DIP Basics and Rectification - 2

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Digital Image Processing Basic Concepts

Mrs. Minakshi Kumar
minakshi@iirs.gov.in
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Division Indian Institute of Remote Sensing
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Outline
Digital Image Processing- Basic Concepts

What is a digital image & multispectral image Data formats for storing digital image data Digital Image Preprocessing
DISCUSSION / INTERACTIVE SESSION
Digital Image Processing
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A Picture is worth a thousand words
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What is an Image ?
An IMAGE is a Pictorial Representation of an object or a scene. Forms of Images
v v Analog Digital
Analog Images
v Produced by photographic sensors on paper based media or transparent media v Variations in scene characteristics are represented as variations in brightness ( gray shades) v Objects reflecting more energy appear brighter on the image and objects reflecting less energy appear darker.
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Analog Images
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What is a Digital Image ?

Produced by Electro optical Sensors Composed of tiny equal areas, or picture elements abbreviated as pixels or pels arranged in a rectangular array With each pixel is associated a number known as Digital Number ( DN) or Brightness value (BV) or gray level which is a record of variation in radiant energy in discrete form. An object reflecting more energy records a higher number for itself on the digital image and vice versa.
Digital Image Processing Minakshi,PRSD,IIRS 6
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Single Layer Digital ImagePanchromatic Imagery
Hypothetical Digital Image (5 x 5 x 1)
256-2048 Brightness Levels 0 Darkest, 255/2047 - Brightest Higher spatial resolution

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Multi Spectral Remotely Sensed Image

Digital Images of an area captured in different spectral ranges (bands) by sensors onboard a remote sensing satellite. A pixel is referred by its column, row, band number.
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What is a Multispectral Digital Image ?

70 79 53 70 77 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 87 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 87 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 85 70 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 87 79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 85 80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 82 78 70 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 87 79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 85 70 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 82 78 88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 79 78 79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 85 70 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 82 78 79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 79 78 93 86 93 106 106 84 56 43 58 75 80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 82 78 79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 79 78 93 86 93 80 106 82 106 69 84 44 56 32 43 45 58 72 75 86 82 104 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 39 56 88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 79 78 80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 93 86 93 106 106 84 56 43 58 75 104 104 100 88 101 79 95 86 91 87 83 65 51 40 39 41 56 75 79 105 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 59 44 93 86 93 106 106 84 56 43 58 75 88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 104 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 39 56 105 110 97 93 88 86 84 93 85 106 87 106 77 84 59 56 44 43 58 96 103 89 79 79 75 77 79 74 72 104 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 39 56 93 86 93 106 106 84 56 43 105 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 59 44 104 79 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 39 96 103 89 79 75 77 79 74 72 87 93 97 90 82 76 70 67 61 71 105 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 59 44 104 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 96 103 89 79 79 75 77 79 74 72 105 90 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 59 87 93 97 82 76 70 67 61 71 79 81 88 96 97 103 93 89 85 79 78 79 74 75 70 77 72 79 74 72 105 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 87 93 97 90 82 76 70 67 61 71 96 103 89 79 79 75 77 79 74 79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 70 72 81 75 78 87 85 93 94 97 97 90 92 82 84 76 80 70 72 67 61 71 96 103 89 79 79 75 77 79 79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 70 72 87 93 97 90 82 76 70 67 61 81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 80 72 79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 70 72 87 93 97 90 82 76 70 67 81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 80 72 79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 70 81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 80 72 79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 80 81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 87 91 85 85 78 82 78 79 75 58 56 39 44 59 72 74 71 61 72 70 72 80 87 85 78 78 75 56 44 72
rows (y)
71 72 72
columns (x)
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Multispectral Digital Image
Band 1 0.45 - 0.52 m
Band 2 0.52 0.59 m
Band 3 0.62- 0.68 m
Band 4 0.77 0.86 m
IRS-1B LISS II IMAGE OF PAONTA AREA

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Multispectral Imagery
Enhanced Features with Color Broad Area Coverage Tens of Color / IR Bands Allows Discrimination of difference in Brightness
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Digital Image Data Formats

Data formats for storing digital images. Typical digital images occupy large memory. Example an IRS P6 LISS III image of 148 Km by 148 km with a spatial resolution of 23.5 (~ 24m) and in 4 spectral regions
No of scan lines = 6167 (148000/24) No of Pixels = 6167 per scan line Total no of pixels 6167 x 6167 x 4
= 152127556 pixels ~ 152 mega pixels~ 145 MB
Organisation / Storage of these pixels in memory ??

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Digital Image Data Formats

Commonly used formats
Band Sequential (BSQ) Band Interleaved by Line (BIL) Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP)
Each of these formats is usually preceded on the by "header" and/or "trailer" information, which consists of ancillary data about the date, altitude of the sensor, attitude, sun angle, and so on. Such information is useful when geometrically or radiometrically correcting the data.
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Band Sequential Format

Data for a single band for entire scene is written as one file That is for each band there is separate file
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BAND INTERLEAVE BY LINE (BIL)

Data for all the bands are written as line by line on the same file. That is line1, band 1, line 1 band 2, line1 band 3, line2, band 1, line 2 band 2, line2 band 3 , line3, band 1, line 3 band 2, line3 band 3 etc.
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BAND INTERLEAVE BY PIXEL

data for the pixels in all bands are written together. That is
pixel1 band1 pixel1 band3 pixel2 band2 pixel3 band1 pixel3 band3 pixel1 pixel2 pixel 2 pixel3 band2 band1 band3 band2
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Advantages / Disadvantages
v BSQ
if one wanted the area in the center of a scene in four bands, it would be necessary to read into this location in four separate files to extract the desired information. Many researchers like this format because it is not necessary to read "serially" past unwanted information if certain bands are of no value
v BIL/BIP
It is a useful format if all the bands are to be used in the analysis. If some bands are not of interest, the format is inefficient since it is necessary to read serially past all the unwanted data.
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GeoTiff
"The GeoTIFF spec defines a set of TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) tags provided to describe all Cartographic information associated with TIFF imagery that originates from satellite imaging systems, scanned aerial photography, scanned maps, digital elevation models, or as a result of geographic analysis" (Ritter and Ruth 1999).
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Different Data Formats

vIKONOS Data supplied in GeoTiff format vNDC supplies
vIRS LISS-I,II,III,IV data in LGSOWG (superstructure) / Fast format v Stereo data of CARTOSAT 1 is in GEOTIFF format
v Most of the Recent satellite data iis provided in GeoTiff format
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Digital image processing can be defined as the computer manipulation of digital values contained in an image for the purposes of image correction, image enhancement and feature extraction. A digital image processing system consists of computer Hardware and Image processing software necessary to analyze digital image data. Image Processing system
Hardware
Digital Image Processing Minakshi,PRSD,IIRS
Software
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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

System Functions
vData Acquisition/Restoration {Compensates for data errors, noise and geometric distortions introduced in the images during acquisitioning and recording} i.e Preprocessing (Radiometric and Geometric) vImage Enhancement {Alters the visual impact of the image on the interpreter to improve the information content}
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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING System Functions
vInformation Extraction {Utilizes the decision making capability of computers to recognize and classify pixels on the basis of their signatures, Hyperspectral image analysis } vOthers
{Photogrammetric Information Extraction , Metadata and Image/Map Lineage Documentation , Image and Map Cartographic Composition, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Integrated Image Processing and GIS , Utilities}
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Major Commercial Digital Image Processing Systems

ERDAS IMAGINE ENVI IDRISI ER Mapper PCI Geomatica eCognition MATLAB Intergraph
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Open Source DIP Softwares

ILWIS (http://www.ilwis.org/index.htm) Opticks http://opticks.org/confluence/display/opticks/Welcome+To +Opticks GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System http://grass.osgeo.org/ ) OSSIM (Open Source Software Image Map www.ossim.org ) Multispec https://engineering.purdue.edu/~biehl/MultiSpec/index.h tml
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Image Preprocessing
Remote sensing systems do not function perfectly. Also, the Earths atmosphere, land, and water are complex and do not lend themselves well to being recorded by remote sensing devices that have constraints such as spatial, spectral, temporal, and radiometric resolution. Consequently, error creeps into the data acquisition process and can degrade the quality of the remote sensor data collected. The two most common types of error encountered in remotely sensed data are radiometric and geometric .
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Image Preprocessing
v Radiometric and geometric correction of remotely sensed data are normally referred to as preprocessing operations because they are performed prior to information extraction. v Image preprocessing hopefully produces a corrected image that is as close as possible, both radiometrically and geometrically, to the true radiant energy and spatial characteristics of the study area at the time of data collection. v Correct distorted or degraded image data to create a more faithful representation of the original scene (usually preprocessing operations) v Radiometric errors affect the Digital Number (DN) stored in an image v Geometric errors change the position of a DN value
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Radiometric errors- Causes

Radiometric errors are caused by detector imbalance and atmospheric deficiencies. Radiometric corrections are also called as cosmetic corrections and are done to improve the visual appearance of the image.
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Radiometric errors
Several of the more common remote sensing systeminduced radiometric errors are:
Periodic line or column drop-outs, line or column striping. random bad pixels (shot noise), partial line or column drop-outs
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Line Dropouts
l l l
DN 0 or 255 not systematic partial/entire line
Possible cause: failure of a detector bad transmission storage defect processing defect
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Dropped lines replacement

No data available Correction is a cosmetic operation It is based on spatial auto-correlation of continuous physical phenomena (neighbouring values tend to be similar)
l l l
Replacement (line above, below) Average line above and below Replacement based on correlation between bands
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Correction for Missing Lines /columns

It is first necessary to locate each bad line in the dataset. A simple thresholding algorithm makes a pass through the dataset and flags any scan line having a mean brightness value at or near zero. Once identified, it is then possible to evaluate the output for a pixel in the preceding line (BVi 1 ,j,k) and succeeding line (BVi+1,j,k) and assign the output pixel (BVi,j,k) in the drop-out line
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Dropped lines replacement

Replacement : copy the contents from the line above or below
V =V
i, j
i, j - 1
V =V
i, j
i, j + 1
i, j + 1
Average line above and below
V =
i, j
(V
+V
2
i, j 1
V = radiometric value (DN) i,j = column, line indicator Replacing the line with other highly correlated band
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Line Striping (Banding)

v Sensor induced Radiometric errors v Systematic
Striping
De-striped
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Line Striping (Banding)

the response of some of the detectors may shift towards lower or higher end causing the presence of a systematic horizontal / vertical banding banding pattern Banding is an cosmetic defect and it interferes with the visual appreciation of the patterns and features on the image Variation in gain and offset (dark current) of each sensor (linear sensor characteristic) as the sensor deteriorates in time
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Line striping correction

Uses a linear expression to model the relationship between input & output values. Assumes that mean and standard deviation of data from each detector should be same. Linear sensor model : y = a.x + b a = gain b = offset x = input y = output
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Haze
Scattered light reaching the sensor from the atmosphere Additive effect, reducing CONTRAST Correction Single band minimum (subtract minimum DN or minimum-1 or minimum-2) Dark object subtraction method Dark object subtraction method Assumption: infrared bands are not affected by Haze Identify black bodies: clear water and shadow zones with zero reflectance in the infrared bands Identify DN values at shorter wavelength bands of the same pixel positions. These DN are entirely due to haze Subtract the minimum of the DN values related to black bodies of a particular band from all the pixel values of that band
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Atmospheric Haze
without haze
with haze
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Geometric Correction
The transformation of remotely sensed images so that it has a scale and projections of a map is called geometric correction. A related technique, called registration, is the fitting of the coordinate system of an image to that of second image of the same area.
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Geometric Errors
These errors can be divided into two classes (a) those that can be corrected using data from platform ephemeris and knowledge of internal sensor distortion (b) those that cant be corrected with acceptable accuracy without a sufficient number of ground control points (GCP).
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Image Offset (skew) caused by Earth Rotation Effects

Earth-observing Sun-synchronous satellites are normally in fixed orbits that collect a path (or swath) of imagery as the satellite makes its way from the north to the south in descending mode. Meanwhile, the Earth below rotates on its axis from west to east making one complete revolution every 24 hours. This interaction between the fixed orbital path of the remote sensing system and the Earths rotation on its axis skews the geometry of the imagery collected
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Earth Rotation Effects
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Dashed line indicate shape of distorted image Solid line indicates restored image
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Rectification
is a process of geometrically correcting an image so that it can be represented on a planar surface , conform to other images or conform to a map. i.e it is the process by which geometry of an image is made planimetric. It is necessary when accurate area , distance and direction measurements are required to be made from the imagery.
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Rectification
It is achieved by transforming the data from one grid system into another grid system using a geometric transformation In other words process of establishing mathematical relationship between the addresses of pixels in an image with corresponding coordinates of those pixels on another image or map or ground.
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Difference in Geometry
Shift Scale Rotation and Skew
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Image to Map Rectification Procedure (Steps)

Two basic operations must be performed to geometrically rectify a remotely sensed image to a map coordinate system: Spatial Interpolation Intensity Interpolation
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Rectification Procedure (Steps)

1. Spatial Interpolation: The geometric relationship between input pixel location (row & column) and associated map co-ordinates of the same point (x,y) are identified. This establishes the nature of the geometric coordinate transformation parameters that must be applied to rectify the original input image (x,y) to its proper position in the rectified output image (X,Y). Involves selecting Ground Control Points (GCPS) and fitting polynomial equations using least squares technique
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Ground Control Points (GCPs)

q A ground control point (GCP) is a location on the surface of the Earth (e.g., a road intersection) that can be identified on the imagery and located accurately on a map. q There are two distinct sets of coordinates associated with each GCP:
qsource or image coordinates specified in i rows and j columns, and qReference or map coordinates (e.g., x, y measured in degrees of latitude and longitude, or meters in a Universal Transverse Mercator projection).
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Ground Control Points (GCPs) cont..

qThe paired coordinates (i, j and x, y) from many GCPs can be modeled to derive geometric transformation coefficients . qThese coefficients may be used to geometrically rectify the remote sensor data to a standard datum and map projection
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Ground Control Points (GCPs)

Accurate GCPs are essential for accurate rectification Sufficiently large number of GCPs should be selected Well dispersed GCPs result in more reliable rectification GCPs for Large Scale Imagery Road intersections, airport runways, towers buildings etc. for small scale imagery larger features like Urban area or Geological features can be used NOTE : landmarks that can vary (like lakes, other water bodies, vegetation etc) should not be used. GCPs should be spread across image Requires a minimum number depending on the type of transformation
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Spatial Interpolation using coordinate transformation

Polynomial equations are used to convert the source file coordinates to rectified map coordinates. Depending upon the distortions in the imagery, the number of GCPs used, their location relative to one other, complex polynomial equations are used. The degree of complexity of the polynomial is expressed as ORDER of the polynomial. The order is simply the highest exponent used in the polynomial
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Mathematical Transformations
Linear Transformations/ Affine transformation/ first order transformation X = a0 + a1x + a2 y Y = b0 + b1 x + b2 y where X , Y are the Rectified coordinates (output) x,y are the source coordinates (input) A first order transformation can change
Location in x and/or y Scale in x and/or y Skew in x and/or y Rotation
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Polynomial transformation
If the coefficients a0 ,a1,a2, b0, b1 and b2 are known then, the above polynomial can be used to relate and point on map to its corresponding point on image and vice versa. Hence six coefficients are required for this transformation (three for X and three for Y). Requires Minimum THREE GCPs for solving the above equation. However before applying rectification to the entire set of the data, it is important to determine how well the six coefficients derived from the least square regression of the initial GCPs account for the geometric distortion in the input image.
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Accuracy of transformation
In this method, we check how good do selected points fit between the map and the Image? To solve linear polynomials we first take three GCPs to compute the six coefficients. Its source coordinates in the original input image are say xi and yi. The position of the same points in reference map in degrees, feet or meters are say x,y
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Accuracy of transformation
Now, if we input the map x,y values for the first GCP back into the linear polynomial equation with all the coefficients in the place, we would get the computed or retransformed x r and yr values , which are supposed to be location of this point in input image. Ideally measured and computed values should be equal. In reality this does not happen. There is discrepancy between the measured and computed coordinates i.e we have to check the accuracy of transformation
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Root Mean Square (RMS) error

The method used involves computing Root Mean Square Error (RMS error) for each of the ground control point RMS error is the distance between the input (source or measured) location of a GCP and the retransformed (or computed) location for the same GCP. RMS error is computed with a Euclidean Distance Equation.
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RMS ERROR
Where xi and yi are the input source coordinates and xr and yr are the retransformed coordinates
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RMS ERROR
RMS error is expressed as distance in the source coordinate system. It is the distance in pixel widths An RMS error of 2 means that the reference pixel is 2 pixels away from the retransformed pixel.
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Acceptable RMS error or Tolerance of the error

Normally, a user specifies a certain amount (a threshold) of acceptable total RMS error. The amount of RMS error that is tolerated can be thought of as a window around each source coordinate, inside which a retransformed coordinate is considered to be correct. For example, if the threshold is 2, then the retransformed pixel can be 2 pixels away from the source pixel and still be considered accurate.
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Acceptable RMS
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Total RMS error

From the residuals the Total RMS error, the X RMS error and the Y RMS error can be computed as per the following formula
Where: Rx = X RMS error Ry = Y RMS error T= total RMS error n= the number of GCPs i= GCP number XRi= the X residual for GCP i YRi= the Y residual for GCP i
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Acceptable RMS cont..

Acceptable RMS error depends upon the
End use of the data The type of data being used, and The accuracy of the GCP and the ancillary data.
Normally an RMS error of less than 1 per GCP and a total RMS error of less than half a pixel (0.5) is acceptable
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Acceptable RMS cont..

After each computation of a transformation, the total RMS error reveals that a given set of control points exceeds the threshold then Delete the GCP from the analysis that has greatest amount of individual error Recompute the coefficients and the RMS error for all points
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Grid Transformation
At the end of this step we have established the mathematical relationship between the coordinates of pixel and map coordinates or in other words we have fitted an empty grid over our reference map
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Intensity Interpolation
Pixel brightness values must be determined. Unfortunately, there is no direct one-to-one relationship between the movement of input pixel values to output pixel locations. It will be shown that a pixel in the rectified output image often requires a value from the input pixel grid that does not fall neatly on a row-andcolumn coordinate. When this occurs, there must be some mechanism for determining the brightness value (BV ) to be assigned to the output rectified pixel. This process is called intensity interpolation.
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Once an image is warped, how do you assign DNs to the new pixels? Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid for the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new data file values for the output file can be calculated. This process involves the extraction of a brightness value from a location in the input image and its reallocation in the appropriate coordinate location in the rectified output image. Types
Input Driven Output Driven
Intensity Interpolation or Image Resampling
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Input Driven Resampling

Movement of all pixels in the input image to their new positions in the output image Disadvantages
Some output pixels are multiple assigned Some are not assigned creating Gaps in the output image
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Output Driven Resampling

vCreation of the new image by filling it pixel after pixel and line after line vPixel indices in the output image are transformed to position of corresponding pixels in the input image
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Resampling Techniques
Input Driven
Output Driven
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Resampling Techniques
vThis results in input line and columns numbers as real numbers ( and not integers) vWhen this occurs, methods of assigning Brightness values are
vNearest Neighbour vBilinear vCubic
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The nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest input pixel for the output pixel value. The pixel value occupying the closest image file coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value in the georeferenced image.
Nearest Neighbor
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Nearest Neighbor
ADVANTAGES: Output values are the original input values. Other methods of resampling tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or locating boundaries. Since original data are retained, this method is recommended before classification. Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use. DISADVANTAGES: Produces a choppy, "stair-stepped" effect. The image has a rough appearance relative to the original unrectified data. Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated.
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Bilinear
T he bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the nearest four pixels to the output pixel.
BVwt =
D D
k =1 k =1 4
Zk
2 k
1
2 k
where Zk are the surrounding four data point values, and D2k are the distances squared from the point in question (x, y) to the these data points.
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Bilinear
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Bilinear
ADVANTAGES:
Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more extensive than nearest neighbor.
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Cubic Convolution
The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of surrounding input pixel values is more dramatic.
BVwt =
D D
k =1 k =1 16
16
Zk
2 k
1
2 k
where Zk are the surrounding four data point values, and D2k are the distances squared from the point in question ( x, y) to the these data points.
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Cubic Convolution
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Cubic Convolution
ADVANTAGES:
Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor or bilinear interpolation.
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Nearest Neighbour Bilinear Interpolation Cubic Convolution
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Second Ground Control Point
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Thank You
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DIP Basics and Rectification - 2

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Digital Image Processing Basic Concepts

Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Division Indian Institute of Remote Sensing

Digital Image Processing- Basic Concepts

DISCUSSION / INTERACTIVE SESSION

Digital Image Processing

A Picture is worth a thousand words

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

What is a Digital Image ?

Single Layer Digital ImagePanchromatic Imagery

Hypothetical Digital Image (5 x 5 x 1)

256-2048 Brightness Levels 0 Darkest, 255/2047 - Brightest Higher spatial resolution

Multi Spectral Remotely Sensed Image

What is a Multispectral Digital Image ?

Multispectral Digital Image

Band 1 0.45 - 0.52 m

Band 2 0.52 0.59 m

Band 3 0.62- 0.68 m

Band 4 0.77 0.86 m

IRS-1B LISS II IMAGE OF PAONTA AREA

Digital Image Data Formats

Organisation / Storage of these pixels in memory ??

Digital Image Data Formats

Band Sequential Format

Digital Image Processing

BAND INTERLEAVE BY LINE (BIL)

Digital Image Processing

BAND INTERLEAVE BY PIXEL

Digital Image Processing

Different Data Formats

v Most of the Recent satellite data iis provided in GeoTiff format

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING System Functions

Digital Image Processing

Major Commercial Digital Image Processing Systems

Digital Image Processing

Open Source DIP Softwares

Radiometric errors- Causes

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

DN 0 or 255 not systematic partial/entire line

Dropped lines replacement

Correction for Missing Lines /columns

Dropped lines replacement

Average line above and below

Line Striping (Banding)

Line Striping (Banding)

Line striping correction

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

Image Offset (skew) caused by Earth Rotation Effects

Earth Rotation Effects

Digital Image Processing

Digital Image Processing

Image to Map Rectification Procedure (Steps)

Rectification Procedure (Steps)

Ground Control Points (GCPs)

Ground Control Points (GCPs) cont..

Ground Control Points (GCPs)