Endocrine system

Endocrine System
A. Hormones = chemical messengers carried by blood to nonadjacent "target" cells. 1. Overview of hormone functions - Regulation of growth and development. - Homestatic control (regulation of internal environment; parameters maintained w/in relatively narrow limits) - ontrol of reproductive system processes (ovulation! mestruation! maintanence of pregnancy) - "ffects on #ehavior (modification! modulation! initiation of specific patterns) $. "ndocrine glands! endocrine cells and some neurons secrete hormones into tissue fluid from which they diffuse into capillaries. %ources of hormones in humans & the endocrine system '(ig. )*.$+ ). ,arget cells & cells with receptors for a given chemical messenger that can alter their activities in response to messenger. - Hormones are transported throughout the -ody -y the -lood! -ut they only elicit responses in target cells. - Receptors may -e on cell surface (non-steroid hormones) or internal to cell in cytoplasm or nucleus (steroid hormones) 'cf. (igs. )*.) and )*..+ B. Types of Hormones [Table !."#

,here are two main classes (chemical groups) into which hormones fall/ 1. steriods (in verte-rates sythesi0ed from cholesterol -y adrenal corte1! testis! ovary and placenta) 'e1amples/ cortisol! estradiol+ $. non-steroid

amines 'epinephrine and norepinephrine+ peptides 'o1ytocin! 23H+ proteins 'growth hormone! insulin+ glycoproteins '(%H! ,%H+

$. Ho% hormones %or& in target tiss'es. 1. %teriod hormones and thyroid hormones (gene activation) '(ig. )*.)+/ a. Relatively small! lipid solu-le. ,herefore! diffuse freely into and out of cells. -. 2ffect target cells that have receptor proteins in their cytoplasm (or nucleus) c. Hormone-receptor comple1 moves into nucleus (if not already there). ( urrent evidence is that this is an active tranport process and that only target cells have transport mechanism) d. omple1 -inds to 342 and stimulates transcription of specific genes (synth. of mR42) --5 protein synthesis. e. (ull effect of hormone manifested over minutes to days. $. 6eptide/protein hormones (second messenger mechanism) '(ig. )*..+/ a. 3o not diffuse into cells. -. ,arget cells have specific receptor for hormone on cell surface. c. Hormone -inds to receptor and causes a second messenger to -e released within the cell. d. %econd messenger can -e - cyclic nucleotide/ c-276 (r1. inside cell cataly0ed -y adenylate cyclase) --5 many c-276 molecules - a ion; -inding of hormone causes a channels in cell mem-rane to open --5 influ1 of many a ions. a ions -ind to protein & calmodulin. e. c-276 molecules or a-calmodulin comple1es activate many en0ymes (& cascade of reactions) --5 rapid response to hormone (seconds to minutes). (. E)amples of hormone control 1. %ecretion of 23H (antidiuretic hormone) -y pitutitary. '(ig. )*.8+

- dehydration (low -lood pressure) --5 secretion of 23H --5 increased retention of water (more water rea-sor-ed -y 9idneys). - cell -odies in region of -rain called hypothalamus synthesi0e 23H. 23H moves down a1ons to posterior pitutitary; accumulates in a1on terminals; released -y action potentials. 23H enters -loodstream. & 4eurohormone ':hat are the target cells for 23H;+ - :hat stops secretion of 23H -y posterior pituitary; '2s more water is retained -y -ody! -lood pressure rises and production of 23H falls off. & 4egative feed-ac9+ $. %timulation of ortisol %ecretion -y 2drenal orte1 '(ig. )*.1<+

=ow -lood sugar --5 Hypothalamus secretes RH (corticotropinreleasing hormone) --5 2nterior pituitary cells (certain cells only) secrete 2 ,H (adrenocorticotropic hormone) --5 2drenal corte1 secretes cortisol (and other glucocorticoids) 'cortisol prevents sugar upta9e -y muscle cells+ - 4egative (eed-ac9 control pathways/ - cortisol inhi-its 2 ,H secretion -y adrenal corte1 - cortisol also inhi-its RH secretion -y hypothal. ). Role of 6ancreatic >slets '(ig. )*.?+/ - >slets of =angerhans & clusters of endocrine-secreting cells dis-ursed throughout pancreas. 2lpha cells secrete glucagon; -eta cells secrete insulin a. >nsulin lowers -lood glucose level -y stimulating cells (esp. s9eletal muscle and fat cells as well as liver cells) to ta9e up glucose; stimulates muscles and liver to store glucose as glycogen. -. @lucagon raises -lood glucose level -y stimulating liver to convert glycogen to glucose and -y stimulating the conversion of fatty acids and amino acids to glucose. c. %ecretion of insulin and glucagon is controlled directly -y the concentration of glucose in the -lood. '4ormal Afasting levelA & ?<mg/1<<ml -lood+ d. >nsulin-glucagon system is fast-acting for 9eeping -lood glucose level tightly regulated. (#rain cells cannot utili0e other nutrients as fuel.) e. 3ia-etes mellitus/

- ,ype >> & maturity onset/ >nsulin receptors cannot -ind hormone. - ,ype > & Buvenile onset & insulin-dependent/ 3ecrease in the num-er of -eta cells --5 insulin deficiency. ReCuires daily inBections of insulin. .. Role of 2drenal 7edulla - 7edulla is central portion of adrenal gland which produces epinephrine and norepinephrine 'corte1 produces cortisol (discussed earlier) along with mineralocorticoids and androgen+ a. 7edulla develops from neural tissue and its secretion is controlled -y sympathetic nerves. -. ,rigger for increased output is perception of a AthreateningA situation resulting in fear or anger. #rain integrates information and stimulates output of medulla directly via sympathetic nerves (2 h stimulates output of epinephrine and norepi.) c. "ffects of epineph.! norepineph. -vasodilation of vessels to -rain! muscles! heart -vasoconstriction of vessels to 9idney! s9in (paling) -heart rate speeds up -mental alertness increases -fatty acid and glucose levels in -lood increase -muscles contract more strongly E. H'man Endocrine System *similar in most +ertebrates, 1. 6rincipal organs ((ig. )*.$)/ -Hypothalamus! 6ituitary gland (two lo-es)! 6ineal gland! ,hyroid gland! 6arathyroid glands (.)! ,hymus gland! 2drenal glands! 6ancreas (islets of =angerhans)! Ovaries or ,estes. $. Role of Hypothalamus and 6ituitary. - Hypothalamus lin9s nervous and endocrine systems. - Hypothalamic neurons secrete hormones that regulate the release of hormones from the anterior lo-e of the pituitary gland. 6ituitary hormones! in turn! control activity of other endocrine glands. 'note/ 2n endocrine gland can -e a target organ for hormones secreted -y other endocrine glands+ - ,he pituitary gland has two lo-es/

a. 6osterior =o-e '(ig. )*.8+ contains endings of neurosecretory cells whose cell -odies are located in the hypothalamus. - peptide hormones secreted & o1ytocin and 23H. (,hese hypothalamic hormones are released directly into the systemic circulation where they act on the 9idneys (23H) or on mammary glands and the uterus (o1ytocin)). -. 2nterior =o-e '(ig. )*.D+lu contains endocrine cells that secrete prolactin! growth hormone! and several trophic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands (see ,a-le )*.$). -Hypothalamus secretes releasing and release-inhi-iting hormones that control the anterior lo-e of the pituitary. - cells of anterior lo-e are targets for specific releasing and/or releaseinhi-iting hormones. - special portal system/ capillaries in hypothalamus pic9 up hypothalamic hormones (A-rain hormonesA) and carry them to a second capillary -ed in the anterior lo-e.