bioethanol has mostly been used as a biofuel for transport, especially in Brazil. Indeed it was in Brazil where the first bioethanol fuelled cars emerged on a large-scale. Although generally unknown to the average consumer, a large volume of bioethanol is already used in Europe as it is blended with petrol at 5%. It is used as a substitute for lead as an oxygenating additive and has a high octane rating, which improves performance. Although the eventual target is the private consumer, few are aware of bioethanols potenial to, at least, partly replace petrol as a transport fuel in Europe.
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 Stakeholders in the Bioethanol Fuel Market: bioethanol producers fuel suppliers car manufacturers the government
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Fuel Cells: Fuel cells are another potential area for ethanol use to produce heat and power. Fuel cells function by combining the fuel hydrogen with oxygen from the air to produce electrical energy, with water vapour and heat as byproducts. Fuel Cells have a typical electrical efficiency of between 30 and 60 % and an overall efficiency, if using the heat by-product, of 70-90 %. The units run with very low noise emissions and pollutant gas emissions are also reduced
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considerably. Its disadvantages are its relatively high cost and their short life span (regular replacement of components). They are, however, regarded as very reliable for the duration of their lifespan and are often used for emergency power.
Negative sides of Bioethanol Bioethanol has some deficit. Next figure shows some environmental impacts of ethanol in gasoline. Although, some of them may be exaggerated, but this approach is very important when we are considering bioethanol from overall environmental aspects. Corn production causes more soil erosion and uses more herbicides and insecticides. Also, wastewater from ethanol plant is also another big problem. In addition, an increase in the demand of bioethanol may burden on our money. This is because, currently, ethanol production is supported by huge subsidies coming from our tax. Besides, an increase in the ethanol production means an increase in the demand of corn . This may cause an increase in the corn price. Today, corn is everywhere in our meal. Therefore, there are still so many concerns to say bioethnaol is a real ideal energy source.
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Activities
1.- Use the box below to describe the picture of the Bioethanol production where you can see the different steps of the process:
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2. Write True or False according to the sentence: Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes.
By encouraging bioethanols use, the rural economy would never receive a boost from growing the necessary crops:
Fuel Cells have a typical electrical efficiency of between 30 and 60 %
An increase in the ethanol production means an inrease in the demand of corn. This may cause a decrease in the corn price.
After fermentation comes Grinding in Bioethanol production:
The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10):
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 Write a comment about the importance of Bioethanol in the economy of a country:
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3. With the next picture do a Proccess diagram to recognize the activity in each part of the Bioethanol production writing each specification in the square below.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing: References
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Engines and Motors

The term engines usually refers to petrol engines, diesel engines and jet engines (or jets). In engineering motor usually means electric motor but in general language, motor can also refer to petrol and diesel engines. Engines and motors power (or drive) macjines by generaring rotatrry motion for example, to drive wheels. In jet engines, compressors and turbines rotate to generate thrust pushing force, produce by forcing air from the back of the engine at high velocity. As an engine produces a couple rotary force- the moving parts of the machine it is drivingwill produce resitance, due to the friction and other forces. As a result torque (twisting force) is exerted on the output shaft of the engine. Torque calcualted as a turning moment in newton meters- is therefore a measure of how much rotational force an engine can exert. The rate at which an engine can work to exert torque is the power of the engine, measured in watts Althoug engineers normally calculate engine power in watts, the power of a vehicle engines is often given in brake horsepower (bhp) This is the power of an engines output shaft measured in horsepower (hp) .
Internal Combustion Engines

The principle behind any reciprocating internal combustion engine: If you put a tiny amount of highenergy fuel (like gasoline) in a small, enclosed space and ignite it, an incredible amount of energy is released in the form of expanding gas. You can use that energy to propel a potato 500 feet. In this case, the energy is translated into potato motion. You can also use it for more interesting purposes. For example, if you can create a cycle that allows you to set off explosions like this hundreds of times per minute, and if you can harness that energy in a useful way, what you have is the core of a car engine! Almost all cars currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle to convert gasoline into motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the Otto cycle, in honor of Nikolaus Otto, who invented it in 1867. The four strokes are illustrated in Figure 1. They are: Intake stroke Compression stroke Combustion stroke Exhaust stroke
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A piston replaces the potato in the potato cannon. This piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. As the crankshaft revolves, it has the effect of "resetting the cannon." Here's what happens as the engine goes through its cycle: The piston starts at the top, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder-full of air and gasoline. This is the intake stroke. Only the tiniest drop of gasoline needs to be mixed into the air for this to work. (Part 1 of the figure) Then the piston moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression makes the explosion more powerful. (Part 2 of the figure) When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down. (Part 3 of the figure) Once the piston hits the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust leaves the cylinder to go out the tailpipe. (Part 4 of the figure)
Now the engine is ready for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas. The motion that comes out of an internal combustion engine is rotational, while the motion produced by a potato cannon is linear (straight line). In an engine the linear motion of the pistons is converted into rotational motion by the crankshaft. The rotational motion is nice because we plan to turn (rotate) the car's wheels with it anyway.
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Basic Engine Parts

The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the piston moving up and down inside the cylinder. The engine described above has one cylinder. That is typical of most lawn mowers, but most cars have more than one cylinder (four, six and eight cylinders are common). In a multi-cylinder engine, the cylinders usually are arranged in one of three ways: inline, V or flat (also known as horizontally opposed or boxer), as shown in the following figures. Different configurations have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of smoothness, manufacturing cost and shape characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages make them more suitable for certain vehicles.
V - The cylinders are arranged in two banks set at an angle to one another.
Flat - The cylinders are arranged in two banks on opposite sides of the engine.
Spark plug The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.
Valves The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion chamber is sealed.
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Piston A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder. Piston rings Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes: They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion. They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost. Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it because the engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly. Connecting rod The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates. Crankshaft The crankshaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a crank on a jackin-the-box does. Sump The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom of the sump (the oil pan).
Engine Problems
So you go out one morning and your engine will turn over but it won't start... What could be wrong? Now that you know how an engine works, you can understand the basic things that can keep an engine from running. Three fundamental things can happen: a bad fuel mix, lack of compression or lack of spark. Beyond that, thousands of minor things can create problems, but these are the "big three." Based on the simple engine we have been discussing, here is a quick rundown on how these problems affect your engine: Bad fuel mix - A bad fuel mix can occur in several ways: You are out of gas, so the engine is getting air but no fuel. The air intake might be clogged, so there is fuel but not enough air.
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The fuel system might be supplying too much or too little fuel to the mix, meaning that combustion does not occur properly. There might be an impurity in the fuel (like water in your gas tank) that makes the fuel not burn.
Lack of compression - If the charge of air and fuel cannot be compressed properly, the combustion process will not work like it should. Lack of compression might occur for these reasons: Your piston rings are worn (allowing air/fuel to leak past the piston during compression). The intake or exhaust valves are not sealing properly, again allowing a leak during compression. There is a hole in the cylinder.
The most common "hole" in a cylinder occurs where the top of the cylinder (holding the valves and spark plug and also known as the cylinder head) attaches to the cylinder itself. Generally, the cylinder and the cylinder head bolt together with a thin gasket pressed between them to ensure a good seal. If the gasket breaks down, small holes develop between the cylinder and the cylinder head, and these holes cause leaks. Lack of spark - The spark might be nonexistent or weak for a number of reasons: If your spark plug or the wire leading to it is worn out, the spark will be weak. If the wire is cut or missing, or if the system that sends a spark down the wire is not working properly, there will be no spark. If the spark occurs either too early or too late in the cycle (i.e. if the ignition timing is off), the fuel will not ignite at the right time, and this can cause all sorts of problems.
Many other things can go wrong. For example: If the battery is dead, you cannot turn over the engine to start it. If the bearings that allow the crankshaft to turn freely are worn out, the crankshaft cannot turn so the engine cannot run. If the valves do not open and close at the right time or at all, air cannot get in and exhaust cannot get out, so the engine cannot run. If someone sticks a potato up your tailpipe, exhaust cannot exit the cylinder so the engine will not run. If you run out of oil, the piston cannot move up and down freely in the cylinder, and the engine will seize.
In a properly running engine, all of these factors are within tolerance. As you can see, an engine has a number of systems that help it do its job of converting fuel into motion.
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Electric motor
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by generators such as an alternator or a dynamo; some electric motors can also be used as generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks. Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines. Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current, a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle, or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid or inverter. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give. Some devices convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable mechanical power as a primary objective and so are not generally referred to as electric motors. For example, magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers are usually described as actuators and transducers, respectively, instead of motors. Some electric motors are used to produce torque of force.
Terminology
In an electric motor the moving part is called the rotor and the stationary part is called the stator. Magnetic fields are produced on poles, and these can be salient poles where they are driven by windings of electrical wire. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that pole. A commutator switches the current flow to the rotor windings depending on the rotor angle. A DC motor is powered by direct current, although there is almost always an internal mechanism (such as a commutator) converting DC to AC for part of the motor. An AC motor is supplied with alternating current, often avoiding the need for a commutator. A synchronous motor is an AC motor that runs at a speed fixed to a fraction of the power supply frequency, and an asynchronous motor is an AC motor, usually an induction motor, whose speed slows
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with increasing torque to slightly less than synchronous speed. Universal motors can run on either AC or DC, though the maximum frequency of the AC supply may be limited.
DC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices.
AC motor
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current. It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which does not rely on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a submultiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet. Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage and winding connection.
Parts of an Electric Motor
A simple motor has six parts:

Armature or rotor Commutator Brushes Axle Field magnet DC power supply of some sort
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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Digital electronics represent signals by discrete bands of analog levels, rather than by a continuous range. All levels within a band represent the same signal state. Relatively small changes to the analog signal levels due to manufacturing tolerance, signal attenuation or parasitic noise do not leave the discrete envelope, and as a result are ignored by signal state sensing circuitry. In most cases the number of these states is two, and they are represented by two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as "ground" or zero volts) and a value near the supply voltage, corresponding to the "false" ("0") and "true" ("1") values of the Boolean domain respectively. Digital techniques are useful because it is easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values. Digital electronic circuits are usually made from large assemblies of logic gates, simple electronic representations of Boolean logic functions.
Advantages
One advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is signals represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation due to noise. For example, a continuous audio signal, transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error provided the noise picked up in transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s. An hour of music can be stored on a compact disc using about 6 billion binary digits. In a digital system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary digits to represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is handled by the same kind of hardware. In an analog system, additional resolution requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step of the signal chain.
Disadvantages
In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. On the other hand, some techniques used in digital systems make those systems more vulnerable to single-bit errors. These techniques are acceptable when the underlying bits are reliable enough that
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such errors are highly unlikely. A single-bit error in audio data stored directly as linear pulse code modulation (such as on a CD-ROM) causes, at worst, a single click. Instead, many people use audio compression to save storage space and download time, even though a single-bit error may corrupt the entire song.
Construction
A digital circuit is often constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates that can be used to create combinational logic. Each logic gate represents a function of boolean logic. A logic gate is an arrangement of electrically controlled switches, better known as transistors. Each logic symbol is represented by a different shape. The actual set of shapes was introduced in 1984 under IEEE\ANSI standard 91-1984. "The logic symbol given under this standard are being increasingly used now and have even started appearing in the literature published by manufacturers of digital integrated circuits." The output of a logic gate is an electrical flow or voltage, that can, in turn, control more logic gates. Logic gates often use the fewest number of transistors in order to reduce their size, power consumption and cost, and increase their reliability. Integrated circuits are the least expensive way to make logic gates in large volumes. Integrated circuits are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation software (see below for more information).
Logic Families
Design started with relays. Relay logic was relatively inexpensive and reliable, but slow. Occasionally a mechanical failure would occur. Fanouts were typically about ten, limited by the resistance of the coils and arcing on the contacts from high voltages. Later, vacuum tubes were used. These were very fast, but generated heat, and were unreliable because the filaments would burn out. Fanouts were typically five to seven, limited by the heating from the tubes' current. In the 1950s, special "computer tubes" were developed with filaments that omitted volatile elements like silicon. These ran for hundreds of thousands of hours. The first semiconductor logic family was resistor-transistor logic. This was a thousand times more reliable than tubes, ran cooler, and used less power, but had a very low fan-in of three. Diodetransistor logic improved the fanout up to about seven, and reduced the power. Some DTL designs used two power-supplies with alternating layers of NPN and PNP transistors to increase the fanout.
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Transistor transistor logic (TTL) was a great improvement over these. In early devices, fanout improved to ten, and later variations reliably achieved twenty. TTL was also fast, with some variations achieving switching times as low as twenty nanoseconds. TTL is still used in some designs. Emitter coupled logic is very fast but uses a lot of power. It was extensively used for high-performance computers made up of many medium-scale components (such as the Illiac IV). By far, the most common digital integrated circuits built today use CMOS logic, which is fast, offers high circuit density and low-power per gate. This is used even in large, fast computers, such as theIBM System z.
Recent developments
In 2009, researchers discovered that memristors can implement a boolean state storage (similar to a flip flop, implication and logical inversion, providing a complete logic family with very small amounts of space and power, using familiar CMOS semiconductor processes. The discovery of superconductivity has enabled the development of rapid single flux quantum (RSFQ) circuit technology, which uses Josephson junctions instead of transistors. Most recently, attempts are being made to construct purely optical computing systems capable of processing digital information using nonlinear optical elements.
Logic gate
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device. Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic,optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic. In the next table you will find the common gates with their symbol, truth table and the respective boolean algebra description. Type Distinctive shape Boolean algebra between A & B Truth table
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INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A 0 1 INTPUT A B 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 OUTPUT A AND B 0 0 0 1 OUTPUT A OR B 0 1 1 1 OUTPUT NOT A 1 0 OUTPUT A NAND B 1 1 1 0 OUTPUT A NOR B 1 0 0 0 OUTPUT A XOR B 0 1 1 0 OUTPUT A XNOR B 1 0 0
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AND
OR
A+B
NOT
NAND
NOR
INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A B
XOR
XNOR
or
0 0 1
0 1 0
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1 1 1
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Karnaugh map
Karnaugh Maps are used for many small design problems. It's true that many larger designs are done using computer implementations of different algorithms. However designs with a small number of variables occur frequently in interface problems and that makes learning Karnaugh Maps worthwhile. In addition, if you study Karnaugh Maps you will gain a great deal of insight into digital logic circuits. Example :
Consider the expression Z = f(A,B) = +A + B plotted on the Karnaugh map:
Pairs of 1's are grouped as shown above, and the simplified answer is obtained by using the following steps: Note that two groups can be formed for the example given above, bearing in mind that the largest rectangular clusters that can be made consist of two 1s. Notice that a 1 can belong to more than one group. The first group labelled I, consists of two 1s which correspond to A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 0. Put in another way, all squares in this example that correspond to the area of the map where B = 0 contains 1s, independent of the value of A. So when B = 0 the output is 1. The expression of the output will contain the term For group labelled II corresponds to the area of the map where A = 0. The group can therefore be defined as . This implies that when A = 0 the output is 1. The output is therefore 1 whenever B = 0 and A = 0 Hence the simplified answer is Z = +
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Example 2:
Positions for a karnaug map:
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Principles of Telecommunications
Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals or audio messages via coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, or sent by loud whistles, for example. In the modern age of electricity and electronics, telecommunications now also includes the use of electrical devices such as telegraphs, telephones, and teleprinters, the use of radio and microwave communications, as well as fiber optics and their associated electronics, plus the use of the orbiting satellites and the Internet. A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century with pioneering developments in wireless radio communications by Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his efforts. Other highly notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Edwin Armstrong, and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television).
Basic elements
A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units that are always present in some form: A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal. A transmission medium, also called the "physical channel" that carries the signal. An example of this is the "free space channel". A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information.
For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter; and the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space channel". The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to. Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box of electronics working as both a transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example, a cellular telephone is a transceiver.[25] The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics in a transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained by the fact that radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in the watts or kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in the microwatts or nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their high-power circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other.
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Telecommunication over telephone lines is called point-to-point communication because it is between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but sensitive radio receivers.[25] Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems.
Telecommunication networks
A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications channels that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog communications network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or more users. For both types of network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render the signal indistinguishable from the noise.
Communication channels
The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications, coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free space for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. This last channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of gas besides air.
Modulation
The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation can be used to represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is commonly called "keying" a term derived from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications and several keying techniques exist (these include phase-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The "Bluetooth" system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between various devices.[29][30] In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying
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which is called (in the jargon of the field) "quadrature amplitude modulation" (QAM) that are used in high-capacity digital radio communication systems. Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at higher frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals cannot be effectively transmitted over free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a higher-frequency signal (known as the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are several different modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice would then be received on a radio as the channel "96 FM"). In addition, modulation has the advantage of being about to use frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Amplitud Modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in signal strength may be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. Contrast this with frequency modulation, in which the frequency is varied, and phase modulation, in which the phase is varied. In the mid-1870s, a form of amplitude modulationinitially called "undulatory currents"was the first method to successfully produce quality audio over telephone lines. Beginning with Reginald Fessenden's audio demonstrations in 1906, it was also the original method used for audio radio transmissions, and remains in use today by many forms of communication "AM" is often used to refer to the mediumwave broadcast band.
AM Signal
Carrier, message and AM frequencies:
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Frequency modulation
In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input-signal amplitude. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a range of settings, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FSK (digital FM) is widely used in data and faxmodems. Morse code transmission has been sent this way, and FASK was used in early telephoneline modems. Radioteletype also uses FSK. FM modulation is also used in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting and newborn EEG seizure monitoring. Frequency modulation is known as phase modulationwhen the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal. FM is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, two-way radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems. In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally-occurring noise.
Applications
MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by analog VCR systems (including VHS) to record both the luminance (black and white) portions of the video signal. Commonly, the chrome component is recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as bias. FM is the only feasible method of recording the luminance ("black and white") component of video to (and retrieving video from) magnetic tape without distortion; video signals have a large range of frequency
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components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below 60 dB. These FM systems are unusual, in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting, where the ratio is around 10,000. Consider, for example, a 6-MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5-MHz rate; by Bessel analysis, the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz and the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and 1 MHz. The result is a reversed-phase sideband on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in unwanted output at 61 = 5 MHz. The system must be designed so that this unwanted output is reduced to an acceptable level.
SOUND FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature in several generations of personal computer sound cards.
RADIO Edwin Howard Armstrong (18901954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation (FM) radio. He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the superheterodyne receiver in 1918 and the super-regenerative circuit in 1922. Armstrong presented his paper, "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation", (which first described FM radio) before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Narrowband FM is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile, marine mobile and other radio services.
Some Digital types of Modulation

ASK MODULATION
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In the amplitud shift keying (ASK), the carrier amplitud sinusoidal switches between two values to ask the PCM code. For example, the value 0 can be transmitted as an amplitud of A volts, while the state 1 can be transmitted like a sinusoidal signal of amplitud of B volts. The ASK resulting signal is modulated pulses, called brands, that it represent with the 1 state, and spaces that represent the 0 state. Example: ASK([1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 ],2)
PSK MODULATION In the Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation, the carrier phase switches according the signal state of the binary signal. In this kind of modulation, the gap is of 180 if transmitted a 0, the gap is of 0 if transmitted a 1. Example: PSK([1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1],2)
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FSK MODULATION
In the Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) modulation, the carrier frequency changes according the modulated value. This mean, for the 0 youll have a frequency f1 and for 1 youll have a frequency f2. Example: PSK([1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1],2)
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lean Manufacturing: References
Lean Manufacturing: tools, techniques, and how to use them; William M. Feld, St. Lucie Press,
2000.
Lean Manufacturing: Implementation strategies that work; John Davis, Industrial Press, 2009.
Suggested readings:
Manufacturing systems: theory and practice; George Chryssolouris; Birkhuser, 2006. Lean Manufacturing implementation: a complete execution manual for any size manufacturer,
Dennis P. Hobbs, J. Ross Publishing, 2004 Process Diagrams References Ingeniera Industrial: mtodos, estndares y diseo del trabajo; Benjamn Niebel, McGraw-Hill Interamericana, 2009Suggested readings: Handbook of industrial engineering: technology and operations management; Gavriel Salvendy, Wiley-IEEE, 2001 Industrial Engineering; Khan, New Age International, 2007 English for Industrial Engineering; Marisa Carri, Ed. Universidad Politc. Valencia, 2005
Quality control References
Quality control for dummies; Larry Webber, Michael Wallace; For Dummies, 2006.
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Process Quality Control: troubleshooting and interpretation of data; Ellis Raymond Ott, Edward
Schilling, Dean Neubauer; ASQ Quality Press, 2005. Suggested readings Fundamentals of industrial quality control; Lawrence Aft; St. Lucie Press, 1998 Statistical quality control using excel; Steven Zimmerman, Marjorie Icenogle; ASQ Quality Press, 2003. In-process quality control for manufacturing; W.E. Barkman; M Dekker; 1989.
Alternative Energy References Alternative energy: Beyond fossil fuels, Dana Meachan Rau, Capstone press 2010. Alternative energy: political, economic, and social feasibility, Christopher A. Simon, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
Suggested readings: Alternative energy: a beginners guide to the future of energy technology, Marek Walisiewicz, DK Pub. 2002 Alternative energy, S. Vandana, APH Publishing, 2002 Alternative energy: facts, statistics, and issues, Paula Berinstein, Oryx Press, 2001.
Heat transfer References

Heat Transfer; A.S. Sukomel, Varvara A. Osipova
Suggested readings: Heat transfer handbook; Adrian Bejan; Willey-IEEE, 2003 Heat transfer: a problem solving approach Vol. 1; Tariq Muneer, Jorge Kubie, Thomas Grassie; Taylor & Francis, 2003 Shaums outline of the theory and problems of heat transfer; Donald R. Pitts; McGraw-Hill Professional, 1998.
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TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3

Lean Manufacturing Goals

Steps to achieve lean systems

Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c0Q-xaYior0&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SU01D-jTZcE&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q89qAbAAR3Q&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdHGTCXcJQU&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKb84GafalI

Company name: Johns house Process: making of hot chocolate

0.5 min 3 Get some marshmallows

0.5 min 1 Check if the chocolate is ready

0.8 min 5 Get a cup and serve

Description Operation Inspection Combined Transportation Delay Storage Totals

Complete the summary table for the diagram below:

Measuring the quality

Evaluating the quality

Introducing Lean Processes

Suggested videos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7Z33tljMTQ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdhC4ziAhgY

Complete with the description of each lean technique:

Complete the chart with the 5s technique:

How solar cell energy works

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 4.6.1 How wind power works

Suggested videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIU5fFmDeSc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_fvbO2VXjc&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1HmY_ImHAg&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlG0xk93J-E&feature=channel http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oJAbATJCugs&feature=fvw

Activities Write in each square and explain some energy sources:

Modes of heat transfer

The laws of heat transfer

3. Laws of thermal radiation. 4. Equation of state

5.4.1 Law of conservation of mass

For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have: F = P1A1 P2A2 Fw - Fg

Activities Answer the following questions: 1.- What is radiation?

2.- Explain Newtons second law of motion:

3.- Explain First Law of Thermodynamics:

Solar Water Heating:

TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3 Production Process: 1. Grinding Grain

Fuel Cells have a typical electrical efficiency of between 30 and 60 %

After fermentation comes Grinding in Bioethanol production:

Engines and Motors

Internal Combustion Engines

Basic Engine Parts

Parts of an Electric Motor

A simple motor has six parts:

INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 INTPUT A B

Positions for a karnaug map:

Amplitud Modulation (AM)

Carrier, message and AM frequencies:

Some Digital types of Modulation

Quality control References

Heat transfer References

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