----------------------\.

1
,

SE RIES EDII O R
11. . HII. LLII.M
Lapwonh Professor of Geology
Universi ty of Birmingham
Principles of Mineral Beha viour
1\. PUT N I S and J. D. C. MCCONNELL
2 An Int roducti on to Ore Geology
A. M. EVAi\S
3 Sedimentary Petrology: an Introduct ion
MA URIC E E. TUCKER
"1
4 Geophysical Surveying
P. K EARY and M. BROOKS
5 Engineering Geology
F. c. S EA VI S
I
FN( 'E TF ' I S VO l I I M F S
Engineering Geology
F. . BEAVI
MA. Il Sc. Ph I), FGS
1', ofc .... lH' nf Engineer ing .enloBY
of New Sout h
IlLII. KW ' L LS I ENT I F I r UB I.I II.T I ONS
M I ' III OJ) I(NF( XFOI\J) I ON D ()N F IJ I N I)U I(I Ii Il OS I ON I' A I (lA I I i)
To Joan and To Evan
hy
Il lut'\., wcll Scientific Publications
I d!lil1ill\ ofticc-;:
1O/ II1I1 1Y Street , Carlton
VleWI hL 1053, A\Lstralia
Mend, Oxford OX2 DEL. UK
It 101111 Sh eet. London \VeiN 2ES. UK
) \ AIII ' !!C I' la ce, Fdinburgh
I 11 161\ J. UK
11(."1 11..' (111 S ll cel , Bo,,\on
() 21()K. USA
14.1 ('O\\l pCI St reet . Palo Allo.
(II 1)410 1. USA
1(;,,':I\ <;d. No part of this publication
Iw Icploduccd. , tared in a retrieval
(II Il un, m;llcd. in a ny form or by any
1111'1111 \, d ccllonic. mec hanical. photocopying.
lI' lOHlltl l4 Of o\hcrwi"c Wilhoul prior
of I he copyri ght owner
I VPM' 1 III AIISO:ll ia by ('UIll S!.;t Pt y Ltd.
1' lllIwd III \1I1>4. l jlOI I' IJ v
K'flldll ... 111\\>4 I <101\ >4 111.1 I'l l' l.ld
D[STR[ BUTORS
USA and Canflda
Blackwell Scient ific
Publications Inc
PO Box 50009. Palo Alto
Ca. 94303
Australia
Blackwell Scientific Book
Distribu to rs
31 Advantage Road. Highett
Victoria 3190
South-East Asia
P (j Publish ing Pt e lid
Alexandra PO Box 31 8
Si nga pore 9115
Others
Blackwell Scientific
Publicat ions
Osney Mead. Oxford
OX2 OEL. UK
Cataloguing in publication data
Beavis. F.e. (Fra ncis Clifford). 1924- .
Engi neer ing Gcology.
I. Engineering geology. I. Tit le. (Series:
Geoscience text s: v. 5) .
Bibl iogra phy.
Includes inde.x.
IS BN 0 g6793 200 7.
[SBN 0 86793 [280 (pbk.) .
624. [' S[
Preface, ix
Int roduction, 1
2 Rock - the material, 4
2. J General statement, 4
2. 2 Rock-formi ng mineral s, 4
Contents
2.3 Geological classificati on of rocks , 9
2.4 Rock fabric, 17
2.5 The mec ha nical properties of rock mate ria l. 19
2.6 Mechanical classificat ion of rock mater ial. 22
3 The rock mass, 27
1. I General statement. 27
1.2 Homogeneity and isotropy of t he rock mass. 27
1.3 Cont in uity, 28
1.4 Physical and mechanical characteristics of discontinuities. 33
1.5 Classification of discontinuities. 39
1.6 Analysis of fracture systems. 40
3.7 Permeabi lit y of the rock mass. 43
1.M Se ismic vclocit y in the rock mass. 45
1.9 Rock quality designation (RQD), 45
1. IU Mechanica l classificati on of the rock mass. 47
4 Rock weathering, 52
4. 1 Irllroduclion . 52
11.2 WClI!hcri ng processes, 52
,I 1 Patterns of weat hering, 61
,I <I Products of wea theri ng, 63
.1 CI:t .. sificalion of weathe red rock for engineering purposes. 66
" () I he effect s of weathering on geomeeha nical properties, 73
,1 7 Weat herabilit y a nd dura bility o r rock, 81
I It Weathering of biogenic rocks. 82
I II Weathering in engineering practice. 83
1 10 Concluding remarks, g9
I he lund surfnce, 92
'\ I I lltl(lducl(l ry stat eme nt, 92
.. ' Cllmut lc co ntrol of la ndform. 93
'\ I ( i !:ohlHLcal c()ntrol of l andform, 93
'I I I il nd/ol 111 ' of temperat e climatic IOIl CS, 100
'\ '\ I LII Hll il ilm of l Hid l egion" 10 1
, II ( :lul' iul lrIl UII Otlll 'i, I02
'\ 1 ('011 >11 111 11\1I(11 \1IllI .. , 1011
, H
'\ " (h\ llIlIl llpl1l l ' 1111 I O()
(, Soil: material and mass, 110
6. I (ic ncra l statement , 11 0
6.2 Minera l composi tion of soils, I I!
(1 ,;\ I"cxtun: of soils. 11 3
(1,4 Soil st r ucture a nd fabri c. 1[5
h.5 Anal ysis of soil struct ure a nd fabr ic, I [!:!
6,6 Soi l consistency, 120
6. 7 of soils. 121
6.X Mec ha ni ca l propert ies of soil s. 124
(1 .9 Characteristics of t he soi l mass, [24
6. 10 Gcomorphology and soils. [27
7 WlItcr in rock and soil masses, 131
7. 1 Introduct ion, 131
7.2 I he hydrologica l cycle. 131
7.3 I he wa ter ta ble, 133
7.4 Per mea bilit y, 134
7.5 Flow nels, 139
7. 6 Wat er q uality, 140
7.7 Groundwa ter reso urces eva luat ion. 142
7.K Ground water a nd civil e nginee ring, 143
H Geological investigations, 149
Il1Irod ueti on, 149
K.2 Terrai n evaluation, [49
tU Gcological ma ps, 15S
X,4 Subsurfa ce investi gations. 156
x.5 Other methods of invest iga t ion. 163
x.6 l.abo ra to r y invest igati ons. 163
1(7 Report ing geologiea[ investigat ions, 164
4) Geological factors in engineering works, 166
9. 1 Introd uct ion, 166
1) ,2 Da ms, 166
9 ,) Buildi ngs, 171
9.4 Roads and a irfi eld runways. 173
9.5 Brid ges, 175
9.6 Unde rgro und openings . [76
9. 7 Coasts and harbou rs, 179
9.K Engineering materi als, I!:II
10 Environmental geology, 184
10. 1 Int rod uctory remar ks, 184
10.2 Geo logy and regional planning, 184
10.3 Urban planning, 187
[0.4 Was te d isposal , 190
[0.5 Geological hazards, 193
10.6 Enviro n mental impact statements. 195
10, 7 Earthqua ke ha7.a rds and nuclea r power stations. 199
Appendi ces, 201
1 Ci cologic1l 1 colu mn and time scal e, 201
2 Propel'l it.: s and ide nti fi cati on of mi nera ls, 202
1 1- id el id entifica t ion of roc ks, 206
4 Stereogra phic a nd eq ual area proj ect ions, 208
Au1hor index, 213
Index \l r rocks, mincntls nnd soils, 21 5
(;cll crlll index. 218
Preface
Introductory textbooks o n geology for civil engineeri ng st udent s quile right ly
place t he empha sis o n geology. The a ppli cat ions o f geo logy to engineeri ng.
ho we ver, a re ofte n di vorced fr om the basic geology, a nd the student , in
conseq uence, so metimes fail s to comprehend as well as he should the close
H..: l;lli o nship between the two disci plines, In t hi s book, t he aim has bee n as close
0 11 integrati on as possible. Di scussi on of geological principles has been linked
with Lh e a ppl icat ion of these principles to engineering practice. Ill ust rat ive
exa mples, drawn from a wide geograph ic ra nge, a re used freely. The case
li i ... tories were chosen from both fa il ures a nd successes, for it is from bot h, not
I he failures alone, that we learn. So far as has been possi bl e, t he case hi sto ries
,",e lected a re proj ects wi th which t he writ er has had some direct personal conta ct.
I II c t wo final chapters collect, in a syste mati c for m, t he mai n geological fa ctors
involved in t he safe and economic construct ion of engineering works, and some
npplicali ons of geology to en vironmental stud ies .
An empha sis is placed, on Ihegeological side, on those aspect s of geology of
1I1I1'HHlanCe 10 the e ngineer: mineralogy, pet rology, st ruct ura l geology,
J.tl'() lI1 orphology a nd rock wea thering. No atte mpt has bee n made to include
nhll C tha n the basic princi ples of strat igra phy. Detai led di sc ussion of loca l
'1 ll l1l igra phi c sequcnces is of littl c general int erest , or value, to the engineering
'i l udcnt. altho ugh, of course, on a n act ua l project knowledge of the local
Irj ll ll l ig ra phy is always essent ia l fo r the geologi st, and at least helpful t o the
" lt w ll ct.: r .
I II prcpa ri II g I he book, the aut ho r h<ls kept in In i nd t he needs of In idd Ie-level
1 1\ 11 cll ginl:c ring st udent s, a nd a knowledge of seco nd ary sc hool geology has
11 1'1' 11 il ss unl l! d. Reference lists have been la rgely restr icted 10 suggesti ons fo r
lUI I Il \: l reading rro m more advanced sta nda rclt ext s. However, so me references
III I II igi na lli terature arc gi ve n to encourage t he student to o bt ai n Ill ore detail ,
IIl1d 10 gni n ex perience in crit ical evaluati o n o r original work.
11 11..' au th o r wishes to acknowledge hi s grati t ude 10 copyri ght hnlckrs for
pn 111 1"; "'; 0 11 t o u:-;c publ ished Illill erial. Specifi c aeknowk dgl! l11 cnt i::; made inlhc,;
II iii I M IIn y people hi.! ve cont ri but ed t o I he preparati on of thl! book . and to a 11 or
1111 I II , I (1 m ... ince rely gra tefu l. My wire, Joan, Iw" alwa ys give n her SUp pOl1 and
I III tlt ll nge meill. Mrs Dia nc B lu ll k cardul1 y un d di li ge ntl y l)1' cpn red t h(,.'
1\ PI"H r tpl , MIs M 1\I'i:t nna 11 01 v:tl h Ihe li ne (l nl wi ngs, li nd M I ( ;. Smu ll I he.: hull
111 11 1' p l: !l l ... , MI I'o Bl unk a nd Mrs I flr iSII Smith pn.: p:rred ti ll.' in([ cxt.:s, I lll il
1111 1111 uilidy tt l/ ltt' flll lP my l' oll lOHtu.:, I)r M .. I, who pJOvid (' d 1I1Ul' h II I
till 10101111111100 lInd Il ll ll ly 01 ti ll' 11111 '1 \111111111" l.'Oll tll ll ll' d III ( ' hupll' l 10
h 111m ol l' nvu 0111111.' 11 1111 gl.'o10ttY, lllal hI, "N 10 di 'i{' u"I"I t hi , lI, pt.:c t
\\1 111 1111', hl l vl.' 1'11.'1.' 11 Ill voluohl e. l;innll y, I \0 II ck nowlcdttc the
11 f..' t' civcd mon y y c.:: lI s ago f !'om M I' E. L. Ri chHl'd. l o w holll ihi s
1\ illllllly d cd iL'l ll c.: d ,
Fril nk Beavis
Syd ncy
1
Introduction
IllI gincc ring geology, as a science, is concerned with the applications of the
Plill cipi es of geology Lo civi l (and to some extent, mining) engineering, so that the
can take into account those geological aspects which control the
l' l 'OIl (}I11Y. and sa fety, of the structure which he is required to design and
i' OIl 'i lrucl. All civil engineering works are constructed on, or in, rock and soil
It is essential. therefore, that the civil engir:.eer be aware of the history,
11111 II re, and propcrties of the rocks and soil s. Equally, it is essent ial for the
p.I' olngist. who is to work wit h the engineer, to have some knowledge of
l' ll v,incc ring requi rements.
Alt hough engineering geology has been practi sed for centuries, systematic
Ntlld y bcgan o nl y in t he 19th century. The present century saw the development of
"j ill I mecha nics a nd rock t his has tended towards a so-ca lled
' qunntificat ion' of enginee ring geology. Such a quantitative approach is
dl " " ltblc, but it must not be overlooked that much of the geology which is so
/II jv,IIHica nt fo r the engineer is qualitative and descriptive. Rock mechanics and
NIIII mec hanics supplement , or complement, the descriptive geology, they do not
lI' plllec it.
At the most fundamental level , geological principles must be used to explain
11", var ia l io n in t he mechanical properties of rocks and soils, and the behaviour
II I lOcks tlnd soils under stress. The quantitative description of soil a nd rock
Ili' hllviour has to assume a n ideali zed material ; the geologist is aware that actual
Hlld li nd rock material s, in their texture, structure, and composition vary to a
IIIIt<iderable degree from the ideal.
I he scicncc of geology compri ses a number of subdiscipl ines, all of which, to a
Hll' lite r o r lesser extent, find some appl ication in engineering. An understanding
III tlcoloSY it se lf requ ires a sound basi s in chemistry, physics and mathematics,
", 111('1..' geology is concerned with processes which are chemical and physical , and
wllh the products of the various processes.
Mi nenll ogy is tha t branch of geology which is concerned with the origin,
IHTII II'CIl CC. and Ihe propert ies of mineral s. Any mineral species is a unique
IOllIhinHt io n of a definit e chemical composition a nd crystalline structure.
"\I' VC.' I III thousunds of minera l species are known, but the civi l engineer, for t he
IlIilNI PIli t. is conce rned wi l h only a few: those which are known as rock-forming
nlllll,' luls, Som ' n ... i ncrnl s fa I'C of pa rti cul H I' i n\ ercst a nd importance to, especially,
I il lu,' rol e CIIBinCCl s. s ince they rca ct with ceme nt under certain conditi ons; the
Iruclion CO lll CSul1 in Ihc di srupti on of concrete.
II I{' 'l tll dy of Ihc OCCUl'I' cncc, distributi on, origi n, compos iti on Hnl! lex lure of
IIH known us p ' ll' logy. All rocks a rc made up of one o r more mincnds. T he
IIII1U' I,d"l whi ch lIrc prese nt , their arrangement (fa bri c) a nd the text ure, are
tl t'h' l mined hy the origin of the rock and the processes it has undergone, a nd is
si nce it s fonna l ion. Rocks Cll n be classified ge neti ca ll y into igneous,
I'l l'" IIIH' UI II I Y II nd metamorphi c, depending o n their ori gin. Rocks in each of these
1' llI NNl'N hu ve ec rt a in, we ll defined cha racteri stics, which are reflected in their
Iwhuviollr os enginee ring mat erial s.
AN 1\ I 'suit of the processes to which rocks are subj ected during and after their
1lIIllInti () I1 , stluctura l features such a s bedd ing pla nes, joint s, fault s, folds and
101111 11011 ' mll y be prese nt. The origin, geometri c patterns, and the forces which
1110tlll ccd these structures constitute the subdiscipline of structural geology.
Mosl slrt! ' tUI'CS represen t di scontinuiti es in the rock mass, whi le some represe nt
(I I i nuit ics in t he rock ma teria I. As a res ult they have a major infl uence on the
I' li gi liccri ng properti es, and behaviour, of both mass and material. Structural
is onc of the most important basic studies for engineering geology,
Although of less int crcst to the cngi neer, those branches of geology known as
Pllhll'Oltt olO!;y a nd stra ti gra phy a re of vital impo rta nce to the geologist , and a re
lI "Inl, quite commonl y, to solve problems which confront the engi neer.
PUl lll' onlo logy is the science of fossils: the remains of past life on the ea rth.
I+tI Ns ii s /lrc used parti cul a rl y to determine the age of the rocks in which they are
11111 lid , Ot hel' methods of dating are available which give absolute ages, as di stinct
11 1)111 Ihe rclative ages determined by means of fossils. By studying the age, the
t. tlll cl III 1:, lind the fi eld relationships of rock masses, geologists are able to
,Irl II mine their hi story, a nd, in the fina l analysis, the hi story of the whole eart h.
, Itt' husis of any geologic;:d map is the stratigra phy of the region involved . T he
hl NIIH y of t he region ca n ha ve consequences of vita l importance to engineering.
I lit' filtHI stage in the geological evolution of a ny region is the development of
Ihl' pl csc nl land surfaces, T he processes responsible for thi s development are
III I clinult ica ll y controlled, although thc landforms themselves are functions
hllih 01 elilmlle (present and past) , and of underlying geology. Geomorphology is
I Ill' sludy of the fo rm and origin of the present land surface. Engi neering
I-\l'OIl HII phology is emerging as a specialist di scipl ine, particularl y in the fi elds of
"1 10111.' enginecring a nd enviromental engineering. Nonetheless, a carefu l
w'olllorpho logica l apprai sa l of a n engineering site has always been an essent ia l
fU l' l' t of fin investi gat io n programme.
ApII I'I fro m the somewhat purely geologica l subdi sciplines ment.ioned,
'"ItHlnccJ'inggeologica l investi gati ons req uire, in add ition, studies whi ch ove rlap
willi cIl HilH.: eri ng: soil mcchani cs, rock mecha ni cs, a nd ground wate r hydrology,
is conce rned with the origi n, qualit y, quantit y, di stribut ion and
1l 1OVclllcnt of wute r in, Hnd t hrough, a rock mass, Alt hough hydrogcologists arc
I" tl' ll'St ' (I pi i 1110 ril y in gro undwa te r as a lI scn ble resoll ree, engi neering geOlogists
IIll' l' o nc ' I ned wi l h I he hydrology of groundwut er fll mosl engi nee ring sil es, bUI
llNIH'l' ill ll y III dll ll' sit 's lind ill tunnels lind olh ' r undcrgroun(t excll vllti ons,
II hIlS nOled IllIIt Ilt l' hll sic dlilil n.: llIlill tl to 1111; g 'o IOHY of n l'cJ.\ iollllrc
1I' I' lI llh' d iI n 11 ,.W\I II III p, Wh il l' "I Il l' hU1i 1 lil t" i nd i 'q11: II N1I hk 10 I Il l' IIl' l' I',
not infrequent ly they fail to show ma ny of the fa ctors of importance for design
a nd constructi on, In recent yea rs, t he basic geologica l map has come to be
supplement ed by specia li zed maps recording specifica lly e ngineering geological
feat ures. These are refe rred to as engineering geological maps, engineering
geomorphi c maps, a nd geotechnical maps. These are all prepared after fi eld,
la boratory a nd office invest igat ion and research.
In the foll owing pages, the basic principles of geology are out lined. The
applications of geology to civil engineering are presented , and examples of these
Hpplications a re di scussed. The reader who is concerned that the t reatment is for
I he most part qua litative should note the words of Sir Harold Hardi ng, a for mer
President of the Inst itution of Engineers, London: "Some engineers despise
geology because it is not quantitative, there a re no formulae a ttached to it. But to
me, geology is the basis of civil engineering.
2
Rock - The Material
1. 1 (; Cllcrll l statement
MOl'l l l ocks It I' C aggregates of mineral parti cles whi ch are crystals, more or less
IWll l,'l' t l y for Il1c(l . or fragment s of crystals; some rocks may contain, or be ent irel y
\'1 1I1I pns(;<i of. non-crysta ll i nc ma tcria ls such as nat L1ral volcanic glass. T he si ze of
tlH' their ar range ment, and the proporti on of eac h mineral present ,
't' l W II' Ih!.! basis for the geologica l class ifica t ion: the ori gin and hi story of t he
r III C of ITIHjor i mportance a lso since, to a large extent , these aspects wi ll have
c! t' lt' tIl1im:d the si/ e. arra ngement a nd compositi on of the minera l particl es.
HOI ' ks UI"(,! nHlurai materi als commonly lack ing the uniformi ty of man- made
lIH1t1.' lIlIl s slI ch as steel. While it is possible 1'01' man to control t he properti es or
11111 rlllluctlIl'cd engineering materials, he ca n exert onl y a ve ry limit ed control, if
II II V. nvc l the properti es of rocks a nd soil s.
In ' Il v,i ncc ring geology, it is essent ial to dist inguish between the rock or soil
IIIofl '"nl lind thc rock or soi l mass. Because of textura l and composi ti ona l
VII I 1111 l OllS , any sa mpl e of roc k or soil is almost certain ly not t he same, in a ll
1I'''I l lt'rh. II", the mass from whi ch it was taken. Apart from text ura l and
I'tl llIllIl\llionHI vari ati ons, t he mass may be broken by disconti nui t ies such as
1111111\ (II' hcclcling planes which influence the engineering propert ies, and the
lu' h,IV101l l' under stress. orthe rock mass. For these, and for other reasons whi ch
WI ll hccome appa rent , it ca nnot be emphasized too much that the va lue of
I\lOfl clti cs determined on a small sa mple of rock or soi l may bea r litt le
Il' llit ionship lo t hc values fo r the mass. ln enginee ring geology it is essential t hat
1Il'i 'lir distincti on be made between material and mass characterist ics.
2, 2 minerals
1\ lllinl! l'ul is a natura ll y occur ring crystall ine materia l with a definite chemi ca l
l'Olliposil ion and a defi nite crystal structu re. Ma ny t housands of minera 1 species
ho ve hec n I'ccogni /cd, but only a few of these commonly occur as rock-forming
1I1 11l l! I'/l ls, Most of the rock-forming minera ls are silicates (Ta ble 2. 1). Each
lllincrll i i ll ft rock has phys ical, mec hani ca l and chemi cal properti es whi ch differ
11(1)) thosc of the othel' minera ls present . anel whi ch wi ll have some effect 0 11 the
0 1 thc rock as H whole, However, it is ge nenill y true that, since the
I1 \( II vidunl minel'lll pHI' ti cles in a rock arc sma ll , ustlall yeach parti cle can havc. of
II 'wll . lilt Ie d if l!CI in fI lI enc;e 011 I he mcc ha 11 ieol properl ies of t he rock as H whol e,
I'IPpt' lti es MI ' l! us hll l'(inl:ss. 01 1\ wcll .. el cvclopl!d l11in l! 1'!I 1 clcl-l vtl gc, in II mill eral
whkl! I(lnil ,"! II signifil'fl llt pili I of Ill l! I'Ock CUll , under' some conditi ons,
drll'lll ll llt' IIH' It'l ll'tl Oil 01 I Il l' lo(:k 10 l'Xll' ll lI 1I 100 l'l'''!, 1' 0 1 l'XIIlllplc. thl'
1"l"it' l l l'd IIlll' !llnllOIl 01 111 1(.' 11 cHeh wi th II hlHlll y dcvelopcd plllt y
l' UII IIIII' III I II Ntl ()IlB 1l\ cl! hllni cu! unisot l'opy 10 u rock such as slatc,
""Vl lli l' or 'eh"' !.
(nttltlHIIlIOl'k hllnllil/ol tllI Il CI' III ...
I SIIC<: IC\
OIlUllt
11111 11 \111 1 ()I I hocl:.,e
IllaglOcla,e
Milu Mu\co\ itc
IlI nllle
'\lIll'hlhnlr: 11 0 1 nblcnde
1"" I\(' IIl' Augitc
111 1\111\' Olivine
Kaolinil e
I hl\"11 Ill ite
Monlmori ll onite
I ,II hlllll. ll\ Calci le
Dolomite
r I I SII. ICATE MI NERALS
Siruetu ral
ci a"
Tc ktusili cat e
Tekt osilicate
Phyll osilicatc
[nosilicatc
i nosilicale
Ncsosi li cat e
Phyll osilicat e
Compositi on
Si0 2
KAI Si30 3
NaAISi30 s-CaAISi20 a
KAI2(AISbOlO) - (OHh
K2( MgFe)6(SiAI)sOzo
(OH).
(NaCa lz(MgFeAl h
(Si AI)s02'2(OHh
Ca(Mg FeAI)(AlSihOs
(MgFchSio..
AI 4 Si10 lO(OH)8
KA12 (AIS i3)010(OH) 2
AbSi40 1O(OHh 1l H20
CaC03
CaMg(C0 3h
I Il l' si li cate minerals consist essentiall y of silicon- oxygen t etrahedra: linked
hl!r in a variety of ways; silicate mineral classification is based on the type of
II"k ltNe hctwcclllhe tet rahedra. Six structural classes are recognized, as shown
III l ithic 2.2.
I 1,1 Si lic:n e mll1eral
'tllltllllUI l'In."
"'II , ..

I \t Iml lll'n ie
III,,,IIII"IIIC
1'11\
I I
Structure
In<lcpendenl tet rahedra
Double tetrahedra
Ring
Chai n .. Iructurc
\inglc chain
double chain
Shec t .. lruClure
I hree-dimc nsional
nel wor k
Example
01ivi nes
Epidote
Cordierit e
Pyroxenes
Amphi boles
Micas. clays
Quart z, feldspars
I Ill' Ol ill'! l'OIllI"OIl l! 111 1'o of the sili ca te structurcs such as ca t ions, add ili onal
II ll ydH\ xyl ftnd wHter, arc arranged wi th in the slructure in such a
WilY !IN 10 PI'O(!II l'l' ph ys ico! stllhilil y lind l! lcClli cnl nCIlI I'H lil y, The tI '('/(J,vili (,fllfS
Hl lt l H H'W 'i /t C(I/ (',\' d o not includc any rea ll y impo rta nt rock-fo rmin g mine ra ls
e pi d o le a nd co rd ie rite may be essc nt ia l consti tue nts o f so mc
1I1(' IIIIII IH pili ' I' oc ks. O n t. he o t he r ha nd , the lekfOsilicates includc somc o f t he
1111, , 1 Illl nO! lunl rock-forming minera ls: qua rt z, feldspa rs, felds pa tho ids and
Of ull minera ls. q ua rt? a nd feldspa rs a rc the most abunda nt in rocks. All
il l I lit' Il.' klOSilicllt c minera ls a rc co lo urless, white, or grey, provided they are free
j 1IlIlI IIlc iusio ns o r impuri li es. As a t esult of the rela ti ve ly open fra mewo rk, their
!I (' lHd t v le nds 10 be low, and t heir hard ness is uniform bet ween 5 and 7. On the
whoit- , th ' Icktosilica tes fo rm a n ext remely ho mogeneous g roup. Phyllosilicates
,,, " "''' '(I lo!' Ihe highl y deve loped plat y basal cleavage. The main minerals are
Ih,' "It('"" Ihe clays . py!' ophyll it e, ta lc, serpent ine a nd chl ori te. Al though some
pl1 Vll oNi li cit IcS H rc sta ble to quite hi gh tempe ra tures, ma ny of the m are formed a t
low h: mp ' rBlures dur ing weat her ing a nd sedimentary processes. The c hain
's of the ill osilicates arc responsible fo r t he well-defi ned pri sma ti c
I'I l' IIVO/-tCS c hu rHcte r isti c o f t he amphiboles a nd pyroxenes. All o r t he mine ra ls in
1.' IIPi' ha ve stri kingly simil a r p ro perties. T he nesosilicates, which include
IIfH.l o li vine. have a ve ry d ense packing, which is renected in t he relat ively
h Ili d ncss and highe r d ensit y tha n is fo und in correspond ing compound s
01 o t he r sl,' uctural classes, whil e the absence of chains a nd sheets is renected in
tll \' f.t ' IlCI'II l1 y C(luidime nsio nal nature o f t he crys tals.
" I, (' l AY MI NERALS
l il t' II SC o f the ter m clay to describe a materi a l impli es tha t it has a very fine
1I' ;'; lIl1 t" with indi vid ual par ti cles less than 0. 002 mm in d ia meter, a nd t hat it
iI (' w lo ps II plast icity when mi xed wit h wa ter. Clay, in t his sense, is not composed
I' ... r lll ", ivc ly o f cla y mi ne ral s, but these d o consti t ute, as a rule, a signifi ca nt
PIII IHllii on of the mat e rial , a nd it is certa inl y t he clay mine ra ls whi ch are
1l" I", " , ;blc ror the plasli city or t he clay. Clay minerals a re of maj or import a nce
til t lli: c nginee r beca use of the inn uence t ha t they exert on t he mechanica l
I'lt l lH' ll ics o f t he so ils a nd rocks in whi ch they occu r. All cla y mine ra ls a re
phyll os ili cHles (Figs 2. 1, 2.2).
O= AI 0 = 0 @=OH
I"
1' 111 . 1 I li lt' II I l Ill Y 11 11 111' 111111 (11 ) 1\ 1101111 11 1' (h) 11 111 1'
I,
Ibl
lal
) 1M J. J I Ill' " I Il et tl n; nfct ay mincral s: (a) Mo ntmorillonite. (b) Chlor itc. (c) Hydrated halloysi te.
111' (.' I! II Se o f their economic import a nce, cla y mineral s have been st udi ed in
<kl ni l; muc h is kn own of t heir str uctu re and p hysico-chemical proper t ies.
WIII II' til e cla y minera ls ca n be classifi ed in a number of ways, a simple
1 hased o n st ruct ure a nd phys ico-chemical pro pe rt ies, whi ch is of
,dill ' 10 Ihc c.: nginee r, is presented in Tabl e 2.3. In t his classifi ca ti on, fi ve main
I jd " ' " 111 1.' Iccognized .
I ii" I : I Iypc clay minera l crys tal uni ts a re made up of one tet ra hedra l sil ica
II! It .rll l' t nll tin g with o ne octa hedral al umina la yer. The two sheet s of each unit
II! hrhl l Oti ' I he r by oxygen a toms whic h arc s ha red by the silicon a nd alumini um
1111111 "1 III thei l' res pect ive layers. The u nit s t hemselves are held toget he r by
111.11 1\I' lv ! il-t id hydrogen bo nding. As a co nseq uence, the lat ti ce is fi xed, a nd no
I 1'"11'111 111 will no rma ll y occur whe n wate r is added . Neit her wa ter nor cati ons
11111 II h.' 1 hl; l wccn the struc tura l unit s, so that kaol in, a nd other minerals in thi s
I jll 11I 1vt' II low Cli t io n adsor pti o n ca pacity. The plasticit y, cohesion, shrinkage
111.1 " w(' lI lng l.' il IJI/ IClc ri sti ' S II rc low.
I hl' ' : I t vpe cXJ1l1 l1d i nf, cla ys ha ve c rysla l u nits cha racter ized by a n
111111 11 1' 11 1111 l1 itllllill ll It IYl' I' co nfi neCI he t ween t wo telra hedra l sil ica laye rs. T he
I I .. 1111 11111 1'" lil t' loo,,' lv hond,'d hy v ' l y w ' u k oxygen to o xyge n lin ks. Wa le I'
li nd l'n ll \II I' IIle IIIt !uClcd 111 10 I Il l' illI CI-Ullil space,
III Ih,' ny'H!!\ lalt ice. 1 he nl ()vc rne r'll of wu ler and cHli ons in betwee n units
1\ IIl1'ge int cl nnl surface areH in contrast to the 1: 1 type clays.
I NOIlI OI pilolls su\)stituti on of Mg2+ for some of the A 1
1
+ in the octahedral layer
ulld, 10 n lesse r degree of A 1
1
-+ for Si
H
in the tetrahedral layer leaves a mineral
N 11l' 11 n..; mo nt mori ll on it e wit h a high net negati ve charge, so that montmorillonite
hn, n hi gh CUI ion absorpti on capacit y: up to 15 times that of kaolinite. The
1I100111l1(lrillonil c minerals have a hi gh plasticity and cohesion, and a high
NIII inkngc on drying.
1,.hlt1 2,, 1 ('Iu .... ificntion of clay minerals.
A I t I Yilt: Oue .. ilic;! lelra hcdral layer alte rnating with onc alu mina octa hedral layer
Kltnlinile
I r lI!loy';,c
Anlt uxi l C
Dickite
II 1 I ypc l' xpal1ding An alumina oetahed ra l laycr cOnl ained bet ween two silica tet rahedral
la yer,
II( I) Mlwtmo rill onitc Group
Mont mo rill onite
Beide llit e
NOlH ronitc
Suponil c
H(2} Vcrmieulit e
( ' l I I ype non-e xpand ing
Il lite
I) 2 1 I ypc I wo .., ilica tctrahedral s heet s a nd IWO magnes i um octahedral sheets
( 'hIOllle'
Inye! cla y'
I JIll OIl.. eln y'
Pa lygorskit c
Sepiolite
" he ve rmi culites ha ve sltictural characteristics similar to those of the
tllol1tmori ll oniles, but in some the octahedral layer is dominated by magnesium
1'11111\.;1' than al uminium. Water molecules and magnesium ions are strongly
i\dsOI'bed bet ween the crystal units. However, these tend to hold the units
so that the degree of swell ing is less t han in the montmorillonites. The
cnt ion ndsorpt ion ca pacity of vermiculit e exceeds that of all other clay minerals,
dtl e to Ihe high nega tive charge in the tetrahedral layer.
' rhe 2: I non-ex panding clay minerals arc sometimes referred to as hydrous
llIi t:lts. Ill ile is the 1110S1 in1portHnt member of the type. In thi s type, some 15% of
til e letnlhedra l sili con sit es are occupi ed by aluminium atoms, which result s in a
cha rge in Ihe tetrahedra l laye r. To sati sfy this charge, potassium
ion, II I t.' , I I'ongly nl I meled hct wee n I he Ullii S. The ioni c radius of I he potass ium is
I il l' !<.l tIl H: 11/'1 in I rid jncc n I 1 cll'lI hcd 1'11110 yc rs, so t hftl I he pot ass i \1m Hcts as
II hondilll-\ :tgl'IlI , P1 l'vl,: ll li ll ( . .'x pnllsiull of lI u,: cl ys lnl lUll icc, As U l'cs ull,
IIIIIIII'IIU" 'lIl' lI " .. hYl ltHlioll , l'Ul ioll ,,;wt,.' lltnl-\, 'i lltlnkllgc, lind
1'1.1 1I!'11V !I ll' I '!<., III lillI e Ihlln in InOnl lll() ltll oll lte. Nonctheless, ill ilc has thcse
I" IJpl'l t1l'''i IlIl"lH':CSS of Ihc 1: 1 clay rninera ls.
lil t' 2:2 type mincl'lds fi re represe nted by chlorite whi ch is composed of
,till! lUI 1!l Ie II nd hrll ci 1 el M g (0 1\ ),1] laycrs. Thus t he crystal u nit consists of two
III! II lI' tllthcUll1i sheets and Iwo magnesi um octahedral sheets. The cation
I hllllHt' l'lIPII Cil y is abolll Ihe same as il lite. Relati ve ly littl e water absorption
111111111 1)(.' 1 Ween I he lu yers, so that thi s group of minerals is relativel y noo-
111111"1 Vl',
" Vt' ! Y important group or clay minerals is the co-called 'mixed layer' or
1IIIII III IIHlified' clays. Within a given crystal , the crystal units may be of more
,IHlu 1IIIl' Iype, e.g. illi te montmorill onite. In some soils and weathered rocks,
1111 II II I!lyer may be morc common than single structure types.
I htl type unci amount of clay mineral present in a rock, but particularly in a
.111 t 1111 hllve H profound effe ct on engineering propert ies. The nature of the
I I ion, and the ion-exchange capacity of the clay mineral are also
11111'1111 11111 10 the engi nee r. es peciall y in soil stabili zation processes.
tAI( II ONA t t' MINERALS
1'11 1 homll e mincrals ex ist, some of which are important as metall ic ores.
I Illh: I WO, however, are of real importance as rock-forming minerals; calcite and
.tHinOlite. ulthough others, such as siderite, FeC0
3
, magnesit e, MgC03, and
III d. ' n '03, may be important as rock constituent s. The fundamental
IIIH HilI' 111111 of I he CH rbona ICS, cot is a planar structure, having a carbon atom
0111111 ' !'t'lI l te "ru ll clj llilateral triangle, with an oxygen atom at each of the apices.
1111 is such that solution can occur readily, although CaCOa is
III ,dllh1,' under alkaline conditions, and in sea water. Many of the carbonat es,
III! lIHllll1-t cu lcitc and dolomite, are relatively sol uble in slight ly acidic water.
I 111111111 I h.' is mar ked ly less readil y soluble than calcite.
I '1 111'11 (.' is I hc principal, sometimes the sole, constituent of the rocks limestone
wd 111111 hit: , whil e dolomit e is an important constituent of the dolomitic marbles
uld diliomil ic limcs tone, and is the principal mineral in the rock dolomit e. Both
II! Itl ,,,,,1 dolomi te have a st rong rhombohedral cleavage and both develop
1 lin 1I1111l' II 11C us strain phenomena when subjected to stress. Both of these
! 11111 II \'It ' I 11<11 IcS IIrc important in determining the mechanical properties of the
11111111111...
(:Colonicul classification of rocks
14 III ... HIII V hl' classified in a number of ways, depending on the purpose for
111111 tilt' is requircd. In a geological classification, the main
1111 htl ' lIttinns lI rc Ihe mineral compos iti on of the rock , the physical and
hllllhlllHltl'llll' lioll bel ween Ihe mineral gra ins, and the processes which have
1111 III d I Itt.' IlIl' k dlll ill l-\ :tl1d aflcl' it s formai ion. In an engineering classifi cation
Itl Ill! 1IU1 ll' l wi. j:-, J') luccd on those as pects which innuenceengineering
1111111\1111 11 (;I,'IIIt1gll'lI l r lu s,..; il i 'I tt ions ha vc onl y a ve ry limited appli cation in
I /wo lotW: (li l'Y \,' 11111101 hI.' iHnol'cd sincc often an engineering meaning
'I
11 0 , \\'1 11' 1111) II IHlIlI I,', IlI ld \,( 11111' 1111'\' SO II II,' 11.'111\11('''1 ti l /I lock
wlnl'i l CI III hI.' 101P()I11I 111 to I li e ' tl t\ ltl f.'l' l 111I"'t' III I.' llIdl.' th t.: Iwoccssl's II lVolved in
ItIl' k 101111111\ 011 . I ll ' 111incI'ni '(1 111P(hIIH)II , 11.\ IU Il'/ Hld Inbli e, Funcl:tmt,; ntall y,
til ' 111 11 in gcologica l cla sses a rc ge neti c. ,"'0 0101 l ocks Hrc class ifi ed according to
igneous, sedimenlary or ll1et II I1H H pil i " Finer subdi vision is based on
IIl IIlCIItI cornpos iti on: tex ture, whi ch refers to the si7e a nd shape of gra ins; and
lohl ie, whi ch refe rs to the mutual arrangement of grains. Geologists recognize
thOlI'tll ll cb of diffe rent rock types based on differences. often sli ght , in
text ure a nd fabri c. In engineering geology many of these rocks can
he.: together without any serious conseque nces.
) , I IGNFOUS ROCKS
H 0 ' ks included in th is ge neti c class are t hose which have cooled and crystallized
11'0111 a molten mat erial call ed magma. The type of rock produced from the
Illngll'lfl depends on the cool ing history, during which a number of physical and
cherni ca I processes. known as differentiation, occur; and on the composition and
ell vi ronment of the magma. Sometimes the magma cools and crystallizes before
2, '\ .. rod ..: ( I )
( i l IIlIlIC, YulwlI l (' reck, Au,lralia
(2) 1\11 ,:11 1, Ml lIogol1 1,;.
(-16) ,
it ICll ches the eart h' s sur fa ce, Igneous rocks formed in th is way arc said to be
I"II/ol/h': thl:Y nrc ex posed only nft er the overl ying Hnd enclosing count ry rock.
illi o whi l' !! tll t'V IlII ve h 'en intfudcd. hus hecll croded HWII Y, BecHll sc of the
III
111 llIlilillP l'Ikl l III (' II Vt' IOPIII K r Olllll l V 011 1.' 11 IIU1I1 ;' tllU,.' k,
lillIll1l1l1 lur k\,( 1' 001 !11I (11.' l ys tnlli /l' UWI II loll g pl' ll od tl f I lill I:, pCIllnJ1 1'1 mi lli ons of
II '\It II q"wlt . tl u, ... C l ocks hu vc 11 COlli S!: tcx tll1 C, with indi vidual grains
I, IlIHnp lI ' III IIWly IU lgc ... i/'S, Ir thc 1l1f1 g nlll hrcak s through to the surface, a
"Ii It II I I", (k vl.' lopccl . lind Ihe locks <l I' C sa id to be vo/callic, Cool ing and
dldl\11 1\1 111 11 11"' (' \11 ve ry lapidl y: often ove r a period to be measured in hours,
111 WI,t'k ... , Iktll US' of I h e rapidit y of cooling. volcanic rocks have a very fine
11111 I1l1 d 11 11.' M)ln ,t imes even glassy. the cooling having been too rapid for
I 1.l lIl/ntlll ll 10 lU ke place, Under some circumstances, such as explosive
IHln IIIIIIt , t lw volcani c roc ks may be fragmenta l tuffs and agglomerates. In any
i I lin I I !l ow, POS1'ICSS a hroken base and a broken upper surface due to the
I qHd \111 11 111110 11 of H cr'lI st on the now. Since igneous rocks, both plutonic and
"It diU! . ho w h 'en in a liquid state and have flowed, a now fabric may be
III' I 11 1. 1'\ ti S n preferred dimensiona l orientati on of platy and elongated
!l1I1II!!d find in volcanic rocks. of gas vesicles , This flow fabric has the
III 11 .11 pl odll eing H plana r or linea r mechanical anisotropy in the rock.
\ 1111 ' 1 !oI lIhdi vision o f igneous rocks is based on mineral composition which is a
I II! 1111111 01 rock chemi stry. Four groups are generally recognized: acid,
11111 I IIII'd IlI ll', bll ..; ic a nd lilt rabasic. Acid rocks, with a silica content of 66% or
1111111 I tlllt ll lll free quart z in relative abundance; in the intermediate rocks, with
II I hl' twl'l' n 54% and 66%, quart z is a minor constituent, with the feldspars
.1'111111111 01 Busic rocks have Si0 2 contents between 45% and 54%. Quartz is
, 111 111 , IllId , while feldspars are present, they may be dominated by dark
1111111 Hdfrl!, hut over 50% feldspar is common. Ultrabasic rocks, wi th Si0 2
,4111111 1 kss thlln 45%, are composed almost excl usively of the dark minerals.
I class ifications of igneous rocks have been developed. In
11 1111 n f-tco logy. a simple classification such as that given in Table 2.4 is
1"/11 1I 1I 1' qll ll le, Thi s classifi cat ion is due to the Geological Society Engineering
IIIHUP WOIkin8 Party on t he Description of Rock Masses ' for Engineering
PllljllUWH, li nd should be adopt ed as a standard, The classification is based on
11111'\1 I" It crln wh ich can be determined readily in the field : an essential
I' IjIl/U lIl l' IIL
ROCKS
II ! 1I1 11 11' IIt ill Y rocks owe their origin to a long series of processes, the last of
hll Ii ,II \' Ik po' ... it ion and the conversion, by pressure and chemical reactions, of
I III IHI! I' I V cI ' pos it ed sediment s into a compact rock. Deposition of t he materials
I 11111 \\ hh' h scdil'l'l cntary rocks are formed usually occurs in layers or lenses which
II 11I1I\\: \1 , \ " heds, or strata. For thi s reason, all sedimentary rocks possess, to a
I 1\11 1)( ... o.;l.' l degree, a pla nar mechanica l anistropy. Bedding is one of the
III'j I I hlll llrl l' l iSl i features of this group of rocks. Many kinds of sedimentary
I 111. 1'1 1, hut they Cll n bc grouped into th ree main classes: detrital or clastic;
II. 11111 IlIlsli l' lind r yt'oclasti c: and chemi cal-organi c.
I III Nli r Nt' (!11l1 ' nllll Y rocks ha ve been derived from other, pre-existing rocks
II 1111 11111 Inn, : I.' IOI-l ion; IIlld trul1sportnti on of the products of erosion, by wind,
III I 11 1 li 'I': II lid linll ll y dill 1-\e ncs is, til e physical ilnd chemical processes which
II
:I

g
0


0
c
0


j,
]

.,

f-
"

'l!
E
" c
0-
" e
Q

" ;:


0

til
I '
0
'E 1;

"
"0

Q 0

.
" "
'0
c .' e
0
"

is vi :<
" 'c
0
;
ii:


E
0

. =

t 0
" ;;: :-u
;.., II
;'
J
,
'c

e



,

" " .D
t; E
O::.J


'"
" "
> ..
"

c
f-
'"
"

" C c
.- "
"- ,
u
'c

'"
0
>
;..,'

:oJ
,
2:'
... ,

u

f-
, .

i3
"II I ,\ II lOON\" <.;\.' {IlIlll' lI l IlItO" l' OIl "ohtlill l' d IlIck. Ikpo .. IIIOIi
til.' III' 01 Nuhll\l m'ou" . lind Ill ... 10(.' 101. l 0l-Wlll ci w, tl, t h!,; modI.' 01
II lit III 11111111111, will i nllll cncc I hI.: III I'l l i ', II lid I (l son) ex tent til e composi! ion. of
tltt IIl1d hell " i ts m 'chnnicn l propcl'lies. I)ill gcncli c processes may be
I'" Ii 1.1 III l'IH" llll' lI l . 0 1 hoth. " he 111a in phys ical process is cOinpact ion whi ch
I" dill 1''11 II H' dul' t101l i ll pOl'Osi ty and ll10isture conte nt. The chemi cal processes
II ' 1IIIII'h'\;, hUl1 l u.! res ldl is theccll1cnting, or welding, togclhcr of grains. and
11111111 IIla'll t' li ons wi th in ilnd betwee n grains whi ch produce new minerals. The
II 111111 ti l d illl.tcll l' , i, is or vi tal importance in enginee ring geology. If diagenesis
I I'lorl y phvs l 'lI l cOIl"tpa clion, the rocks arc much less stable physicall y and
II, lui, nllv 1111111 those in whi ch chemi cal cc mcntation and reaction have taken
Id.!,
" 1111111I'nl11l\ HlcJ.,, ; (I)
ti l l' lill (illp, i\\ I, l ral i: 1
I 1'1 "llhl ' ltl r, 1 ,)\\ll'I\ ('lIp.
I 11 ,1 1 Ifd NUII' lh,'
'jII' 11111\ Ili ul dIWillltIlHIIIIC' .
I 111111'111 111111 .'iI.' dill1c I1I S, and cspeciall y the finer textured types, tend to
II 11111.' 11111' wlwil suhj clecl 10 wctt ing, o r 10 alternat e wetting and drying; they
1111 011 II "'xl'cs"livc swelling and shrinking, and abnormally high creep
III II 1111" I Oi.' k is 101l d<.: d or unl oaded. Unl ess the cement is highly soluble,
1I111i1111 11111 "1 ('( 1 i 1l ll,.'Il IS do not show the extreme reacti ons to weuingand drying,
11'1 !I" IIII' '' Ill , "llnnc degree or lime-dependent strain when loaded or
1111"101"11 1 1 k llli ul "I1.'di m ' III II IY roc ks for whi ch diage nes is was esse ntiall y
1'1111 11 JlI IIII ' II NlIlIll y I(' ltl l iwl s illb l\,; holl1 phys icall y 1Ind chcmi call y.
i1
Wildt' tl t' ll it :d 'Wdllll l' llI llI \' Il Ii 11111 \ III' 11I "'''' lll l'd III pllli: ly pli Y'I H'1I1 tel t1h
"111' 11 II" PI; lltl "Ill' , Ih\.! rhl",,, IIH !I I HIli IIIO Y takc il1tO II tcount Hillin sil e,
11 10111 "I hl1pr.:. Inhl Ie lind lIlill clll l ("OlllPO"l IlI Otl , As studi f.!s in scdi n'll.: ntary
1a'1 1 oW II pit y nd Vil li ' C, t 1H; clll ss il iCli t iOIl 01 dl' t I ilttl sedimentary rocks is bccOIning
tlll' ll"I\lll }.l ly Inlti cll te. The classi fi catioll 0 1 tll e!o.c roc ks. included in Table 2.5.
thos\! IIlclors whi ch can he dClermined simpl y. and readil y, in the li eld, and
Whl l'll IIIIVC some effect on the mcchani cal properti es of the rock. In the
II I l' IHi l'C() tIS rocks, t he rock na me may be qua I i fi ed by prefix i ng a term descript ivc
olthl' nutul'e of the ccmen!. orof the domi nanl minera l present. Unfortuna tely.
Ihl .. l' I!I .....;j lieati on, due to the Geological Society Working Part y, takes no
IH'l'Olltlt of the dia ge neti c processes.
PYI (lclu"; l ie sediment s .. of which the most common examples are agglomerate
li nd I uff , a I'C t hc result of explosive volcanic activi ty a nd the associated lahars and
mudflows . Mi xtures of country rock, volcanic rock, and lava are thrown into the
lIil lind arc thf.! Jl deposited .. usua lly wi th a hi gh moisture content due to rain and
steam .. in layers. Each layer tends to represent a single explosive
voltlllli c cve nt.
Wit hin the class of chemi cal-organic sediment s is to be found a wide variety
01 lock types. The orga ni c sedi ment s have their origi n in living organisms, bot h
II 11 i 111:1 I and plant. Plant remains ultimat ely become coal. whil e the calcareous
.. h ' letons of marine organi sms accumulate to fo rm limestones. Here, the
dill ge neti c processes progress ively cement the loose accumulation of skeletons
lInd skf.! lf.! tal fragment s to a compact crystalline roc k, so t hat the term limest one
"OWlS it wide range of rock condi tions, all exhibi ting different mechanical
pl operti cs. Since the ori ginal skeletons are calcareous, limestone is composed
dOlll illllnt ly of ca lcite or aragonite. Because many limestones have a high
Plopoltion of detrital impuriti es, some workers place these rocks in a special
do .... of detrita l calcareous rocks. Although coal is normall y regarded as a fuel.
therc life parts of the world where it has formed foundations for engineering
Ntlil ctures. Lit tle is known of its foundation characterist ics. but it is a material
more closely studi ed in geomechanics as the stabi li ty of open-cut coal
Illines becomes a major problem requi ring solution.
( ' hemi ca l sed iment s arc not very common. but large masses of these rocks do
Ot'CII I'. They ma y result from the precipitation of salts from soluti on .. by chemical
lellcti on, or as 1.1 result of evaporation, or from biochemical activit y, The most
'0111 111 011 chemica l sediments are t rave rtine, chert and Oint. and ca p rocks such as
'Hlclete , silcrete a nd ferr icrete.
) 11 MI - I AMORPIl IC ROCKS
Both the mineral asscmbla gc which constitut es any rock, and the fabri c ofl hat
IOt' k, al'e stahl e within ve ry nalTOW ranges of press ure and temperature, In t he
l'Wllt of eit her, or both .. of the pressure and temperature stabi li ty ranges being
"<l,'l'e<i cd. ch:ll1ges OCCllr in both rock compos iti on and fabri c in res ponse to thf.!
I1 l'W l'ondilioll ": i,e. 11 lIew minerul tlsscmhlnge, li nd fabr ic, arc estuhli shed which
li lt slnhl ' lIndel' lit newly imposed press lil es nnd tcmpcrutu l'cs. The changes
wll k' h Ol' Clt t I,.'o l\ stitut , lll ' tIlI11 OI' pllislll : lit e I'ocks T)I'oduced as ft res ult ofl hesc
r:!l
9
1
I
.,
,
.. "

" 3
C '5 _ a
3 ,. . 0 iii
3
" ,
n
8.
0.
., ,.
'" "
0"<::1>0
'"
;:; 0 01:1 :5
8. g [s- r;.
::I .. 3 c..
ri' <"')
OJ
;;
1"\

1
0-
"

:e
" .
;. s
0
" 0..
< -

. "
" " 0 ;:;' ....,
a
0

15


:-
0
" 0
"
."
o
s.
.
"
'<
a
0
g
n
'" ;,.
changes are called metamorphic rocks. Rocks resulting primarily from elevated
temperatures. as for e,'\ample. around a plutonic intrusion. are knov"n as thermal
metamorphic When pressure is the main agent of metamorphism.
dynamic metamorphic rocks are formed. This latter type of metamorphism is
usually effecti\c o\'er a large volume of the crust. in major fold belts. while
thermal metamorphism tend!:. to be very localized. Usually. the effects ofthe-rmal
metamorphism are compositional. with less ob\'ious. but important changes in
texture and fabric. On the other hand. dynamic metamorphism results not
in major changes in mineral assemblage. but also in quite dramatic changes in
texture and fabriC. It is the metamorphic fabric which is so important in
determining the engineering properties of these rocks. Dynamic metamorphism
results almost always in the mineral constituents de\'eloping a preferred
dimensional orientation. and this imparts a planar anisotropy to the rocks.
kno\\n as foliation. clea\'age or schistosity. In mechanical terms. foliation is one
of the most important characteristics of metamorphic rocks.
I-ig. 2.5 \ktarnllTphic rod.,: (II
Slate. Bendigo. \u'tralia 1 ".'(1).
'\ote the planar ani,otrop!.::-
clea\age. 0.) Chlorite ,chi,\.
ra"onga. ("JIl). '\ote
t" 0 planar
and strain slip clea\age, (3) \1arb"le,
Wombeyan. Australia 1'(36).
In those rocks which have undergone only a low grade of dynamic
metamorphism, foliation is expressed as a fine slaty cleavage such as is seen in
slate and phyllite. When the metamorphism has been more intense. the foliation
is expressed as a coarse schistosity. often combined with a lithological layering
resulting from the processes of metamorphic differentiation. In some areas.
16
metamorphism and deformation have occurrcd more than once. so that
more than one foliation may have becn imposcd. E\'cn in the simplest case of a
.... mgle metamorphic e\,ent. tv-o physical anisotropies may be present: bedding of
the original sedimentary rock. and the imposed metamorphic foliation. For two
metamorphic events. three planar anisotropic.., may be present. although with
increasing complexity of metamorphism and deformation. some earlier
foliations may be destroyed.
Table 2.6 is a classification of metamorphic rocks which is essentially
geological. but which also include.., criteria of importance to the engineer. The
composition of the parent rock, the nature of the metamorphic proces!:.es and the
intensity of metamorphism \\ill determine the compo..,illon and fabric of the
metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rock names are commonly prefixed by the
name.., of the more prominent metamorphic mineral.., present. e.g. cordierite
hornfels: a'mandine sillimanite schist.
Table 2.6 A or mctamorphic rock,
Fabric
Granular
Foliated
Foliated and
layered
Rock
Hornfel,
!\Ieta4uafl/Jle
\larble
Granulite
Slate
Phyllite
Schi,t
layered ,chi,t

2.4 Rock fabric
Gram \lIe
Fine
Fine to
\1edium 10 coar\e

finl'
fine
\1edium
\1edium
Coar,e
CompmJ\!on
Quartl >70"(
Calcitc >""0'1
Fine mica, and cla\ mlncrah
Hne mica,
Quart/. ield'par. mICa,
Quartt, feld'par. m1ca,
Quartt. feld'par. m1ca,
As it is applied to rocks and soils. the term fahric is defined as cO\'ering the
complete spatial and geometrical configuration of all oft hose components which
make up the rock and soil. Within this definition is included texture and
structure: i.e. the si7e and the preferred orientation of components. such as
grains. crystal elements and structures, pores and \oids. and the interrelationship
between mineral grains. Put more simply. the fabric describes the shapes. sizes.
orientations and any other relevant characteristics of the individual components
of the rock or soil material (and mass). For purposes of statistical analysis of
fabric. it is usual to regard as fabric elements only those features which are
penetrative. i.e. which occur everywhere \\ ithin the rock. Here. however. the
scale of observation must be taken into account since an element which may be
penetrative in terms of the rock mass. say joints and bedding planes. may not be
penetrative in terms of the rock material. Some elements are penetrative
irrespective of scale. for example. foliation in a metamorphic rock. It is necessary
When discussing fabric always to define both the fabric element under discussion.
and to specify the scale of observation.
The statistical analysis of fabric at all scales is important in the study of the
response of rock to stress. Elements usually considered at a small scale. in terms
17
III Illl' HI\ 1I1II'!t' llItI , l lI t't lll' l lIt'll'Ilnl IItll l llllllllllltlIIU' q ll l1 l1ll.' l ySl l d .. 01 Hi llin .. ,
IIlId ti ll' pl t' h ' ll l ' tI Ilt l l' lll tllitlll 01 Inil Hllil'll'lt .. /'j ill 1111 '1 Ill i ' lul l tll' IIII I.", lilll ltll d
IIt1d .. 11 111 11 tWill 11I 11 \l' Il II\ ' I l lldl ' l "111 1111.' ..." p..:cinl cil' llI ll St tlIlC":S.
\ t VS lltlIOI-\ II,phi l' l.' h,' 1I 1I:1I 1 ... ..." UI: I1 II"': 1l]l I H' ,\ \l' " ti l 1111 111.' 1111 .. (e. g . qU:!11! Hnd clilcit e)
IIIIIY hI.' t o dt..: t ' 1'lIlint..! Ihe l'XI,' ll' ll l'l' til II prd ": I'red orielli l-l iion whi ch
"(\l lld IIIIIII CII C' the Il1cchalli cu l h ' hllVilHl1 0 1 11 lock, and which may ot herwise
tllIl hI.' ohsc l' ved. On H sorncw!1 al lurgel' sClll e of iI hancl specimen Of' single
(I UIl' I OP, clcrne lii s as foli <ll ion and bedding ma y be exami ned, while on Ihc
1III I-\l... 1 "' l ' U lc, t hat of the rock m::t ss, foliat ion, bedding, fold axes a nd joints will be
FII I)!'i c analys is at th is scale and of t hese clement s is essellti al in a
engi nee ring study of a rock mass.
I hl' purpose of fabr ic ana lysis is to determine. in a quanti tati ve manner. the
I." "tcnee IIlld patt ern of clements, often mechanical defects, which influencc t he
' No t t opy and contin uit y of both the material a nd the mass. It wi ll be shown later
Ihlll alli ,oll'OPY. li nd di scont inui ty. eve n at t he small est scale, can innucnce sti ch
11111101 ttlll t propert ies as strength a nd elasti cit y of a rock. Fabric anal yses arc
u"Ic,:lul , too. in the ini lial sta ges of the stress ana lys is of a rock mass . Some
II ludyses cun he performed only by specia lists. c.g. clay mineral fa brics. Others,
sit ch li S I he ana lys is of fo li ations, bedding and joints is a simple task for any
0 1' geotechni cal engineer, es peciall y if use is made of modern computer
tech n iq li es.
h lhric dllw arc usuall y analysed, and presented, in the form of contoured
\' quul II l' en diagrams (Fig. 2.6). The t wo most important characteri st ics of the
I\lhl i " thc geometry of the clement s and t he symmetry, can be determined in t hi s
WilY, I' igu rc 2.6 is actuall y an anal ysis of a rock mass fa bric, but it serves well to
t1i1nHlul e geometry and symmetry. Poles to 1513 joints in a graniti c gneiss (from
1101 th eustern Vi ctoria, Austra lia) we re plott ed, and concentrat ions cont oured.
N
l ' III , l , l' l 'I. IUlII III CIi jllojcclion of
1' 1 \ 111111 1\, KI CWII ,
( oUlln" , (t II 1 2 1(';.
11 t"11 n I'll' 'itTIl Illn 1 I 1I l.' 1'\.! is [\ wide , ill I hI.! ol'i 'n lol iOI1 of t he join l"l , hilt I h t"ce
r! IIH.' I.' lI t, :tl llI ll"l' X"1 I.' tllt t'" polldi ng to :o. llik c Il mlh en .. t II lI d vCll ienl dip;
1M
Itlllll! \\nt IlUd \l' t t ll.'!d dip: lind Il011l1l1l1 1tl , 1\ dl' llllII l' I'Wl tl.! rt1 lind 1111
"1111111111111 111 11.' ", !lIII Il' tI Y 101 l it " juhl lc IIll' Cll:llll , l' , lnh1i ... hl:ll.
'1 V!l llI ll.' tI Y is illlPOl'tllllt 10 1' h0111 I li eol' et iCl-I I and practi cal studies in
. I 11111"1 11 11 1I 1i.' " " IHllt e 2. 7 1\ SC I ics of fabri cs of rock mat erials (ori entati ons
It 1 1 I lIhlle , ) mmctIY: (a)
I,d IIlIll l' t I y. (h) ()nthH h() l11hi c
11 11111 11 \ (r) Motlocliuic
III I!!! 11\ (tl) Il lclllll C , ymrnclry.
11 11 tllll1Cllllid \Vci,,( 1963)1
HI i in mi ca) each with a different symmetry, t he symmet ry being
1I11I tlilincd by the existence of a centre, axes, and planes of symmetry. The basi c
jllilHtple, a nd the import ance. of fa bric symmetry li es in the fact t hat it is a
II I h'i lion of I he symmetry of both the deforming stress, or stresses. and of the
ItIIl\I' I1I i,: llIS whi ch produced the fabric. It is possible, then, by determining the
IIIIIH' !l y of t he fabr ic, to learn much about the st resses which deformed the
1\1\ Because the types of symmetry so far observed in rocks and soil s are
[l llllt Vc ly few, and conta in only 00 - and 2-fold axes of symmetry, the only
\ 1I1111ct I'y clemcnt observed in projection is the pl ane of symmetry (m). Details
Itl lulHi l.! Ny mmetry are shown in Table 2.7.
11 11111' 11 V
1, 1111 11 Il lll i
1111 111111
Planes
J
I
o
Example
Figure 2.4a
Figure 2.4b
Figure 2Ac
Figure 2Ad
11"like the symmetry of crystallogra phy, the determi nat ion of fabri c
IIIltH' t, y is stllti sli cHI. For thi s reason it is not always possible to state the
IIIItHtI Y rH ccisely. since it ma y have aspects of more tha n one class.
Till' IIICdllllll cul Ilropcrt ics of rock material
II III IIl11ll' l illl 1)o'ISl' S,"':C., I I Hum her of phys ica l and mecha ni ca l prope rti es, most
I II \\ hl\ II I II \' (Il' tl' llil ill l'd hy I 'sl i i ll I he Inhorntory, a nel to a lcsser extent , in the
1'1
ficld. It is most important to be aware that values for any of these properties of
Ihc mal erial may bear only a slight relationship, if a ny, to the val ue for t hat
propcrt y of the rock mass. The main mechanical and physical propert ies of rock
matcrial are:
(a) St rcngth:
(i) uni axia l compressive strength;
(ii) shea r strength;
(i ii) tensi le strength;
(b) Deformation properties:
(i) modulus of elasticity;
(i i) Poisson's ratio;
(iii) 'creep constants';
(e) Hydrological properties
porosity;
wa ter sorption;
I"n oist ure content;
primary permeability;
(d) Ol hcr propert ies:
(i) un il weight;
dry unit weight;
saturated unit weight;
(i i) durabi li ty.
When testing a rock sample, it is essent ia l that the material is intact, i.e. that it is
Iree from dcfccts, and also that the materia l is homogeneous. As it is desirable
IIIIIIIhc material tested should be typical ofthe mass, it may be necessary to test a
lrll'ge number of samples. If a linear or planar anisotropy is present in the rock
11111101i,,!. thcn a ll of thc properties listed (with the exception of porosity, water
sOI' plion, moi sture cont ent, unit weight and durability) will vary with direction.
In a mechanical sense, the strengt h of rack material is defined as the ability to
1 esist strcss without large scale fa ilure. Small scale failure with the development
of I'll iCl'ofract u res occurs under st resses well below the strength of the rock. Since,
in rock. large scale failure only occurs beyond the elastic stress limit , thi s is the
most COinmon ly used parameter, especiall y for britt le rocks.
Uniaxia l, or unconfined, compressive st rength defines the fai lure of the rock
subj ected to a compressive st ress in one direction. The shear st rengt h is
thc strcss at which t he rock fai ls in shear.
Te nsil e strength is the stress at whi ch the rock fails in tension. T hi s tensil e
.'\ t !'engt h is u SUl:! lI y detcrm incd indirectl y. Flex ura l strength is the stress at fa ilure
of it hcum. supported at bot h ends. and loaded at the cent re. As well as
deter' mining the strengths of rocks under uniaxia l conditions, st rengt hs are
(\ ' termined often under a confining stress: these arc ca lled tr iaxia l tcsts, and
rll! CllIpt to simu lut c In ,\';(11 conditi ons as well as being used todctcrminc thcshcar
Si"'IlKII1 of Ihe rock .
Hi s IWl11 ct irncs nss umcd thut rocks UI'C pel' fect ly cill sti c substull ces, i. e. they
ohey Ilookc'M ""W:
'II
.JJ
(
(2, I )
where a is t he stress, f is the strain; and E is a constant known as Young's
modulus or the modulus of elasticity. In fact , very few r ocks are perfect ly elastic,
\0 t hat E varies with stress, and t he st ress -strain relat ionship is a curve. Because
of Ihis, three values of E may be cited (Fig. 2.8):
I III . 2.8 Gcneral i7cd curve
. 1111\\ ing stress - slrain relationships
1I111lc.:k.
E, Tangent modul us
_-_ucs
"+--- E, Secant modulus
,
E Ini t ial t angent mOdulus
Strain
(i) the tangent modulus, Et, which is the va lue o fE at a specificst ress; Et is t he
of the tangent to the stress-stra in curve at the specific stress, usually,
hilt not necessarily taken at 50% ultimate st rength;
(i i) the secant modulus, Et , which is the modulus over a given st ress range,
li nd is the gradient of the secant joining the two points on the stress- strain curve;
II lid
(iii) the initia l tangent modulus, a special case of Et for a = O.
\Iwtller important parameter iIi elasti c theory is Po isson's ratio, v, defined as:
" v= --
"
(2.2)
wlll.re Ell , Ez are the strains in the lateral and axial directions, respectively. As
with E, the value of u can vary with stress.
Most rocks exhibit an element of time-dependent deformation in their
to stress. Time-dependent strain, or creep. is frequently an important
IllItlJ"IOnent of the total defo rmation. A rock subjected to stress suffers an
clastic strain which is completely recoverable on removal of
1II''iS, The instantaneous elast ic strain is fo ll owed by creep, which will continue
I" ',,'ell" i I1d cfi ni tc ly, but a t a decreasing ra te, during stress applica tion (Fig. 2.9).
WIH,1Il Ihe stress is removed, onl y a part of the creep strain is recoverable . .In
I Ill-I I til , I he less britt le n rock, the greater is the creep component of the total
11,llII ltllttl On,
I' o lll 'l ii v 1l1lli Nlllt r t'Ollt l' IH . sOI' plio!! nile! pl'1l11l1ry permcabi lity are, 10 a
II IHlIlll'.\ 1i' tlt , I l' l rll l-'iI 1' ll 1o'l iI Y tl H' 1"101(.' spun.. 0 1 voids, in H rock 11
Fill . 2. 9
dc inrmalion in rock.
t" SIt css appll ud
t Sl t CSS tIltno vcd
Elastic strai n
Time
--1
Creep strai n
__ 1
1 a t io of t he t otal volume of rock and voids. Sorpt ion expresses the a bility of a
lock to a bsorb wa ter. and primary permeabilit y is the capacit y of the intacl rock
IIwf erial to tra ns mi t wat er. Permeability and porosit y can be rela ted as follows:
p = cry' (2.3)
where p is permeabilit y; ry is the apparent porosity and c is constant. A high
porosit y does not necessaril y mean that a rock will have high permeabil it y and
sorp tion since these are very much dependent on the pore fabric; size,
ar ra ngement and degree of interconnection of the pores. A shale, for example.
may have porosity several times that of a sandstone. but primary permeability of
the sha le may be orders of magnitude less than that of sandstone. Voids in shale
tend to be small and discrete, whereas those in sandstones are relatively large and
a re interconnected.
Moi sture content of a rock is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of
the rock material. Field moisture content or saturation moisture content may
each be important , depending on the circumstan ccs . U nit weight of a rock is the
weight of the material per unit volume and is usuall y ex pressed as Mg m Again
the unit weight may refer to the material at field moi sture content, or saturation
moisture content. It is frequently expressed as dry unit weight, i.e. at zero
mo isture content. The durability of a rock material is a measure of its resistance
to degradati on over a relatively short term. Durability is now expressed as the
slake durability index I., which is a measure of the degradation of the rock
material under conditions of abrasion and alternat e wetting and drying.
Although thi s has tended to replace the standard sodium sulphate test of the
concrete engineer, its significance and value are dubious.
2.6 Mechanical classification of rock material
ilcc'-l usc the geologica l classifi cations of rock have such limited applicat ions in
cnginecri ng geology, ma ny att empt s havc been made to develo p a mechani ca l. or
II
t' ngill cc ri ng. i.:Ia ...... iIH.: Ht lon. No sll ch cla ... which woul d Ill n t a ll
Icquircmcilt s. has yet becn ror mula tcd . In pract ica l terms. the
Icquircmcnt is a c1ass irica tion of the roc k ma ss, but it is esscnt ia l, as a 101
thi .... t ha t t he rock mat erial be class ified .
It is necessary initiall y, in classifying rock material , to assess it s degree of
ho mogeneity. Such an assess ment is largely qualitative a nd subj ecti ve. In
ho mogeneous ma teri al, the minera l constituent s are so di stributed that a small
", ulnplc cut fro m a ny pa rt of the mat eri a l will have t he same const ituent s in t he
... " me propo rt ions, a nd will have the sa me pro perti es as the materi a l as a whole. It
1 ... a]o., o nccessa ry to dete rmine any mecha ni ca l a nisotropy which may be present ,
and to spec ify it s nature and ori entation. Ani sotropy is a meas ure of the
dll ct; tiona l propert ies of the roc k. Stati sti call y, the rock will be isot ro pi c if all
rl li ncral grains have random ori entat io n of both dimensional and crystall o-
gl il phi t; para meters. Isotropy also requires that a plane of equal dimensions
Ill tersect ing the rock in any direction exposes an equal number of grfli ns.
( ' o lltinui ty, whi ch is probabl y of more importance in a rock mass, refers to the
illl lOunt and ori entati on offi ss ure space in the mass. In an ideal . so-call ed inta ct
l oc k mater ial. fi ssures are a bse nt and t he materi al is therefore continuous. In
lut t. micro fractures due to weat hering, as well as grain boundaries and mineral
l' h:a vages. a re di scontinuiti es . The ve ry existence of t hese microdisco nt inuitic ..
\\ II I i nflucnce the cohes ion of the rock a nd a lso the di stribut ion of slress in thl:
l oc k ma teria l.
Classificati on ofrock mat erial for engi neering purposes req uires a stat C\TlI. 1l t
oil t hl! fo ll owing criteria :
( I) Petrogra phy
(a) composition;
(b) degree of weathering;
(c) texture;
(d) fa bri c, including a statement on microdiscontinuity.
(2) lI omoge neity
(a) homogenous;
(b) inho mogeneous.
(1) Isot ropy
( a) isot ropic;
( h) a nisotropi c
(i) number of anistropies;
(ii) nature and relative development of ani stropies;
(i ii ) ori entati on of a ni stropi es.
(4) Stre ngth
, ItHlu ll y. un iuxia l compressive st re ngth on Iy is spcci fi ed, but some ci reu Il1st a nccs
Illll y Ili so req uire H stat emen t on tensil e fi nd on shea r st.rength porn-
2 1
1I \l' t l' I '. A stull (lIlld sltlt Cll1cnt on unia xial comprcssivc strength tI \l'lrj til l' telms:
(a) vel y hi gh strength, > 50 M Pa;
(b) hi gh , Irengl h, 16 50 M 1',,;
(c) medium !'!trcngth, 5 16 MPa:
(d) low st rength, 1.6- 5 M Pa;
(e) ve ry low slrenglh < 1.6 MPa
(5) Fi asl icil y
1 hi li can be exp ressed by the modulus of elasti cit y. but it is becoming increasingly
commo n to usc the modulus raJio. Etl ouh. where Et is the langent modulus at
50( 1'(1 ultimat e strength. and Oult is the ultimate strength. The standard descriptive
te rm!'! a re:
(a) hi gh modulus ratio, > 500;
(b) medium modulus ratio, 200- 500;
(e) low modulus ratio,<200.
The mechanical classification of rock developed may depend on the precise
purpose of the classification. The bases outlined here are intended for the
laboratory study of the rock material. Deere (1968) has proposed a classification
of rock material based on uniaxial compressive strength and modulus ratio (Fig.
2. 10) . It has been pointed out by Deere that rocks possessing an interlocking
I'i /.: 2. 10 Geological classificat ion
of ruck materi,tI based on uni axial
st rengt h and modulus
ra t io. [ After Deere ( 1968)]
Low Medium
Hro
High modulus r3t io
High
.. ,, "
,
Vmy High Stlength
Low modulus rat io
__ ________ ________
1 10 100 1000
Uniaxial compreSSive strength (MPa!
Hawkesbury Sandstone
o Calcareous Phyll ite, Fowler's Gap
o Grani Cil, Copeton
.. Bald Hill Claystone
Dol omite, Fowle"s Gap
Basalt. Kiewa
Doleflte, Prospect
<> Marble. FOwler 's Gap
Schist. Broken Hill
fabri c, and with little or no anisotropy, fall within the field of medium modulus
rati o: thi s includes most igneous rocks and sandstones. Rocks with a strong
plana r a ni sotropy, for example shales, phyllites and schists, may lie in either the
24
ft l' ltl of low modulu" 111 11 11 , II til e uni sotl opy li es ul un a ngle 9(1 1 to
the directi on of 01 lhey lie in the fi eld or hi gh mod ulus rat io, if the
nnisotropy is at a low angle to the loading axis.
Thi s classifica ti on, although based prima ril y on strength a nd elasticit y, is
vc ry useful beca use it is clearl y sensiti ve to such important aspects of the rock as
mine ralogy. fabric and anisotropy. Complete classificati on of a rock ma teria l
'Ii ll . however, requires a brief description of lithology and fabric. For exa mpl e:
ca lcareous phyllite, high strength (HS), low modulus rati o ( LM), fine grained,
fi nely foli ated.
I{cfcrcnces and further reading
Anon, (1977) The descript ion of rock masses fo r engineering purposes . Report by the Geologica l
Society Engi neering Group Working Pa rt y. Quart. JI. Geol. 10, 335- 88.
Illu!I . II .. Middleton G. & Murray K. ( 1972) 'ow Urigill Uocks. Pre ntice I-I a ll. New
11"CV.
I )ccre D. U. (1968) Geological considerations. In Rock Mechanics in Engineering Practice (cd. K.G,
Slllgg and O.c. Zienkiewicz). John Wiley, New York.
I IIImer I. W. (1968) Engineering Proper/ies of R()('ks. Spl1 n. London.
0 11111 R.E. ( 1953) Clay New York
lI obbs B .. Means W. D. & Williams P.F. ( 1976) An OUTline of STructural Joh n Wiley. New
Yurko
II vnd man D. W. (1972) Perro logy of and Metamorphic Rocks. New York.
Ma \oll B. & Berry L.G. (1959) Elemefll s 0/ M inl'ralogy. W.H. Freeman. San Francisco.
Spry A. ( 1969) Metamorphic Tex/ures. Pergamon P ress. Oxford .
r w'ner F.J. & Weiss L.E. (1963) Sfrll(,lImd of Metamorphic Tec/Dlliles.
York.
25
3
The Rock Mass
3.1 General statement
The term rock mass means a large volume of rock on which, or in which, some
engineeri ng work is to be carried out. If the mass is made up of a single rock
material, it will be, for engineering purposes, relatively homogeneous; if it is
made up of more than one materia l, it may be grossly inhomogeneous. Masses of
igneous rock, such as granite, are often homogeneous, alt hough volcanic rock
masses may not be. On the other hand, masses of sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks are usually inhomogeneous in the extreme. No rock mass is truly
conti nuous: it will be broken by cooling and shrinkage joints and fractures ,
bedding separation surfaces, tectonic joints and faults, and minor igneous
intrusions such as hydrothermal veins, dykes and sills. In addit ion, the near-
surface segment may be weathered. The intensity and nature of the
discontinuities depends on the origin, nature, homogeneity and geological
history of the rock mass. Di scontinuities in an initially homogeneous rock mass
not only contribute to a destruction of continuity, but in a red ucti on in
homogeneity since it is along fractures that dykes and sills are intruded, and that
weathering is most active. Faulting produces a cataclast ic rock which differs
from the parent rock, in that it is completely crushed , and may have different
mineral assemblage; whi le faults and unconformities may bring into contact
rocks which are completely different, in a ll respects, from eac h ot her.
3.2 Homogeneity and isotropy of the rock mass
From a strictly geological point of view, even the smallest sample of rock lacks
true homogeneity and true isotropy. If this is the case, then neither homogenei ty
nor isotropy could be expected in a large mass of rock. Whi le this is t rue, t he
engineering geologist and engineer are concerned with inhomogeneity and
anisotropy sufficient ly developed to exert some influence on the engi neering
properties of the rock mass. In these terms, homogeneity and isotropy a re more
likely to occur in igneous rock masses and inhomogeneity and anisotropy in
sedimentary and metamorphic masses.
3.2. I IGNEOUS ROCKS
If chill ed border phases, such as are developed about the margins of illllll "ive
masses, a re excluded , most plutonic rock masses can be 1101111-\("111.011'- Wllh
respect 10 both compos ition and texture on a scal e of 111 1 lIu'
II I'" !I Il l' Ihnl If Iht' Il ll t SS is closc ly cxa mined iIlI1 Oll1ogcnciln.: s 111111(.'
111 1111 of .'<eno lith ... a lid 1ll111cl a l segregati ons will be found , bUI Ihesc will he 0 1
li lt h'. li nd usuall y of no, signifi cance in the mechani cal beha vio ur of the l oc k
I JlII ...... . II is rca sonable to ass ume that , in the fresh conditi on, plut oni c ma sses of
PllIllIt c, sye nit e. di orite, gabbro a nd rela ted roc ks are homogeneous, altho ugh
111m' plutoni c masses may be la yered, e.g. gabbro. It is al so a rcasonabl e
U" lI lll pt ion tha t, unless flow foli a tion is present , these rocks are isotro pi c a t the
11 111"" sca le. Some plutonic masses have undergone such an intrusive hi story that
Ilmv structures are sufficientl y strong to impose a quite definite plannr
11111 "101 ro py o n the rock mass.
Most masses of volcanic rock are made up of a series of indi vidual fl ows,
lind, whil e the differences between individual flows may not be great, it is
\ IlI nll\ o n 10 find between each successive fl ow such features as ash beds, fo.,!- il
li d IlOrilo ns, and the broken fragmental rock characteri stic of la va flow
"I: lll lnccs. At least until detailed studies are completed, it is sound practi ce to
' 1 ..... lIl1l e lhat volcani c masses are inhomogeneous. Thi s is not to say tha t, within
IIIl W very thi ck indi vidual flows, homogeneit y will not be found.
S lll ce fl ow is an essential process in the formation of volcanic rocks, fl ow
, I I Ift' lures are oft en strongly developed throughout the ma ss. The mass, thCll ,
1 , 111 be ex pected to possess some degree of linear or planar anisotropy. In some
'II 'I l ... I his is sufri cientl y strong to have mechanical significance; in others il is
a nd of lillie or no importance.
, SFDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
\,' d Il11cnlary rocks, and metamorphic rocks deri ved fr om them, arc laye red
I, njlll: nces. ea ch layer in the sequence di ffering in composition, tex ture. and
1. ,111 it from those above and below it. Some sedimentary layers are graded beds.
wti h coa rse mat erial at the base grading up to fine material at the top, whil e beds
II I .. Iull e contain internal laminations of differing texture. Sedimentary layers
within themselves may, then, be inhomogeneous; the whole mass is strongl y
Ilt holtl oge neous. Similarl y, metamorphic rocks derived from sedimentary rocks
",II he inhomogeneous. The possible exception is to be found in some ma sses of
111111 hie, whi ch are relati vel y homogeneous, these having been derived fr om a
hli lil ogc neous limestone ma ss. Metamorphic rocks derived from a homogeneous
1. !l lt' IHIS (l"la SS tend to inherit the homogeneity of the parent rock, but they may
IIt ' vI' lo p a planar structure due to deformation, e.g. slates.
II . d uring metamorphism, metamorphic differentiation of a type whi ch leads
III I,thologi callayering takes place, then the degree of inhomogeneity ma y be
1111 I(, ,, ... cd . T hi s a lso tends to increase both the intensil Y and compl ex it y or the
plUll il l ani sol ro py whi ch exi sts in most sediment s. The devel o pment of clea vages.
, 1"' I()sil y and lithological layering may increase the complexit y since these
IJlr lll 1l10rphi c structural clement s may be imposed with ori ent a ti ons differcnt to
Ihu l 01 Ihe o ri ginal bedding, a nd sometimes different to each other. Somc hi gh
,uk gJ ul1ulil CS and amphibo lit es may be both homogeneous a nd isotro pic. 11 11<1
\\I lllh' <';O I11C l1laJ'hl cs may hc homoge neoll s, lheir isolro py is appHrcllt rali1crthl1n
27
real. C,tlcful stud y usual ly reveals quit e stlOng due to
deforma tion of these rocks during t heir fonnalion.
3.3 Continuity
It has already been stated that perfect continuity is not to be found in any rock
mass. In sedimentary rock ma sses the di scontinuities are bedding separat ion
surfaces, joints a nd fa ults; in metamorphic rocks, inherited bedding surfaces,
joints and fau lt s; in igneous rocks, joints and faults, with flow sepa ration surfaces
in volcanic masses. All rock masses, irrespecti ve of origin, may contain
unconformities, and dykes and sill s as small intrusions. The boundary of a
riutonic mass const itutes a major discontinuit y. Discontinuities such as bedding,
joints and fault s have a definite patt ern, alt hough the pattern may vary
throughout the mass. Joint patterns, especially, a re more intense a nd more
comple x near the surface, where weat hering is acti ve , than they are at depth. The
effect of di scontinuities is to break a monol ithic mass int o a seri es of layers and
blocks. The mec hanical importance of a ny system of fractures wi ll depend on
their nature, spacing. o rientat ion and condition. Some wri ters refe r to
discontinuities in a rock mass as defects; th is is an apt term, si nce their presence
effects a mec hanical deterioration of the ma ss in relat ion to the material.
Moreover, the occurrence of discontinui ties leads to variations in the stress
di st ributi on in the mass, and may lead to stress concentrati ons of cri tical
magnitude in the rock about excavations.
3.3. 1 BEDDI NG SEPARATION SURFACES
When the sediment s are first deposi ted, bedding separat ion surfaces are usually
planar and horizontal. They form the boundaries between layers, or beds, of
sediment which differ from each other in texture a nd composition. Each
3.1 Sedimentary bed s folded into an a nt icline, Cape Liptrap. Australi a.
28
llitil'vldUll1 h ...d plohnhl y ... cnts a si ngle depositiona l eve nt. With tectonic
tlrlOl Il1Uli o n of the scdilllcn lHIY mass, the surfaces beco me tilted and fo lded
II 1 1, 3.2) and sometimes show a hi gh degrec of compl ex it y. At de plh,
" . '1 SedLmentary beds lolded into a syncl ine. Cape Liptra p. Australia .
I" 01111118 planes a re usually tightl y closed, and become open only with
\'I' lIlhcring, and with stress release due to eros ional unloading. Spacing vari es
Itlllh' l y from a few millimetres to many metres. Under some circumstances,
.llId 'dOI1 CS may cont ain two sets of bedd ing surfaces; those se para ting the beds,
Illd inlc rnal set, usuall y quit e steeply incl ined, which are due to current act ion
.111 1 de positi on. Thi s internal bedding is referred to as fa lse bedding, current
I" oIdlllg, or cross bedding (Fig. 3.3).
II. 'I ( 'urrent bedd ing in
01 1101 11II1l' , BL ea k O'Day. New
,II ,IIUl
Ikld ing se parati on surfaces, like ot her fractures ill a rock mass. may contain
a nd arc ce rtainl y a locus for weathering. They are rarel y smooth
lit nnd sometimes are quite wavy due to the existence of ripple marks, 01'
II" V ""' V bc quil c irregu lar duc to basa l deformation of the bcds (Fi g. 3.4).
2'1
HK. J.4 (a) Rippl e mark-. on
upper surf ace nf sandlotone bed
gl\ ing llne\ Cn ba!!oe to overl ying
' hale. (b) l. oad structures in base
of \OlIl ch tonc bed leading to
!<.c paration surface and
of laye ring in unde rl ying
!!ohale.
3.3.2 JOI NTS
Sh/lle

;:. Sond,;tone
I.)
Ibl
Joints arc imposed on rock masses in a variety of ways. In an igneous rock, they
may be due to contraction with cooling; in a sedimentary rock, to shrinkage with
drying; and in all rocks, to tectonic stresses (Fig. 3.5). Weathering and the
Fig.3.5 J ointi ng in sedimentary beds, Cape Liptrap. Aust ralia. Note the variat ion in joint
patterns and spacing in the different beds.
associated erosional unloading produce an open joint structure, known as
sheeting, which is most prominent in massive crystall ine rocks. Irrespective of
origin,joints are defined as fractures , in a rock mass, along which little or no
displacement has occurred. Again irrespective of their origin, joints normally
OCcu r as systems of relatively regular sets. Below the zone of weathering, they are
usually tightly closed, opening only as a result of weathering. Joint spacings may
be clean, or they may be infilled with secondary mineral materials, and the
surfaces may have a coating of clay or other minerals. These secondary mineral
deposits may be due to movement, to hydrothermal alteration, or to wcnlhcring.
The more open joints at, and near, the surface, may carry an of dchf'i s
wHs hecl in from t.he surface.
I()
' I he mechani ca l properties. and importance, of joints depends on their
IInlure, tightness, orientation, pattern, spacing and on whether or not infillings
Ill e present, and if so, on the nature of the infilling. Joint openings provide
,' hllnnels for the circulation of groundwater through rock masses, the material of
which is virtually impermeable. It is the joints which give the rock mass its so
('a il ed secondary permeability.
In engi neering geological studies, recognition of the origin of a given set or
system of joints is important other than for purely geological reasons. This is
"specially true when joint systems are to be analysed for purposes of residual
, ll ess analysis. It must be accepted that it is often difficult , and sometimes
Imposs ible, to state with certainty the origin of some joint sets in a rock mass.
1..1.3 FAULTS
I he geologist's definition of a fault as being a fracture, along which significant
displacement has occurred, is an oversimplification. Fault movements are
I,.'omplex and, in most cases, the resulting structures reflect this complexity. Most
laults of any magnitude do not consist of a single fracture, but of an intri cate
,y:-. lem of fractures, intense jointing of the wall rocks, and a crush zone, or shear
lone in which cataclasis has produced a rock with inferior mechanical properties
In the wall rock (Figs 3.6, 3.7). Cataclasis is a feature of thrust and wrench faults
HR .1.6 A low angle thrust fault in the NO.4 Tail Race Tunnel. Kiewa. Australia. Crus hed
I' (ilue%ie gneiss has been thrust over Quaternary alluvium.
('s pecially; the rocks produced may be strongly foliated flow mylonites, fault
hi cccia, fault conglomerate, or gouge. The thickness of the zone of cataclasis, or
can range from a few centimetres to over a kilometre. Similarly,
di splacement along a fault can be a few centimetres or it may be hundreds of
kilometres.
,,"!lullS ha ve signifi ca nce to enginee ring geology in a number of ways:
11
(/) They constitut e major discontinuities in a rock ma ss.
(2) Entirel y different rocks may be brought into contacl, destroying the
homogeneity of the rock mass.
(3) They can affect , to a marked degree, the stress distribution in a rock mass.
(4) The zones of cataclasis comprise materials with poor mechanical
properties.
(5) Faults may be act ive and capable of subjecti ng the rock mass to dynamic
stresses.
, \ " 't. \ ' ,
, , 'i.... t, ' '\l. '"

Fig. 3.7 Flat thrust fault . wit h crush zone of mylonite. Note fo liation developed in mylonit e,
and \ he joint ing of the wa l ! rock. Tn wong.1. Vic\ol'ia. ral ia.
All faults are due to tectonic activity of some type, and , while the effects of
tectonic stresses may appear to be concentrated in the crush lone, the stresses
cause jointing to be developed in the wall rocks which is not only genetically, but
also geometrically, related to the fault. Adjacent to a crus h zone, jointing is more
intense, with a pattern different to, and more complex than, that of the main
mass.
Crush lones may const itute ground wa ter aquifers in an otherwise imper-
meable mass. Thi s is generally the case if the fault rock is a breccia or
congolomerate. Zones of gouge and myl onite arc usuall y of low permeability
and may act as aquicludes or aquifer boundaries.
3.3.4 DYKES AND SI LLS
Dykes and si ll s are intrusive sheets of igneous rock which have been empla ced
along joints or bedding surfaces, or similar types of opening, at a time Wil l'!) I he
rock mass is under tensile stress. These structures, which are consieit'I I' " 10 he
di scontinuiti es, vary in length and thickness. Some are only a few! t nlllllf' ll l' S
I'
Ihick, and 101' only iI rew metres; othcrs are hundreds ofmctres thi ck and
persist fo r hundreds of kilometres. The dolerite sill s of Tasmania and the Whin
Sill of Britain arc exa mples of the larger str uctures. The large dykes o r sill s
constitut e a rock mass in themselves, and possess a ll the characteri stics of a rock
mass. It is the smaller structures, with thickness of the order of centimetrcs o r
metres, which are commonly regarded as di scontinuities.
Dykes and sills frequently occur as 'swarms' and have a quite definite pattern.
oft en related to the fracture pattern of the rock mass. Forexample, the swa rm of
lamprophyre dykes of south-eastern Australia is very closely related, geometri-
ca ll y, to the pattern offaults and joints in the rock masses. While these structures
const itute a discontinuity in the rock mass, their existence may be beneri cial in as
much as they may 'heal' fractures in the rock. More often, however, they creat e
geolllechanical and engineering problems: e.g. Beavis (1949. 1962) reco rds
ha rmful effects of dykes at a dam site, and in underground hydroelectri c power
sta tions.
1.3.5 UNCONFORMITI ES AND INTRUSIVE CONTACTS
Marked time breaks in the geological history of an area, when the rock mass is
subjected to erosion, occur from time to time. When the rock mass is then
,ubjected to depression, with the deposition of another sequence of rock, the old
erosio n surface constitutes a major discontinuity, known as an unconformity.
Unconformities are normally of quite irregula r topographic configuration, and
hri ng into contact sharply contrasting rock masses. For example, two
unconformities north of Broken Hill , Australia, have been mapped: on one,
highly deformed pre-Cambrian crystalline schist s are overlain by gentl y dipping
Devonian sandstones and shal es; the second forms the upper boundary of the
Devonian sediments, above which are horizontal unconsolidated Tertiary to
Qualernary sa nds, clays and gravels.
The boundaries of intrusive igneous bodies are usually irregular, and they
may be steep or flat. Although it is sometimes the case that these boundari es arc
modified by faulting, the more usual situation is that the boundary is quite
\ollnd , in engineering terms, since the magma almost certainly has reacted with
Ihe rock which has been intruded. Although these contacts, as they are usually
ca lled, mark a boundary between two dissimilar rocks, they are not otherwise.
Ilormally, of engineering significance. It is somet imes the case that border 70nc
lIo' act ion produces a contaminated material within the margin of the igll eoll '"
tlla\S whi ch has a lower res istance to wea theri ng than ei ther the main mas!, of
,,,, neous rock, or the thermally metamorphosed country rock, which forms an
1IIlI'co ie about the intrusion.
\,4 Physical and mechanical characteristics of discontinuities
I IHcturcs, and other di scontinuiti es in a rock mass, possess a numbcr ofphys ic. 11
1111(1 mec hanical chara cte ri stics, some of whi ch can be measured and whi ch
Influence the beha viour of the rock ma ss whe n placed under ' 1IH': sc
,' lultHctcriSlics include t.he nUlnbcf' of scts: the location and orientation of the
ItIlc.:tlll'CS. lind Iheir spncing in both two lind 1I11'cc dirncnsions: the nature of Ihe
\ \
Opl' llIli MS and 01 SUI laces Hnd il1fi ll ings: and the persi stence 0 1 l' Ollllllllil V 01 the
fra ct ures.
3.4. 1 NUMBER OF DISCONTINUITIES
A set of fractures consists of all of t hose which have similar orientation. A system
is a uniform group of two or more sets. Some fract ures and otherdiscontinuities,
such as joints and bedding planes, occur as sets, and can be analysed stat ist ically.
Others, such as faults, dykes and unconformities are unique a s a general rule, and
have to be considered indi vid uall y. Notwithstanding thi s, faults and dykes can,
and not infrequently do, occur as sets and systems.
The existence of discontinuities in a rock mass will have the effect of changing
it s properties. The degree to which this will occur depends on the number of sets,
or of unique discontinuities, present in the mass. T he most important aspect is
the abil ity of the rock to deform wi thout involving the fracture of the rock
mat eriaL thi s is highl y dependent on the number, and ori entat ion, of
di scontinui ti es present in the mass.
3.4.2 LOCATION AND ORIENTATION
Ideally, each individual discontinuity should be locatcd and its orientation
mea sured, and both loca tion and orientation recorded on a map. This is desirable
since a single di scontinuit y may be of criti cal importance. In practice, however,
espccia lly in the case of joints and bedding planes, such a procedure is impossible,
except on the very largest sca le and most detailed maps. It is more usual to note
the location, or small area, in which the observat ions were made, and to state the
nature a nd orientat ion of the sets for that loca tion.
The orientation of discontinuiti es is one of their more important properties,
since it is often thi s aspect which will control the stability of an excavation in the
rock mass. For example, failure by sliding is more likely to occur on a
di scontinui ty which dips towards an excavation than on one which dips away
from the excavation (Fig. 3.8) . It is well known that t he sta bilit y of largc
Fig. 3.8 Effect of dip of
discontinuities on siability of a eut
slope. Pla nes marked ' a' are
surfaces of potent ial sliding failu re.
underground excavations is often cont rolled by the orientation of the
di scontinui t ies in relation to the configurat ion of the excavat ion.
3.4.3 SPACI NG OF DI SCONT I NUITIES
Fracture s pa cing is det ermined by counti ng the number of fractures whi ch cut a
14
Wh' l' ll' d k ll },th o!llu\'l' I'l' llIl c. A "ny- Ic Ira vc r ... \.! line 111 any :\l ca I' u ... unll y
IliudellIl1l !\.! ( h g. 1.9); lit leLl sl two traverse lines are required at right angles 10
l' uch other. I-'rert.: rably tra ve rsc lincs should be sct o ut at ri ght angles to ea ch of
tht: se ts present. Even so. the result obtained may depend o n the act ual locatioll
01 the tra ve rse lines.
H it . .1. 9 Sug!!cMcd tra ve rse
fo r fract un:
in thc fiel d.
j oints ______
Tra ye rse lines
Spacing ca n be expressed in terms of the average distance between the
!l lIctures, or, if more detail is required, a large scale fracture map may be
11I cpa rcd . The spatial distribution intensity map (Fig. 3.10) is probabl y the most
I II.! \ . 10 h aclUre \ paci ng
UU l" rI ' ll y ma p for cutt ing in
J tllll I..nhul y Sa tr<l , tone, Southern
I ull wuy, Syd ney, AII ,\ rai ia .
Fracture Spacing index
l ow 0.02- 0.06 m
Medi um 0.06- 0.20 m
High 0.20 0.60 m
Vorv high 0.60 2.00 m
eff ecti ve method of prc!o.c nlali on: 11''IOreOVc r, it ma y be of more va lue 10 the
cngim.:c r than u very de tailed fracture map. It is always essential to consider the
exposure level when ana lysi ng fract ure systems.
Fracture spacing is usuall y expressed as a fracture spacing index [r (Table
3. 1) . This co nsiders specifically the spacing of fractures in two dimensi ons.
Table 3.1 FraClurc spacing index. The simple logarit hmic fract ure spacing index is defined as the
avc rage si rc of cored or out crop material.
Class
Extremely hi gh
Vcry high
High
Medium
Low
Vcry low
Extremely low
EH
VH
H
M
L
VL
EL
Fract ure Spacing Index
Ir lm)
> 2
0.6- 2
0. 2 0.6
0.06-0.2
0.02- 0.06
0.006- 0. 02
< 0. 006
Another index in use is the area intensi ty index (Table 3.2), in which thearea of
fracture surface per unit volume of rock, and the average size of the intact block,
are measured. Of these two indices, the former is certainly the simpler to measure
both in outcrop and core; t he area intensity index requires except ionally good
and we ll-placed excavations or very good natural exposures .
\, 'I Table 3.2 Area intensity fracture index.
Class Area of fnlcturc surfaces Ave rage vol ume
per uni t volume (m
2
/ m, of int act blocks
Very low
Low
Moderate
High
Ve ry high
Complete
VL
L
M
H
VH
C
<3
3 10
10- 30
30- 100
100-300
~ 3
>1 m
3
0.027 J 111
3
0.001 - 0.027 m
3
27- 10
3
cm
3
1-27 cm
3
:<;1 cm
s
It is found , in practice, that the area intensity index is easier to appl y to drill
core than to field exposures, and that t he fracture spacing index is more useful. It
is the fracture spacing index which is coming to be accepted as the standard.
3.4.4 OPENNESS A).'D I NFILLI NG OF DISCONT I NUI TI ES
Below the zone of weatheri ng, all di scontinuities of the fract ure type are usually
ti ght due to the state of stress in the rock mass, incl uding confi ning pressure. If a
redis tributi on of stress occurs due to excavation, or with natural weat hering and
eros ional unl oading, then the fractures tend to open, and to become infill ed with
mal erial produced by wea thering and deposited by circul ati ng gro und water. In
'0 me cases, i nfi lli ngs a re prese nt eve n befo re these proccsscs opera! e: Ctl ta clasti c
IlHl lcrial on rau lts und on hedding plane "hears, and rine crushed Ill fll t' tiltl .
HI
lI,uu ll y hi ghl y pol" III.'d, 011 ,\lear Iype joints. It is usual for fra ct ure opcninl:4' 10
increase in width lip through the weathered 7.o ne, reaching a ma ximum at thl..'
su rfa ce. For those di scontinuities such as fa ult s, dykes and sill s. in whi ch the
sc paraled surfa ccs arc infill ed with igneous or cataclast ic mat erial , thi ck ness
docs not bear a ny relationship to weathering or prox imit y to t he ground surfa ce.
I hi s is not to say that thi ckness is constant: thi s can vary bel wcc n wide limits 10 1
n pa rticular structure, and change can occ ur very suddenl y.
A standard set of terms is in use to describe the openings of fracture
discontinuities and thickness of fault s a nd dykes (Table 3.3).
Tllble 3.3 Openness and thickness of discont inuities.
I )cscri ption
Wide
Moderately wide
Moderatel y narrow
Narrow
Very narrow
I xtrcmely narrow
t Igh!
Width or thickness
(mm)
>200
60- 200
20- 60
6- 20
2- 6
>0- 2
o
The significance of the openness of fractures lies in the increased secondary
permeability imparted to a rock mass as width increases, and in the decrease in
slability with increasing width.
T he infi lling in faults may be gouge, breccia or fault conglomerate. In the
ense of bedding plane shears, the material is usually a very fine gouge. Inj oinl S,
unci a long normal bedding planes, weathered rock is characteristic, but other
mine ral matt er may also be present, either was hed in by ci rculating waters, or
dcposi tcd from solution from t hese waters. Some shear faults ca rry a fill'll of
highly polished and slickensided gouge. The resistance to sliding a long a
discontinuity is a function of the openness and particularly of the infilling, both
ils compositi on and its thickness. It is essential that the properties of the infilling
material be determined.
Two special cases of discontinuity must be considered. The first of these is
I he soluti on cavity which occurs in limestones, marbles, and related rocks. These
may be quite small and be concentrated along bedding planes or other fra ctures,
or Ihey may be of great size and quite irregular in shape. Although many exisl as
open caves, others may be more or less infi lled with material washed in from Ihe
surface, and by fallen blocks of rock. The second case is that of sheet ing, whi ch is
li n eros ional feature most commonly found in massive crystalline rock masscs.
Shecti ng occurs 'as sets of parallel discontinuities, sub-parallel to the nat ura l
' til fa ce. wi th spacing betwce n the indi vidual s decrcasing with depth (Fig. J. II ).
Ill c'c sl ructurcs carry varying t hickness of completely weat hered rock, tlild
Ih lckness of the structure is very sensiti ve to loading. Beavis ( 1962) recorci ed
I!I (,' I' CHSCS in thi ck ness by up to 50% ovcr a 90day period, when excavati on WIIS
11
10
Dy\CC\
' 9
I-Il!. \, 11 em, .. \cclion of part of
til l' \\c\\ abutment. Clo\cr Da m.
KIC\\,l . AUMal ia. " howing sheeting
,1\ ub,cncd in out crop and inferred
,,0111 IHl re ... -I he IWO lower
'II lIel ure\ cau\cd during
"
50 75 m
IOllndnllon COr1\truction.
0
carried out over sheeting sets. Sheeting often controls the stability of slopes, and
is of particular significance in the abutments of dams.
1.4.5 PERSISTENCE OF DISCONTINUTTIES
Some di scontinuities such as faults, dykes, unconformities and bedding planes
cu n be traced along their st rike and down dip for considerable distances. Joints
may be of quite limited extent; equally, they may also persist for considerable
distances. The persistence of a discontinuity gives some measure of the
proportion of rock material which would have to be sheared during failure along
a surface. Persistence is an important propert y, but one which is difficult to
measure and difficult to quantify. Every field geologist knows the difficulty of
tracing a joint or bedding plane beyond the limits of an outcrop.
It is in inhomogeneous rock masses that joints tend to be least persistent. The
pattern of jointing is sensitive to compositional and textural characteristics of the
rock material , so that, in response to any stress, the joint pattern of the rocks will
vary from bed to bed, and it is only rarely that a joint crosses a bedding plane
(Fig. 3.5). In graded beds, joints may even be curved, while the fine defects such
as cleavage are not only curved across graded beds, but arc refracted at bedding
planes.
3. 4.6 NATURE AND CONDITION OF DISCONTINUITY SURFACES
The condition of the rock forming the surface of a discontinuity can have a
profound effect on the shear strength of the discontinuity. While the rock mass as
a whole may show little or no weathering, this can occur to quite an advanced
degree along, and adjacent to, a discontinuit y. The actual surface can be
'l'IIble 3.4 Categories of roughness of disconti nuity surfaccs.
C:.l egory Condition of surface
t Polished
2 Slickensided
1 Smooth
4 Rough
.'i Ocfincd ri dges
6 Small
"' VCI Y fOlll-\h
IK
described ge nerall y liS WIIVY, ro ugh, or smooth, although seven ca tegori es tH e
now recogni7ed Crabl e 3.4).
The difference betwee n waviness and roughness is largely one of degree,
a Ithough they also differ in t heir effects on the shea r strength of the d isconti nuit y
or the characteristics of the discontinuity during shearing. Waviness refers to
t hose first-order asperities which appear as undulations of the plane and which
would be unlikely to shear off during movement. Roughness refers to second-
urde r asperities which because of their size would be sheared off during
movement (Fig. 3.12). Methods of measurement of wavelength and amplitude
III e numerous, but Fecker and Rengers (1971), and Fecker (1978) have described
n method which is most effective.
Wavelenglh
T Ampl:;;lde
la) Wavi ness of a fraclUre surface
(b) Roughness of a fraclUre surface
Second order aspCtll'fl'
1111 _ U2 Asperities on a fracture
_L ,d IICC. rAfter Attcwell and Farmer (1976)]
T he orientation of the asperities on the surface ranks equally in importance
wi th their magnitude, since the effect on shearing resistance along the fracture
will depend on the orientation of the asperity in relation to direction of
lllOvcme nL For example, a considerably lower resistance to shearing would exist
ill 1\ direction parallel to the asperities than in a direction normal to them.
'" Classification of discontinuities
I h"'(.'on tinuities in a rock mass may be classified on a genetic, geological basis
(Inhle 3.5), which is essential, but only partly sat isfactory, for engineering
pil I poses, or they may be classified on the basis of mechanical characteristics
( I nhle 3.6).
I he importance of the geological genetic classification lies in the necessity to
'q"wl'ify the nature of the discontinuity in describing a rock mass, j ust as it is
rlC'l'cssa ry to s pecify the material constitut ing the mass. It is essenti a l. fo r
{'xlIn1 pl e, to distingui sh between a joint and a fault , and between a joint and a
ht'ddi ng plane. S uch specification alone, however, is inadcquatc, and mecha ni ca I
lind physicHI characteristi cs must be measured nnd described .

\kt amorphic
3.6
ngenet::" _____ .:. E"p:c'g::'.c
netK
____ _
Cooli ng b ul l>.
ri o,,", -.urfacc, l el,: lOnK .Iomt,
Plutonic contal'b Sheet ing
,II! ... \ein'>
Ht'dding
lnternallammation,
Cru" bedding
Shnnkagl.!' joint,
1 n..:onformlli!!'\
Foliat Ion,
\l etdmOrphl c
Jomt'
Fa ull ..
I e..:lOn1l.: Jomt ..
Cka\age,
Beddmg plane
.,h!!'ar ..
Sheeting
b ul t,
r e..:t{)nlc Joi nt ..
Sheeting
of fract ure
Analysis of fra cture systems is. in the first Instance. a geometrical analysis: the
valid ity of this a nalysis depends on first I). t he certain recognition of the origin of
the fractures: and secondly. on the system being homogeneous. i.e. that the
pattern, at least stati sticall y, is uniform for the mass unde r investigation . If it is
not. then the mass must be divided into unit s. or sub-areas, for each of which the
fracture patt ern is uniform. If the rock mass it self is homogeneous. it is likely that
the fracture system developed 10 It will be homogeneous. If the mass IS
IOhomogeneous . the fracture pattern certainl) will be inhomogeneous.
3.6.1
YSIS OF RE SYSTEMS
A set consi,,, of all of those fractures which have (approximately) the same
orientation . A system comprises a regular combination of twO or more sets.
Since. e\en within a set. orientations shov. some variation, statistical analysis of
field data is necessary in most cases to establi sh the average orientation of a set ,
and to determine the sets \\ hich constitute a system. Several methods of analysis
are used:
(i) the fracture rose. in which the stnkes only are considered (Fig. 3. 13). This
lig .. ' . I) J OI nt fO'C 1{lra
1)c\I,Wliln 'ilnd,wnc nCilr Bw].;cn
1-1 111. \ u,tralia
N
t
technique takes no account of dip. nor can it include horizonta l fractures. Since.
in determining the mechanical characteristics of a rock mass. horizontal
! J 'J>
==

::: .... ::

= c.

c.
;0;
3 r:
: ::.
.... :.:

"
'.
_ r-
rF. :; ::
:r=- r:
- ::. :::
5

r.
", ::::
r.
3 :=- r. _

;:::: I
r.
.r

41
I
IrUl'IUIC!\ arc 111 least as equall y important as dipping fracturc!'! . tll l'lI l"H,' lusion
llOlll the ana lysis has seri ous consequences . Similarly, two sets may cxu-d which
ha ve the sa me strike, but quite different dips: the rose analysis fails to di st ingui sh
bel ween Ihe Iwo sets. This technique probably has its greatest application in
preli minary studies of aerial photographs.
(ii) the equal a rea analysis, in which the poles to the fra ctures are plotted on
an equal area net, and concentrations are brought out by counting and
conlOuring (Fig. 3. 14). This method takes account of both strike and dip, and
H", \ , 14 hlual a rca diagram of
III J0ltl" (75 joints) in a
IIH' lllllllUlt litc nca r Bro ken Hill.
l\u,tll,l ia . 2- 3 4%,
N
hori7ontal fractures are included in the anal ysis. Such an analysis is to be
regarded as essential in the geomechanical study of a rock mass: it permits the
definit ion of sets and systems, and forms the basis for kinematic ana lyses.
3.6.2 STRESS ANALYSIS
As well as serving to define a fracture pattern, and to isolate sets , the equal area
mcthod is used for the qualitative analysis of stresses in a rock mass . The ideal
fracture system resulting from a system of st resses is shown in Fig, 3. 15, It is thi s
whic h is the basis of t he stress analysis. The fractures intersect in 02, the
intermediate principal stress; 01, the maximum principal stress is the acute
bi sector of the shear fractures , normal to U2 and lying in the U1U2 pl ane; and U3
is normal to the UIU2 pl ane.
The fracture system having been determined by equal area analysis, the sets
which make up the system are ext racted from the diagram and plotted in
cyclographic projection on a stereographic net (Fig. 3.16). The int ersecti on of the
lines defines U2. UI is then dete rmined as the acute bisector, normal to 02, of the
s hea r fractures. In t hi s way, the orientation of the st ress field res ponsi ble for the
fra cture syslem can be establi shed. The validity of this type of ana lysis is often
cx t remely dou btfu!. It has to be assumed that a II of the fractures analysed are due
to one tectoni c incident : it also has 10 beassumcd that the residual stress field has
thc SHmc oriental ion as I hal rcspon.; ibl c for the fra ci ures. Neit her assumption is
ncccssilri ly vu lid , NOIH.' !IwlcsN, providc(1 111(.' Icstri cli ons imposed by these
.1'
. . 1.15 Ideal system of tectoni c
111111\' ; (1, > 02 > 0 3 "
l1"isllmptions are borne in mind, the analyses can give useful result s for
l1I climinary stress studies. The method can be extended to faults and associated
,yngenctic joi nt s (Fig. 3.16b): in this case not all of the essential data arc
lI ecessari ly always available,
1.7 Permeability of the rock mass
I he primary permeability of rock refers to the flow of water through the intact
I nck material under the influence of hydraulic pressure, For practical purposes,
IIlnny rock materials are virtuall y impervious. However, a rock mass, composed
01 Stich impervious material, may, as a mass, have quite high permeability as a
Il"lIlt of fractures, other discontinuit ies, and solution cavities. This is known as
Hl" ' ondary permeability. A number of methods for determining seconda ry
Ill'rllleability have been developed, ranging from such simpl e tests as the time
!lIken for the water level in a bore to fa ll I m, to quite refined instrumental
IIIl'tlSlIrcments. The most generally used test is the so-called Lugeon, or packer,
1t"I .
The Lugeon test is carried out in a bore hole in which a packer, or a double
pll ckcr. is used t o seal off a sect ion of the rock mass. Water is pumped under
pll'ssure into the test section, and, after allowing for sat uration of the rock, the
111 \\ of water over a specified period is determined. By definition, the test should
hr (.'urried out over a test secti on 1 m long under a pressure of 1 M Pa. A loss of I I
II"n I rep resent s I Lugeon (approximately a coefficient of permea bilit y of 10
4
( 111 ' I). Idea ll y the test should be carried out in a hole ofNX size, but ex peri ence
1111\ .. hown tha t the size of the hole is not critical.
Scco ndary per meabili ty depends on the spacing, continuit y, ill rilling,
0IWIHICSS, a nd degree of int erconnecti on of the di scontinuities in the rock mass.
hI! thi s reason, ex peri enced workers call , frol11 a knowledge of the rra clure
41
Fig.3.16 Stress analysis from
fracture da ta: (a) Poles to joints in
a granite at Yackandandah.
Australia. (b) Analysis of data
from Fig. 3. 1601 to determine
orientation of stress field. (cl
Analysis of stress about a fault
whose slip direction is known. The
orientation of 01 is assumed .
I,)
I b)
lei
Shear joi nts
I Di p 75' S, 65
c
W
II Dip 60"N. 40' E
" ,- 'r, plane bisecting
11II
pattern, make quite reliable estimates of relat ive permeability of the rock mass.
Despite thi s, tests should normally be ca rri ed out. Secondary permea bil ity ca n
undergo quite major changes due to engineering works, es pecia ll y due to
exca va li ons a t depth where, due t. o stress redi stribu t ion in th ' ma ss abo ul
exca vati ons, f'ru ctUI'cs whi ch were 'Illit e ti ght ll1u y open t o II /--I I l' lIl l' l 0 1' lesser
dt.:HI'e "
II
I,K Seismic velocity in the rock mass
'''k ismic velocity refers to the velocity of propagation of pressure waves through a
, lick mass . Seismic velocity is not an independent variable, but is a function of a
11IIIltitude of rock properties which includes density, porosity, composition,
\"I' mentation and degree of fracturing. In the case of fractured rock, and of
Wt' U thered rock, it is often possible to correlate variations in degree of fracturing,
tt l degree of weathering, with seismic velocity. For example, within the Sydney
Australia, completely weathered sandstone has a seismic velocity of860 m
II' I; moderately weathered sandstone, 2290 m S- l ; slightly weathered sandstone,
11110 In S' l, and fresh sandstone, 3310 In S' l
The effect of discontinuities in a rock mass can be studied by comparing the
of the compressional wave in the rock mass, with the sonic velocity of
IIHllet rock measured on a core in the laboratory. The velocity ratio VF I Vl.. where
I I is the velocity measured in the field, and VL that measured in the laboratory,
lioilid be close to unity for a fresh rock mass with only a few, tight
IIIHt'ontin uities. As the degret:. offracturing increases, VF / VL will reduce to values
It ,. , tha n I . A claystone from Sydney, with fracture spacing index, Jr=O.l m gave
I I I VI. =0.975; the rock with If = 0.02 m had VF I VL = 0.295. Velocity ratio is also
1"lllI eneed by the degree of weathering. Hawkesbury Sandstone tests gave the
IIIlIowing values for VFI VL: F: 0.962; SW: 0.787; HW: 0.352.
Deere (1968) has suggested a close correlation between velocity ratio and
II H' k quality designation, but data are not adequate to establish, with certainty,
Ihlll sli ch a correlation always exists.
\ 'I Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
II lill s bee n established that , provided good drilling techniques are followed, a
II IllIi onship exists between the amount of core recovered and the fracture
plll' ing, weathering, or other softening of the rock. Since fracture spacing and
\\11111he ring are two of the most significant features determining the engineering
Qlllllily of a rock mass, core recovery has been seen as a measure of rock mass
Ijllillity. Experience has shown that core recovery, in itself, is not always a reliable
IlI d"'lI lor of quality: however, a modified core recovery, in which only those
pll 't' 'S of core of length 10 cm or more are measured, has been found to be a
" IllIhle measure of quality. This quality measure is the rock quality designation,
Ilt)I), a nd is the total length of core comprising lengths of 10 em or more,
I pi esscd as a percentage of the length drilled . It is obvious that, if core recovery
I poor. t he RQD will be reduced if drilling techniques are unsatisfactory, even if
1111' lock is of good qual it y.
Bllsed on RQD, standard term, have been adopted to describe the quality of
1111 lock mass (Table 3.7).
I !l esc terms must not be interpreted literally for every circumstance, since
1111 l"l'm qua lity itself is fl exible. Good qua lity rock for a building foundation
HIHV he fail' , 0 1' even poor, for a pressure tunnel. Nor does the use of RQD
! l111C I'lIte the geologist from att empting to solve the problem of low core
III ovety: corc not recove red is oft en of gl'ca tcr signifi cance to the enginee r than
1111 l' OIC Ihllt hns he' ll 1" c()V' rCcillnd is II vnilablc for inspection,

1(1) 1 t I' I )
u.'\
21 10
l O 7l
75 l)(t
90 roo
I IIJIj 11111 HI
III. 111101111\
\ II \ Ihln,
1'11111
t lilt
(mnd
I \n' lIl' UI
Somc w?rkcrs have establi shed a good correlation
fract ure spacing, which would be expected F between RQD and
is not always good (Fig 3 17b) S f (Ig. 3. 17a). Howevcr, the correlation
" mce ractures vary 10 condit ion, whi le the dri l1 ing
Fig. ]. 17 (a) Rel a tion between
RQD lind fract urc spaci ng index
101' J\ust raJi ,lIl rocks. A
,-pr'l'Cllition j " but data
III C ItllICl c qlt UI C for dClail cd
(b) Relillion
RQ D and fractlm.:
' pltcittN iudex for ca lc, lrcou,
phylltl c. " uwlcr, (iup. AU'll'a lia
('( I"l'IaltOn hCl c i, vc ry wcuk ..
')' 1111 W(" l' ohl uim' d /r-Orll 90 III of
N\ rlllt'
,III

"0
so
60
40
a
o

20
o
o
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
101
100
80
60
l
0
0

"
20
0
il
il
Fracture Spacing eml
Dolomite
o Sil tstone
Granite
.:. Basalt
10
" I II!! 'III" _11". "hJ I, '''1
o Gneiss
Li mest one
1\
"
process may effect some influence. Core will break on many fract ures , but some
l'ontain infillings, such as calcite, whi ch inhibit core breakage, but , during
t'xcavat ion, the mass will break almost as readily on t hese ' healed' fractures as on
Ill e clea n fract ures. Therefore, while RQD is a good measure of rock quality, it
Iilust be interpreted with great care by bot h geologist and engineer.
Al though designed primaril y for the interpretation of rock qualit y based on
Iii ill ing cores, RQD has been used to assess the q uality of rock in exposures and
I'xcavati ons. In this case, RQD reduces almost d irectl y to a measure of fracture
"pllcing only, since traverses to determine RQD measure t he lengths between
Iwctures which are 10 cm or more, and t he sum of these is expressed as a
jll'l'ccntage of the t raverse length. T hi s seems to have little to commend it in
It' lut ion to a normal fract ure analysis.
1, 10 Mechani cal classificat ion of the rock mass
I li e classificati on of a rock mass for engineering purposes is di fficult ; t his is due
III thc' number of parameters involved, and to the diversity of interests of t he
I' li gineer. It has been stated a bove t hat the term "q ua lity' can be interpreted in
h' l rns of t he engineering use to whi ch the rock mass is to be placed. The situati on
i-. for a classifi cat ion: one des igned primari ly for da rn engineering would
IIli ve little va lue for tunnell ing, and one designed for buildi ng would have litt le
vll luc for either dams or tunnels. No all-purpose mechanical or engineering
of t he rock mass has been developed. Here, it is possible to discuss
M,l' ncral ideas only.
Initially, the di st ribution of rock types, the nat ure and regional pattern of
Ij l, lI ctural disconti nuiti es, weat hering patterns, and t he existence and ori gi n of
1I '<idual stress fi elds, will all be determined by a regional geological survey t o
plOvide fundamental data. These data provide a genera l patt ern. Detailed
,. \11 mination of outcrops, excavations and bore cores, together with fiel d testing
II I t hc rock mass and laboratory testing of the rock material will be required to
I'lve adequate data for any classification which might be devised. Fi nall y,
1' lllpiricaI data from any works already complet ed in the rock mass may be used
1111 classification purposes. In fact. most of the classi ficat ions currently in use are
hllo;ed, to a large extent , on such empirical data, usually from successful
IIlul crtakings. Rarely is t he case of fail ure considered. Existing classifi cati ons
IlIlve been developed for a specific pur pose sueh as tunnelling, or rock slopes.
RllI cly, if eve r, is it possible to extend a speci fic-pur pose classificati on t o a more
pI' lIeral use.
One of the first attempts to develop a rock mass classificati on was made by
It' l/nghi for tunnelli ng purposes. This was a descriptive- qualitati ve class i-
Ih'lI lion, and while it was not only useful for the purpose for which it was
dl'''I IW1Cd and was capable of applicat ion to concrete dam foundat ions, it is now
IIlIl' ly used. T hc first system using quantitati ve data was the Salzburg
111I"I,ificHlioll which lI sed as its basis the strength of the rock material; the
'"!t' lit HI ion, spuci ng, cond it ion, a nel coefficient of fr ict ion of joi nts; t he presence
ti l wlt ler: fl net the si"e of the tunnel. Decre has proposed RQD as a gcneral
1ltilpOSe cluss1f icll ti oll , hUI thi s lacks a grcH t dell I or impol'tant informlltion,
Probably the most satisfactory classifi cation is that due to Bieniawski (1975),
which is known as the South African Geomechanics Classification (SAGC) .
3. 10. ) THE SOUTH AFRICAN GEOMECHANICS CLASSIFICATION
A rock mass is divided into a number of units, each having a characterist ic set of
properties, i. e. it is divided into homogeneous units, with t he same rock type, and
uniform fracture pattern and fracture spacing. For each unit , the following
parameters are determined:
(i) uniaxial compressive strength;
(ii) RQD;
(iii) weatheril1g characteristics;
(iv) joint and other fracture spacing;
(v) fracture o p e n n e ~ s continuity and infilling;
(vi) orientation of fractures;
(vii) groundwater conditions.
On the basis of these criteria, five classes may be recognized. Relative indices of
various parameters are given in Table 3.8. Since the parameters are consi dered to
be of unequal importance, each is assigned a weighted minimal value, called a
rating. The sum of all of the values of the various paramete rs defines the rock
quality.
Although this classification was designed primarily for underground
mining, it is applicable to rock slopes and foundat ions. It should be noted t hat
whi le homogeneit y and continuity are considered to be important, no account is
taken of anisotropy or elasticity, both of which are important considerations,
especially in determining the stress di st ribution around openings. The tensile
strength of the rock material is another parameter not taken into account. This
can be ext remely significant in mining operations.
ROCK STRUCTURE RATING AND ROCK MASS QUALITY
/\
,,' ') 3. ) 0.2
\ These two classifications were al so developed for use in mining. The former, due
to Wickham and TIedmann, is based on case hi story studies for a variety of rock
types . It considers three basic parameters:
(i) rock type, folding and discontinuities;
(i i) joint spacing and orientation;
(ii i) water infl ow and joint openings.
Values are assigned to each parameter, and the 'rock structure rating,' RSR, is
computed as follows:
RSR = (i) + (ii) + (iii)
The designers of this system have found a good correlation between RS R and the
rock loads on steel supports in tunnels. The higher the value of RSR, the lower
the rock loads, and hence a reduction in support requirements.
The Rock Mass Quality system was devi sed by Barton el a/( 1974) , aga in for
underground excavation. Six parameters arc considered:
(i) RQD;
(ii ) join! set. number ./ 11 :
(iii ) joint rol lghncss IIl1mb!.: r .11 :
00
,
v
00
A
""1 M . ,
o
o
N
A
" o
o
o
o
o
a
A
~
a
,
N
a
a
1'1
,
o
o
o
o
o
o
~
" o
.S
E
o
u

- -
I I I
0 0 0
g
v
o

,
g
g

f\
(iv) joint alterat ion number Ja;
(v) joint water reduction factor Jw;
(vi) st ress reduction fctor, SRF.
'Rock mass quali t y' , RMQ, is given by: RMQ =
RQD
J" .I " SRF
I' hi s seems to be a complicat ed system, and of little value outside of the purpose
lor which it was conceived.
It can be claimed that the SAGe system is of more general applicability than
li ll y other system presently ava ilable. It is relatively simple, and partly
' Iua ll titat ive. It must be noted that all systems are applicabl e primarily to hard,
britt le, joi nted rock masses. They would certainly give conservat ive resul ts if
II pplied to ot her rocks.
It is desirable that engineering geology should be trending towards
qua ntification. However, as quantat ive a nd semiquantitative systems of
l,' lassifi cation of rock masses a re examined, a nd applied, it is clear that t hey do
lI ot, in a ny sense, replace the sound, qualitative assessment of the experi enced

Ucferences and further reading
!'\ t\ ewell P. B. & Farmer I. W. (1976) The Principles of Engineering Geology. Chapman & Hall ,
1 0 111011 .
Anon. ( 1977) The description of rock masses for engineering purposes. Quart. JI. Engng Geol. 10,
lIS 88.
11111 ton N .. Lien R. & Lunde J. ( 1974) Engineering classification of roek masses for the design of
IUllnel support. Rock Mechanics 6, 189- 236.
lIcnvis F. C. (1949) The geology of Clover Dam. Min. Ceol. 11 .. Vicl.
Il cuvis F. C. (1962) The geology of the Kiewa Project. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vier. 75, 349-410.
Jhcniawski Z. T. (1973) Engineering class ification of j ointed rock masses. Trans. SIh. African Insl.
('II'. i:.llg. IS, 335-44.
I kere D. U. (1978) Geological considerat ions. In Rock Mechanics in EngineerillK Practice (cds K. G.
"I lfl gg and O. C. Zienki ewicz). John Wil ey, London.
h 'cker E. (1978) Geotechnical descripti on and class ificatio n of joint surfaces. Bull. I.A. E.C. 18.
1 J I 20.
I ccker E. & Rengers N. ( 1971) Measurement of large scale roughness of rock planes. In Proc. 111/ .
' -"flip. Rock Mechs. Nancy, pp. 1- 18.
I Hn" E. S. (1945) Outlines of Structural Geology. Met huen, London.
Hubbs 8" Means W. D. & Williams P. F. (1976)An OutlineofStrutfliral Geology. John Wiley, New
Vllrk.
Illcger J . C. (1956) ElaslicilY. Fracture and Flow. Methuen. London.
1' 1 ICC N. J . (1966) Faull and 10int Developmelll in Briflle and Semi-brittle Rock. Pergamon Press,
1 undon.
ItujAu n D. M. (1 973) Structural Geology: An Inrroduclion to Geometrical Techniques. John Wiley,
Nt' w York.
lrrtaghi K. ( 1948) Rock Tunnelling wilh Steel Suppo" s. Commercial Stamping and Shearing Co. ,
I )luo.
4
Rock Weathering
4. 1 Introduction
Rock weathering results from a series of processes which produce changes in the
physi cal and mineralogical nature of both the rock material and the rock mass.
These changes are gradual, and usually gradat ional; they are normall y
accompanied by a deterioratio n in mechanical properties. which becomes morc
pronounced the more advanced the changes due to weat hering. Most rocks
exposed at the surface a re the product s of processes which invol ved elevated
pressure and / or elevated temperat ure. Since physical and chemical condit ions at
the surface are significa ntl y different from t hose under which the rock was
formed, the fa bric and mineral s of t he rock undergo changes in response to the
new physico-chemical regime.
Probabl y the most generally accepted definiti on of weathering is ' those
processes of alt eration of rocks under the direct influence of air a nd water',
Weathering is usually a slow process, although very rapid weathering has been
recorded. The processes are, for the most part, complete only at and ve ry close to
the surface, alt hough complet e weathering to depths of 300 m has been recorded
from northeast Victoria, Aust ralia, and at up to 1500 m in the USS R. Just as
depth of weathering may vary from place to place, patt erns of weat hering can be
extremel y variable even in an apparently homogeneous rock mass. The nature of
weatheri ng itself, and the cont rol of depth to which rocks weather and of
weathering patterns , are problems about which a great deal remains to be
learned.
4.2 Weathering processes
Roc ks weather in two principal ways: by physical disintegration and by chemical
decomposition. Physical weathering involves the mechanica l breakdown of the
rock mass (block di sintegration, Fig. 4.1) , usually controlled by discontinuiti es
in the mass (Fig 4.2); and mechanical breakdown of the rock material (granular
di sintegration) cont rolled by micro-discontinuities such as grain boundaries and
mineral cleavages . Chemical decomposition affects almost all mineral s; only a
few, notably quart z, are more or less immune. The processes involved in
decomposit ion a re oxidat ion, with or without changes in valency; reducti on;
hydrat ion; hyd rolysis; carbonati on; and soluti on.
Under tcmpera tc humid climat ic conditi ons. decompositi o n 1111(1 di sinlc-
I Iu " . 1 Block di:. int cgr:!Ii on d ue
til '.\lathcri ng o n j oint " a nd
hl'llIlIng planes in silt sto ne.
1111 1 hour. New So uth Wales.
\ 1I'1ITn li a.
I III 01 .2 Shecti ng exfoli ation in
Moonbi . New Suuth
',"'jl ll'\. Aust ral ia.
ion proceed simultaneously and it may be difficult to isolate t he direct effects
II I cHch. The relati ve importa nce of the two groups of processes is very much a
11Itl clion of climate. In arid and fri gid regions, disintegration tends to be
dominant ; in humid tropical zones, decomposition is far more effecti ve than
d lNilll egration, although this latter occurs as a result of decomposition. The
II llportance of di sintegrati on is that it opens up both the mass and material so
thnt access is available for agents of decomposition.
Most a uthoriti es recognize a third group of processes: the biological, due to
II ,,' phys ical a nd chemical effects of animals and plants (Table 4.1) . Biologic;1i
I't tuc k mayor may not be significant, but it is true that a close relationship exists
IlI' lWee n type a nd density of vegetation, and the degree of weathering. Plants, and
it tlllll Hls, provide organi c material which will react wit h rocks to prod uce
. I t' (' (Hl1 positi on.
rhe rate a t whi ch t he va ri ous processes operate, i.e. the rate at which
wC' uthcring t a kes place, is a functi on of t hree sets of conditions:
(i) enviro nmental ; dominated by climate a nd materi al. but also involved arc
Ill pogl'ap hy, hydrologica l condi t ions a nd the bi ologica l systcms:
(Ii) the pro pert ies of the rock mass, es pecia ll y the homogeneit y, find the
1I11 ltll C, spacing ltnd patt ern of d iscontinui ties, i.c. thc mucl'Ofnbri c;
(iii) t he properti es of the rock I11l1t el'l rti , co mposition, fuhric.
tc"( IUl e nnd pCI' l11 cuhiii ty,
\ 1
I 01 WClIlhcring
II h\'\u,: al
dl'ulI cgralion
(' hc mi cal
decomposition
IllOl ogical
wC'ut hcri ng
[)rocesses
Sheeting
Volume change
Frost plucking
Free.dng and
t hawi ng
Healing
Coll oid plucking
Abrasion
Solution. hyd ration .
hydro lysis
Ox id ation
Reduction
Carbonation
Physical
abrasion by burrowing
ani mals
Wedging by plant roots
Extraction of nutrients
Effecl s
Particle size red uction
resulting in increased
surface area. i\o
chcmical changes
(I) Block d isintegration
(2) Granular disi nt egra tion,
Product ion of new
minerals and loss of
mineral mate ria l
Changes in fabric
Physical, chemical and
biochemical effects
Bacterial act ivity
Disintegration
Decomposition
" 2. 1
CLIMATE AND WEATHERING PROCESSES
The relationship between climate and weathering processes is shown in Fig. 4.3.
I,' il: 4.3 Postulated re lationship
hc! wcc n cl imate and type of
weathe ring. [After Fookes ('/ al
( 1971) 1
Mean annual preCIpitat ion
Strong
decomposition
Moderat e
decomposition
with frost action
Moderate
decomposition
This illustrates the role of climate in determining which process, or group of
processes, are effective in the weathering processes. In practical terms, however,
cal' e mLi s t be exe rcised in relat ing observed weat hering a nd presc nt climate. It is
VCIY probable t hat, in view of the slow ra te of weat hering, and the rela ti ve
rapidi ty of climatic cha nge in the Pleistocene Qua ternary peri od, some of the
54
"Ihe l ved wcat he n ng 1<; due to past climates. )'ol'cxamplc..:, weal hel ing in al lea ... t
plttt of the arid lone of Australia is the result of earl y Quat ernary humid
n !11dition:-., and not of the present a ri d climate.
Climate influences weathering both direct ly a nd indirectly. Temperature is
Importa nt in cont roll ing the rate of chemical reactions, while it also acts
physically in lerms of frost act ion, and heat ing and cooling, leading to physical
I'",ntegration, due to fatigue. Because higher temperatures accelerate reactions,
t IIl' mical decomposition is important in hot , humid tropical regions, and of
importance is the soluti on of sili ca under these conditi ons. In arid and
III}-!id regions chemical decomposition is inhibited: in the former due to lack of
\\"ICr; in the latter depressed temperatures are largely responsible. In both of the
tlld and frigid climati c lones, a brasion is an important physical process. Wind-
hl own sa nd in arid regions and ice- borne rock debri s in glacial areas a re
IlIlt t icularly importa nt a brasive agents.
Precipita tion and the precipitati on- evaporat ion ratio influence the products
II I wea thering. If precipitation exceeds eva poration, ions are lost in both surface
,lIId subsurface run-off (solut ion). If evaporat ion exceeds precipitati on, then
,11 1", accumulate, and such minerals as halite, gypsum a nd calcite a re to be found
I" Ihe weathered rock (Fig. 4.4). Clearly if the precipitation- evaporation ratio
111& <1,4 Scann ing electron
hili of fine stellate crystals
"I ",\p\urn deposited on quartz
,1111[ 11111\.: as a result of wea t hering
lO r II \ halc under arid condit ions (x
1100) Gap. New South
\\ .L1t\, Australia.
IlI'fumes extremely low, as in all arid regions (0.005 or less) chemical weathering
!lilly be a bsent , except for salt weathering, which is enha nced.
I'l TOPOGRAPHY AND WEATHERING
\lihough it is ce rt ai n that a relations hip exists between landform and both the
11111' lind patt ern of weat hering, the exact nature of this relationship is not always
I kill II is known that. for granit ic masses in sout h-eastern Australia. as a general
11Iil' , in deeply di ssected terrains, weat hering tends to be deepest and most
II d vl1 nccd o n plat ea ux and ridges, and to be sli ght, a nd shall ow, low down on
\ldlcy willi .... \\ IlIk IT ...... h lock may Olll cl of1ln !<. ll cam bcds 'n, h) Similar
f1l1ll clll S IHl ve bccn rCf10 rt cd from Hong Kong (Figs 4.Sc,d) .
' a)
,b,
11 50
2000
1000
Spion Kopje
JlInC! IOn Spur
"-____ .:.:.; 1000 m
'"
"---_ _ ----"75 rn
FiJ! 4.5 Weatheri ng p;1 tt erns: (a) General patlern of wea thering of it granili(.: mass, Kiewa
Austral ia. (b) Detnil of weathering pallcrn in Rocky Valley. (e) Weathering patt ern o n a
relreal ing cliff. [Aftcr Ruxton and Derry ( 1957).1 (d) Wealhering pallern on a low hill
(After Ruxton and Berry( 1957). 1
The innuence of landform on weathering is due to a combination of
hydrol ogica l and geomorphic factors. Topography, to a considerable degree,
controls the rate of run-off and hence the rate of water intake to the rock mass.
Topography also innuences the rate of subsurface drainage and so the rate of
leaching out of soluble constituents. The rate of eros!on of completely weathered
rock, and the consequent rate of exposure of less weathered rock, to agents of
weathering is also a function of topography. On steep slopes, the run-off
coefficient is high: very little water penetrates into the rock mass. At the same
time, on such slopes, erosion is extremely active. As a consequence,
di sintegrat ion tends to be more effective than decomposition. Flat areas have
little or no run-off: infiltration is high, and erosion is low to zero. Chemical
decomposition is here extremely active while disintegration is a minor process.
In considering the relationship between topography and weathering, the
geomorphic history must be understood, because the observed weathering may
be associated with more than one phase of topographic development. In the
exa mple shown in Fig. 4.5a, the very deep weathering is associated with an old
(probably Tertiary or even Mesozoic) nat land surface, while the shallow
weathering is associated with a currently developing land surface . In assessing
weatheri ng patterns both past climates and past landforms have to be taken int o
account.
I \ WI 'A IIiI Ht N( i AN I) 1 A IIRI ('
,\! .III H' IIOg 1 HI c 11 nd Ul!grct; of wea t hcri ng a rc functions of t he rock fa bri c: bot h
illi I.II1I1C or thc rock ma ss (the macrofabri c), and the fabri c oflhe rock material
ttltr Ill1crofabri c). The more close ly the fractures, Qr othe r discontinuiti es. arc
11I\II' d. lhc greater will be the surface area exposed to weathering agents. and so
1111 age nt s will be increasingly effective. This point , at the sca le of the rock
Iii"" IS illustrated by an excell ent example from Dartmoor, England (Fi g. 4.6).
I"
lill UIIIII H till
II I; I fl lI ypothc!ical
.1 r topmen! of terrain o n a
HIIIlIt J1la ... due to weathering
Ilid I'ttf\ilHi [After Fookes i'l (If
It'l I) 1
'bl

K
I I
<0'
=
I,.-<
I'
I I
I--
\--.
1--
th 0 00
00 0 g 0
o 0 0 0
I I I 11111 llll lll ill
\I we ll known, also, that weathering tends to progress more rapidly along fault s
,lIhll :1lI1t zones where. due to cataclasis, the rock has been crushed. so thpJ in a
phys ica l disintegration is complete eve n before any chemical weathering of
lilt. lock mass begins. Two Australian examples a re shown in Fig. 4.7: the
WVllnga la Dam. New South Wales, and the McKay Underground Power
"llll lo n. where abnormally deep weat hering is associated with faults, and with
IlIll" of closely spaced joints.
(iood correlation frequentl y exists between fracture spacing and degree of
\\t'd thcring. However, it is very easy in thi s case to come to false conclusions.
Whil e fract uring facilitates weathering, weathering itself induces fracturing. The
1\1It'"ion has always to be asked: which is cause, and which effect?
As macrofabric of the rock mass influences both the nature and rate of
\H'i l! hering. so also does the microfabric of the rock material influence the nature
I1lId latc of weathering of the material. Weathering also leads to cha nges in the
1I111.rofabric. even if the macrofabric (Fig. 4.8) is preserved . The changes induced
III Ihe mi crofabric of a granite with weathering are largely responsible for the
I in the engineering propert ies of the rock materia l. Grain boundari es.
11111\(: 1':-11 cleava ges, and int crgranular pore spaces a ll ow weathering agent s to
IH' ll l'! I'at c the rock mat erial. As weathering progresses. not onl y arc these fabri c
(h )
"
0 1
we al hmUlO
lone
20 In
SOL"
50 100 m
o ' - -
FiJ!.U (a) Weat hering on fa ults. Wya ngal a Dam. Austra li a [Afte r T hom:-.on (1 971 ). 1 ( b)
WeHthering in a fau lt ed granit e mass, Kiewa I Und ergro und Power St ati on. Aust ralia.
FiJ! 4.8 Prese rvat ion of
macrofrabri c in completely
weathered biot ite si llimani te gneiss
Cra nky Cha rlie. Victoria.
A ralia .
clements emphasized, but new microfractures and voids a re developed. The
enlarging of existing microdefects and the initiation of new defects are probably
due primarily to solut ion (Fig. 4.9)
Rocks wi th a fine, compact fabr ic, in which adjacent crystals are welded or
cemented together, have t he greatest resi stance to the entry of water and of
soluti o ns. Those wi th coarse or open fabrics , especiall y if these are combined
wit h hi gh porosity, offer the least resistance (Fig. 4. 10). Coarse sandstones a nd
granitoid rocks therefore tend to be more accessible to solutions than fine sha les
and volca ni c rocks. A direct relationship exists between weathering susceptibilit y
a nd pe rmeability: both are highl y dependent on microfabric.
ha ngcs in mi crofabri c with weat hering are now being lI <; ing
sClInning electro n microscopy, and some useful a nd int eresting 1111' Iwi ng
1>111 4.9 Scanning elect ron
II m w graph of solut ion of calcite
in weathered shale (>< 1500),
Gap. Nc \\ Soulh Wales.
\ \1, 1 "dia.
I)hla ined. These studi es have shown that for graniti c rocks the initial ingress of
wl' at hering age nts occurs along primary microvoids .and minera.' cleavages,
Ihal t he initial stages of weathering increase porosity by solutIOn along grail1
houndaries and, in granites, within feldspars. Weathering greatly increases the
II KI. l0 Cavernous weathering
.. I " ,U(htunc. Wollombi . 1'\ ew
..... 111 11 Austral ia.
of microfracturing by openi ng grain expa nding
II V' lnls, and possibly by destressing quartz crystals. Continued wealhcnng of
II'ld' l'wrs produces a variety of microfabric an extremely
I1 I
H
' !l porous fe ldspar microfabric; and a clay var Y.lOg from
Ilphll y packed aggregates, to extremely porous o pen ml crofabncs, and deli ca te
PO I OII S networks of part icles.
4.2.4 WI AIIiI RI N(; AN I) MI NI' RAI (,OMPOSIII ON
It is known thai some mineral s morc with respect 10 \\i l' Ulll c llng than
Table 4.2 shows the relative stability of the common sili cat e mineral s
rangl,ng the least stable olivine and Ca plagioclase. to the most stable rock
forming ffilnc:al , quart z, which is resistant to chemical weathering under all but a
few very special cond itions.
Table 4.2 Stabilit y of rod:(orming silicat e mineral s wi th respect to decomposit ion.
Olivine
\
Augi\
HO,\dC
Na 1>lagioei asc
KFeldsr a,/
Muscovit e
Quartz
Ca Plagioclase
The sequence shown in Tabl e 4.2 ha s led to both oversimplification and
mterpretatlOn, especia lly by engineers. This is because when it is
to the rock the overriding importance of fabric is neglected,
GIven a consta nt c!Jmat l.c factor , and constant fabric, then a for
example, composed esse ntiall y of oli vi ne, augite and Ca plagioclase, will weather
much more rapid ly than a granite, composed essent iall y of quart z, K feldspar,
and bIOtite. Geologists have often observed that a basa lt is much more stable with
respect to weathering than a granite, although it is composed essentiall y of the
same mmerals as gabbro. ThiS IS due to fabric differences. The coarse, open
of granIte more ready access to agents of decomposit ion 1 ha n does
the fme, close fabnc of basalt. Both laboratory studies and field oh"' 1 vn li o n
most III UI 1\1 1(.' 1111 "; 01 :-o tahdit y with l CSPl'ct I n dll ' 1I1H.: ul
dl.' l' ompo!-. iti o n, labl ie 1\ Ht It,,, .. 1 n ... \ ignifi canl as compositi on, il not Il'HU'C :-on,
1\ very simpl e ex planat ion fo r the stabilit y variati ons of the rock-fo rming
, tl a:at c minera ls is sometimcs presented , the basis of whi ch is the close parall cl
hct wcc n the stability sequence of Table 4.2 and the so-called reaction se ries of
pcl rology. It is argued that olivine and Ca plagioclase, being the first mineral s 10
t"1 ysta lli zc out from a magma are, in the exposed rock. further from their stabilit y
IHcssure- temperature range t han is quartz, which is the last mineral to
r l ys ta Jli ze. Such a simple explanation, while possibly containing some element s
01 tr ut h. obscures the basic controll ing factors.
T he importance of mineral structure in determining the relative rates of
r hcmi cal weathering of sil icate minerals cannot be overemphasi zed. Fo r
t": ampl e, olivine consists of isolated silica tetrahedra bonded together by Mg
2
'
II I1lI Fe
2
' . Both of these cat ions are readily leached from the margins and fra cture
lrI urfaces of crystals; the loss of the cationic 'bridges' releases the tetrahedra, and ,
n .. a consequence, the weathering of olivine proceeds rapidly. On the other
the Na and K feldspa rs are relatively resistant to decomposition because the
II amework struct ure of t he tetrahedra militates against the escape of K' and Na.
(I\.,,, pitc the fact that these ions are highly mobile. To free these cations, the
" ' Ira hcdral chains must be broken. Apparentl y the AI-O- Si bonds form Ihe
weakest links in the cha ins, and the greater the degree of substit ut ion of Al for Si
III t he tet rahedra, t he greater the number of weak li nks. Hence, the considerable
lungc in weathering stability of the feldspar group.
4 .. \ Patterns of weathering
I he pattern of rock weathering at an engineering site is often one 01 the most
Important of the geological factors to be consi dered by engineers and engineeri ng
y.l' ologists. In Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.3 some general patterns were noted, but , al
t he scal e of a sit e investigat ion. or at even larger scales, maj or depar tures from
I h..: ... c id eal ized general patterns almost invariably occur.
One of the most firml y hel d beliefs is that weathering is complete at the
"II fa ee, and that it decreases gradually and progressively with increasing depth.
II Ihe classificat ion to be discussed in Sect ion 4.5 is used, then the weathering
" ' lJuence would be that shown in Table 4.3.
I lI hl e 4.3
Ideal sequence of weathering grades .
t., ull acc Soil

Completel y weathered rock (CW)
Highl y weathered rock (HW)
Moderatel y weathered rock (MW)
Slightl y weathered rock (SW)
Fresh rock (F)
I"a ble 4.4 shows some actual cond itions observed from cores of bores drillcd
through the weathcred 70ll C into fresh rock. Both bores were sunk in the same
61
' I l'all Cl lh o! \\ citlhc lltl S ill hOl c
Bore A
Bore B
Depth Weathering Dept h Weat hering
(m) grade (m) grade
o "
CW
0- 5 HW
11 - 14 HW
5 14 MW- SW
14- 19 MIY 14- 19 MIY
19- 21 SlY 19- 25 HW- MW
23 27 CIY 25- 27.5 MW SW
27 30 SlY 27.5 31 MIY
30 34 HW- SW 11- 38 SlY
34 65 F 18 75 F
general area, about 300 m apart , one in dolomiti c phyll ite (A) and one in
calcareous phyllite (8) . If the rock were homogeneous with respect to
composition and with respect to distribution and spaci ng of di scontinuities, t he
ideal seq uence would be a possibility. Where variations in rock type, and in t he
nature, spacing and orientation of fractures occur, departures from the ideal
weathering pattern must be expected. It is these two factors: compositional
homoge neity of t he rock mass, and the nature, spacing, orientat ion and
condit ion of discontinuities which wil l determine the pattern of weat hering of the
rock mass. Figure 4. 11 s hows some weathering patterns. based on detai led
1.1
Ibl
v
i
__ --,-__ ----"2 m
'--' ___ -3m
Fig 4.11 Patter n of weathering in c.xposed rock faces: (a) DasOlIt. lIIa warra Highway.
Wollongong. South Wales. Austral ia. (b) Sandstone and shale. F5 Tollway. Waterfall.
New Sout h Willes. Australia.
st udies. for seve ral types of rock mass. The importance of rock type, a nd
fracturing, is clearl y seen.
Boundaries between different grades of weathering may be quite sharp, or
they may be gradational over a distance of several metres. In a homogeneous
rock mass, the weathering does tend to be gradational : however, if different
lithologies are in contact , the change from one grade of weathering to another
62
olay be sharp nnd ckndy (klnll:d. Oft en, il is fOllnd both in bore con; alld ttl
t' x poslircs I ha t Vii ri ous gllldc' of wea thcri ng a rc appa rcntl y randoml y i nt cJ'mi xcd
Cb gs 4. 12, 4. 13) . All of these frequently observed complex iti es show t he crili ca l
4. 12 Slightl y weathered core
in a mass of completely
\Hu(hcrc(! lOna lit e, Wes t Kiewa.
\'11 Imi a. Australia.
of sometimes seemingly minor variati ons in composition. texture,
1" ,,1 fa bric of the parent rock.
II is sometimes observed that soi ls in the weathering profi le which weJ' e
Il hviously formed in situ are developed direct ly on moderately weathered rock .
wllh highly and completel y weathered sect ions of the profi le absent. Clima lic
IIl lIucnces may be responsibl e for thi s anomaly, which is most commonl y
II IN.:rved in tropical lateri tic soils, although it is sometimes observed in temperat e
lone, and hot arid zone, profil es.
1. 4 Products of weathering
" II roc ks weather ultimately toa soil , a nd the types of the soi ls so produced arc of
I"lI ll siderable importance to the engineer. The nature and compositi on of
wt' ltthered rocks and soi ls are a function of the composit ion of the parent rock
II lld of cl imate. If a rock, under extreme arid, or extreme frigid , conditions is
,u hj ected to purely physical disintegration, the final product of weathering wi ll
ht' It soil wit h a mineral composition almost exactly that of the parent rock. If,
however, chemical decomposition has been involved, the mineral compositi on of
Ih,' soil wi ll differ st rongly, or even completely, from that of the parent rock .
All rock-forming silicate minerals, with the exception of quartz, will weather.
ui l ima lely, to clay minerals, under t he inOuence of chemical agents (Table 4.5).
( I II bonate minerals undergo parti a l to complete solut ion. It can be seen from
I"hlc 4.5 that the clay mineral formed does not depend solely on the parenl
/l1 1I 1i: ra I: at her factors a re involved, especially cl imat e, but also the avai labi lit y of
111110.; of certain types.
I he importance of climate can be appreciated if two extremes a rc studi ed:
\\'(' :t lhering in a hot a rid climate, and weathering in a humid tropica l climat e.
In hot arid regions, not onl y docs evaporat ion exceed precipitation by a large
tltr lnr. hut al so. since precipita ti on events arc bri ef, a nd widely spaced in lime,
nov wa ter whi ch enters the rock mass is lost very q ui ck ly by evaporati o n, As 11
;0
'!.
<
rn
0

"

E
0

Fig 4.13 Variation of point load
strength with grade of weather ing.
LCD, limestone and chert (Fookes
el al 197 1). LD, limestone (Fookes
('/ a/197 1). CP, Calcarcous
phyllite. Fowlers Ga p, Soul h
Wales. Australi a. SSG.
Ha wkesbu ry Sandstone. Gosfo rd,
New South Wales. DP, Dolomit ic
phyllite. Fowlers Gap. New South
Wal es. GO. Granile (Fookcs el al
1971 ).
50
3.
6

21
0
10
0--------____________________ ,
c
n
a
o



-0-
0
___ _
III IV V
Weat hering grade
5
4
result , sol ubl e constituents are not removed, and react ions are retarded
Oxidizing conditions prevail, and iron is retained as Fe
3
+. The cha racteristic cla y
minerals produced are montmorillonit e, illite and chlorite, or mixed layers oj
these minerals. Unless present in the parent rock, kaolinite is absent. If it ill
present in t he parent rock, it remains unaltered.
By contrast, rocks in humid tropi cal area s arc strongly leached d ue to lIiI
cont inual movement of downward pcrcolating water, a nd thc solubl e product. ... til
weat hering react ions are removed immcdia tely they HI'C rormed. 11 Cltl i{'1I 1
wea thcring proceeds I'ilpidly hy Ill(: loss or t he..;\,; l' oll sti ttJl; nt "i , whil e the n:sidtH
bccol1"1 cs ... si vel y enl i ehed in Ininl: l'ld ... whi.,.' h I.' OIlI :rillll I'll opor don 01
-n
0


"
"
I
0
>
c:
a

:;: 00
0
g: :;
c:
0
;;
'"
0
[

;;
1
1
tl
:.:
< -l
o
0 , :::: .
3

0
0

0;
"
0;
S
0-
:t
=-
"'
0-
0
0
0 "-
;;;' 0-
.OJ .
"-
is
;;;
;;
;;
0-

0.
C 0
"
""
"'
0 ;.:
.,
:>;
"'
()
",
\
:;:
0
,
3
0

0

0-
0'
e.
Q g- o
"
n
+
in
'"
Si !?
Kaolini te
'"
:I:
>- Q
:,0
...


0

". 3
0'
".
,
'3.
5 ;;
0' ;;
"
'"
0
" '"
[
,,-
,

0-
S
0 ,.
0
"

0
j

0-

5
'"
"
3
0-
0
a
2,

>-
o
S 5

'i
;;
0
"
0
"
>
0-
>
0-
C.
0
c:
0
Ii

0-

0-
0
vc
"- 0.
..
3 C
'"
;;;
Ii
r
0
'"
0
0
'" 0
0-
0
,
,

0-
0
" S
5


-n


-l ." 0
0 0
.
" 3
"-
0
0
0-
0'
'<
0

0-
3.
,
"

0 0 >- I 0
0' 0-
,
c
0- 3 S
"
g-. [
e. 0-
"
;; ;; 0
;; ;;
,

1
A 1
2
0
3
, such as kaoli nite, halloysit e, gibbsite and boehmite. Three examples of
the mineralogy of completel y weathered pelitic rocks of similar composition, but
weathered under three different climatic conditi ons, are presented in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Mineral composi tion of completely weat hered peli tic rocks.
Locat ion Broken Hi ll Weipa
Climat e Hot arid Humid tropi cal
Mineral
28 8
Ill ite 32
Chlorite 15
Mont mori ll onite 12
Kaolinite 12
Gibbsitc 68
Goethit e 5 10
Gypsum 5
Calcit e 2
Others I 2
Goulburn
Humid tcmperate
50
24
7
14
5
Since cl imate plays such an important role in rock weathering, it is impossible
to make broad generalizat ions about the composition and fabric of any
parti cular weathering product. However, provided the climatic factor is
consta nt , it is possi bl e to assess the consequence of the type of parent rock on the
weathered product. For example, at Bathurst , Austra lia , a basalt , composed of
Ca- Na plagioclase, oli vine, titanaugite, magnetite and basic glass is, in the
completely weathered condition, an expansive clay soil , composed of
montmorillonite, with lesser kaolini te and hall oysite. Some goethite and
hematite are also present. Granite in the same area has completely weathered to a
well-graded sandy silty clay composed of quart z, fi ne mica, fragments of
feldspa r, kaolini te, ha ll oysite a nd chlor it e.
4.5 Classification of weathered rock for engineering purposes
While rock names, if used alone, can be mi sleading as indicators of
geomechanical and engineering properties, the situation is even more hazardou!<l
if weathered rocks are involved. A classification of weathered rocks fOI
engineering purposes requires as its basis, characte ri stics of the rock which can bl'
determined in the fi eld, or quite readi ly in the labora tory. Classifica ti ons ra nge
from those based purely on visual inspection, and whi ch are purely subj ecti ve, 10
those based on the results of preci se and detail ed testing. The most ge nera ll y used
classifications are based on characteristi cs whi ch can be determined by visuul
inspection together wi th the results of a number of relatively simplc index Icst,
The cl assificati on most frequcntl y used, duc to Fookcs el til ( 197 1) 11 .'1
modified by Dea rma n ( 1974, 1976) , Wll S designed for grll nili e roc ks fl'O II I
Dartl11 oor, EnglHnd, While the aUlhors qui te spct:i ficll il y CllutiOIl Cd il fl
lISC for OJ h ' I' 111 111'1 HI a 11 iI i , rocks, bot h tlcoIOtt i'i l, 111 1( 1 r nHi ncel S 1111 Vl' It ppli 'd il til
11 11 sorts of rocks, in all parts of the world, sometimes with most undesi rable
!t"Hl lt S. The classifi cation shown in Table 4. 7 is satisfactory for granitic and
I I ys ta lline metamorphic rocks. It is not always suitable for many volcanic rocks,
rocks, or low grade metamorphi c rocks. Despi te these comments,
I hI' princi ple of the classification is sound, a nd it is possi ble to apply t he
Jl till ci pies to construct a classification for any rock mass under consideration.
IlI hlc 4.8 is a classification for clastic sedi mentary rocks, illustrating the
Iqlplications of the principles used by Dearman for granites to rocks of an
I n1ircly different composition and fabric.
One most undesirable pract ice, not uncommon amongst both geologi sts and
I lI }J, ineers, is to classify the rock, in terms of weathering grade, purely on some
(lIlplc, visual characteristi c, such as colour. Index tests are then carried out and
1111' results assigned to various colour grades, which are not necessarily
wl' lll hering grades. It is essenti al that all tests be carried out before the rock is
I IU'isiri ed. Another undesirabl e practice is the classification of the rock mass
\\ 1'11 1 hering simply in terms of the rock material. Characteri sti cs of both mass and
II wtcrial must be considered.
Ii nder fi eld conditions, few problems ari se in the recogni tion of fre sh rock,
,"1\ 1 of completely weathered rock. Separation of grades II , III and IV may
111I' ,ent difficulti es, and thi s is especiall y true for grades III and IV.
111' 1\"1 mination of the rock: soil rat io (RSR), i.e. the relative proportions of rock
,11111 soil , is an excellent field criteri on for separation, but the final decision must
III IIlll dc on t he basis of the result s of index tests. A number of indexes may be
""I'lL but it is not always necessary to use all of the indexes. In some cases, it may
III diffi cult to obta in values of a particular index: e.g. it is often very difficult , in
Il ltlllcntary rocks, to determine the rock : soi l rat io. In classifying weathered
1111 k lor engineering purposes, several (at least) of the foll owing criteria should
lu II Ncd:
I 'll dcscription of rock, including fabric and colour (material and mass);
lit) ' 1l cngth index (Point load index Io;5() ) (materi al);
I' )lliIcture spacing index (If) (mass);
101) I lic k qua lity designation (RQD) (mass);
I' )11I<k :soil rati o (mass);
III 1" 111 ,<1 ieity ( material);
II) plI l'osity (ma teri a l) ;
Iii) II tICI'o-indexes (material);
(I) micropet rogra phic index (I mp)
(I I) mi crofracture index (I ,,).
STRENGTH I NDEX OF WEATHERING
, . IlIht" ing of rocks is almost invaria bly accompanied by a reduction in strength.
I I pi 1011 11 1 cascs arc those in whi ch secondary cementati on by silica, iron
hit . 0 1 cll rbomtl CS occurs as a res ult of the weathering processes. For a
1""lh ,dul "ock, it is to be expected that. in general, an incrcilsc in the degree of
I dlll l' tl ll H wi ll l'csllli in 11 p"ogrcss ivc rcducl ion in strength (Fig, 4, 13). The point
Iddt! Itl d t",< 1l.',o.; l II "..: J) 1() ycd to he /I II cxtl cmcly useful :Ind I'llpid mcnns for
Tahk .. 7
Oassificalion of \l.eathered crystalline rocks (After Irfan and Dearman).
Cbs>
Grade
Description of material and mass
Index properties
Strength RQD Rock: soil Effective
(%l
(% rock) porosity
F:-esb
No visi ble sign of material weathering.
Ve ry high
Ve ry high 95- 100
Near boundary with Grade I I some slight
90-100
discolouration on major defects
Slightly \l.ealhered II
Discolouration indicates weathering of
Range from 75-90 90-95 5% increase
rock material and defect surfaces.
vcry high
from rock
a... Partly stained II i
Defect surfaces, only, discoloured
for II i to
rock
iIii
Discolouration penetrates inwards from
50- 60% of
defects. Less than 50% discolouration
fresh rock
by volume.
strength
Completely lIi ii
More t han 50% discolouration
for lliv.
stained
lIi v 100% discolouration
III
Less than 50% of material decomposed
30% of
40-75 60-90 7% increase
...-eat.bered
and disintegrated to a weakly cohesive
fresh rock
from fres h
friable intact soi l. Core rock
st rength
rock
discoloured, weakened.
Highly weathered IV
More t han 500k of material decomposed
l5% of
10-40 30-60 10% increase
and disi ntegrated to a weakly cohesive
fresh rock
from fresh
friable intact soil. Rock cores
strenglh
rock
discoloured and wea kened.
Completely
V Intact friable soil which may be
Extremely 0-10 0- 30
20% increase
1R2.1bered
weakly cohesive. Soil has fabric of
low
from fresh
parent rock.
rock
Rc:sid12..l soil VI Friable soil with original rock
Extremely 0 0 >20
fab ri c completely destroyed.
low
..,;;;::-

.....

'I.UCTlaI ctarncteruttCS Remarks
General
If I, ues ,
Porosit y
I and Jomts and other fractures Maximum Maximum Maximum Ma.>:.imum Minimum Some chemical weathering as indicated
I(i) such as cleavagc and bedding Value Value Value Value Value by montmorillonite and a
tight and unstained. (M) (M) (M) (M) (M) vermiculite-like mineral. Clay minerals
also include chlori te and muscovite.
(Grade 10) . Rock grey in colour.

"
Joints and other major 0.6 0.5 0.75- 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.6-0.5 1.15 1.5 Block di,integration begins in se paration
fractures sta ined. Cleavages along joints. Clay minerals:
show litt le or no staining. chlori te. montmorillonite and
Fractures generally muscovite. Colour of rock, grey.
relatively tight.
III Joints and bedding planes 0.5- 0.3 0.6-0.4 0.4 0.2 0.5- 0.3 1.5- 1.75 Some solution of minerals, especially calcite,
open and strongly stained. sulphi des and iron oxides. Goethite
with weathering penetrating finely dispersed. Clay minerals:
material adjacem to chlorite. montmorillonite and muscovi te.
fractures. Colour of rock. grey-pale fawn.
.....eathered IV Joints and bedding planes 0.3- 0. t 0.4- 0.2 0.2 0. 15 0.3- 0.1 1.75 Characteristic 'surface' mi nerals appear;
ope n wi th up to) cm of halite. gypsum. 'lime' (calcite).
weathered material. Some Strong solution of calcite. sulphides and
weakening and distintegration iron oxides. Clay minerals: kaolinite.
on cleavage. montmorillonite. chlori te. muscovite
and ill ite. Rock light fawn to
brown in colour.
Completel y V Strong disintegration on <0.1 < 0.2 < 0.15 <0.1 >2 Sulphides and ferric ox.ides completely
fractures. and granular replaced by calcite or goet hite. Clay
disintegration advanced. minerals: kaolinite. montmorrillonite,
Soil development with up and illite. Colour of rock.
to 40% of mass as soil. brown to red brown.
Rock breaks down readi ly
under rollers.
Soil VI Fragments of CW and HW Original fabric of rock completely destroyed.
rock in mass. Rock fragments Halite. gypsum. lime abundant. Clay minerals:
IOe--20% oftotal mass kaolinite. degraded illite. muscovite, illite.
montmorillonite, and chlorite.
determining the relati ve stre ngths of wea thered roc ks in the fi eld . pi oVldcd a
la rge number of tests are madc. On the basis of such tests. Fook cs ' 1 al ( 197 1)
devised a st rengt h c1ass irication scale (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9 Strcngth classification scale.
Description
Extre mely high st re ngth
Very high strength
High strengt h
Med ium strength
Low strength
Very low strength
Extremely low strength
Point load index
's50( M Pal
> 10
3- 10
1-
0.3- 1
0.1-0. 3
0.03- 0.1
< 0.03
The point load test is an index of strength, whi ch can be used, during field
mapping or core logging, to indicate relative strengt hs. The test, however, is of
III IV V
{bl
II
I I
0
I I

0.
I ,
2000
II
I ,

0
"
, I
,
, ,
,
, ,
", "
,
1500
,
3000
E
,
I

0
,
'5
,

0
,
0

"
2
1000
I
2000

/ ' 6
<;
o
,
'"
j
<
"
<; 500
/.. / , 6
1000
"
0
<5
Z
s /
>-
, .,
....... 6 ... " ....
0
_ ... - 2 ___ __ 6----
III IV V
Weather ing grade
Fig 4.14 Fracturing and weathering in Bulgo Sa ndstone (BS) and Wombarra Clays tone (WC),
WoJ1ongong, New Sout h Wales. [After Evans (1978). ] (a) Fracture patterns at grades II - V for
Bul go Sandsto nc. (b) Variation in fracture intensity wilh weathering.
70
littl e vulli e ror IlIao' 0. 1 M Pu: these values are usuall y recorded. in any CHSC. in
I1hvioli Sly compl etely deco mposed rocks.
.U .2 FRACTURE SPACING I NDEX
I his index is defi ned as the average spacing of fractures in cored or outcrop
lIlalcrial. The spacing of fractures normally decreases wit h increased weathering;
Ihe fracture spacing index can therefore be a guide to the grade of weathering for
II pa r/icular rock mass. Figure 4.14 shows the relationship between fracturing
II lid weathering for two rocks from the Sydney Basin, Australia. In thi s case. the
Il lIct ure spacing index as such was not used, but a measure was made or the
!llImber of fractures per unit area; the total lengt h of fractures per unit a rea,
wh ich increased with increased weathering; and the mean length of fract ure,
which decreased with increased weathering. Figure 4.15 shows the fracture
'pncing index for various grades or weathering for the two phyllites from ncar
Ilinken Hill , where it has bee n shown that rracture spaci ng influenced
\\t'athe ring, rather than t he conve rse, since all or the fractures were
dt' ll1o nstrably tectonic j oints wit h the excepti on of closel y spaced shrinkage
"licks (2- 3 mm) in the completely weathered dolomitic phyllite .
11K " . I :Ii Varial ion in fraclUre spacing
IlId., \\tth weathe ring. DD, Doleri te
N a/ 1971 ). LS D. Limestone
i ' l (11 197 1). GD. Grani te(Fookes
,/ III l in I ). RIl . Basalt, Robertson, Ncw
IlIIlh Wales. Aus tralia. DP. Dolomitic
l'lt \ llItc. Broke n Hill. i\' ew So uth Wa lcs,
\lhIIUliu. CI). Calcareous phyllit e. Broken
11111 . Nl' W South Wa lC\, Auo,lralia.
0.4

0. 1
15
30
III IV v
WOlJ I11 0ri rlH fJI"l1do
71
4.5.3 ROCK QUALI TY DESIGNATI ON
S ince RQD is a function of fracture spaci ng and of the condili on 01 11 1ICt Uf'CS, it
would be expected that it would lJe a measure of the degree of wealhering. Ve ry
little data are avai lable, but it is suggested (Fig. 4.16) that RQD decreases as
Fig.4.16 Va riati on in RQD with weathering.
Dr. Dolomitic phyll ite. Fowle rs Gap,
'00
I\ cw South Wa le s. Australia. C Po Calca reous
phyllit e, Fo \v lc rs Gar. New SOllth Wales.
Austra li,l.
oL-------________________ _
III IV V
Weat he ring grade
weathering grade increases from grade III. For rock less weathered than grade
lll, RQD is dependent more on fracture spacing alone, and is independent of
weathering, so it is not a sensitive indicator of weathering in grades I and II.
4.5.4 ROCK,SOIL RATIO
It has been recognized by engineering geologists in the field that the
ratio of rock to soil in a weathered mass of crystalline rock is a critical index of
weathering grade. It is possible, in the field, to determine this ratio quite simply: it
is equall y simple to determine in core logging. The ratio is an essential index in
RSR O _ Grade VI
RSR 0- 10 1)'/':'::-:;,1 Grade V
RSR 30
CJ
... Grade IV
RSR 50
IWZI
Grade III
RSR 90

Grade II
Fau lt f Dolente dyke 1)
Granodior it e
Fig.4.17 Rock soil ratio map for part of Rocky Va ll ey Dam foundat ion trench. Bogong High
Pla ins, Australi a .
72
I h'lI lll'l a I1 'S class i fi clIll OIi 01 w(.' 11 1 hcrcd gra t1 itic rocks, cs pccia lI y i n t hc scpa IU I i on
I I I grll des III , IV, and V. ll is not a lways applica bl e in sedimentary rock l1'Ia Sses .
l ' IHul' e 4. 17 shows the rock : soil ratio map for a gneiss- granodi o rit e mass a l
I(oeky Valley Dam, Ki ewa, Australia. Table 4.10 shows the rock soil rali o
. It .. lribution used in mapping the dam foundations.
lithic 4. 10 Rock: soil ratio for weathered crystalline rocks.
W(,lI lil eri ng grade
I t I
" h"htl y weathered II
Moderately weathered
RSR
95- 100
90- 95
60- 90
Remarks
Some soil on major joints
Some soil on all joi nts
Advanced weathering on all
joints. Core stones large
III Khl y wea thered IV 30- 60 Small core stones in soil mas s
I 'nl1lplctcly weathered V 0- 30 Rare small core stones
I WEATHERING MICRO-I NDEXES
Ilidexcs such as fracture spacing, point load strengt h, RQD and RSR arc
d.' lermined on the material, and the mass, in the field. It has been proposed
In:cnt ly that micro-indexes, which are determined in the laboratory on the roc k
tllllt t: ria l examined microscopically, are of considerable value. These indexes a rc.
HI present , of interest more to research than to field workers, but they can be used
111 .. upplement and refine field classification. The indexes are intended to assist in
plude classification by close examination of the rock material. The two indexes
l it \' Imp the micro petrographi c index and : hr, the microfracture index . The
oll l' lopct rographic index is defined as :
_ percentage sound constituents
Imp - .
percentage unsound constItuents.
1111: 'sound constituent s' are the primary minerals, while 'unsound constituents'
HII' seco ndary minerals, produced by weathering, such as sericite, clays and iron
lI 'Indcs, together with microcracks and microvoids resulting from weatherin g.
1 hI.' micr ofracture index is the count of the number of microcracks in a I em
Il lI verse of thin section. The microcracks counted include stained gra in
IlIlllndaries, open grain boundaries, stained microcracks in quartz and feldspar,
I rllil lcd microcracks in quartz and feldspar, and clear transgranular microcracks
I l ossing grains and pores in plagioclase. Table 4.11. shows the range ofvalucs or
tht . ..;e indexes for a weathered granite.
II is a pparent that these indexes could be determined readily only for coa rse r
h' xturcd rocks: application to the finer grained sedimentary and metamorphi c
I".' ks wo uld be difficult.
1,/. The effects of weathering on geomechanical properties
Wl' lIlhering processes result in a gcneral deteriora t.i on in the properli es or the
71
Table 4. 11 Micro-indexes of weathering for a grani ti c rock.
[Afte r Irfa n and Dearman ( 1978).]
Weat hcring grade
Imp
'r,
Fresh I
> 12 <0.5
Slighli y weathered II 6- 12 0.5- 2
Moderately weat hered III 4-6 2- 5
Highly weat hered I V
2- 4
5- 10
Complet ely wea thered V
< 2 > 10
rock mass and t he rock mat eria1. The reasons for this are obvious: weat hering
results in the weakening and breaking of bonds between mineral grains in the
material , and between blocks in the mass. Minerals with high strength and
elast icity are altered to minerals with low strength a nd elast icity, whi le significanl
changes in fa bri c patt erns occur. In trying to assess the effect of weathering, it will
be found that littl e systematic data are avai lable, but some work on granites,
clastic sediments, and low grade metamorphic rocks is sufficient to draw some
tentat ive conclusions relating to compressive and tensil e strengths, elasticit y,
densit y, moi sture content, porosit y and permeabil ity,
4.6. 1 UNI AXIAL COMPRESSI VE STRENGTH
The onset of weat hering results in an immediate, and often considerable,
reducli on in the compressive strengt hs of rocks (Fig. 4. I 8, Table 4.12). In rocks 01
Fig,4. 18 Variation in unia xia l
compressive st re ngt h wit h
weathe ring. HSS. Hawkes bury
Sandstone, Sydney, New Soulh
Wa les, Austra lia. GD, Gra nite
( Baynes ('/ (11 1978). HG. Ha rcourt
Granodior it e, Victoria, Australia.
CP, Calcareous phyllite, Broken
I/ ill. New Sout h Wa les, Austra li a.
1) 1' , Do lomit ic phyll ih.:, Brokcn
lI ill. Ne w SOuth Wil le""
NS, NllI' rllbccri
Syllllt'Y, Nt' \\' Sn(l lt l Wul t's,
A (11111111 111
10
o
f
250 1/

100
- so
-,----"
ttl IV
v
W""thlUlnlJ I/!JUiot
.. N
N
""
.. "" 0
'"

N
0; :;;


N
N ..
0
N
W
0
N ;;
0
<3
N
.. N ..
;; ;:; ;:;
""
w 0
P w N
:;;
<3 0 ;;
""

N

N
=
_.
N
_.
-
_.
;;
".
;:;
- w
<

<
-
/I
"
o
o

C
,

>
:
0
0
3
"

"
n
;/
,
'" 5-

n
" 5-
n
,.
,
""
".1

a.
n

0
,
12
."
!O
extremely hi gh such as granit es. the loss between !-( l llllr 'rj l uud IIll11a y
be as high as 80%. Even ill lower strength rocks. the loss ma y be up to 6(W;,. When
wea thering proceeds beyond grade III , strength loss continues, but is re lati ve ly
much less . From t hi s it may be inferred that the weakening, and brea king, of
bonds between mineral gra ins, and t he development of microfractures, a ll of
which are characteristic of the transi ti on from grade II to grade III are
responsible for the loss of strength. At t his stage also, the replace ment of st rong
minera ls by t he weak clay minera ls begins to be effecti ve.
The loss of the strength in t he rock mass is a lmost ce rta inl y greater than that
in the ma teri al , s ince tests on the material at grades III and I V are made on core
stones, and the mass at these grades consi sts of a large amou nt ofsoi!. The soil ,
relat ive to the rock mater ial , has littl e or no strength.
4.6.2 TENSILE STR ENGTH
Virtually no published data exist relating to the effect of wea thering on t ensile
st rengt h. Tensile st rength of rock is invariably low: the few test results avail able,
a ll for clastic sediment a ry rocks, suggest that the effects of weathering on tensile
strength are not a lwa ys as dramati c as is t he case for un iaxial compressive
st rength (Table 4.13, Fig. 4. 19). It will be noted that , for the Hawkesbury
Table 4.13 Tensile st rengt h of weathered rocks.
Rock Tens ile strength (MPil )
Weather ing zone II III IV
Ha wkesbury Sandstone 4. 15 3.30 3. 56 n.d.
8.36 6.48 4. 27 3. 11
4.82 4. 16 3.91 3.83
Bulgo Sandstone 4.58 1.38 0.74 0.42
0.68 0.44 0.38
Wombarra Claystone 6.32 1.6 1 0. 30 0.02
J.5 I 0.78 0.13 0.00
Sandst one, loss of tensile strength is gradual; in the case of the Bulgo Sandstone,
a 70% loss of strength occurs from grade I to grade II. This is due to t he quite
different textures and fabrics of the two sandst ones. The 75% loss of tensil e
strength in the claystone between grades I and II is due to the very strong
development of fra ctures, with even slight weathering. in this rock.
4.6.3 ELASTI CITY
As would be expected , the increase in fracturing which accompanies weathering,
and the replacement of brittle minera ls by soft cl ays, result in a significa nt loss of
elast icity wit h weathering (Table 4.14, Fig. 4.20).
With inadequate data, it is not possi bl e to develop broad, general statement s
relating to the effects of weathe ring on elasticity. Values for Poisson's rat io a rc
76
I I". 4.19 Variati on in tensile
UnllJ,l h \\ith weatheri ng. HSS.
11 11\\ Sands tone. Sydney.
Nn ... Sout h Wa les, Australia. We.
\\ nlllharnl Claystone.
WIlU() l1 gong. l\'cw South Wales.
\w.trill ia. as. Bulgo Sa ndSlOne,
Wnlli1ngong. l\'ew South Wales,
'il" r alia.
I .. hle 4. 14 Tangent modulus of elasti cit y of weat hered rocks.
Itmk
Ta ngent modulus of elasticit y (GPa)
II
[Ii lli i Il ii i lIi v
57.6
40.2 32.5
tllumlc 69.5
7.6
"iutl{hlonc 10.7
7. 8
24.6 18. 9
11.0 9.0
I 'IiI\',\one
3. 9
l'hyl1itc 4.9 2.6
l' hyllitc 2.5 2. 1
4. 2 2. 6
III IV V
22.8 12.7 1.5
5.5 4.6
10.7 9. 2
8.7 7.5
1.9
1.9 1. 6
1.6 1.4
1.9
I" esented in Table 4. 15. In this case, vi rt ually no data are ava ilable on a
lrIys tcmatic baSIS a nd, as can be seen, this parameter may decrease 111 val ue Wit h
Illl'reased weat hering, or it may increase.
/I s the test results apply to the rock materia l, it would be expected that
l hnngcs in elasticity for the rock mass would be more.severe, Thi.s is In
lit e cha nge in ultrasonic velocit ies in the rock mass wlth weathenng, Since thcse
lyl' lncit ies are a fu nction of ela sti city. This fact led lli ev ( 1967) to propose thc
following coeffici ent of weathering:
k = Va - ( Vw/ Vo)
where Vo is the ultrasoni c velocity in fresh rock, and Vw that in wea thered roc k.
l lsi ng t hi s coeffici ent permit s some assessment of t he elast icit y of the rock ma ss,
.1.11.4 MOIST URE CONT ENT, POROSITY AND DENSITY
A ... wea thering progresses, the general tendency is for contc.nt and
pOl osi ty to increase. and for density t o decrease. T he ch.a nges and
1I10i"l lUrC cont enl are a direct result of thc increas ing porosit y, whi ch It se lf IS due
77
Fig.4.20 Varia t ion in tangent
modulus of elasticity. at 50%
ult imate strength. with weathering.
GD. Granite ( Baynes ef 01 1978) .
HSS. Hawkes bury Sandstone.
Gos ford, New So uth Wales,
Austral ia. CPo Calcareous phyllite,
Broken Hill. 1\ ew So ut h Wales.
Australia. M. Marble, Angaston.
Sout h Aust ra li a.
Table 4.15 Poisson's rat io of weathered roc ks.
Rock II II I
Grani te 0.25 0.23 0.35
Granite 0.25 0.19 0. 19
Sandstone 0.22 0.35 0.17
Claystone 0. 36 0.33 0.42
Sandst one 0. 13 0.18 0.23

0

;f
'"
"

0;
'0
.
,
,
u
0
E
C

0
!'
III IV V
Weatheri ng grnde
IV
0.27
0.23
to solut ion and to an increase in fract uring whi ch accompany weat hering. Trends
for some rocks are presented in Tables 4. 16, 4. 17 and 4.18 and in Figs 4.21, 4.22
and 4.23.
Table 4.16 Porosity of weathered rocks.
Rock Porosit y (%)
II III IV V
Sandstone 14. 18 20.70 21.52 22.07
Sandsto ne 9.03 10.55 12. 46 14.32
Granite 0.27 2.78 3. 78 9.60 20.20
Slat e 5.38 11 .00 17.65 15.40 18.77
Phyllite 7.08 8. II 11 .83 10.01
I .. 4. 17 (I f \\ r utht I{,1 nnd dry.
Densit y (Mg Tn 3)
I tlll II. 11 11 1 IV V
SO DO SO DO SO DO SO DO SO J)JJ
2.22 2.09 2.05 2.03
'\ulI(hto nc 2.56 2.40 2.30 2. 18 2.00
'\ Iul l' 2.74 2.69 2.40 2.29 2.42 2.19 2.46 2.31 2.02 1. 85
( ,I 11 lilt C 2.61 2.58 2.56 2.43 2.23
I'hvlhl c 2. 69 2.62 2.63 2. 55 2.53 2.42 2. 55 2.45
I .. hl e 4. 18 Saturation moisture content of weathered rocks.
Saturat ion moisture content (%)
ItUl l-. Jl 111 IV V
,\,' II II , \o ne 2.10 2.60 3. 52 5.06 7.41
'\Iut e 2.00 4.84 7.97 6.67 10.16
(,(lIll1t e 0. 11 1.09 1.52 4. J3 10.02
I'hvill te 2.70 3. 18 4.90 4.22
The changes noted for rock material are even more effective in t he rock mass .
I li e openi ng of fractures in the mass results in a dramatic increase in 'porosit y' of
l il t: mass, with related changes in density and moi sture content.
I' Ill. 4. 21 Va riation in sat urated
tl lIll\lUrC content with weathering.
11 1), Gra nit e ( Baynes er al 1978).
( 1' . ( ul can.: ous phyll ile. Fowlers
(IIIP. New South Wales. Australia.
'\ 1, Slatc. Mudgec. New South
Aus tra lia. /-I SS
II l1wkcs hury Sandsto ne. Gosford ,
Nrw South Walcs. /-I SS
Il uwkc,hury Go:. rord.
Ne w South Wal es,
12
WOOlhorinu g rl,do
7'1
Fig. 4.22 Varia t ion in sat urated
with weathering. GD.
Granite ( Baynes e/ 0/1978). CPo
Calcareo us phyllite, Fowlers Gap.
New South Wales, Australia. S1.
Slate, Mudgec. New Soul h Wales.
HSS, Hawkes bury
Sa nd stone, Gosford, New SOUlh
Wales, Australia.

E
0,

'f

n

:;
,
;;

,.J
,
0
I
2.60?

2.40
2.20
2.00
,
Op
GO


.y",,,,
..

'"
'v
V
Wealhering grade
o

Fig.4.23 Variation in appare nt
porosity with weathering. !-I SS,
Hawkesbury Sandst one. Gosford ,
New South Wa les. Austra lia. 51.
Slate. Mudgee. South Wa les ,
Australia. CPo Calcareoll s phyllite.
Fowlers Ga p. New Sout h Wales,
Australia. Granite (Baynes 1'1 al
1978).
v
4.6.5 PERMEABI LITY
The changes in porosi ty which occur as weat heri ng proceeds will certainly resul t
in changes to the permeabilit y of t he rock material and Ihe rock mass. At t he
sa me ti me, part icularly in the more adva nced stages of weat hering, some facto rs,
such as the development a nd dispersal of clay minerals, and the deposition of
secondary ce ment s, may act to reduce permeabili ty.
Cha nges in prima ry permeabi li t ies of granite from 10-
6
to 10-
8
cm S- 1 in
sli ghtly weathered granite, to 10-
4
cm 5 - ) in completely weathered rock have been
recorded. Meas urement s of permeabilit ies of phylli tes have s hown an increase
fro m 6)( 10 \J cm s I for the fresh rock to 3 )( 10-
8
cm s M) for compl etely we;.H hcred
rock.
The rock ma ss (ma inly H secondary permellhili ty) ccrlnin ly
HO
trl clcases with Wl' lI th\ ltll fJ,. hut agai n, the filling of fra ctu res by debri s ma y exc il
nn in hibi t in g inf1uc ncc on the now of water through the mass . No publi shed dill !!
whi ch permit a sys lt.: mati c stud y of the permeabi li ty of a rock ma ss appear 10
l' X i"it.
4.7 Weatherability and durabi lity of rock
Rock is likely to degrade while formi ng part of an engineering structure: Ihe
du rability of the rock material in thi s context is defi ned as the resistance of the
rock to short term weat hering processes; it is t he inve rse of weatherabi lit y .
Weat herability is a measure of the amount of \,Ieathering which wi ll occur in a
give n time, for example, for the full li fe of an engineering structure. A great 1113 ny
lests have been devised to measure both weatherability and durabilit y, and a ll art.:
of dubious va lue, si nce no single test can hope to simulate a ll of the fact ors which
opera te in nat ure.
A test has been devised to assess the slake durability of clasti c sed imenla ry
"oc ks with a high proport ion of clay-size particles, and of other rocks, I he
weal hering of which has produced clay a nd ot her secondary mi neral s. The Iesl is
idea l for defini ng t he difference between a sailor rock. Unfort unat ely, both
geologists and engineers have mi sused t he test, and mi sinterpreted test result s.
rhe literature not infrequentl y contains references to the slake durability index
of fres h igneous rocks! The test measures the durabil it y of a clastic sediment , 0 1
of a weat hered rock, with respect to alt ernate wett ing and dryi ng, and 10
abrasion. It is of dubious va lue as a n index of weat hering (Table 4. 19) or eve n as H
predictor of durability or weatherabili ly,
rBhle 4.19 Slake durability indexes for weathered rocks.
Slake durabi li ty index ID (%)
Roc k I I I II IV V
Phyllite 84 86 88 71 71
Cl ays tone 97 n.d. 75 n.d. n.d.
Sandstone 83 n.d. 71 68 n.d.
Sa lHlstone 98 96 83 61 n.d.
Snndstone 95 94 90 87 n.d.
Su ndstone 90 89 92 98 52
Several hundreds of sla ke durabilily tests have been carried oul
'ystematica ll y on sandstones and shales from t he Sydney Basin. It was found
1 hat. due ( 0 seconda ry silicifica t ion in some hi ghly weathered rocks, ID for these
was much higher t han for fresh and slight ly weat hered rocks. Moreover, In
vallics for sandstones, claystones a nd shales were freque ntl y compa rable,
" II hough field observat ion clearly indicated that in both long term and shOrI term
wea thering t he sandstones were much more durable than the fincr cla y rocks,
Ex perience is suggesting that slake durabil ily should be used only as "
classifi ca tion test. and that even then t he results of tests must be interpreted in
te rllls of t he pet rography of the rock. In particular, the test does not ineorpol'll tc
II ny as pect of (h.' l'o l1lpos iti on, as dist inct fro III physica l di sint egra ti on.
KI
Any reliable test I'llUst im:ludr.! bot h phY1'i icnl Hlld l'Iu rn u III tflo of
wca t hCl'i ng.
4,8 Weathering of biogenic rocks
Weathering of limestone will depend on the composition of the rock. A pure. or
almost pure , limestone will weat her almost excl usively by solut ion whi ch begins
along di scontinuit ies, and rapidly develops int o large cavernous o penings. in
whi ch deposi ts of secondary calcit e may occur. If the limestone is impure (Fig,
4.2..1 Soluti on wea ther ing of
impure sil iceous dune li mes tone. in
coastal cli ffs. Gunnamatl<L
Victoria. Aust ralia.
4.24), solution remains one of the main weathering processes, but other chemical
processes will operate, depending on the nalUre of the impurities. In coastal
regions, sol ution of limestone will be inhibited.
In a rock from southern England, whi ch is a contact metamorphosed
sili ceous limestone. fracture spacing is more or less constant at 0.15 m through all
grades, but decreases to 0.03 m in grade V, Point load stre ngth varies, with grades
III - IV rock having the highest value. Porosit y is low in grade II (0.55%) and
grades IJI and IV (I.I - 1.35%), increasing dramatically to 58.5% in grade V.
A Palaeozoic limestone at Lilydale, Australia, shows solution openings along
joints and bedding planes. and on some of ,these fractures, secondary clay
mineral s occur derived from silicate impurities in the limestone. Large solution
cavities have been filled with surface debris. Grade IV rock has fracture spacing
of 0,05 m; grade II , 0, I m and grade I, 0. 15 m.
A strongly metamorphosed limestone north of Broken Hill , Aust ralia, shows
virtually no sign of weatheri ng beyond small solut ion channelling on the exposed
surfaces, and some sli ght soluti on of joints, infilled by surface material. The mass
as exposed is grade II; the material , grade I. In limestones which have a relatively
high degree of purity, weathering seems normall y to be expressed by increased
fracturing.
Weathering of coal, in engineering terms, has been examined only very rarely.
One example is the weathering of a brown coal from Yallourn. Australi a, in
which the onset of weathering is marked by the development of fI soft, hi ghl y
compress ibl e. organi c clay, along di scontinuiti es. Compl ete Wl'lt tll " 1 ill} has
H2
pl'od lI ccd H hili 'k. 0'1111 rHI.' , hi gh Iy t hi xotropi c iI nd hi gh Iy com prcss i hie cit! y up 10
I m thi ck whi ch sharpl y on fres h coal. It was found thai til e
completely weat hered coal had quite inferior engineering properti cs, whil e the
presence of thi s mat er ial on joints in the coal mass resulted in a significant
decrease in the shearing resistance a long the joints, and to unexpectedl y hi gh
sctt lement s under foundat ion loading.
".9 Weathering in engineering practice
rhe nature, degree, and pattern of rock weathering are commonl y among the
most important of the geological factors to be considered at an engineeri ng sit e.
The design and const ruction of foundations, tunnelling methods, slope sta bilit y
and the availability of construction materials may all be influenced by the
weathering of both the rock material and of the rock mass. In the engineering
geological investigation of a site, consi derable attent ion has to be given,
therefore, to the careful determination of weathering charact eristics, Reliabl e
weathering maps and cross sections based on direct surface observat ions,
dri lling, and geophysical invest igations should be prepared. In addition ,
statements describing the effects of weathering on engineering properti es of the
rocks, and on fabric and mineralogical changes which influe nce these propert ies,
should also be prepared. It is essential, also, that observat ions be made during the
construct ion phase of the project , when not onl y can checks be made on the
investigation, but also additional data may require modifications to be made to
the design.
4.9, 1 ROCK WEATHERt NG AND DAM FOUNDATIONS
For the most part, concrete dams must have thei r foundations located in
essentially fresh rock. For some, such as mass gravity and buttress types, some
slight weat hering of the rock mass, e.g. staining of fractures , may be permi ssible.
For arch dams, however, both rock material and rock mass are generall y
required to be fresh. Earth dams on rock foundations are almost invariabl y
const ructed on weathered rock, not uncommonly in the highly to completely
weat hered condition, although some conservative designers prefer a foundati on
in the moderately weathered condition. Even in the case offoundations for ea nh
dams, however, knowledge of the weatheri ng is required to plan and design such
aspects as concrete cut-off walls and grout ing programmes .
Clover Dam, on the Kiewa River, Australia, is a small concrete buttress dam
fou nded on a coarsel y crystalline, strongly jointed and weakly foliated silli manit e
biot ite gneiss which is deepl y weathered. Faulting has occurred at the site, and a
large number of lamprophyre dykes occur intrusive int o the gneiss (Fi g, 4.25),
The pattern of weathering is asymmetric, with the fresh rock surface on the
cast abutment much deeper than on the west. Designers required excava tion
down to essentially fresh rock. The lamprophyre dykes were weathered to "
somewhat great er depth than the gneiss, so that where a buttress was to he
fo unded on lamprophyre, even deeper excavation was required.
The Ill ost important aspect of the weathering at this site was the devc!opn'l cnt
of sheet i ng, Thl'Sl' st I' \l elll rcs, su b-pa ra lI el to the su rface, occu rred H t vcrtl cII 1
H)
Fig.4.25 Section al ong the ce ntre line of a buttress fou ndation of Clover Dam showing fa ult zone.
la mprophyrc dyke. and sheet ing str ucture.
interval s of about 5 - 10 m, and each consisted offrom IOta 25 em of completely
weathered gneiss. Drilling showed that these structures persisted to below design
foundation level. During excavat ion, slope instability deve loped, with sliding
along the sheet ing, causing construction difficulties and delays. Moreover,
during excavat ion, the unloading tended to accelerate weathering on the
sheeting, so that , on two ofthese structures, the t hickness of weathered material
increased at a steady rate of I cm per month. Finall y, t hese struct ures constituted
a seepage problem around the abutments of the dam. Acceptance of portland
cement grout was low, and careful flushing was required before the sheeti ng
could be effectively grouted.
Simil ar problems with sheeti ng due to weatheri ng have been reported from
the Hiwassee Dam in North Carolina, USA. Here, the sheet ing structures, each a
few centimet res to 0. 7 m in thickness, occurred at intervals of about 2 m to a
depth of at least 20 m below the river bed. In this case, excavation in the channel
section was ca rried down to about 18 m below river bed level.
Limestone is a highly soluble rock, and, in the weatheri ng process, solution
cavities, which may be open, or partly to completely fill ed wi th rubble, are
deve loped. Solution normally begi ns along joints and bedding planes; in some
cases, as at the Fontana Dam on the Tennesse River, USA, the sol ution has
proceeded no further. In other cases, extensive solut ion has produced extensive
large cavities, as at the Kentucky Dam, Tennessee River, USA (Fig. 4.26), where
solut ion has extended to over 50 m below the surface.
These weat hering characteristics of limestone have two major effects at a dam
site. Probably the more important is the question of leakage from the storage.
The Monte Jacques Dam, a concrete arch structure at Andalusia, in Spain, was
constructed on cavernous limestone, and , after the initial fill ing, the storage
drained through limestone caverns. The storage has never held water since,
despite strong attempt s at carrying out remedial measures. In the case of the
Kentucky Dam, remedial measures using hay, bitumen and cement grout were
successful, but the cost of these measures was extremely high.
The second, but somewhat lesser, problem associated wit h cavernously
weathered limestones and dolomites concerns the bearing capaci ty of the
foundat ion rocks. Soluti on openi ngs, whether or not rubble fill ed, ho ve the effect
of reducing the strength of the rock mass.
k4
4.26 Soluti on in limestone at
Kentucky Dam. USA. [After
IhLf\\ell a nd Moneymaker ( 1950).]
:[

,
,
" D

"
;;
"
o
10
20
30
40
50
o
10 m
Remedial measures against leakage may also be satisfactory, however. in
improving the other engineering characteristics of the mass. . .
In arid regions solut ion problems may occur after dams are In service. Undel'
a rid climatic conditi ons, soluble salts such as halite a nd gypsum may be
de posited near the surface as part of the weathering When a wa ter
storage is in service, seepage from the st orage may result in solullon of these salt s.
producing a quite dramatic increase in seepage losses. The presence of these. sal Is
ca n effect the engineeri ng characteristics of the soil in which they Soli s so
require special consideration during design and constructiOn .
4.9.2 ROCK WEATHERI NG IN RELATION TO UNDERGROUN D EXCAVJ\ 110NS
In tunnel and underground power stat ion design and constructi o n, the
excavation may be in soft rock or in hard rock; the latter is usuall y preferred
underground hydroelectri c development. In the case of hard rock.
methods a re usually planned on the assumption of rock
Si milarly. for stabil ity purposes. designers normall y reqUire that the m.achill c
hall and pressure tunnels. at least. be located in fresh rock .. Deep and
w ' athcring crellt es special difficulti es in portal1ing operat IOns. es peCiall y as
pOltnb IIrc h cqucl1tl y locat ed in steep slopes, the stabilit y 01 \ \l I U II !l ill y be
ma rginal.
Where the rock is in a highl y or completel y weathe red conditi on. nOlmu 1 ha rd
rock tunnelling methods are not economica ll y applicable, and morcovc r. very
strong supports wi ll be required.
In the case of pressure tunnels and hydroelectric underground machine hall s,
design engineers usually prefer a fresh rock cover of thickness varying between 20
and 50 m. The thickness a ppears freq uently to be chosen arbitrari ly, with no
regard for the degree of weathering, nor for the mechanical properties of the
weathered rock.
Weat hering wa s one very important geological factor in the locat ion and
design of the McKay Creek hydroelectri c power station and tail race tunnel , in
Australia. At the sit e. in a fault ed and jointed granodiorite, weathering was
compl ete , for a considerable depth, while that associated with fault zones was
even deeper. Seismic refract ion surveys and diamond drilling were used to define
the fres h rock surface and to locat e fault zones, and it was on the basis of the
results of these investi gations that the final site for the power station was selected
(Fig. 4.27). Even so, the cover of fresh rock at the sou th-western end of the power
o 30m
Fig.4.27 Section based on seismic refraction and diamond drilli ng showi ng locat ion of McKa y
Power Station in rel ati on to weathered rock.
station chamber was less than 5 m. An additional weathering problem at the
sta ti on was due to sheeting which which was spaced at 1- 3 m, at a depth 0[70 m
below the surface (Fi g. 4.28). Extensive roof bolting was required to stabilize the
arch during construct ion prior to concrete lining. Si milar problems with sheeti ng
structures were encountered at a depth of 165 m in the Haas power station, USA.
At the invest igation stage, some interesti ng problems were a nticipated at the
Jor station, Malaysia, where tropical weathering extended to a depth of 70 m,
and where the fresh porphyritic granite showed a marked tendency to very rapid
physical di sintegration on exposure. However, during construction at a depth of
260 m, anticipated problems did not arise. On the other hand, at Turlough Hill ,
Ireland, the coarse textured granite is completely weathered at the surface , and
weathering effects extend down to station level , 56 m below the surface.
Although the rock material is fresh, the rock mass is to be regarded as
moderately weat hered. Joints at station level were infilled with weathered
material - illite and montmorillonite. Flat sheeting structures were prese nt ,
and, as a res ult, it was decided to design the upper part of the stltlion with an
XI>
IIK. 4.28 Mc Kay Underground
Stat ion u nder const ruction.
NOle , heeting Oil lefl hand wall.
I' ll i pi ical cross section to ach ieve sta bi li ty. I n add ition, prestressed rock a ncll o rs
Wl"t.: used to increase stabilit y.
The Ramu underground power station in New Guinea was constructed in
IlHlrble, intruded by t hin dolerite sills. Although investigation indicated the rock
111 the site was fresh, excavation encountered debris-filled solution cavities. One
01 t hese occurred at roof level at the south end of the roof, and caused
ronsiderable problems with stability.
The Liapootah Tunnel, Tasmania, was driven in a thick dolerite sill , in whi ch
II dva nced weathering extends for up to 100 m below the surface. The base of the
wea thered zone is extremely irregular, and a number of sections of compl etely
weat hered rock were encountered in the tunneL These sections were wet :lnd
l' lu ycy. and occasionally, open cavities occurred. Heavy steel ribs were requin.:cl
"" sup port in these sections pending the placing of reinforced concret e
In Bavaria, t he Reisach and Weinberg pressure tunnels were constructed in
moderately to highly weathered gneiss, at depths with cover often less than 50 m.
Il ere, the designers adopted a rule of cover equal to half the internal hydrostati c
prcssure. which, for the time, was quite radical. However, thick lining and a
rl ncfui grouting programme resulted in stable structures. Considerable efforl
WIIS expended in nushing clay size material from the weathered rock about the
tunne ls prior to grouting.
'1.9.3 WEATHERING AND SLOPE STABILITY
I hc weathering of rock constituting a slope can reduce the stabi li ty of the slope
with respect to sliding in several ways. The most obvious is the production of soil
wh ich is more prone to sliding, than rock. Another way in which sta bilit y is
II'duced is by the opening up of structural defects, which then not onl y constitut e
potenti al surfaces of sliding, and reduce the strength of the rock mass, but a lso
ollow the admi ssion of water, which increases the stresses on the slope. A third
I Vpc r instabi lit y is produced by differential weathering, and thi s is of parti cul a r
IIlIf10rta ncc o n cliffs developed in sedimenta ry rocks. The morc wea tll erablc
IIll'ks decompose, di sint egrate and are eroded more rapidl y tha n the mOle
Wl' ulher-rcs ist(lnt rock. oft en resulting in sections of the slope being
x7
1IIl supporh.: d, ' li lt.: poi nl Clin bc reached whcll t he st resses !1l ot!\l lnlllllll1s way
exceed the shca r st re ngt h of the rock, a nd fai lure OCCUI'S.
Dur ing the constr uct ion of t he Clcvedon Hills secti on of t he [v1 S Trlot orway in
Engla nd, weat hering of li mestone a nd sa ndstone created stabi lity problems in
the constructed balters. In the upper 2- 3 m, the rocks were in the slightly to
moderately weat hered conditi on, with considera ble fragmentation. Retaining
walls were required in the upper secti on of the batters to ensure sta bilit y. Below
about 3 m, the open j oi nts due to weathering required bolts and a nchors, and
locall y, masonry walls we re constructed (Fig. 4.29).
Fig. 4.29 Weat hering patt ern and
remedia l works. M5 Motorway,
Engla nd. (Afte r Eyre (1973).]
------- --
290
280
I 270
o
Q


W 260
Rock classification houndery
Rock bolt s
.55::5:: Masonry
Sil t y sand fi ss ure infi l ling
Al ong the lII awarra Escarpment , south of Sydney, Aust ralia, large rock fall s,
and rock slides, occur relati vely frequentl y, endangering roads and residential
areas const ructed on the lower slopes. It has been shown that weathering of the
massive, hori zontal sandstones a nd thin shales is t he maj or factor contributing to
slope instabilit y. Weathering of t he shales accelerates time-dependent creep
deformat io n, which in addit ion to the more rapid weat hering of the shales, leads
to the toppling of joint-bedding plane bounded sa ndstone blocks. The condition
is aggravated by t he opening of joints by weathering processes, which leads to a
reduct ion in t he shear strength of joints in the rock mass.
4.9.4 WEATHERI NG AND CONSTRUCTI ON MATERI ALS
In ter ms of the ava ilabilit y of suitabl e material s for constructi on, wea thering can
be regarded as both beneficial and deleteri ous. Ea rth construct ion m<l tcrials a re
the res ult of weat hering processes. In the case of residual soil s, 111 ' qUHnt iti cs
xx
,I VII i In ble wi II derll.'lIt1 til l 111(' dt.' HI cc a nd dept h of wea I heri ng of t he pn rent rock,
lind tile wcat hcri nH I'll Ol'CS\I' S can influence the mi nera logy of the soils, which ill
111111 will affect til e c.; ngll'l cering propert ies.
Rock for usc as rip-rap, or as concrete or road aggregate, is required,
).,tl' ncrally. to be in a fres h condition. Any effects of weat hering can have qui te
hurmfu l results. The presence of certain clay minerals, for example. ca n prod uce
damage to concrete. and opal ine mate rial in slightly weat hered rocks ca n rCact
\\ rth high al kali port land cements to produce expansion a nd d isrupti on of
(;( H1 crCle. Wea thered surfaces on pa rticles of natura l gra vel result in a poor bond
\\ilh ce ment mat ri x.
In the construct ion of the ma in runway of Sydney Ai rport, ve ry slight ly
weathered dolerite was used as rip-ra p in tha t section constructed in Bota ny Bay.
I{ t; L1 ction betwee n cl ay minerals , already present. and sea water, resulted in ve ry
I apid disintegrati on and decompos iti on of the doleri te, and so t his rock had to be
!Ihandoned as a suppl y.
Resid ual soil s, developed on a rock mass as a result of weathering, a re a ready
source of earth constructi on materials. Knowledge of the degree, and patt ern, of
weat hering is essent ial, however, before any borr ow a rea is developed.
Moreover. the soil itsel f ca n refl ect mi nor changes due to weathering. In a
soil used for the constructi on of t he Rocky Valley Dam, Aust ra li a, it was
lound that withi n t he completely weathered rock, text ura l changes occurrcd
Icflecting a slight decrease in degree of weathering wit h dept h. At , and nea r the
\ urface, the texture was much finer, due to adva nced granular di si ntegra ti on,
each soil part icl e bei ng monominera li c. Wit h increasing dept h, and wilh
wcat hcring o nly very sl ight ly less advanced, the soil texture became coa rser, Thi s
IS due to ma ny of t he soil parti cles consisti ng of t wo or more mineral gra ins as n
leslilt of less complete granul ar dis integration (Fig. 4.30) .
4. 10 Concludi ng remarks
Rock weathering is of significance to the engineer, a nd the engineering geologist .
in almost every aspect of their work. In some projects, it assumes overriding
importance. It is essential for the geologist, in his investigation report. to specify
th t.: degree of weathering of rock; the pattern of weathering; the effect s of
weat hering on engineering propert ies, a nd to develop a satisfact ory cl ass ifi ca tion
of weat hered roc ks, for t he particular project. This classifica ti on is criti cal for
I he engineer's .i nter pretat ion of t he geological infor mat ion.
So far as possible, weathering data should be quantitati ve. This docs not
imply that qua li tative descripti ons a re unnecessa ry. Such descripti ons a rc
but t hey are not, in themselves, sufficient.
The possi ble effects of weat hering of the rock on t he engineeri ng work shou ld
he sta ted. Weathering affects strengt h, elast icity, sett lement cha ract eri slics .
\IHbilit y, du rabili ty, a nd , in te rms of ma teri als, ut ili ty. A consi dered o pi nion.
when releva nt , relat ing to t he excavatabili ty of the rock, should be given.
It must always be remcmbe red t hat rock type, homogeneit y of the rock ma ss.
dimatc a nd lundfonn a ll innucnce the processes a nd products frock
X9
Fig. 4.30
between 060 and depth 1'0 1
o
' .0
2.0
3.0
I
-5 4,0
fr
o
5.0
6.0
o
o

0
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
0
0
0
it residual soil developed on
granitic rocks , Rocky Valley.
Bogong High Plai ns.
Victori,,- Australia.
0
0
0
0,
0.8 LO L2 L'
2.ol
L1
_---!;: ' ---:,:-' ---:':----:':----:':----:':---;0:-
0.2 0 4 0.6
D, (mm)
weathering. Because of this, each site area or region must be rega rded, in a senSl'.
as unique, and studied carefully, applyi ng general principles.
References and further reading
Anon. (1977) The descript ion of rock masses for engineering purposes. QI,/ar/. JI. Engng. Gl'ol. 10.
355- 88.
Baynes F. J. & Dearman W. R. (1978) T he relations hi p between microfabric and the engineer i!l V
properties of weathered gra nit e. Bill! 1111. Assoc. EIIRlIg. Ceo!. 18, 19 J 8.
Baynes F . .r. & Dearman W. R. (1978) Scan ning electron microscope st udies of wea thered rocks. IJII I/
fill . ;1.\".\"0('. ElIgng, Geol. 18, 199 204.
Baynes F . .1 . & Dea rma n W. R, ( 1978) The microfabric of a chemica ll y wea t hered granite. B,,// 1I1I
Assoc. Engng. Geol. 18. 91 - 100.
Baynes F. J, & Dearman W. R. & Irfa n T. Y. ( 1978) Practical assessme nt of grade in a weathClt'd
granite. 8/111111/. Assoc. /:.11f.tnf.t. Geol. 18. 101 - 10.
Beavis F. C. (195 1) Weathe ring at Rocky Valley Dam, Kiewa. Internal Report. State Elecl lli"lh
Commission of Victo ri a.
Beavis F, C. ( 1956) Kiewa I Underground Power Station. Internal report. State EleclI l\ ttl
Commission of Vict oria.
Beavis F. C. ( 1956) The engineer ing geology of Yallourn D power station, Australia. Quart If
Engng. Geol. 8. 103- 17.
Beavis F , C. ( 1962) Geology of the Kiewa Area. Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 75, 349- 4 10.
Burwell E.G. & Moneymaker a.c. ( 1950) Geology in dam const ruction. In Applicalion of GI"(l/Il,1
to Engineering Practice (ed. S. Paige) pp. 11-44. Geological Society of America,
Dear ma n W. R. (1974) Wea thering classificat ion in the characteri73tion of rock for
purposes in British practice. Bull. Int, A.HOC. I:.ilgng Geol. 9, 33 42.
Dearman W. R. (1976) Weathering classification in the cha racteri7a l ion of rock: a revisio n. /filII I",
A,I'SOC. EIIRIIJ{ Ceol. 13. 123 8.
Evans R. S. (1978) Time de pendent factors determining t he rock !: Io pc stnbil it y of the IIl u\'rIHU
Escarpment , New SOll th Wal es. Unpub lished Ph I) thesis, Unive rsi ty or New SOllth S, d lll \
Austra lia .
Pyre W. A. ( 1911) "1 he rC Vtltncnt of lock s lopes in til l' ( ' lrV{'llnn II ill ll I(lt 111(' M Motn1 WIIV (hIHII
.11 I"" .IlII/.l ("/'111 fl. 221 10
'III
I P. G .. Dearman W. R. & Franklin J. A. (1 971) Some engineering aspects of roc k
Ilt ll t' Iing.Quart. JI. E/1KIlf.t Ceo!. 4, 139- 85,
A., Broch E. & Walton G. ( 1971) Logging the mechanica l charaetersof roc k. TrailS. Inst.
1/", lip/. 80, AI - 9.
t i\UUm .I . A. & Chand ra R. ( 1972) T he slake d urabilit y test. 1111. JI. Rock Mechs. Min. Sci. 9,
II
I (, (1967) An attempt to estimate the degree of weat her ing of intrusive rocks from their
I
', tltll11cchanical properties. Pruc. Is/ CUI/gr. Illf. Sot'. Rock ,I!eells, Li.sboll. pp. 109-14.
If I Y. & Dearman W. R. ( 1978) Engi neeringcJassification and index properties ofa weathered
Itt!!t .. III/II !til. AHOC. Dlf.tng Geol. 17. 79- 90.
!HI I Y. & Dearman W. R. (1978) The engineering pet rography of a weathered gra nit e in
IIH"ull. !'ngland. Bul/lnt. Assoc. t.iWIK Geol, 11,233- 44.
! , (1974) The stabilit y of the coastal cliffs. Sydney. unpublis hed M.App,Sc. thesis. Uni versity
I \\ South Wales. Sydney Australia.
I 11111111111\ F. C. (1969) Chemical WeatherinK uf Silicate Mineral.\. Elsevier, New York.
, ' ) (i . (1955) Engineeri ng geology for the Snowy Mountains Scheme . .l1 Insf. t,-'nws Australia
" I 1)9.
'Iii t il>. Wl'arli"ring. Ol iver & Boyd, Edinburgh
111 11 1\ II . & Ber ry L. G. ( 1957) Weat her ing of granite and associated erosional fea tures in Hong
/11/ 11 (ieol. So('. America 68. 1263.
I' '1111111 P. J. ( 1967) Geological invest igations for the Wya nga la Spillway Sit e. Civ. nR. Trans.
, 11111 \ ' I I/,\'fralia CE9. 1- 44.
5
The Land Surface
5.1 Introductory statement
Most types of landform - mountains, valleys, plains, cl iffs and beaches - owe
their origin to processes dependent on the action of wind and water, the latt er
sometimes in the form of ice. The two processes principally responsible for the
fo rms which make up the earth's surface are erosion and deposition. Abrasive
rock materials carried by wind or water, or embedded in icc are responsible for
erosion; deposition occurs when the transporting agent is no longer able to carry
the load of material responsible for. and produced by. erosion. This suggests lhat
two basic types of landform can be recogni zed: erosional and depositional. Such
a classification. however, is incompl ete, since some landforms are the direct
result of other processes, such as igneous activity and tectonism. Volcanic cones
and domes, and lava and ash plains result from volcanic activity, whi le
escarpments a nd mountains are produced by faulting and folding.
Geomorphologists. thcrefore. classify landforms as being either const ructional
or destructionaL Such a classification, while useful, is too simpl e, since
constructional landforms are being modified a ll the time by destructional ,
erosive, processes, and destructional landforms by constructional processes.
Two main factors innuence landform morphology and pattern. The first of
these is the climatic factor; the second is the geological factor. Climate plays a
major role: it is obvious that erosion will be of a different type in each of humid
temperate, arid. and arctic regions. Rock types, their relationship to each other,
and their structure are of at least equal importance with climate. Landform
pattern, for example, is very often determined by the geometry of geologica l
structures. Some landforms develop irrespective of geology (for example coral
reefs) and others, irrespective of climate (many coastal types). However, in most
cascs, both climate and geology have to be considered.
It is impossible for a geologist to assess adequately the geology of a region
without taking into account landform. In fact , landform often gives the first
piece of data; air photo interpretation for geological purposes is based almost
exclusively on geomorphological principles. Similarly, the engineer requires a
knowl edge of geomorphology to assist in planning and design. The importance
of geomorphology to the engineer concerned with road, river. beach, and slope
enginee ring cannot be overemphasized, Geomorphic processes are in progress at
ulmost every engineering site, and it is the process, as much as the product , whi ch
will concern the engineer.
('limnlic "ollhol of hmdform
(' lirnat e the geomorphic and geologica l processes of tt nd
l'lo, io n of rock both indirectl y and directly; indirectly by dctermllllll g thc type
Hnt! densit y of the vegetati ve cover, directly by determining the of
wt'a thering, erosion, and deposition, Climate has been used as the fo r the
r01lcept of morphogenic regions. In this concept , mlerlll s ?f
lIull ual temperature range, average annual preCIpitatIOn, and terrum
JIH)rphology. For each morphogenic region, the main agents and of
"Iosio n have been described. The concept assumes that for each region a
rOlnplex system of climatic processes gives rise to typical landforms which arc
uili que for each particular region.
Besides influencing the type of landform developed. climate determines the
late at which weathering, erosion, and deposition take place. If'soil erosion' is
excl uded rates of erosion are generally relatively slow. However, erosion is
much rapid in mountain a reas tha n in lowlands. and it is slowes t in arid
Inlles , , .
In assessing the role of climate, it is not merely the present day Wlll.ch
hus to be considered, For example, vast areas of the northern hemIsphere, With
te mperate climates, have glacial landforms developed during peri ods of the
Pl eist ocene Ice Age. In the Australian arid zone. the landforms have been
Inherited, in part, from past humid temperate climatic It IS necessary,
100 to consider minor seasonal climatic variations and their effects. In cold
win'ler spells in temperate zones, frost action has a destructive on soi l
I\ tructure, which in turn has an effect on slope form and stability.
Coastal landforms would appear to be independent of chmate (except for
li nrds and coral reefs). However. some coastal features such as shore plat forms
und foredunes appear to be climaticall y controlled to at least some degree.
Geological control oflandform
J'wo elements are involved in the geological control of landform: the type of rock
constituting the mass, and the structures present in the rock mass. In terms of
l ock type, it is necessary to consider four main groups:
(i) intrusive igneous rock masses;
(i i) volcanic rocks;
(iii) sedimentary rock masses;
(iv) metamorphic rock masses.
St ructural controls are faults, folds, joints, and minor intrusive structures such as
dykes. Occasionally. metamorphic foliation may be important.
5. 3. 1 LANDFORMS ON INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK MASSES
I he t opography developed on an intrusive igneous rock ma.s5 .is lypicall y
l o unded , wi lh tors, slightly weat hered joint bound remnants. dl slrlbut ed
1 he surfa ce. the morc highly weathered material having bee n erod ed away, I hI.;
fOund ness of the to pogra phy is due in a large measure to the weathering
of cx foJinlion and sheeting, This docs depend to some degree on rock type. Si nce
<) 1
some " ,iOl ili c ITIHSSCS tend to t opographi c depressions, III Nlllllt' IIJ\' O\ orvcry
low. nllnrall, and where the Igneous rock is very closely joint ed und faulted.
co ni cal, than rounded, hill s are formed , as in the granitic terrains of
southern Smal.
drainage pattern in massive igneous terrains is frequently rectangular
reflecting the rectangula r joint pattern of the rock mass (Fig. 5.1). In
Fig. S.J .J oint p<l!\crn and stream
p;111ern in gl'<lll odiorit c.
Vi ctoria. !\uslralj<'l.
____ ____

instances,. drainage li neaments may be formed (Fig. 5.2). These are drainage
tracts which are rectilinear over a considerable length. Since these lineaments
(a)
Fig. 5.2 Fault lineament on Spion
Kopjc Creck. north-cast Victoria.
Austl:alia .. (a) Map. (b) Photograph
shOWing IlneameJlt .
94
/
I cpresc nt :l Ii I1 C of Wt' U k ("OIlIpri si ng readi ly eroda ble Inn teria I i 11 a n ot h Cl\vi sl'
resistant rock mUMi, they III C or great interest to both geologist and enginccl.
Drainage lineaments arc most commonly formed on a fault zone. a 7.one of
intense jointing and fracturing. or on a bed of soft rock.
5.3.2. VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Volcanoes are points from which igneous material is erupted at the earth's
s urface. Eruption may occur from a singl e point , or from a fissure. The type of
eruption, and the landforms produced depend on the nature of the molten
magma. Acid and alkaline lavas are extremely viscous, and do not flow readi ly.
As a result , they tend to form plugs, such as the needle of Mont Pelee; Shiprock,
New Mexico; and the Glasshouse Mountains, Queensland, Australia. Because
of the viscosity of the lavas, vents are often blocked; pressures develop, and
violently explosive erupt ions occur. Basic lavas , such as basalt, are more fluid .
and form cones (Fig. 5.3), and lava plateaux, although violent eruptions ma y
Fi2. S.3 (a) Basaltic cone. :\ew
Bril a in. (b) Acid lava cone. New
Lcaland.
result in ci nder cones. The Deccan, India; the Antrim Plateau ofIreland ; and the
Western Volcanic Plains of Victoria in Australia are examples of extensive la vH
plateaux.
Craters arc usually prese nt on volca ni c cones. The crat ers are of two types :
the simpl e crat !,,! !' . lind the cald era. The former is the result of explosive activit y,
the la ttcl' or bOlll (' I II pI i nn and su bsidcncc. Bot h types are frcq L1cnt ly OCCII pi ed by
lakes. Young lava plateaux comprise a rough terrain due not only to the broken
nature of flow surfaces. but also to such features as lava blisters and la\'a cones.
In contrast. deposits of cinders and ash (Fig. 5.4) form quite level and smooth
land <.,urface:-.. After ero ... ion "'tep and tread de\elop'" (i---ig:. 5.5).
dctermined b) dt'-,tinct flo\\ .... E\en in thl.., ca..,c. ho\\c\'er. \\hile
weathering and erosion may hone removed the Initial of the land
surfacc. outcrops of jointed rod .. and pillar stre\\.., (Fig. 5.6) re ... ult in an Irrcgular
surface. \\hile ..,Iope.., be co\cred b) rock flo\\ ...
Fig. 5.4 "h dCrO'Jh, eolal'
\ ictuna. I\u,[ralia
Basal'
T"II
,,- 0 ____ -'-'''m
"il.5.5 Cro,,-,cction of the \1t _11m Ba'alh. Bogong Plain'. \u;ltlria, ,ho\\Jng ,tCP and tread
1 he,e noV., arc of lnv.cr 1 age
Fig.5.6 JOInted outcrop and
pillar !>tre""!>. Bogong High PlaIns.
Victoria. Australia
If la\'a OO\\-S are underlain by soft bedrock. headward erosion by streams
cau..,es a rapid undermining. collapse. and retreat of the flo\\ margin.
Comequently. waterfalls are often found at the margins (Fig. 5.7) Similar
I ig. 5.7 \\ Jteridll itt marglll \11
ba,ah 11,,\\ le"nrd. \'ll'\(lfla
Au,trallil
geomorphic features may deselop where lava flows are underlain by ash beds. In
some cases. lava flows have partially filled pre-\'olca nic valleys: lateral streams
develop along the margins of the flow. and. after erosion has progressed. the lava
remains as an interfluvial ridge. It is important for engineers to appreciate the
significance of this particular type of landform. since. at a damsite on a lateral
stream. sub-volcanic sediments. with high permeability may occur. giving rise to
high water losses from a storage (Fig. 5.8).
=:.::- ..
Fig. 5.8
5.3.3
LA"DFORMS 0\ SEDIME\TAR) ROCKS
Although lithology exerts some control, landform development on sedimentary
rocks' . fl
IS more In uenced by the attitude of (he beds. If (he sedimentar"-' mass
co . . J
. nSlsts of aiternatlng beds of hard and soft rocks. and the beds are hori7ontal. a
d,ssected plateau is usually deJeloped. in which the vallevs are deep and steep
SIded N . I I'fr -
. ear vertlca c t s are formed in (he harder rocks. with somewhat gentler
slopes in the soft rock. The landscape in such a terrain is frequently spectacular:
exampl es are the Grand Canyon, Colorado. USA; and the Blue Mountains. New
SOUth Wales, Australia (Fig. 5.9). The alignment of cliffs is determined by
JOinting in the harder rocks. and cliff formation usually invclves toppling failure
97
Fig. 5.9 Bluc Mounta ins. Ncw
South Wa les. A plateau
in horizo ll!<ll sedi mentary roc ks.
of joint and bedding plane bounded blocks. Where dissection is not deep, step
and tread topography may be developed, similar to that in volcanic terrains.
When the rocks have a significant dip, but are not closely folded, a dip slope -
escarpment topography is commonly formed (Fig. 5. 10). In some instances the
Ouarlli te
1 km
Fig. 5.10 Dip slope escarpment topography on gent ly di ppi ng sandstones and quart zites. ncar
Broken Hi ll. Australi a.
escarpment may be fault induced, but more commonly it is an erosive feature.
Closely folded sedimentary sequences have landforms which are reflections of
the fold structure. In the example shown on Fig. 5.11, hard quartzitic sandstones
on the limbs of a syncline, stand up as paired ridges, with a valley eroded into
softer shales.
Special landforms are associated with carbonate rocks such as limestones
and dolomites. Typical is a karst topography, i.e. an assemblage of Inndrorms
which results from the di version of the drainage system from I Ill' Sill rll ce 10
9H
IIIMI"IIo'
11r.t . '\.I I Relationship be t ween lit ho logy. st r ucture and landform. Faraw,t y New S()\I(h

underground, and with subsurface solution of the rocks. Caves a nd si nk holes.
oll en rubble filled , are characteristic features of such a topography. ' I he
Importance of such features for the engineer requires a strong emphas is: II
lIumber of dams have been constructed, and failed to retain water, which hHs
hl'e n lost t hr ough solution cavit ies in limestone, for exampl e thc Mon te Jaques
d.t111 in Spain. Despite their solubilit y, crystalline limestones and dolomi1 es a l C
l11 ghly resistant to erosion, and frequently stand up as ridges and uplands.
' . 1.4 LANDFORMS IN METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Beca use of the strong foliation in metamorphic rocks, the topogra phy lends 10
lillve a pattern which parallels this foliation: this has been termed l exl tlred rellrf'
(Fig. 5. 12). In some very high grade metamorphic rock masses, where II ,,
joliation is often dispersed, the rock resembles, in many respects, a granite. In
Nuch a case, the landforms are similar to those of a granitic landscape.
S. 12 Textured I'elief in schist s
wll h dipping at a low
Arrowtown . New Zealand.
Contact thermal metamorphism of sediments by an intrusive igneoll s nutss
lesults in the conversion of the sedimentary rocks into metamorphic qual't7ilcS
ond hornfe lses. These are extremely hard, durable, erosion resistant rocks. rUle! .
wi th erosion, stand up as a well defined ridge around the intrusive mass. T hi s
len lure ca n be important for the engineer. I n the 19th century, the constructi on of
llie rai lway from Me lbourne to the Bendigo gold fi elds, in Victori a, involved lhe
('onstl'lIcti on of t wo tunnels, onc on the southern, the ot her on the northern.
II1n lgins of thl' II II l'rourt Gra ni te. th rough the ridges of hornfels.
1)1)
S.1.5 I ANI>HlI\MS I>lIl ' I () l ' AlI l I S
t-:uults produce landforms of two basic l ypes, depending on the Inuit movement,
and on the pattern of faulting.
Where there is a vertical component of fault movement , an escarpment is
developed. Because of the resultant uplift , erosion on the upthrown side of the
fault is accelerated , and, as a consequence, most fault escarpments are quickly
modified. Figure 5.13 shows an example of a deeply dissected, young fault
Fig.5.13 Escarp ment d\!\"c loped
on the Tawonga Thrust. MI
8ca ut y. Vi ctori a.
escarpment produced by a low angle thrust fault, the vertical component of
movement on which was about 1000 m. It was this escarpment which provided
the first evidence of a fault that was a major engineering significance in the layout
design of a large hydroelectric scheme.
Paired faults may res ult in the production of grabens, or rift valleys, or of
horsts. Some of these, for example the Great Rift Valley of Africa, constitute
major terrain features.
If the fault is of a type in which the movement is essentially horizontal, j,e. a
wrench fault , then no special landform may be obvious, except for the
truncation of spurs and the displacement of streams. However. the crush zones
of these faults are very easil y eroded, so that stream valleys develop on them, to
produce topographic lineaments . One of the best known of these faults is the
Great Glen Fault of Scotland, marked by a deep, rectilinear valley, and a series
of lochs, or lakes.
5.4 Landforms of temperate climatic zones
Water is the main agent of weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition
in temperate humid climatic regions. Hence, in such regions, streams, vall eys,
and other landforms produced by the action of water are dominant. Erosive and
transportation activities are concentrated in streams and rivers, while deposition
occurs in, and adjacent to, and at the mouths of the rivers. Every river tends to
develop a profile from its sou rce to its mouth. Thi s profil e is known as a tha/ll 'eg
(Fig. 5. 14). In the source segment, the tha lweg has a steep gradient. of len as
much as I in 5 or more, which decreases downstream. so that nca r Ihe mo uth,
gradient may be I in 1000 or less . Often a stream encount ers SOU\(' Ii.'dstu llt
100

------
Pretty Valley
'" Spion - ' --..
>.0::::-
Rocky Val ley
-____ Ideal thalweg
--- J
Ideal thalweg Or a stream. and thal wcgs of Ki ewa Rive r tributaries. Vi<:toria.
l1Iaterial, \vhen a local base level is establ ished, as distinct from the general basc
leve l, which is most commonl y sea level. but which ma y be a Upstrcal.11 of a
loca l base level, the grad ie nt is fiat, and the valley ha s oftcn Widened, With an
Itlluvia ted floor. For this reason, the poi nt at which local base level occurs may
he a suitable site for a dam. .
Near its source, the strea m occupies a valley which is narrow steep Sided,
Ilerc, the main work of t he st ream is erosion and transportatIOn.
downst ream, where gradient is reduced, thc valley floor is flat and a. lluvH.I ,tccJ ,
und the stream meanders across the fioor ofa wide open vall ey. In thi S sect ion ,
t he st ream is said to be graded, and both deposition and erosion take place
Hnally, the st ream follows, frequent ly, a tortuous course ov.er a Opl'l1,
ul ili vial plain. Erosion docs not occur. but deposition. es pecwl\ y lIl .perlod ... 01
Ilooding, may be quite extensive. Ncar the mouth of the river. t.he scdlment loud
may be deposi ted to form a delta, and the stream breaks up Int o a numbcl 01
d i ... , ri butari es. ,
Va lley formation involves both deepening and widening. The former"
uimost exclusively the work of thc st ream; the latter is partly due to lat era l
erosion by the stream, and partly due to mass movement of the valley wa lls.
Mass movement includes both soil and rock creep, landsltdes, mudflows, bl ock
slides, and debris avalanches. Unstable valley walls are a natural feature, and
even ap parently stable slopes may be in a delicate state of balance whIch may be
distur bed by any engineering activity.
Landforms of arid regions
Alt hough arid regions have very low and rainfall, and win.d is the 1,nain
IIge nt of erosion, transportation and deposltlOn, the work wa.ter IS hi ghl y
IInporta nt. Rainfall, when it does occur, does so often mtenslt y storms,
lIud the resulting floods erode, transport and depOSI t Immen.sc volumes of
material. Most arid 70ne streams tcrminate in the desert ; a large
Il vcr, such as the Nilc, may cross the desert to reach the sea. In a.nd uplands,
courses :Irc rocky vull cys, with steep slopes, and stee p gra.dlcnt s.
1 he sl rca inS tell Vl' I lit' lIplllllds, t hey deposit t hei r load to fo rm a lIuvIH 1 fans , which
1111
Il cqucntl y coal csce to fo rm u cont inuoll s apron, Within I his IIpl (111 . ).11 ound walci
reso urces ma y occ ur. The :-. tre<tms here di vide. and now oul 0111 0 Ihe: plain!\
where they may di e out , or terminat c in (In internal dra inage ba., in.
The plains are an area of sediment accumulation, but between the uplands ,
and the plain, a narrow belt of bedrock, covered by a thin layer of transport ed
rock debris may occur. Thi s i.'! called the pediment. Water. and the fine sediment
it carri es move beyond the pediment to accumulate in the centre of the basin ,
Any lakes formed soon evaporate leaving clay pans or playas,
Apart from the work of water, wind, in arid regions, is responsible fo r
erosion of rock due to abrasion by wind-borne sediments, The wind is also
responsible for sediment movement. Deposition of sand produces dunes of
various types, some of which may be fixed, others mobile. The fixed dune is a
drift of sand which has accumulated against some obstacle, usually vegetation or
a rocky outcrop. Mobile dunes assume many forms, but the more important arc
the crescent shaped barchan, the transverse dune aligned normal to the
prevailing wind direction, and the longitudinal dune, parallel to this direction.
Some arid regions ha ve had all the fine sedirnentary material removed by
wind action to lea ve the coa rser rock fragment s on the surface. These fragments
are known as gibber. hamada, or desert armour, and the deserts are said to be
stony. The stone fragments protect the underlying material from erosion: hence
the term desert armour. Because of the abrasive action of wind-borne sediments
and arid zone weathering processes , many of the stones have a highly polished
veneer of si lica or of iron oxides; this veneer is called desert varnish. In many
cases, the stones protect a very fine unsaturated clayey soil, the engineering
properties of which arc very different to similar soils in marc humid rcgions.
Some arid lones, for example interior Australia, and parts of the USA, have
mesa-type landforms capped by a duricrust of silcrete, clacrete or ferricret e.
Often, these are associated with former alternating periods of humid and arid
conditions. in Australia dating back to the Mesozoic. The duri crust cappings
remain as remnants of once very extensive sheets. Beneath these cappings, the
soils and rocks are generally dcpleted of silica, iron oxides and lime, and are often
reduced in strength as a result.
5.6 Glacial landforms
Erosion and transportation in glacial regions is performed by ice; deposit ion
occurs when the ice melts. The most common erosional landforms of glacial
regions are cirques, U shaped valleys, and fjords. Cirques, known also as
carries or cwms. are extremely common in the upland areas. They are armchair
shaped hollows, with steep sides, and usually have a downslope rim. Where a
number of cirques have cut back into mountains, they produce sharp ridges, and
pyramidal peaks called aretes. Roches mOlltonees are small hills produced in rock
by the moving ice (Fig. 5.15). The ice poli shes the gentle, long slope. and forms
the steep face by rock plucking. Since the ice of glaciers truncates spurs, glacial
va ll eys characteristicall y are U shaped. and the tributary va ll eys, al so U s haped ,
are ' hanging', i, e. their junction is some considerable height above til t' nom ofthc
main va lley, The base level of ice crosion is not necessarily Sc"11 It v(I. IIlld IllHy he
102
I III . R. oche mOlLt o nCc.
1)IIl' cn'oto\\ n. Ne\\ Zca la nd,
ht low sea level. Fjords are long, narrow, over-deepened glacial valleys, usuall y
wi th a lip at the mouth, which have been invaded by the sea.
De positional glacial landforms are common in that part o f the e<lllh\
">1 11 fa ce, and part icularly in the northern hemisphere. which was affect ed by the
Pl eistocene ice ages. Two main groups of such landforms have been recogni/ cd:
lli ose due to deposition directly from ice (glacial deposits) and those due In
deposition from ice melt-water (fluvioglacial deposit ,,). Sheets of dehri s
deposited by a glacier constitute ground moraine (Fig. 5.16). Drumlins, smonlli,
li l:. 5, )6 Grou nd moraine. nea r
1\ Nc \\ Zcaland.
ellipsoidal hill s of moraine may be associated with ground moraine, SOlne
d Iu mlins have a bedrock core. Terminal moraines are deposited at the fr ont of a
If.' treating glacier. and lateral moraines at the margins. Fluviogla cial deposit ...
ma y occur as fans or outwash plains. Eske rs are long, sinuous ridges 01
Ir ll"io nabl y sort ed, poorly stratified sand and gravel, oftcn many kilomctres long,
Under arctic or s ub-arcti c conditi o ns. where precipitation is inadequat e 101
glaciers to form, frost action results in the freezing of soil moi sture to produce II
Inyc r of permanentl y fro7cn ground, called permafrost. at , or close to. the grolllld
' III fa ce. Thi s hHS parti cular importance for foundation engineering. due 10 H'Il'
pn ... s i hilit y of I ha wi Il A (I t'e ll ni ng bencat h a heat ed bui ld ing, with loss of stl' engl h,
10\
10 unsl ahle sl opes inasmuch 11\ II I WIlI ' II
surface fo r debns, produced by surface Ih'Hving. in the SlI mnH,' 1
5. 7 Coastal landforms
Wind is a n import ant agent in the format ion of coastal landfor ms, since wi nd
waves ha:e effect on coasts. These waves strike t he shore wit h intense force;
t he abraSIve action of wave transported boulders. pebbles and sand causes rapid
erosIOn the coastal rock. The and structure of the rocks for ming a coasl
are, not mfreq uently, the most Importa nt factors whi ch determi ne the detailed
morphology of the coast. For thi s reason. geological factors may rank equall y
With man ne factors in coastal development.
The simpl est type of coastal landform is t he cliff. which may have a wave cut
plat form at Its base (Fig. 5. 17), Or the platform may be a bsent (Fig. 5.1 8). Cliffs
develop by t he cutting of a notch at the base by wave act ion, which leads to
Fig.S. 17 Cliff wilh wa \ccut
pl at form. coa,,1. J\' cw SOUlh
Wa les. Austra lia.
Fi g. 5. I H Cliff witho ut pla t ror m.
sout h coa,,!. New South Wale,
A(I \tra li a . .
/()4
rollflpse of t hl' t) V('I! Vlll p 11 11 \.. , Oll cII , hut nol always. alo ng 1\ !-o lrll Cll u rd plulIl'
\uc h as aj oinl. 1 Il l' Wll vr U II plll lllH m lies beLwee n high and low tide leve ls. Hnd IS
Ihe result part ly 01 welll !! l.: l ill g. partl y of ma rine erosion.
The widt h of plat fo r' ms tends to be self limit ing since, as the width incl'cll sl.:s.
the waves t raversing the platform lose their energy, and he nce t heir ilbil ily 10
, rodc. As wave acti on at the cliff base decreases, the cliffs become degraded by
weathering and gUll ying.
Debris produced by wave acti on, as well as that brought in by rivers.
"ccumulat es near the coast. The debris is moved along t he coast by longshore
dr ifting; cur rent s, in t hemselves, are ca pable of moving only the fi ner ma terial. It
IS t he longshore drift, whi ch result s from wave refract ion that moves the coarscl'
material. An understa nding of thi s movement of sediment by longshore d rift is
vital in the design of any harbour or beach engineering works. Much ofthc debri s
carried by longshore dri ft is t hrown up by waves, and accumulatcs to rorm
heaches, which are, for t he most part , best developed in embaymcnts in the
coastline (Fi g. 5. 19). Materi al eroded from headlands is carried into bays wherc it
I 5. 19 Aerial vic w of beach on
rhe eOl:.t coast of Aust ralia.
const itutes potential nouri shment for beaches . During calm cond iti ons beaches
undergo construction; under storm condi ti ons, beaches may be modifi ed or even
destroyed. Where several periods of beach constructi on have taken placc, cach
peri od is represented by a berm.
Those coasts which have gentle offshore gradients may have offshore bars
whi ch have been built up by waves breaking some distance from the shorc. These
gradually move shorewards to become barrier bars or beaches. The ba rr ie r b, "
may form the base for dune accumulation whi le, behind the bars and d unes,
lagoons may be devel oped. As a result of eva poration these lagoons becOlnc sa lt
ma rs hes, a nd ult imalel y dry up. Foredunes may be const ructed behind a heach
due to t he act ion of the wi nd, which t ra nsports sand from the beach, and depos it
it where vegetati on forms a trap. Several lines of such dunes may be
pa ra llel to the coast.
Unstable landforms
I 11 1.: term ' u !l Si II hie In nel 1'0 1'111' is o ne wh ich is d iffi cu It to defi nc since. in one sense,
I ()
:11 I n I C II blc. hu tile 1)1 cscnt pu I po:-.cs, I Ill' '1,' 1111 j H I'pll!'d 10 I hosc
landforms which are unstabl e with respect to engineering WOI I I' IlInti lorms
on whi ch some railure wi ll certainl y occur within the liret ime 01 1111 cngineeri ng
structure. Such landrorms include active volcanoes, hillslopes which arc acti ve ly
moving, and areas of reactive soils. It would be possible to include sli ch features
as areas of fill and areas subject to subsi dence as a result of mining operations,
but these are excluded here on the basis of their not const itut ing natural
geomorphic fea tures.
The effects of volcanic activity are well known. The landscape can be
changed dramatically by eruptions, which are accompani ed by earthquakes,
landslides and rock avalanches. Ash and lava produced by the activity al so
modify the la ndscape. The potentially unstable hillslope is marked by terracettes
(Fig. 5.20) and by mudOows (Fig. 5.21) and landslides. The engineering
Fig. 5.20 Terracett es on hi ll slopc,
New South Wales. Aust ralia.
Fig. 5.21 Mudnow on hillsi de.
New South Wales. Australia.

, '

significance of such slopes is discussed lat er; however, it can be said here that any
engineering act ivity on these slopes will almost certainly lead to renewed
movement. Areas of so-called reactive soils are occupied by soil s which are
expansive, and which, frequently, especiall y in arid and semi-arid areas, arc
unsaturated. The soils expand on wetting and shrink on drying, setting up
stresses in structures founded on them. These stresses can produce dumage, or
even failure, in rigid structures,
106
GeOll1orphic maps for engineerin!.: purposes
I he delinemi on and representation of geomorphi c features on a map is now
part of an engineeri ng geological investigalion.
. d t ' 1 depend 'lng on scale such features as streams, spnngs, t\l1dsll dcs.
VIII ylll g e al " . I
. Inpe gradient , and lines of slope change (Fig. 5.22). The geomorphi c map ma y >c
5. 22
,
,
,
,
I
:'
-v- Convex break of stope
..:L..... Concave break of slope
_ v- Convex change of slope
_A _ Concave change of slope
TTITI Concave and convex slopes closely assoclJl ed
Geomorphi c map of lands lide area, Lorne, Vict oria, "us1 ralia. [After Evan:, ( 1973) , I
pa rtl y geologi cal inasmuch as accumulations of lake and ot her ol e
defi ned and such features as caves and sinkholes are located. If appropnat e, thc
gcomo;phic map is accompanied by a slope category map (Fig. 5.23). These
define areas of similar slope gradient. ,
o r course, geomorphic maps are used for areas other than .. 1'01
cxample, they I1lUY he lI sed to delineate varioll s erosional and depos lt lOl\ul
107
r.-.-
'.
0L'__ -, l?O__ -,-, 'J90 rn
-.

. 6- 10
11 15
16 20
- 20"
and stream bed characteristics along a stream channel , and, in arid
regIOns, areas of stony desert and of dune accumulation .
. The Society's report "Land Surface Evaluation for Engineering
Pract Ice ( 1982) dIScussed the application of geomorphological principles to
englnce,nng .. Land evaluation tends to complement terrain
evaluatIon which IS di scussed 10 Chapt er 8. Land surface evaluation involves a
of systems and techniques depending on the purpose of the evaluation.
These Include: land classification, land surface mapping, air photograph
InterpretatIOn, and the use. of remote sensing systems additional to aerial
photography. GeomorphologIcal maps produced ca n be of different types, such
as morphologIcal , whIch present the detailed shape of the land surface, and
whi ch are c,ompletely factual , without any interpretation. Data 0 11 these maps
sl,opc gradie nt, relief amplitude and strea m cha nnel cnn be
directly related to engineering aspects of the proj ect. MOl' plloclu ollologica l
lOX
11111 ps d ist i ngu ish t he var ious la nd form units accord i ng I t hei I' age. A d ist i lI e t iOIl
made between recent landforms, and relict forms rela ted to past processes.
M lIch of the information on thi s type of map may be interp retative.
Morphographi cal maps depict the landform units by their currcnt shape.
II lId are ident ifi ed by a specific name, e.g. fan; landslide. Finall y. the
morphogenet ic ma p depicts the origin and development of the landfofln unit s.
I hcsc maps include the nature of the materia ls, a nd data on the proccsses
rllr rcnt ly developi ng the topography. It may, in some cases, be necessary 10
III oducc separate maps to emphasize some one aspect of int erest to the cnginccl,
l'.g. wate rways, landsl ides, or other potent ial hazards.
Geomorphological ma ps have applicati on to a number of enginceri ng
Idated undertakings - planning and design of projects, and mat erial s
II1 vcstigation. They have considerable appli cation, especially in deve lo ping
l'o untries, to regional and town planning.
IIcfcrcnces and further reading
(,harley R. J. (cd.) (1971) Introducrion 10 Fluvial Processes. Methuen, London.
Davies J . L. (1972) Geographical Variation in Coastal Development. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.
Davies J. L. ( 1969) LAndforms of Cold Climares. Australian National University Press, Canbcrr II
I ,am R. S. ( 1973) Slope sta bilit y stud ies. Unpubli shed Honours thesis. Uni versity of MclhoUI IU:
( ircgory K. J . & Walling D. E. ( 1973) Drainage Basi' l Form and Process. Edward Arnold, London
l eopold L. B., Wolman M. G. & Miller J. P. ( 1964) Fluvial Processes in GeomorpholoRY. W, II
I' rcc man, San Francisco.
Mabbutt J. A. ( 1977) Deserl Landforms. Aust ralian National Univers it y Press, Canberra.
Qllflrlerly Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol . 12, NO. 3. London, 1979. SymposiullI (I II
Ingincering Geological Mapping for Planning, Design and Construction in Civi l
Iwidalc C. R. (1968) Geomorphology. Nelson, Syd ney.
I widale C. R. (1 976) Analysis of Landforms. John Wiley. Sydney.
Water Researc h Foundation of Australia ( 1976) Un.Hable Landforms. Sydney.
Young A. ( 1972) Slopes. Oliver & Boyd, Edi nburgh.
10')
6
Soil: Material and Mass
6. 1
General statement
Wit h the exception of purely organic soi ls such as peat , all soils are derived from
the type of soil i.s a fun,ction of geology, cl imate and the general
environment. The properties of sOlIs are distinctly different from those of rocks'
an area exists, however, where it is very difficult to decide whether a material is a'
rock or a soil. Both rock and soi l can be defined as aggregates of mineral
pa r ticles, with voids whrch are occupied by either. or both, a ir and water. Rock
materia.1 is genera lly firm. compact, and sol id, with a re latively high strength and
possessing a .certain elasticity. Soils, on the other hand are generally loose
aggr.egates, wit h low strength, and with little or no elast icity, and the individual
partIcles can be readily. Moreover, the water in the voids plays a
much greater part In determlOIng the properties of a soil than it does those of a
rock. The term soil itself means different things t o different people. To the
pedologIst .It IS a profile comprising three separate horizons, each of which is
In itself in the total soil. The geotechnical engineer tends to
di sregard. A honzon of the pedologist , because of it s inferior engineering
charactenstIcs, and. regards as ' engineering soil' the completely weathered grade
VI rock .. The A honzon, often containing organic matter, should not be ignored
l.t an important role in many engineering situations, especially
In slope instabilIty.
The A horizon of the pedologist is a zone of eluviation or leaching, the upper
of :v
hlch
contaInS much organic material under many conditi ons. The B
horIZon IS a zone ofilluviation or accumulation, while the C horizon is weathered
rock. The actual profile developed depends on the parent rock and on climat e
(Fig. 6.1). Even the so-called transported soils will , with time, develop a profile
under the influence of climate.
In the broadest genetic sense, soils can be grouped into two classes for
engineering purposes:
(1) Residual or in situ soil s, which have formed, in place, by t he weathering of
a rock mass. Such soi l masses are, within the limits set by the natural profile,
often homogeneous; certainly, the C horizon will be homogeneous if the rock
mass itself is homogeneous; these soi Is reflect t he characteristics of the rock mass
from which they have been derived.
(2) soil s, which have been transported by wincl , Wi ll e l , o r icc,
a nd deposited to form a soil mass. Some soil masses or Ih i..: IYlll' Illa y he
homogeneoll s, but most are ext remely inhomogc ncou\ , \VI II ' l t'/ I \ !he
11 0
'"
l oss,l Ili l ro PlI C
0 __ _
l ate r1t c
.::/:;;/
,/' //' Fri abl e
Ir onstone
J
+ + Parent
+ g ra ni te
+ +
1111
o OrganIc
';: ', ": '; lup sOi l
BloJched cl ay
. . . KaQli nuic cl ay
CW
gra rm s
15 + + + HW MW
+ + g r an ite

o __ ._._. FCl r ll f/,nO<IS
. : _ '._'. l ate rit e
' .
10 " 0 Por ous
o 0 late rit e
o ' 0
Transit i onal
Kao li ni zed
basa lt

3 1\ Parent
1\ basalt
!III

. ; ::-: CW I)1IJ8It
. : . .. . .. m nlrl ly
'. :.' ::. kHol lrHl a
... : .
. . : Unit
, ,
/I. /I. MW It W
/I.
/I. 1\ Pn rlllll
1\ I)/.. nlt
Fig. 6.1 Profiles of soils developed under differing clim,lIie conditions: (a) Tropical laterit ie
Dohomey. Africa. deri ved from granite. [Afte r McNeil (1964).) (b) Temperate zone soil. Bllllll .
Australia. derived from granite. (c) Tropicallaterit ie soil. on basalt. Southern India. [After Me Neil
( 1964).] (d) Temperate mne soil on basalt . Kiama, Australia.
composition, texture and fabric of residua l soils are determined by the paren!
rock mass , climate and agents of weatheri ng, these characteristics oftransp0r1 cd
soi l are dete rmi ned, in addi t ion , by the agent of transportation, the di stance
which they were t ransported, and the condit ions of deposit ion. Furthermore,
t hey have been derived from more t han one parti cular rock mass.
The mechanical properties of the soil material, and ultimat ely of the soil mass.
are fixed by the minera logy, particle shape, texture, fabric and moi sture. Til ,'
materi a I properties are of prime int erest if the soil is to be used as a construel iOtl
material' if the soil mass is to form the fo undation of a structure, it is t he mns,\:
which demand attention. The properties of soil in the di sturhed
condit ion differ st rongly from those in the in situ condition: this fact emphasisl.' s
the importance of the soil fabric in det ermining the soil's properties si nce. willl
disturbance, the fabric is totall y destroyed, and a new fabric developed .
6.2 Mineral composition of soils
The minera l components of a soil are fixed , in t he first instance, by the nature of
the parent rock, modi fied by the degree and nature of the weathering, whi ch an!
determined by climate. Soi ls formed from similar rocks, but under varying
climatic condit ions, may have quit e different mineral compositions, especia lJ y in
so far as the clay minerals are concerned. Under certain climatic conditions, e.g,
in arid regions, some other minerals such as gypsum and halit e may be present to
influence t he propert ies of a soi l; however, it is the clay minerals which have tht,;
greatest effect on the mechanical behaviour of a soil. Organic matter, usually
present in poorly drained soils in wet areas, has a deleterious effect: for thi s
reason, organic rich soils are avoided as both foundations and as const ructi on
materials.
6.2. 1 CLAY MINERALS
Since it is the structure of a clay mineral which cont rol s such aspects as ion
exchange. /ll1d !hl' ndmi ssion a nd expul sion of wat er from t he crystal . it is the
III
structure which is primaril y responsible for Ihe influence whi ch Ihc"ic mineral s
exert all a soil.
The kaolinites form very stable soils since their tight , non-expa ndabl e
structure resists the introduction of water into the lattice, an9 hence the soils do
not incur the destabilizing effects of water. Furthermore kaolinites, when wet ,
are only moderately plastic and tend to have a higher coefficient of internal
friction, and therefore a higher shear strength, than other clay minerals.
Generally, unless impurities are present , kaolinites are not subject to expansion
with wetting. One of the kaolinite group, halloysit e, occurs as rounded or
flattened tubes; if water is introduced, the tube- li ke st ructure is capable of creep
and fl ow under the lubricating action of the water. This has been likened to a
'roller bearing' effect.
In the 11101111110rilloniles, the sheets making up the structures are loosely
bonded, so that an unstable mineral results, with the instabi lity increasing if
water enters the structure, which it can, quite readily. Water molecules insert
themsleves between the loosely bonded sheets, causing expansion of the
structure. When thi s occurs, the montmorillonite sheets are enclosed in films of
water, and so the soi l has high plasticity and a low coefficient of internal friction .
The structure can lose water as readily as it can take it up; with water loss,
montmorillonite soil s are subject to severe shrinking and cracking.
The ilIires are similar to the montmorillonites, but the crystals tend to
aggregate and, as a result, the aggregate structure tends to attract less water. In
comparison with the montmorillonites, the illites have a much more limited
hydrati o n capacity, t he swelling- shrinking characters are less marked, a nd the
coefficient of friction is somewhat higher.
The cali on exchange capacity, and the nature of the exchangeable cation are
two factors which pla y a part in determining the mechanical properties of a soil.
The commonl y exchangeable cations in a clay soi l are Na' , K', Ca
2
", Mg2+, H" a nd
NH'4. Clays with HI, but particularly with Na" tend to possess poor mechanical
characteristics, and tend to be unstable. A marked improvement can be achieved
if the H I or Na' are exchanged for Ca
2
+. The nat ure of the excha ngeable cat ion,
and the cation exchange capacity are the bases for soil stabilizat ion using
chemical su bstances, and for electro-osmotic processes. It is known, too, that
these aspects of clay minerals can affect the stability of earth dams , especiall y
with respect to piping failure (Wood el 01 1964; Beavis el 0/ 1978). Water in
st orage ma y cont ain ions in soluti ons which undergo exchange react ions with
clay minerals in the soi l of the dam. This becomes critical when the wate r is sali ne
and Na + of the water exchanges with other cations on the clays.
Clay minerals may be present in soils in a number of ways, depending to some
extent on the or igin of the soi l. In residual soi ls, the clay minerals tend to occur as
aggregates, pseudomorphous after the mineral from which they formed during
weathering. In this way, clay aggregates occur after feldspar , olivine, micas.
amphiboles and pyroxenes. On the other hand, in transported soil s, clay minerals
may occur as much smaller units, often, but not always, uniforml y d istributed
throughout the soil mass. The mode of occurrence of ela y mineral s in I he soil .
1/ 2
U lid I heir I i bu t i OIl. ell 11 a ff eel I he fllecha II iell III nel hyd 1 (l lngleu l pi 0 Pl ' l t It: ... III
t hc soil.
6.2.2 OTHER MI NERAL CONSTITUENTS
Mine ral constituents other than the clays may be rock fragment s. qU::l1t/ ,
feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, iron ox ides and accesso ry
minera ls, resistant to weathering, such as garnet, zircon, sphene, apatit e, rutile
and tourmaline. It has been noted that ha lite and gypsum a re commonl y prese nt
in a rid zone soils. Alt hough these last two minera ls can affect soil properlit.:'\ ,
overall, the clay mine rals are the most important. The signifi ca nce of the main
rock-'forming mineral s li es more in their size, shape, and di stribution than wilh
their chemical nature. The influence which quartz, feldspars, and the other rock
for ming minerals exert on soil is, as yet, imperfectly understood. It is known thill
the shear strength of a soil can be modified by the nature of the silicat e miner" I
present: the coefficient of friction of quartz on quartz differs from t hat . of
fcldspar on felds par, o r of quartz on feldspar. Whether thi s is important rema1l1'"
uncertain. Soils with a high proportion of highly cleaved mineral s may develop
an a nisotropy not present in soil s poor in such minerals. The structure of
minerals, which may determine the strength of bonding with clay minerab. \!J ill
have some influence, albeit minor, on the soil's characteri stics.
(,.3 Texture of soils
In engi neering, the term texture is rarely used; it is more common to refer 10 til l'
gradi ng of a soil. However, texture implies more than part icle size distributi oll ,
and gives some considerat ion to the shape of the grains. Texture, together wil h
fabric, are the most important physical characteristics of a soi l in til l'
determination of its enginee ring properti es. Anyone soi l is usually made lip of It
Ilumber of different sized particles. Textural classes have been defined (Tablc 6. 1)
Iltblc 6.1 Textural classification of soil panicles.
Particle size range (mm)
Olll vcl
( ' onrsc sand
I lil t
"'l Ilt
( '11l Y
> 2.00
2.00- 0.20
0.20- 0.02
0.02- 0.002
< 0.002
11 '\ g ravel, sand, silt and clay. A soil classed as a sa nd, for exampl e, will nOI
lI eccssa ril y contai n exclusively sand-sized particles. It will usuall y contain silt
lind particles , but in lesser amounts than sand-sized grains. S imilarl y. II
day may contain a certain number of si lt- , and even sand-sized particles. The sill';
tlt ... 1 tibuti o n aspect of soi l texture is usuall y represented o n a gradi ng curve (Fi R
(1 2). " he curve gives H visual representation of the proport io ns orench si7c 111'\1'
prl' senl ; additionally. Ihe grad ing of t.hc soil ca n be assessed . A uniform. 0 1
II I
Fig. 6.2 Gradi ng curves for
three soils showing
characteristic feat ures of
uniform or poorl y graded; well
graded; and gap graded soils.
.E

'a;

>
D
c

C
u
<C
100
80
60
Gapgraded
40
20
1000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001
Grain diameter (mm)
poorl y graded, soil contains a high proportion of one particular size class; a well
graded soil contains roughly equal proportions of all sizes. Other important
parameters can be determined from the curves, e.g. the effective size (dlO), the
maximum diameter of the smallest 10%; and the unUormily coe/ficient, dso / dlQ.
which is the rat io of the maximum size of the smallest 60% to the effect ive size.
The uniformity coefficient is higher in poorly graded soi ls than in well graded
soils, having a maximum value of one for a perfectly uniform soil; it tends to be
higher in sands than in clays. These two parameters. and especially the
uniformity coefficient , are most important express ions of the grading of the soil.
The mineral composi ti on of the vari ous size classes va ries. Figure 6.3 is based
Fig.6.3 Mineral composition
of va rious grjl.dcs of a residual
soil, developed on granodiorite,
Bulla, Victoria, Australia.
E
E


c
e

200
0.20
0.02
0.002
o
Rock
Quartz
Clay minerals
20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative percentage mineral present
on the analysis of a residual soil , developed on a granitic rock, classed as a well
graded sand. It can be seen t hat the clay fraction is not constit uted entirely of clay
minerals, but contains some quartz, feldspar and micas. With increasing grain
size, quartz and rock fragme nt s become dominant. The proportion of rock
fragments in a soi l, especially one derived from a crystalline rock, is a measure of
the degree of weathering of t he soil. The more advanced the weathering, the
greater the granular disintegration, and hence the proportion of monominerali c
gra ins will increase, and that of rock fragments decrease.
The shape of the grains is to be regarded as a textural feature of the soil. Shape
114
is deter mined by the processes ofsai ! formation , und o cs pc ' illll y in It.:s idlilli sol\,'1
hy the nature of the parent rock.
For transported soi ls, shape is determined largely by the na ture of til e.'
tra nsporting medium, and the di stance transported. Shapes of grains cun vHI Y
fro111 plat y to round (Fig. 6.4) , and det erminati on of the dominant gra in shape is
essent ial for the full description of soil texture. A soil composed Of 5111 001h, well
ro unded grains will respond to stress in a quite different manner to one composed
of angular grains , where interlocki ng is possible. A soil which possesses " hi gh
proportion of platy particles may have a strong planar anisotropy whi Ch, agui n,
wi ll influence the behaviour of the soil under stress.
Fig. 6.4 Shape terms fo r soil
particles.
6.4 '.\ Soil structure and fabric
Spherical





Nonsphoncal
,
WOII! OWHlil!t

Rounch) 11
fM$i'
Sub ! ounrll .(1
,
Sub IWOllln'

AnOuln!
l3y structure of the soil is meant the arrangement of the grains which constitllt
(he material ; by fabric is meant the three-dimensional spatial orientati on of'
grains and voids. Three classes of structure may be distinguished (Fig. 6.5) :
( I) cohesion less soil structures, e.g. sand;
(2) cohesive soi l structures, e.g. clay;
(3) composite soil structures, e.g. sandy clay;
although, as will be shown in Section 6.5, some doubt exists regarding the
validity of this simple classification. Dry granular soils, such as a sa nd, ha ve an
unstable structure, which is readily destroyed. If moist, sand grains may hold
together due to an apparent cohesion, but on drying out, the structure again
becomes unstable. If the grains of a sand are cemented, the structure is stable, but
in this case, the material is approaching a sandstone. The structure, and Ihe
fabr ic, of sa nds in the undi sturbed condition, is a function of the dynllmi '
processes involved in deposition.
T he structure and fabric of clay soil s refl ect the or igi n of til e soil s. A rcsidual
clay soil ha s much the same structure and fabric as the pa rent roc k. Inorgull 1t'
cla y soil s. formed by scdimentat ion, often have a f10 cculant st ruclllr t.:, II

(a) Dispersed Ib) Moderately Ie) Highly f loeeulant
fl oecu lant Isalt water)
(I I) Cuhes iye structures
(I )
ll llli Ct UI OS
Si nder
.-, Dense binder
loose bi nder
Bi Jlder
(aJ Mat rix Ill) Cont act-bound I e) Void bound
structure st ructure st ructure
1111) Composite struct ures
Fig.6.5 Typical soil struct ures. Note that some doubt has now been cast on this classical view of
soil structure following work on fabric analysis and detailed studies using scanning electron
Inlc roscopy.
electrolytes are present, these pe rmi t flocculation of the particles to produce
large aggregates and large voids . Laminated clays are usually the result of
precipitation in still water. Osipov and Sokilov (1978) have examined the
structure of clay soils using scanning electron microscopy, and have been able to
show that each genet ic type of clay soi l has its characteristic microstructure (Fig.
6.6), although they show that past deposit ional history can affect the structure
(Table 6.2).
o 5"m
Fig. 6.6 Models of the st r uctures of clay soils. [After Os ipov and Sokilov (1978).] (a) Honeycomb.
(b) Skeletal. (c) Matrix. (d) Turbulent. (e) Laminar. (f) Domain. (g) Pseudoglobular. (h) Sponge.
Clay soil structures, in many instances, are unstable and can be readily
changed. Swelling and shrink ing are characterist ic manifesta tions of such
changes, but flocculation is as important , if less obvious. The rapid destructi on,
11 6
Tfl hl c (1 .'2 of cluy
Genetic class Struct ure
Mar ine
Est uarine
Lacust rine
Gl acia l
Gl acio-lacustrine
Res idual
Recent
Honeycomb
Matrix
Honeycomb
Skeletal-Matrix
Laminar
Compacted
Mat rix a nd I! (Jlt1)) II /1 II ('
If high deglee 01
compaction, lu I hul l' lll
or rare laminar
As for marine
Matrix
Matrix
Laminar
I hi ' It, P l d r.: II Cd
P I 11" 1111111 011 P( HII ill
I('rt' t!! \l tIY" hili
with
COi Il PII Ct l{) 11
;\ " lo r marine
Medium to high
None
Very high
A wide variety of structures, but with pseudoglobular and sponge
structure common. Structure depends on parent rock, e.g. kaolinit ic
clays on granit e have domain structure. while nontronite and
montmorillonite on basic rocks have globular and sponge structure.
or alteration, of the structure and fabric of a clay soil by man-made forces is
referred to as remoulding of the clay. The sensitivity of a clay soil to remoulding
is measured by the ratio of the uniaxial compressive strength before remoulding
to that immediately after remOUlding. Sensitivity varies from I for heavil y
ove rconsolidated clays, to 100 for extrasensitive, or quick, clays. Quick cla ys
may have their structure altered by remoulding or they may lose it complet ely.
The loss of struct ure of extrasensi t ive clays is not to be confused with
thixotropy. When a thixotropic clay soi l is subject to vibrat ion, it liquifi es
without the addition of water. r n effect, t he soil loses all of its shearing resista nee.
After a period free from vibration, the liquid soil regains its shear strength as it
changes back to the solid state. Thixotropy is probably due to a weak structural
bonding within the clay which breaks readily under dynamic forces , but whi eh
can be re-established quite readily when the application of these forces cease.
Soils other than clays are affected by reworking due to complete change in
str ucture and fabric, and this results in important changes in the mec ha ni ca l
properties. For example, a residual soil, classed as a well graded sand , deve loped
on a granodiorite, gave values for permeabi li ty of 2.458 x 10-
7
m s - I ; cohes ion of
18.53 kPa and coefficient of internal friction oDO' on the undisturbed soil. The
sa mple was thoroughly reworked, recompacted to the undisturbed densit y with
the same moistu re content as the undistur bed soi l. The reworked mat erial had
pcrmea bi li ty of 1.376 x 10-
7
m s-' ; cohesion of 27.9 kPa, and coefficient of
inte rnal fr ict ion of 28.
When any soil is immersed in water it may exhibit a slaking behavio ur. T hi s
involves a tota l loss of structure, and with this, complete disintegration . Thl:
outer parts of the immersed soil become saturated and prevent the air inside the
ma te ri a l from esca ping. If, in addit ion, expandable clay mineral s are prescnt ,
destruction proceeds very ra pidly. Ka olinite, hall oysi tc, and the clay mi cas I'es isl
117
the penetrati on 01 wat er, and remain intact when submerged. MlIllllllollll nnit cs
and illit es, however. show a hi gh degree of slaking.
6.5 ,J Analysis of soil structure and fabric
The principles of the structural analysis of soi ls were established by Lafebe r
(1966) and his associates, who investigated the quantitative aspects of soil
structure and fabric, and the importance of these in determining the mechanical
behaviour of a soil. The basic principle of these studies is that the individua l
components of a soi l, recogni zed as skeleton grains, clay platelets, and pores
(Fig. 6.7), are spatially arranged in a three-dimensional pattern which exerts a
Fig.6.7 Simplified structural
pattern of an arid zone soil,
Alice Springs, Australia. The
skeletoll grains are shown in
black; the clay matrix is
stippled , and the pores are in
white. [After Lafcber (1966).]
defin ite control over soil behaviour. Structural analysis of a soil is concerned
with the descript ion, classification and genet ic analysis of t he geometrical
characteristics of t he structure. Ana lysis considers the distribution of
components within a soil, the preferred orientation of the components and a
determination of the forces responsible for these.
In a soil , the strengths of these three components are orders of magnitude
apart , so that t he reaction to st ress of each component will be vastly different.
The forces acting on a soil are small , so that a preferred crystal lattice orientation
of the mineral constituents, due to st ress, would not be expected. React ions to
stress are reflected exclusively in the preferred dimensional orientation of onc or
more of the components. This is illustrated by Figs 6.8 and 6.9. The first of these
figures shows the voids in soil from an unstable slope; the second figure is lhe
equal area projection of the poles to these voids, showing the concentrati on of
poles in relation to the slope. The symmetry is monoclinic- orthorhombic. Thi s
ca n be compared with the projection for a soil from a stabl e slope (Fi g. 6. 10),
11 K
Fig. 6.8 Planar pores in a soil
110m Olinda, Victoria, on an
IIIl\tablc slope. The soil has
dc\cloped on Devonian acid
volcanic rock. The figure
rcpresents a section normal to
the of the slope. [After
I afcber (1966).]
Ter rain
slope
;')
I , (
"" . L ,
I '1(
J. I
.. ....r..
o 10 mm
e---;
v
where the maxima are di spersed, and the symmetry clearl y tri cl in ic.
movement has been res ponsible for the preferred dimensional orientation ofllw
pla nar voids of the sample of Fig. 6.9. The explanat ion for the pattern of
6. 10 is more complex, and is, in fact , uncertain.
Ila. (i.1i I' qual :Il ea projeclion
.. t lilt, 10 pl11ll1l1' l)Orcs 111
Ih, \ lIlII jllc 01 [ A ltci
I ,11t -hr l
c=J 0% density of pol os per unit aren 11 % o f tOUlI (li on)
[==:J 0.5% density of 1)OIcs
1'::::,:'1 1.5% densityofpolos
r=J 2.5% density of potos
.. 3.5% orhlgl1or (mnxlmum 6.5%) cfoll sl l y 01 polmi
61 1\ polo of torraln alono
I I 'I
Fig.6.10 Equal area
projection of 318 poles to planar
pores in a soil. similar to that of
Fig. 6.8, but taken from a stable
slope. [After Lafeber (1968).]
x
c.=I 0% densit y of pol es per unit area (1 % of total area)
c==J 0.3% densi ty of pol es
1>."<:.>' :1 1.0% densi ty of pol es
1.6% density of poles
_ More than 2.0% (maximum 4%) density of poles
\II P s pole of terrain sl ope
x
One of the most notable results of soil fabric studies has been the casting of
doubt on the classical ideas enumerated by Terzaghi. Few, if any, soils appear to
approach t he condition of a continuous subfabric consist ing exclusively of
skeleton gra ins (e.g. f1occulant, dispersed); rather, the arrangement is open.
Another important result is that most soils are now known to show a preferred
dimens ional orientation of one, or more, of the components. As a result, the soi ls
have a strong internal geometrical, and therefore mechanical, anisotropy. Such
anisotropy will result in a corresponding anisotropy in t he internal stress
d istribution, and therefore in the strain pattern, when the soils are loaded . That
is, the strain behaviour of geometricall y anisotropic soils will be predeter mined
largely by the character of these anisotropies.
A further consequence of fabric studies has been the demonstration of the
importance of planar voids, or cracks, which constitute discontinuit ies in the soil
mass. Rarely, if ever, is any reference made to these discontinuities in
geotechnical studies, and yet they have an importance almost equal to that or
fractures in a rock mass.
6,6 Soil consistency
While rocks, irrespective of their moisture content, are always, in practi cal terms,
brittle, soils change their condition with varying moi sture content. Thi s is
especially true for fine grained soils. Atterberg, a Swedi sh scienti st , developed"
120
method for descri bi ng qua ntitati vely the effect of water on the consistency 01
these soi ls. Four consistency states were defined : li qui d, pl ast ic. li nd
solid, a nd a rbitra ry but definit e limits were set for each sta te.
The liquid limit defines the bounda ry bet ween the liq uid a nd pl as tic statc.:s. II
is the moisture content of the soil at which a trapezoidal groove cut in the "oil
closes after 25 taps on a rubber plate. The plastic limit defines the bOllnd !!1 y
between the plastic and semi-solid states, and is the moi sture cont ent a l whi ch [ I
t hread of soil 1/ 8" (3 mm) in diameter breaks apart when roll ed. The
limit , defining the boundary between semi-solid and solid , is the nHH" l ll l l'
content at which the soil reaches its theoretically minimum value as it dl in Ollt
from the saturated condition.
In themselves , the Atterberg limits mean very little, but as indi ces ofs igll il 1\' 11 111
properties of a soil, they are quite useful. The liquid limit ha s been fO lili d to hI'
directly proportional to the compressibility of a soil; while it has bee n ' '' HIII' , lr''
by Sherard (1953) that the relationship between liquid limit a nd pl a>lic il y L" dl'\
can be a guide to the stability of a soil with respect to piping. T he/l/flSfld/l ' I",'" \
is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. Other illf Ollllll lll ll1
can be obtained from these simple tests. For exampl e, the first indicHti nn Ihul
soil is thixotropic may be obtained when highly anoma lo us va lues a rc Ohl ui lll'tI
for liquid and plastic limits, and especially when, in the test for pl astic lil ll il, Ih .."
soil thread behaves plastically even at near zero moi sture contc nt.
The Atterberg limits find their greatest application in Ihe classifi ca ti on of I in '
grained soils, and in the relationships involving these limits whi ch a re useful in
correlating soil behaviour with simple test data. For exa mpl e. the activity of a
soil is the ratio of the plasticity index to percentage clay size pa rti cles, a nd the
liquidity index relates the moisture content of a soil to the plasti c and li q uid
limits:
Liquidity index = Moisture content- plastic limit
Plasticity index
In effect, Atterberg limits describe the clay- water behaviour of a fine grained soil
and describe how their behaviour is affected by non-clay particl es.
6,7 Classification of soils
Soil s are primarily either residual or transported. Such a simple cl assificati on is
too broad to serve any useful purpose beyond giving a very indefinit e picture of
the soiL Numerous classifications have been developed for a vari ety o f pur poses,
a nd the most general, cited by pedologists, agriculturali sts, and irri ga ti on
engineers is based primarily on climate. In this system, soils are classifi ed , in tht.:
first instance, on the climate in which they have developed. Thi s ' zona l soi l
classification' rests on a sound basis, since climate, more than any other fa ctor.
has the greatest influence on soil formation. However, thi s zona l class ifi ca ti on
gives no information regarding the engineering characteristi cs of the soil.
A sound engineering classification should take into account texture, st ru c! ure,
l:tbric a nd compositi on. No cl assification ha s yet been devised whi ch docs tnk t.:
fi ll of these cril crin int o conside rati on. The so-ca lled ' unifi ed soil cl ass ifi ca li ol1'
(TobIe 6.3, I: ig. 6, II ) is the o nc most genera ll y accepted by soil s enginee rs.l hi 'i
I ) I
>.
"

o
.0
.5
122

r:
o 0
E E

0 0
NN
c--
. .

,
C 0

" "
(5 0
E E
:z: :z::Z:
::; Va
o
o
,
"
o
6.1 1 Plasticit y chart.
80
70
60

. 50
>
:g 40
30
20
10
CH
CL MH and OH
CL ML
ML
__ __ __
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 1'0
liquid limit
"ystcm is based primari ly on texture, and takes into account the parti cle si/c
di str ibution, effective size and uniformity coefficient. It also takes into aCCOllnt
I he consistency of the fine grained soils, and of the fine fractions of the coa rSc l
Hlaincd soils. Such properties as colour, odour and compressibi lit y arc a lso
\.ol1sidered for the finer soils.
rhe classification takes no account of structure, nor of fabri c fllld
('om posi tion. This deficiency can be rectified by including in the descripti on 01
Ihe soil a brief statement on composition and fabric, and appending rubric
di agrams, just as grading curves are appended to the statement on soil a nalysi s
101 classification_ The very extensive and successful use of this classificatioll
that it is almost ideal for engineering purposes_
Anot her engineering classification, designed by the United States Burea u 01
Publ ic Roads (Fig. 6.12) is based exclusively on grain size distribution. It is of
I jll 12 Soil classification
I., ."r oj t he United States
tl lllI .I II of Puhlic Roads.
100 a
______ ______
100 W
Sand %
100
o
\ I I V I"nited appli cability a nd should be used only for the purpose for whi ch it
.,, ' dl'Nigned . Its ma in adva ntage is that it permits a bri cf descripti on of the
of the soil.
12\

6.8 Mechanical propert ies of soils
Those properti es of soil s relevant to engineering geology a re the index properti es,
which are used mainly to classify the soil; the hydraulic propert ies a nd t he
mechanical properties. While the index properties are scalar, the hydra uli c and
mechanical properties are vectorial , and can vary with direction if the soi l
material , or the soil mass, possesses a mechanical anisotropy. Unl ike rocks, soil s
possess littl e, ifany, elasticity, and defo rmation under stress is for the most part
non-elastic. Moreover, the response of a soil to stress is influenced to a greater
degree by moisture content and air-fi lled voids than is t hat of rock.
The index properties of a soil are usually taken to be moisture conte nt ,
expressed as a percentage of dry weight; the Atterberg limits; porosity (or void
ratio); moisture content; and unit weight. The hydraulic and mechani ca l
properties are permeability; unconfined compressive strength; shear strengt h;
compressibility and consolidation characteristics. All of these properties arc
influenced by geological factors , especially by composition, texture, structure
and fabric of both the soi l material and mass. In part icular, fabric is of major
importance since most of the properties are dependent on voids in the soil: the
relative amount of void space, the geometrical configuration of voids, t heir
degree of interconnection, and the material filling the voids .
6.9 Characteristics of the soil mass
As was the case with rock, the geomechanicai behaviour of a soi l mass is a
function of its homogeneity, continuity and isotropy. In general, it is true that
most soi l masses possess these characteri stics to a lesser degree than rock masses.
Anisotropy in a soil mass is usually less obvious than it is in a rock mass; for this
reason it has oft en been ignored. Nonetheless, moist soil masses do possess some
degree of geometric, and therefore of mechanical , anistropy. Resid ua l soil s tend
to have greater continuity and homogeneity than transported soil s which arc
sometimes notoriously inhomogeneous and discontinuous, especia lly alluvia l
soils. In t hese. both lateral and vertical variations are both frequent and sudden .
6.9.1 HOMOGENEITY
While it is true that residual soil masses lend to have greater homogenei ty t ha n
transported soil masses, the degree of homogeneity wi ll depend on the
homogeneity of the parent rock mass. Even so, due to weathering and soil
forming processes, the soil mass developed on a n homogeneous rock mass will
show inhomogeneity which may be gradational. Figure 6. I 3 shows part of a soil
mass developed on an homogeneous quartz biotite sillimani te gneiss in north-east
Victoria, Austra lia, over an exposed section of 10 m. In weat hering terms, t ht.:
exposure is compl etely weat hered rock, the lower section of which showsjoint ,
(usuall y with a kaolinitic infill ing) , exfol iat ion surfaces, and well defined
foliation . All of these tend to be less apparent in t he upper 4 m. Samples well'
taken at 0.5 m intervals, and the geometric mean diameter of the
determined; it can be seen that there is a gradual, but derinite, decrease in thi ,
pa ra meter as the surra ce is a pproac hed. This change is d li e to increased grn !lull
124
Fig. 6. J3 Section in a
weat hered quart z biot ite
gneiss, Mt Beaut y.
showing structures in
the soil (C hori zon. CW rock)
I,nd the variat ion in geometric
iIlean dia meter of part icles with
depth.
01 0. 10 100 1000
Geomet ri c mean diam'lter of part lclOll (mill)
disi ntegrat ion as weathering becomes more intense. The main point to be madl!.
howeve r, is that this soil mass , deri ved from an homogeneous rock ma s!;, i ..
inhomogeneous. Observations suggest that t he inhomoge nd lY
ohserved in this specific example is by no means unusual , and tha t such
ht.: haviour is to be expected. If t he rock mass itself is inhomogeneous, grca tt.' 1
inhomogeneity will occur in the residual soil, any degree of homogeneity at a 11. \
10 to be found only in the B horizon of the soil profile.
Two or three examples of transported soi ls will illustrate the inhomoge nci l V
Inherent in these masses. A shallow section of a building excava ti on 11 1
Fi sherman's Bend, on the Yarra Yarra River delta, Melbourne, Australi a shows
the following features. The surface horizon is a coarse sand, 60 cm thi ck,
IIn derla in by 15 cm of highly compressible organic silty clay. Beneath the silt y
rlay is a further bed of sand, below which is an indefinitely thick layer of clays.
C1 rga nic silts and shelly sands . It is known that within a few hundred metres, the
I hin organic silty clay layer has thickened to over 30 m. Fluviolacustrine deposi ts
which overlie brown coals at Yallourn, Victoria, Australia have a basa l gravel
with a sandy clay matrix, which is cont inuous, but of highly variable thickness.
I hi s is succeeded upwards by discontinuous lenses of grey clays, brown ligneous
!"Ill YS. mottled. yellow. brown and whit e sandy clays. sandy silty clays, and silt s:
I he total thickness of the sequence (observed in building foundations) was 12111.
Wi th rare exceptions, no one lens had extent of more than 50 m hori zont a ll y.
All uvial and glacial outwash deposit s probably have the grea test
Inhomogeneit y, but flood plain alluvia may show surpri singly high homogeneit y,
II lthough both lat eral and ve rtical gradations are to be ex pected. Simil arl y.
wll1d blown dune deposits are relati vely homoge neous, both ve rti ca l a nd lat cnll
"I II iilLions be ing grada ti ona l, rat her tha n sha rp.
III a ri d a nd semi-a rid regio ns, inhomogeneity results oft en rrom wind acti on.
nllhollgh wind- bo rne deposits themse lves may be quite homogeneous. Descli
Jlll vt,: mcnt s arc rrcq ll cnll y produced on grave l ra ns a nd terraces due to the
125
removal of fi ne surface material. Beneath the stony surfa ce, I II I\.' slit und sand .
protected by t he pavement of stone, wi ll overl ie t he gravel deposit s which, like a ll
fan and terrace deposits, are excessively inhomoge neous. In some arid lones,
tra nsported material, of quite different soi l types, overli es the residual soil
developed by weathering of t he rock mass.
6.9.2 CONTI NUITY
In masses of engi neeri ng soils, the main forms of di scontinuity are:
( I) Boundaries between contrasting textural types . This form of discontinuity
is especi ally important in transported soi ls.
(2) Inherit ed discont inuiti es, such as joints, faults , bedd ing planes, found only
in residual soils.
(3) Planar voids developed in the soil as a result of soi l forming processes, a nd
as a result of drying and shrinking. These are normally near-surface features.
(4) Major di scont inuities such as tension fis sures and sliding planes in soils
which have been involved in sliding or slumping.
The proper study of the soil mass requires that these discont inuities bedescribed,
with statements on their spacing, extent , orientation and condition included in
t he description. Such discontinuities affect especia lly the permeability of the soil
mass, but also its reaction to stress. In particular, they can have a strong influence
on settlement characteristics a nd on the ultimat e bearing capacity of the soil.
Moreover, a pa rticularly well developed set of discontinuities can impart
mecha nical and hydra ulic anisotropy to the soil mass.
6.9.3 ISOTROPY
No soil mass is mechanically isotropic. While it has often been assumed t hat
some transported soils such as beach sands and dune sands were mechanicall y
isotropic, recent fabric studies are indicating at least st rong mi cro-anisotropies
resulting from the dynamic processes involved in depositi on. Residual soil s
formed by the weathering of an isotropic rock mass may be essentially isotropic,
but , as was shown a bove, residual soi ls inherit the anisotropy of the parent rock,
except where weathering has been ext reme. In some crystalline rocks, exfoliation
is a n essential phase of t he weathering process, and t he soi ls formed carry the
traces of exfoliation surfaces. It has been noted, t oo, that during exfoliation in
granites, biotites tend to be oriented parallel to the exfoliation surfaces (Beavis
1962), emphasizi ng the anisotropy due to the latter.
Anisotropic features of a soil mass have not been studied to any degree, a nd
no certainty exists as to their effect on t he mechanical behaviour of the soil mass.
It is known, however, that permeability is strongly affected by anisotropy, with
consi derably higher now rates occurring parallel to physical anisotropies than in
any other direct ion. Evidence is accumulating that the anisotropy present in clay
soi ls, due to the preferred orientation of clay particl es, does have some
considerable effect on the mechanical behaviour of these soil s, a nd much
research is bei ng directed towards devel oping a closer understa nding of thl'
effects of thi s anisotropy.
126
,
6.1 0 lind soils
The type of soil developed in an area is a functi on, primaril y, 0 1 1111\ 1
climate. However, the soil is also strongly influenced by the geomorpholof.\u:1I1
regime. On a regional scale it is frequent ly to be obse rved that bOllndtll ir.:s 01
major soil units and those of geomorphi c provinces coincide. The reltlt ionship i'l,
in a sense, to be expected si nce both soils, and geomorphology, arc determined hy
the same two factors. On a smaller scale, the rel ati onship between soi l IlIld
geomorphology is sometimes obvious; for example, alluvia l transported soi ls
invariably occur on river flats and terraces, a nd aeolian sands a lmost inVll1 ilthl V
constitute dunes. In many other instances, the relationship is not so appu renl In
particular, the geometry of uplands, and the form and steepness of slop(' "'"
highl y signifi cant.
Soil variation on uplands and slopes is due, to a considerable extent . to
hydrological fact ors. On flat uplands, run-off is low, or eve n 7CIII, " "d
infi ltration is high. Because of this , rock weathering is hi ghl y aCli ve, wilh II,,
removal , in solution, of soluble salts produced by weathering proccs'lcs; ill
additi on, erosion is minimal. Such is not the case for sharply ridged upland'! . 011
these, and on slopes, run-off tends to be high a nd infihration low. k
weathering is impeded and erosion accelerated. On slo pes, toO, a d OWII\\ llIiI
movement of soils occurs conti nuously, under the action of gravity, resu lt I I I U III
an accumulation of colluvial soil at the base of the slope. If the geology III II"
slope is non-homogeneous, different soi ls will develop on each rock IYPl' , hili
with downward movement, these soils become mixed. Soil s low down 011 "I ll1pl'
tend to retain moisture longer, and to have a higher moistu re content thlllllito"r
fu rther upslope. This results in a varying composition, especia ll y in Ihe (' liN< II I
iron oxides, which become hydrated.
The steeper the slope, the greater the variat ion in soil types a nd soil pi elf II I'
On steep slopes, erosion wi ll be more active, and the profil es sha ll owel , Chll "p'.
In soi l morphology on slopes are better understood if the seq uence 0 1 "
regarded, in it s totality, as a single unit , each member of the seq uence
)\eneticall y related to those members on either side of it. Milne (1936) illil ot!lIn'd
Ihe concept of the catena for the sequence of soi ls on a slope. The
Icatures of a soil are ana logous to the links of a chain, each link 011
those on ei ther side of it. If changes occur in one li nk, these are t ra nsmitt ed to 1111
01 the ot her links, those immediately adjacent to t he change being innll clI l'l'd
Illost noticeably.
Mi lne illustrated his concept by a sequence along a slope deve lo ped on
an ite. Here t he catena sequence. beginning at the top of the slope, and cndinA
un u plain, was skeletal grey loam - deep colluvial red eart h - Wit shed SH l1d
Irj llt y clay - clayey sa nd - clay. It is important to note t hat cate na change", li lt'
uda tional, and that they may be made much marc compl ex by the prcsen 'e 01
II llil, deve loped earli er under a different climatic regime.
I he rcs ult s of a detailed study of soil - geological geo lll OlJ1hil"III
for 3n area of 40000 ha. in the arid 70ne of Iii
11m rnuri/cd on Til hi e 6.4. I n this area, both geology a nd geomorphology Iwv(.'"
IIII-\h ch.: glcc of VIII' int i on. but climate is consta nt. For H given slope wi t h COll'i t llllt
....,
x

Table 6.4 Association of sails, rock type and landform Fowlers Gap, Broken Hill, NSW. Australia.
Soil type
Shallow reddish cres ta l
loams
Redd ish brown hardpan
crestal loams
Reddish brown plastic
clay/ clay loam
Reddish brown calcareous
clay loam
Dark greyish brown
calcareous silty loam
calcareous reddish
brow'n loamy soils
t=X<
.:by loam
Reddish brown sandy clay
)oam de\ eloped on
UDcoruolidated sediments
Sandy loam flood plain
alluvium: channel gravels
a nd sands
Geological - geomorphological characterist ics
Occur within ex tensive outcrops of sandstone. qua rt zite, and
dolomite. Restricted to the crests of ridges. ranges and hills.
Occur on broad, Oat-topped sandstone ranges
Not found on sharp ridges.
Occur on the lower colluvial section of the major slopes
underlain by quartzites, sandstone and / or shales.
Occurs on the middle and lower parts of slopes underlain by
dolomite. Sometimes on minor quartzite slopes
associated with dolomite.
Covers the gently undulating plains or stony downs
mostly underlain by shales.
Occur on undulating lowlands with low quartzite / sandstone
ridges, mostly underlain by shales. sandstones and quart zit es.
O=ccn: oa fLat Cnderla..in by silty
shales and sandstone quart z.i t e .
Occurs only on the alluvial plain. No hard
rocks occur in the area.
Flood plains and alluvial flats on major crecks. Most
extensive in areas underlain by soft phyllilic shales.
Vertical lithologic composition
Thi ck mantle of angular rock fragments consisting of
sandstones. quartzite, dolomite, silcrete, ferricrete which
overlie reddish loam \0 sandy day loam. Depth of profile is
bet wecn [0 and 30 em
Top rock fragment mantic is underlain by reddish
sandy clay loam (40 60 cm thick). which passes (sharp
boundary) through a carbonate impregnated hori zon into a
mottled, reddish, sandy subsoil. with abundant ill situ rock
fragments. Maximum depth of profile is 150 cm.
Thiek scree of angul ar quartzite fragments overlics a reddish
brown highly plastic colluvial clay loam to day (30- 70 em
thick). Lower part of profik is usually gypsiferous. sandy.
ext remely stony, and passes abruptly into a highly shattered
quartzite and / or shale bedrock, Maximum depth of profile is
230 cm.
Surface scree consisting of dolomite. quartzite. and ferrierele
fragments. overlies a day loam/ clay calcareous subsoil. which
passes into a highly rock-fragment sandy soil. Depth of profile
varies from 20 em to 300 em or more.
Ground surfacc consists of bands of stony arcas , alternating
with Slone-free bands. Reddish grey to dark brown clay loamy
sur face soils overlie a greyish. calcareous si lt y loam. Subsoil
grades grad uall y int o weathered shale. Depth of profile
is 250 em or morc.
Surface mainly covered by stony paveme nt. which o\erlies
a reddish brown clay loam (10 60 cm thick). passing either
gradually inlO a rock fragment subsoil or abruptly into a
shattered phyllitie shale or sandstone- quartzite bedrock,
Thiel.: surface pa\emem of subangular to subrounded
fragment s of quartzite. sandst one. dolomite. si lcrete and
ferr icrele, aboye a loose reddish brown clay loam ( 30- 60 em
thick), which passes either into a rock fragment subsoil or
weathered bedrock, maximum depth of profile is 250 em.
Stony pavcment occurs in patches on the surface. Upper part
of profile is sandy clay or sandy clay loam, and grades
gradually into a sandy clay loam or loamy subsoil. Soil
profiles are very deep (>400 em).
Thick sequence of sandy loam, with irregular horizons
(10- 30 em thick) of gravclly sandy loam. Alluvium overlies
weathered shale or quartzite at a depth of 150- 300 cm or
more. Loose and random sequence of channel sands and
gravels also occur.
geology, the cat c.! I1H was round to be shall ow reddi s h crcstul IWIIIl ...
brown clay loam calcareous red brown loa m - rcd brown cla y loam.
The close relationship betwee n soi l and geomorphology is o nc of the bas ic
principles of the techniques of terrain evaluat ion (Chapter 8). Appreciation of
the association is often important for the engineering geologist, especiall y in
preliminary investigations for construction materials, transport route alignment
studies, slope stability, soil erosion and hydrogeological investigations.
References and further reading
Atl cwell. P. B. & Farmer I. W. ( 1978) nle Principles of Enginering Ge%gl'. Chapman & Hall.
London.
Bcavis F. C. (1962) The geology of l he Kiewa a rea. Proc. Roy . Suc. Vict. 75, 344- 4 10.
Beavis F. c.. Beavis J. C. & Reade L. M. ( 1978) Engineering geology of small water storage
st ructures in Auslralian arid rcgions. QuaT/. JI. EnKng. Gevl. II. 27990.
Capper P. L. & Cass ie W. F. (1976) nIt' Mechallics of Engineering Soils. John Wiley. !\,Tew Yor k.
Craig R. F. ( 197g) Soil Mechanics. Van Nostrand, \ ' ew York.
HUll! C. B. (1972) The Geology of Sui Is. W. H. Freeman. San Francisco.
Lafeber D. (1966) Soil structural concepts. ElIgng. Geal. 1,261 90.
MarshalL T. J. ( 1959) Relations between water and soil. Commonwealth Agrieuh ural Bureaux.
McNeil M. (1964) Lat eritic soil s. Sl'ielll . A mer, 21 L 96- 102.
Milne G. ( 1936) Normal erosion as a factor in soil profile development. Narure 138.
Osi pov V. 1. & Sokil ov V.N. (1 978) Structure formation in clays. 8111f. /111 . Assoc. Engng. Geal. 18.
83-90.
Sherard J . L. ( 1953) The influence of soi l properties and const ructi on mel hods on the performance of
homogeneous carth dams . U.S. BlJrelW of Reclamation. Tech. Memo No. 645.
Sowers G. B. & Sowers G. F. (1970) Introtll/ clon: Soil Mechanics and Foundations. MacMil lan,
London. .
Tcr7aghi K. ( 1943) 711l' or('rimi Suil M('('hallil' s. John Wi ley. New York.
Terzaghi K. & Peck R. B. (194g) Soil Mel'lumics ill Engineering Practil'l'. John Wiley. New York.
Wood C. C. Aitchison G. D. & Ingles O. G. (1964) Physicochemical and engineer ing aspects of
piping failu res in small eart h dams. In Wal er Resources Fou ndation of Australia and CSIRO:
Colloquium on the fail ure of small da ms. Paper 29.
Wu T. H. ( 1970) Soil Mechanics. Allyn & Bacon. Boston.
Yong R. N. & Warkentin B. P. (1966) Inrroduction to S oil Behaviour. MacMillan, New York.
110
7
Water in Rock and Soil Masses
7.1 Introduction
The presence of water in a static condition in rocks and soil s has fl It hk
effect on their reaction to stress. In any rock orsoil mass , however, lhc WHIt" IN III
a dynamic condition: it is moving. The study of the moving wat er COII SIII 1111
science of hydrogeology. The two most fundamental concept s of' hy<ll
are those of the hydrologi cal cycle and of the water table. lI ydIIlW' "I"f' Y "
concerned primarily with groundwater as a resource: its avai la bilit y, t 11 1' 11111 til
a nd physical properties, and its util it y for various purposes such a N 1111111 I II 111111111
water supply, or for industrial use. Addit ionally, however, groundwllirl 1111 " 111 111
studied in terms of civil engineering works, e.g. the 01 WIIH I 1111111
reservoi rs to join the groundwater body; the inflow of groundwlllt' l lu tUIlIl1 I
inflow into excavations, and seepage on slopes.
7.2 The hydrological cycle
Thi s concept shown on Fig. 7. 1, can be expressed algebraI call y hv till
hydrol ogical equation:
where: P is the precipitation; R is the run-off; I is the infiilrati on; I 1"1 11 11
evaporation; and Tis the transpiration.
The equat ion simply states that of the water which fall on the ea rlh's SUI/li n',
part flows off the surface into rivers, and ultimately to lakes or the sea (1IIIlO/I) ,
part penetrates into the soil and rock (infiltration); and part returns 10 Ihe
at mosphere by direct evaporation, and by transpiration from vcgctuti oll
Infiltrat ion is responsible for groundwater accumulation; evaporalion.
transpiration and (in part) run-off, for natural groundwater losses.
The relat ive values of run-off and infiltration (and, to some degree,
evaporation) are dependent on the geological and vegetative conditions of the
catchment on which the water falls. [n a catchment which has little soi l eOVCl ,
run-off will be very high; on the other hand, in a well-vegetated catchmenl , wilh
thick soil and deeply weathered rock, infiltration will be high, relative t o rtln o fl .
Some water which initiall y infi ltrates into the soil may be lost by evapora t ion lind
transpirat ion, and possibl y by groundwater run-off, but much of it will mov,'
downwards under the act ion of gravity, to join the main body of groundwlIl . ,
When prec ipit a tion occ urs, the in filtrat ion rate is hi ghest in the initial
lI o weve r, Ihi s rul e ort en decreases ex po nentiall y wi th time, Ihe nctunl ' ItH'
de pending o n Ihe f1uture and condition of Lh e stlrfll cc mnl cl"iHI. So il.s whi (.: h lil t'
III
cl ay ' y. 11111 1 whil'll \' 0 111 111 11 I 111\ 111 111 1' 1111 '1 I I'IlHll y losr.: Ili l.! lf (.' OPII \,,' II \ III
I I'll n:-. mit wot r.: 1 d 1I r.: 10 I h .... ri O' 1 tl f{ II I \' t H\ 'I II tid I li t' , we ll i ng of ' lays, ) n I he ot h, t
ha nd , mat eria ls such U'i :-.n nd , dll 11 0 1 Il'I I\" 1 li s IlI Pld l , hili . whc.; n Snll tl':Il ioli I
reached . the infil trat io n I'llt t.! d CIt.!iI' C' , I n thc initi nl :-. tages of in filtra tio n. Ihl
attract io n of the water to so lid pal'l iclc:-. hy cll pillary forces is import ant : Wll ll ll
t he infiltrati on has proceeded for a depth of about I m, howeve r. the ell '!.' 1 III
capillary forces in coa rse t o medi um gra ined soil s is qu ite minor. arill at'
att raction is greatest in low moi sture content, finc gra ined soil s.
Atmosphere
Precipitation
l and (surface)
Movement of atmospheric moisture
(
Evaporation
, nd
transpirati on
Precipitation
l
Surface runoff
--I---I--------1--_
0Ce
'nJ
lakes and streams
Infi ltration
I
Seeps and springs
Unsaturated f low
L L
Springs
S" "",,d fl ow _ --'----=
Groundwater
7. 1 Thc hydrological cyclc.
The total amount of infiltration which reaches the groundwater body is equill
10 t he tota l infi ltration minus the amount of water absorbed by the rock and sOil
above the water ta ble and that lost by the interflow component of run-off,
The run-off element of the hydrological cycle consists of water whi ch nil "
d irectl y off t he surface, t ogether with interflow, which is infiltrated water
lalera ll y at shall ow depth, Run-off is measured as stream fl ow, so that total rUIl
off may include some ground water fl ow as well a s that pa rt of the precipita ti ol\
whi ch fa ll s d irectly into the stream,
Under some condi t ions, pa rt of the run-off may be lost from the stream to Ih,'
groundwater body, In such a case the strea m is said to be influent , as opposed 10
I he cfnucnt st rea m, the fl ow of whi ch ga ins from the groundwater.
Run-off is very slro ngly influenced by the geological a nd vegelal ionnl
'onditi ons of the ca tchment, both in terms of rate a nd amount. The a mount III HI
"nl e of run-off for a ba re rocky catchment a rc bot h very high, For a w(' 11
cat chment whi ch ha s t hick soil cover a nd dee p weathering, t he umou"I
1.12
. fedu 'cd' in! ' r! low tends to increase. Bure,
.! '011 , us w 1t us rill e: fl OOds'after a rainfa ll event , whcrea s the
1\11 V l 'l ll ' hm ' nl S l end 10 pl oducc u, . a ma rc uni for m stream now.
.. n lll VC I ' ct Hne! vegeta ted result s considered together as
I vI1 po rution a nd tra nspiratIOn a rc I being returned to the
.. T hese processes rcSu t 10 f
1l\lIlI l lI nSplra tlO
n
. U I th water t able is close t o the sur ace,
IIlIltlPi p h c l' c in the form o[vapour. n ess
t
e pi ration Solar and wind energy
, I d' rectly lost by evapo rans , f
lHlIll llt l wnt cr IS no I f evaporation' the amount 0
'" Itll Hcly responsible for the amount 0 , '
, ' II depend on the type of vegetatIOn,
'1 1111 pl l II I Io n WI
, \ The water table
. ter in ores and fractures; however , two genera l
lIilli nd rock con tam some wa P t d zone and a lower saturated zone.
. d a n upper unsatura e ,
11111" may be recogni ze ' t'tutes t he water table, The upper,
b
the two zones cons 1
II II' hOllndary etween , h e of aeration' the lower, saturated
k
d 1 constltutes t e zan , .
roc an sal , th one of aeration can be consldered
f
t' The water In e z ,
11111" the zone 0 1011. . 2) althou h there are no sharp boundanes
several categorI es (Fig. 7. , g
I, )
_ _ _ _ ___ _ _____ _ Surface
c
,g


.
c
o
N
Soil water
Gravitiil tioniil l water (Vadose)
Capillary water
_______ ____ _ __ water table
I hi 7.2 ' I he watcr table. (a)
I 1,1_'11hcution of subsur face
.111' 1 (h) Water ta blc, perched
11 1111 IIlblc and confined a nd
HHlI HIi1ncd aquifcr s.
,.)
pClched weIer l able
Aquiclude
----
- ------
-- -------
//
Ullcoll fincd :I<\u ,lo,
Groundwiiltcr
Chemicall y combined wat cr
_ _______ --- - Reg 'onal .... all"118ble
131
het w " n them. 1111: Noll WI II I' I Iw llj t' t' t Itl ,' OHNid ' mble vlIf'illli ons III
quantit y find qUll l il y in I /I lid I I'll nsplruti o n. Vadose WIIIC' I
is moving downw31'(\ s IIndl.: l the II 'li on o f HI'tlvil y. und it tcnninutcs ill Ih
ca pi ll ary fringe. The uppcr sul'fuce of III ' h'ill g ' is hi ghly lI crat ed. but Ihe 10wc' l
section is full y saturated.
The water table is a theoreti cal surface along whi ch the hydrostatic preSIHll t' I.-
equal to atmospheric pressure. If a series of well s or bores are dri lled to a d ' pi h
below the water table, groundwater nows into the bores coming to resl al Ihr
level of the water table. Water table level is subj ect to a number of variatioll s dill
to gains to, or losses from, t he groundwater body which a re largely seasoll,,1
Minor fluctuations also occur due to t idal influences and changes in atmos phCl 1i
pressure.
Although, below the wat er tabl e, all of the rocks are saturated , on ly a 1,' \\
rocks will transmit wat er into wells. Those rocks through which wat er nOW\
relatively readily are termed aquifers. Those rocks which do not readil y
water arc termed aquicludes. Aquifers may consist of almost any rock type. bill
either the material, or the mass, must possess a hi gh permeabi lity. If an aquiclildl'
occ urs above t he water table, perched groundwater conditions may dcveloPI
wi th a perched water table.
Groundwater which is in direct contact virtually with the atmospil (,l ll'
through the open pores and fissures in the rock and soi l is said to be unconfinc,' d
Confined water is separated from the atmosphere by impermeable rock and soi l
Confined water is sometimes referred to as artesian water, though this tCII!!
should be restricted to water confined in aquifers at sufficient pressure to now III
s urface from well s drilled into the aquifer. The pressure of the wat er in II
confined aq uifer can be delineated as a surface, analogous to the water t a hlt'
This is known as t he piezometric surface.
It is possibl e, by plotting the levels of water in bores, to construct a COnl on!
ma p of the water table (Fig. 7.3). Similarly, by plotting water press ures ill
a rt csia n well s, it is possible to prepare a contour map of the piezometri c SUl"fll ('('
Such maps a re of inestimable value in monitoring the effect s of groundwlI ll' l
cxpl oit ati on; they are also of assistance in the planning and design of many civil
e;l ginccring works.
7,4 Permeability
7. 4. 1 COEFFI CI ENT OF PERMEABI LITY
Soi ls a nd rocks a re said to be permeable if the fabric is such that pores fill'
inl erconnected so that a nuid may now through the material. II has be" "
'siubli shed that the now of nuids through all rocks a nd soils follows the sanw
III W8, so that the difference between the now of water through a sand, CIIl )' 1
sn ndstonc. or gra nite is merely one of degrec.
As wa ter percolates through a rock or soil , the ind ividual water pa rti h' 1(
1l1 0ve Ill ong paths which foll ow smooth curves call ed fl ow lines. If adj acenl fl ow
lines III'C strHight a nd pa ra llel, the fl ow is said t o be linea r. It is aSSlimed. in Ih('
" ,. w"", " .. ,""
,I> , tWill D arWi n . Aus{rall<l,
111M of the wa ter
Itllth hi dl y
,
o So re
/
,..--30"'-- Groundwatcr tcllet (m)
IlIdv of permeability, that flow is of this type. Under these conditions, Darcy's
I ., w v = ki (7.1)
. . .. ' he h draulic gradient; and k is a constant,
I " III' ''' v IS the of flow, , \'t ) y valid and applicable. The coefficient
I Hll wn a s t he coeffiCient of per mea 11 Y , 't area of soil or rock under
Id It ll ll"\ eability, k , isdefinedastherateo owp.erum . d
1111:1 hydra uli c gradient ; it hfashthe units of
th t" of mt erconnectlOn 0 t e pores, an
, I II Ihe greatest control on permeabi lity. In these terms,
V1] (7.2)
k- --
- iyw
. . d is the density of wat er.
\\ f/ is the viSCOSit y of the water, an ')'W I have a value of k
P l'l mca bilit y has a wide range of values: coarse s may k-1O-12 cm S- 1
II I In" em s I , whi le matenal
I' ll llU'C SOll1C rock matenalls Virtually fractures and fi ssures,
II t 0 much through the mat ena as a
IIUI , I ' lI SlI l:l Y no s .. I of the rock material as the primary
II I 11"l oma ry to refer to the permeabllit) bilit y Table 7. 1
1'1 11 IH.'n bil ity, a nd to that of the rock mass as secondar.y.permea .
f ' d secondary permeability .
1\1'''1 "O!11C valucs 0 an bTt' p to 107 times lower than the
II 'un be see n that the pnmary per mea II Y IS u. I f
" '\l tdHry permeability. Thi s stresses the danger of applymg laboratory va ues 0
i d(' 1 ' rmined on intact rock materi al, to field problems. bTt
illS n OW co mmon in practi cal engineering probl ems to perm I ela 11 Y
. Th' . d Ie 'mined by pump-Ill tests: ugeoll
HI III ' l' ock rnass in iugeons. IS IS C I I f I I th
1I 1l 1t'1rI ' nt s H fl ow of 1 l o r wa ter p CI' minul e thro ugh a boreho e 0 m eng
135
'11I1l1c 7. 1 ('oc!llcu:nt nl pCl'Illcahllll ) ollod.
Granite
Sandstone
Shale
Phyllite
Limes tone
Dolomite
Prima ry
permeability
(em S- I)
10
10
1. 8 10-
7
10-'
8.2 10-
10
7.3 w 10-
10
4. !:! 10 9
Secondary
per mca hil ity
(em s I )
1.2 w 10-
3
1.40. 10-
2

5.6 x I O-!J
2.4 w 10-
3
X.S " JO-.I
under a press ure of I (actuall y 0.98) MPa. Although a valuable method,
experience has shown that th is test does not always give reliable or
representative results.
Although the differences are not as dramatic for soi ls, nonetheless the
permeabilit y of the soil mat eri a l may differ by several orders of magnitude from
tha t of the soil mass. Field tests of soil mass permeabi li ty a re essential for safe
a nd reliabl e determinat ions.
7.4.2 FIELD DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY
When an unconfined aquifer is pumped, groundwater flows into the well , and a
hydraulic gradient is establi shed. Around the pumped well , a zone of rock i;
depleted of groundwater so that a cone of depletion is developed (Fig. 7.4). If
steady state conditions are established, it is possible to utilize data obtained from
the pumped well to determine the permeability or hydrauli c conductivity ofthL:
roc k mass. Accurate det ermination is impossible because of the necessary
simplifying assumptions which have to be made, but the values obtained
represent a reasonable approximation.
The method depends on measuring the quantity of water pumped from th,'
well, and the determination, by the use of observation welis, of the geometry 01
the cone of depletion. The necessary assumptions are: (i) the groundwater system
is such that it is steady state; (ii) the water table represents the hydraulic gradi enl ,
(i ii ) flow is only towards the pumped well , and in no other direction; and (i v)
there are no losses other than from the pumping, and no water gains. It can ht'
shown from Darcy's Law that:
Q
k =
(7, 1)
where k is the hydraulic conductivity; Qis the steady stat e pumping rate; a nd II "
hi. [ 2, r1 are shown on Fig. 7.4a.
In the case of a confined aquifer (Fig. 7.4b), the boundary conditi ons of Ili r
aquifer are determined by the aquicludes; hence, if steady state fl ow is establi s ll r d
in the aquifer, the hydraulic gradient is the slope of the piezometri c surface, III
this case,
116
Q
k =
211"( h, h,)1
where , is the thi ckness of the aquifer.
In(r, / r,)
(7." )
Other pa rameters of aqui fe rs, such as tra nsmi ssivit y and stora ti vit y. of
interest in the development of groundwat er as a resource are also determi ned
using pumpi ng tests, with measurements of rate of d rawdown wi t h pumping un
essential part of t he tests.
la )
Pumping wel l Observati on wolls
Water table
_ ____ ---,ar _ ___ -,"
before pumping .I..
1' 1),(.7.4 (a) Unconfined
.Iqlllfcr pumping ICSt. (b)
t onlincd ::Hl.uifer pumping test.
Ib)
.. .

... .. ...
. '" . ,,'Water table
" st eady-st ate'"
o , . . ,
. ' .: _ 0 ,' 0
" ..
0" " .
: ::: . .":" 0 .
. ,
......
..
'. '
'. "
, ., ,
: ...
"
Pumpi ng well Observation well s
Piezometric surface
before pumping

Aquiclude
h,
"\ After steady SlaW
pumpi ng
h"
I I I GEOLOGI CAL FACTORS AFFECTI NG PERMEABILITY
111 1)1 ie. both on the mi croscopic a nd macroscopic sca les, is the do rn innnl
"1 fac to r in determining the permeability of both soils a nd rocks. AI the
Ill'I'lest level, thi s can be demonstrated for a soil by comparing the permeabi lil y
II III undisturbed sample, and a remoulded sa mpl e of the sa me soil. RcmouldinR
Iltl I'" t he fa brie, a nd effecti vely va ries the permea bility: in most soi ls, a reduct ion
lit pl'l mCilhili ty occurs with remoulding.
1' 111 ho t h rocks a nd soil s. while po ros it y is esse nti a l for now OfWtll cr. it is thl'
117
porc fabric. ra ther than the volume of porc space will(: 11 will determine
permea bilit y. It is necessa ry for the pores to be of sufficient si7c and to be
interconnected for now to occur. Thus a clay, with porosity had k = 2.4 x
10-
8
em 5 -
1
, whil e a silty sand, with porosity of 16.5%, had k = 7.6 ' 10-'8 em 5-
1
.
Fissured clays, with a simi lar porosity to homogeneous clays, have a
coeffici ent of permeability some 1000 times great er. In rocks, it has been
establi shed for sandstones and limestones that a linear relationship exists
between porosity and permeability (Fig. 7.5) . Rzhevsky and Novik (1971) have
Fig. 7.5 Relations hip between
permeabilit y and porosi ty.
[Aft er Rzhevsky and Novik
( 1971) .]
"
]
>
n
1

"

,

u
10
,
10
,
10
,
10 ;
10
,
CarbonaTe TOcks
o
00 0
o 0 0
o 0
o 0
o 0
o









Sandstone
Chalk
..
, ,
. ,
x. I( x.
'O';-__________
o 10 20
Porosity 1"/0 I
shown that for a variety of sandstones, carbonate rocks , and chalky limestone, a
linear relationship exists between porosity and permeability. Bell (1978) in a
study of sandstones in Northern England found that both porosity and
permeability were influenced by the void percentage and grain packing. Part icle
si ze distribution did not affect porosity, although it had some influence on
permeability. A highly significant relationship was found to exist betwee n
porosity and permeability, both of which decrease with increasing depth,
although the decrease in permeability with depth does not appear to be as well
defined as that in porosity.
It is reasonable to assume that , for rocks which are anisotropic, permeabil ity
will be greater parallel to the anisotropy than normal to it. The few result s
available for both rock and soil tend to substantiate this assumption, but few
systematic studi es appear to have been carried out.
Pl ess (1975) systematically examined porosity and permeability of
Narrabeen Group sandstones. He showed no significant change in porosity with
depth, but a systematic decrease in permeability with increasing depth. BOI h
porosity and permeability were strongly anisotropi c (Table 7.2). Permeability
parallel to bedding was almost invariably greater than that normal 10 the
11k
Tllhl e 7.2 and jlCf"nlo..:;,hlllt y 0 1 Na llabcc n (;1"OliP Roch IAII CI Pic"
Deplh Rock Poros ity (I 'C) I\;rmca hili t \'
( m)
(, 10 Ii ern I)
Horizo ntal Vert ical Hart/a nt 'll Ve rt ical
:124 shal e 4.1 5.0 2.7 2.4
J6i\ shale 3.4 3. I n. d. n.d.
393 fin e sandst o ne 8.9 46 0.2 0.3
42 1 fin e sandsto ne 8.0 8.9 0.6 0.2
484 fi ne sandst o ne 7.9 8.8 0. 2 0. 2
508 fine sand Sl o ne 9.0 11. 0 0. 2 0.1
655 mcd . sa nd stone 15.5 9. 6 0.4 0.6
668 mcd. sandstone 7. 6 n.d 20.0 9.0
671 coa rse sandstone 11.0 n.d. 4.5 14. 0
597 coa rse 53 ndstone 12.0 13. 5 0.1 0.1
606 coarse sandst one 15.0 13. 5 0.1 0. 1
7").7 v. coarse sa ndst one 19.4 14.9 0.1 0.1
674 coar se sand st one 16.0 15.0 39.2 2.2
6::;5 coarse sandstone 12.0 12.0 0.1 0.1
bedding, sometimes by a factor of over 20. Pless's results suggest that no definil e
relati onship necessarily exists between texture, porosity and permeabilit y.
Considerable evidence exists to show that permeability decreases with dcplh .
i.e. with increasing confining pressure. This is due, clearly, to a tightening of
fissures, and a closing of microvoids with increasing pressure. A further influence
is to be found in decreased weathering with depth. In general, weathering leads to
an increase in both porosity and permeability due to the development of
microfractures and the opening up of macrofractures.
7.5 Flow nets
The flow of water through soil s and rocks can be described by the La pl acia n:
8' h 8'h
- + - =0 (7.5)
cSx
2
cSi
Th is equation is represented by two sets of orthogonal lines known as fl ow lines
and equipotential lines. Together, these lines, representing the flow of water
Ihrough a soi l or rock mass, constitut e a flow net (Fig. 7.6). The flow lines define
Ihc direction of flow; the equipotential lines join points of equal potential head.
At the water table, all particles of water have maximum potential. By the time the
waler has travelled through the rock or soil mass to the equipotenti al line AB, it
has lost potential by the amount of head between the water table and the line
;\'B'. This head loss has been transferred to the particles in the mass through
wh ich fl ow has taken place. The pressure at any point in the mass due t o thi s
I ",nsfer is call ed the seepage pressure. If the pressure is measured at CD, the nex t
<l]lI ipotenti al along the flow path, the potential is found t o be less t han at AB, by
lin amount h, the head los t. Head is connect ed to press ure by mul tiplying II by
Ille de nsity of water. The seepage press ure appli ed to the pa rti cles is then:
S = h -yw
Al lholl s h now nels ca n be constructed accurately, ra pid sketching of len
11<)
EQu' J,lotentiall
Fig.7.6 Ideali/cd now nct. Flow 1000e
suffi ces for at least preliminary studies of water movement. The first stage is to
consider the boundary conditions: an impermeable boundary constitutes a flow
line, while the water table, a water surface, or surfaces of entry and exit of water,
const itute an equipotential line. Four boundary conditi ons exist: (i) the entrance
surface, (ii) the exit surface, (iii) the upper flow line, and (iv) the lower flow line.
If the permeability of the soil mass or of the rock mass is known, it is possible,
using a fl ow net, to est imate the loss of water from, say, a storage; it is also
possible to calculate seepage pressures. If the flow net has been constructed
validly, it can be assumed that, when following anyone flow line, t he pressure
drop between two consecutive equipotential lines is the same. Ifit is assumed that
each square of the flow net represents I unit, then the path of water moving from
one surface to another consists of n unit s, and the width of the zone of flow is m
units. if H is the total difference in head, the hydra ulic gradi ent is HI n. The flow
is th en:
q= Aki= kH(m/ n)
The above discussion is based on an homogeneous, isot ropic, and continuous
mass of soil or rock. Since none of these conditions is normally encountered in
practice, the various geological factors will each contribute significantly to affecI
the flow of water, a nd hence the form of the flow net. Discontinuities may
constitute flow boundaries; equally, they may be the only possible path for the
flow of water. The flow net is probably validly constructed only for a uniform
mass of soil.
7.6 Water quality
All groundwat er contains both anions and cations in solution. The nature and
concentration of these ions arc of great importance in a number of ways, e.g. the
purpose for which groundwater may be used for agricultural or human
consumption; and for the effect groundwater may have on concrete foot ings
located below the water tabl e. The nature and concentrations of the ions nrc
140
largel y function, 01 lilt Vrll l0IotY n il he intu kc areas, nnd 01 the COIl1P(hlt l Oll Ollhl'
aq uifer. Ioni c C{) II Cl' ntlnlHlns may bc cxpressed as pari s per milli on (p. p. rn , ) 0 1,
more commonl y l!quivul cnls per mi lli on (c.p.m.) . It is usual to pl ot annlyscs
graphica ll y, so Ihal comparisons can be made read il y between differenl sa mples.
The two commonest graphi cal methods are the Stiff di agram (Fig. 7.7a) and the
Piper diagram (Fig. 7.7b).
Fig.7.7 (a) Stiff diagram
.. howing chemical composition
of groundwater. Broken Hill.
New Sout h Wales. Australia. (b)
r'iper diagram showing chemical
composi ti on of groundwater.
Broken Hill. New So uth Wales
Aust ral ia.
1.1
50 40
100
Na + K =====t====CI
Ca HCQ
Mg SO,
30 20
(bl
Bore 1
Bore?
Bore 3
-
10 o 10 20
Ion concentration (meq/l)
100
21
3
00
0
30
100
t
0 '
" <
t- O'
.f
2 1
00
0 3
C. 0 CI
' 0
'"
'9
50
1
2 0:1
100
It is not only chemical quality of water which has to be considered , bUIlIls"
biological qualit y. Organisms, some of which may be pathogeni c. ca n occur in
groundwater whi ch has been polluted by sewage, or decaying a nimal mil It er.
14 I
Sewage polluti on is usuall y indi cated by the presence of h', ('o/i. Wat er whi ch is to
be lI sed for human consumption must be free of such pollution.
7.7 Groundwater resources evaluation
The search for groundwater is based on geological data; and of special
Importance are petrology, stratigraphy, structural geology and geomorphology.
Petrology considers the rock types present, and especially their texture and
fabnc. Stratigraphic techniques are used to define the position and thickness of
potential aquifers and aquicludes, and the continuity of these units. Structural
geology is utilized to define areas of fracturing which may constitute water
bearing in olher:vi se impermeable masses, as well as locating aquifer
bounda nes due to faulting. Geomorphology is indispensable in the study of very
young, unconsolidated sediments as potential aquifers, as well as providing
valuable data in areas of karst topography.
. The basic geological map produced for groundwater studies may be quit e
different from the conventional geological map (Fig. 7.8) because the interest lies
Fig.7.8 Hydrogeological map,
Fowlers Gap, Australia.
Aquictudes
Low
OIL-+- permeebill1y
equifer
Highly
---I-fractured
intake arOIl
in areas of possible groundwater development, aquifers, aquifer boundaries flllIl
aquicludes.
The as a complement, hydrological st ll(l ll"\
I S reqUIred on rainfall , run-off, infiltration and evaporat ion, \0
estlma.tes can be made of the water available for recharge, and of nnllllni
discharge IOta influent streams, and by springs. In conjunct ion with Ihf
hydrological studies, potential or actual recharge areas may be located.
Detailed investigation by geophysica l techniques and drilling arc 11 '1' 11
142
accurat ely to define aquifers and aquicludcsat depth, I Ill' hllIril ll ln Will pllIVl(k
not only geological data, but also hydrologi cal data, PClillittlll1l the wlitel tahle
level to be determined. Additionall y, pump tests will be ca ll ied out to dctcllnim:
such important aquifer parameters as hydraulic conducti vit y. transmi ssivit y,
storativity and safe yield . At thi s stage, samples of wate r are taken for chemical
and biological analysis. Suffi cient data may become ava ilabl e to construct, al
least preliminary, flow nets of the field. These are not only important in the
planning of development , but also serve as a basis for monitoring the field aft er
development.
7,8 Groundwater and civil engineering
To some extent, civil engineers are concerned with the deve lopment or
groundwater resources, and in particular with that aspect of development
involving the hydraulics of aquifers and wells. As this is a highl y speciali1ed
study, the foll owing discussion will be concerned primarily with groundwat er in
so far as it is relevant to the construction of civil engineering structures. In thi s
context, groundwater generally ceases to be regarded as a valuable resource, illld
is considered more as a problem, or nuisance. Any excavation which is c(l rri cd
below the water table in permeable rock or soil, will be subject to infl ows 01
groundwater, and these add to the difficulties of construction. Goundwatcr also
contributes to the instability of slopes, and creates hazards at damsites and in
tunnels.
7.8. 1 GROUNDWATER IN EXCAVATIONS
All foundation excavations should be sufficientl y dry to permit placement of the
concrete or other material forming the foundation of the structure. In additi on, il
an excavation in soil is to be stable, so that the walls stand without support , it is
necessary to drain the site. While in small excavations in low to medium
permeability materials adequate drainage may be achieved using a sump, for
larger excavations below the water table in highly permeable materials, a general
lowering of the water table may be required. This is achieved using the well poilll
technique (Fig. 7.9). Bores are sunk to a level well below the base of the proposed
FiJ!.7.9 Diagram illustrating
well point method of drainage.
Original wllter table
- -..::..:.::: -- --------- -- ------ -------- - ..... , ..... -
........ 'V.-- - -.., ...... --..... , ........ - -, V WI.II O' 111 1,111
ult u'lllUlltl l"lI
excavat ion, and pumped to produce a cone of depletion in the water table. Onc(,'
pumping is commenced, it must continue until foundation constructi on i"
complete. Soi ls such as silts and silty clays have low permeabilit y and 1II C
therefore unlikely to ca use flooding problems. However, within the 10ne 01
slI lurati on, excavat.i ons in these soil s may be quite unstabl e. Lowering of the
141
wul cr In bl e may incH:u:-,c slabilit y. On Ihc 01 hel ha lid , dut! 10 I he dcvelopmenl of
hi gh po re pressures with rapid drawdown, instabilit y Il"lHy result. It is essential ,
thererore, that strict control be maintained on rate 0; drawdown during
pumping. Electro-osmosis may be used to lower the water table in less permeable
soils. Here perforated casing in bores are designed as electrodes: when an electric
field is formed , water is drawn to the cathode, collects in the bore, and is pumpcd
out. Electro-osmosis is also frequently used to stabi lize cohesive soils.
Table 7.3 Water qualit y for various uses. (Concentrations arc in p.p.m.l
Drinking General Irrigati on Food Boi ler wa ter
household use processing
good poor good poor High Low
pressure press urt
Antimony 0.05
0.05
Arsen ic 0.05
0.05
Barium 1.00 1.00
Bicarbonate 500 150 500 200 500 300 5 50
Boron 20 0.3 3. 0
Cadmium 0.01
0.0 1
Calci um 200 40 100 80 40
Chloride 250 JOO 300 300
Chromium 0.05
0.05
Copper 1.05 0.5 3. 0 3.0
Cyanide 0.2 0. 2
Fluoride 1. 5
J.5
Hydrogen
sulphide 1.0 0.05 2.0 0.5 0 5
Iron 1. 0 0.2 0.5 0.2
Lead 0.05
0.05
Magnesium 125 20 100 40 20
Nit rate 20
20
Phenol 0.001
0.001
Selenium 0.01
0.01
Silica 10 50 50 30
Si lver 0.05
0.05
Sodium 200 100 300 50 300 300 50
Sulfate 250 100 300 200 500
Synt hetic
detergents 0.05 0.2 1. 0 0.5 0 0
Total sol ids 1500 300 2000 500 3000 1000 100 2000
Zinc 5
5
7.8.2 CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER, GROUTtNG
Comrol of the flow of groundwater through a rock mass can be achieved by th e
injection, under press ure, of some material, or materials, which will reduce the
permeabili ty of either, or both, the rock material and rock mass. The technique
can also be used to achieve an increase in strength and elasticity of the rock mass.
The grout is injected through a standpipe or borehole depending on the type of
materia l being treated and on the grouting pressure. Grouts are of two main
types: particulate (cement grout and clay grout) and non-particulate grouts
(silicate grouts and organic polymer grouts). Whichevertype is used, the purpose
t44
i:-, to fill , tllld "'II I, ,til p lltt' 'I f1 :1ce:-, and fiss ure spaces within Ihe lOck n1:I 'I', lI lt'
t ype of gro lll lI \t' (\ wi ll ll lmm, t a lways be determined by geological condttl o n,
In the case 01 a II !-.!-. urcd rock mass, the percolati o n of water occllrs mainl y
along fissures. In grouting such a mass no attempt is made to seal the pores in tht'
rock, since most of the water movement occurs along fissures rather thull
through pores. The spacing, orientation and condition of the fi ssures ha ve 10 he
determined a s a basis for the design of an efficient grouting programme. I n I hl'
first place, it is essential to locate, space, and orient the grout hol es so as 10
achieve the maximum intersection of fissures , and thus the most efrccti w
penetration of grout. The condition of the fractures is equally impo rtant : th ('
more open the fissures, the more grout will be required to seal th em efrecti ve ly
Fissures which are narrower than 100 1Jm rarely a ccept grout . The data are ai ,,)
useful in determining the necessary viscosity of the grout mi x. Infillings mn y
militate against penetration or acceptance of grout, and the fi ssures, in sll ch casc!-.,
may require flushing out with water before grouting commences. The spncinN
and openness of the fissures may, to some extent, also determine grout press lires.
The stability of the fissured rock mass can be destroyed by grouting at excess ive
pressures. Geological data can be used to determine whether o r n Ol
consolidation (low press ure) grouting is necessar y pri or to hi gh pre:-,:-, ulI:
grouting.
Consolidation, low pressure, blanket grouting is usually carried out to
shallow depth to provide a stable capping prior to high pressure grouting. Il o les
are drilled to shallow depth, usually on a square grid, the depth being determined
by fissure spacing and width. During thi s phase, careful observations have to h,'
made to ensure that movement of the fissure-bound surface blocks does nol
occur, and that grout does not flow at the surface. During high pressurc grouting.
similar precautions have to be taken. At the conclusion of high pressure grouting,
it is desirable t hat some boreholes be drilled between grout holes, and COl C
recovered for examination by the geologist to assess the effectiveness, and the
degree of penetration of the grout. If the core indicates poor penetration, th cn
further grouting will be necessary.
Whereas in fissured rock masses particulate grout s are normall y u')cd ,
grouting of permeable beds or masses of permeable soils usuall y utili/ cs no n
pa rticulate materials. Permeation grouting using particulate materia ls is limit ed
by the grain size, porosity and permeability of the soil, and the selcct ion of
grollting material is made on the basis of its abilit y to penetrate th e soil. F OI
cxa mpl e, in a coarse sand with high permeability, cncount ered in a Yall o ut n
power station tunnel, cement grout proved to be highly effective; on thc othol
ha nd, a fine silty sand refused to accept cement grout and requircd sili cal e
gro uting. In both of these cases, grouting was required not only to control the
no w of groundwater, but also to stabilize the soils in the tunnel.
7.8.3 GROUNDWATER tN TUNNELS
O ne of the maj o r ha 7ards in tunnelling concerns large innows of gro undwat cl .
' I hi s can be illustrat ed by an example from the Kiewa hydroe lectri c project .
Australia. The No. 4 race tunnel encountcrcdj oint cd rock. associated wi th
a fault zone consist ing of brecciated gneiss; the actual width of the brecciated
zonc was about 2 m (Fig. 7.10). Discharges of groundwatc r of about 60 000 1 hI' I
occurred, dislodged the closely jointed rock, with total failure of the tunnel at this
point. Because of the dangerous working conditions, the decision was made to
divert the tunnel around the failure. Investigation drilling showed that the
Fig.7.10 Di version of No.4
head raee tunnel. Kiewa
hydroelect ri c project. Australia
as a result of tunnel failure due
to high inflows of groundwater
II 1.0 \.!> ,n
/f lO
's",
brecciated zone was thicker in the proposed new tunnel section, and that high
discharges of groundwater were to be expected. In the event, the discharges from
the fail ed section dimini shed at a regular rate, dropping to a bout 500 I hr - 1 after S
weeks, a nd, when the new section of tunnel passed through t he closely jointed
and brecciated only very light timber supports were with water
inflow less than 100 1 hr -
1
. It is clear that the fractured and brecciated zone
constituted an aquifer which duringa 10 week period drained sufficiently into the
failed section of the tunnel for a cone of depletion to be developed.
External groundwater pressures can be sufficiently great to cause failure by
buckling of steel lining in pressure tunnels. When the tunnel is under load , the
internal pressure usually balances the external pressure; when the tunnel
dewatered , however. inward buckling of the steel lining may occur. These
problems are discussed in detail by Jaeger (1955).
7.8.4 GROUNDWATER AND SLOPES
Due to the development of high pore-water pressures, the shearing resistance 01
the soil constituting a slope may be reduced to a level below the shear stressc,
acting on the soil. In such a case, failure occurs. If groundwater is a major
contributing factor to slope instability, conditions can be considerahl y
in many cases, by lowering of the water table. On slopes, thi s Cflll
usually be achieved using horizontal, or gently inclined bores. At the same timt"
surface drains should be installed on the slope to reduce infilt ration and hel1t'!'
recharge of the groundwater body,
An unusual example is seen in the failure of a cut slope in the Ya ll ourn NOl t Ii
brown coal mine, Australia (Fig. 7.11). Following a prolonged period of hClivy
146
rain. hydroslUtlc plC ..'\\lIr l' dcveloped in the sa nd aquifer confined betwecn the
Latrobe Coal Scarn and a unit known as the Latrobe Clay, both of which wete..'
Fig. 7.11 Geologica l section at
site of slope failure. Yallourn
North Brown Coal Mine,
Victoria. Australia.
r",.ure surlace
impermeable. The water pressure in the aquifer was sufficient to cause the
overlying coal to 'float' resulting in the fai lure of the open cut slope over a lengt h
of some hundreds of metres. In those sect ions of the mine where the gco logiclIl
features were comparabl e to those at t he site of the failure. drainage of the sa nd
was undertaken, and no further failures occurred.
7.8.5 GROUNDWATER AND DAMS
When a dam is constructed, and water is impounded behind the dam. somc nf
the water infiltrates into the surrounding soil and rock, causing a loca l ri sc in
groundwater level. Under some condit ions, serious losses of stored water ca n
occur, either to the groundwater body, or to adjacent catchments. Knowledge of
I hc groundwater regime at and close to a damsite is essent ial.
Where direct connection exists between the water storage and an aquifer, as is
t he case at the White Swan Dam, Ballarat, Australia (Fig. 7.12), losses may be
lit: .. 7. 12 Cross-section of right
I.hutment. Whil e Swan Dam.
1I,.llara1 , Victoria. Australia.
Basalt
tllO high to be tolerated, and measures have to be taken to prevent access of
"hllCd water to the aquifer.
Although not directl y involved with groundwater, the problem of pipinH
Indurc has to be considered. Many exa mples are known. of course. of pipill A
'11I</lOn associall!d wit h the internow. As wate r fl ows through a soil , 1\
I 'Pl' 1 icncc .. II 10 .... o j IH:ud . whi ch is accompanied by the devc lopmc nl o j 11
... t.:t.: pagl.: rOl(; c.:: . If force ;.Ie'" upward .... it dccrca",csl l1 t.: Uppnll.:tl l wcight of the
and hence the shear stre ngth of the When the upward force
becomcs eq ualto the su bmergcd wcight oft hc parti cles. the soil 'noat',
and the particles act as a liquid. This liquid moves along now lines
inrernal eros ion. and a pipe develops. Such piping can lead to failure of an earth
dam either within the structure itself, or wit hin the foundatio n.
While theoretical considerations suggest that piping is not dependent on soi l
type, practical experience has shown that fine to very fine sands and silty sands of
uniform gra in sile are more susceptible to piping than other soil types. Aitchison
and Wood ( 1965) found that many small earth dams constructed of
predominantly clayey soi ls failed by piping. These workers postulated that post-
construction deflocculation of clay is a contributing cause.
References and further reading
Aitchison G. D. & Wood C. C. (1965) Some interacti ons of compact ion. permeability a nd
defiocculation affecting the probabilit\ of fa ilur"e in small earth dams. In Proc. 61h
1111 . Soil .-\tcch.\". Canada. pro 442 6. .
Bell F. G. ( 197X) Petrographical factor!"> relating to porosity and permeability in the Fell Sandstone.
Qllar/. JI. II/(IIK. Gcul. II. I 1 J 26.
Uou\\ cr II. ( 1978) G"rolll/(/J1"{1l1'r 'I.n/roluK.l". fl.lcGr;:\\\Il illKogakus ha. Tokyo.
Da"is S. N. & De R . .J. M. (1966) Ilrdrogl'()I()g .. John Wile\'. :'\C\\ York.
lIea th R. C & "I ramor F. W. (196M) Grollw/wlIle; /hdr%gy . .J oh n Wiley. New
York.
J aeger C. (1955) Prese nt trends in the design tunn!">. In Prot". 111\1. Ci\. EIIgs. pp. 545 96.
T .. (1975) Pcnneabi lity of some rocks from t he Sydnt:y Unpubli shed M AppSe
Ulllvc rslty of Ne\\ South Wales.
R7 he\'sky V. & Novik G. ( 1971) Thl' Physics of Rocks. M IR. Mo!">cow.
14X
8
Geological Investigations
8.1 Introduction
At the site proposed for almost every civi l engineering structure it is esse ntial . lor
safe and economic design and construction, that the geological cond iti ons Hnd
the engineering properties of the soils and rocks be known. Even at the initiul
planning stage, some knowledge of geological conditions is essential, and I h<
more advanced the stages of planning, design and construction become, the mort
detailed becomes the geological data required. Geological investigations bcgin III
the planning stage, and continue throughout the project until foundalion
construct ion is complete.
Geological investigation involves geological mapping at scales which !Ill'
determined by the stage of the investigation; subsurface investigation by men u",
of bores, test pits and cuts; geophysical surveys; and field and laboratory teS!, 10
determine the engi neering properties of the rocks and soils. GeolONitlti
investigat ions for civil engineering purposes require a specialized a ppl O1lrll .
quite dirferent from that for, say, a mineral resources investigation. II i .. C .... lllll1t1
that t he geologist be specially trained to ca rry out engi neeri ng site i nvcs l iga 110""
8.2 Terrain evaluation
Engineering geology and terrain evaluation are complementary disciplines: the
former is concerned with the collection of geological data for enginecriliH
purposes, the latter provides methods for processing the information, and is lin
essential part of any engineering geological investigation. The terrain, as it ex j ..
at present, is the result of the interaction between geology and climate with time.
This is the basic principle underlying terrain evaluation. Many systems of tCrrlll1l
eva luation have been proposed for a variety of purposes, incl uding engi neel il1tt .
A system most applicable to engineering is one based on easil y recogni n lhl c
natural features which reflect geomorphic attributes. The scheme now generall y
used is that due to Aitchisonand Grant ( 1967). The basis of this is that any arCH "I
land can be defined uni quely in terms of its slope characteristics. soil s. vegeta t iotl
and underlying geology (lithology and structure). This scheme, known as
Pattern-Unit-Component Evaluation (PUCE) recognizes four 11.: 11:1111
co mponent. terrain unit. terrain patt er n. and province.
Table 8. 1 slImmarizes the methodology of thi s system of tel iiI/II
classi ficat i on . It wi ll be noted that the ficat ion rei ics on both remote sc n .. i
und ri eld diltn , 11l l" latt er beco ming more important HS the (h,;ttree 01
1111)
gell e 1' :1 I i/ a I ion i., I t; d uccd, a Ilel I he :-. 1 uel y becomes 1l1() rc dcta ilt.:d . I he' p IOvi nee' i,
a cl ass based almost exclusively on remote sensing da ta , and a basis ror
regio nal planning. At the other extreme , the 't errain component ' is derined by
data collected almost cxclusivel y in the field, and forms the basis ror detail ed site
investigations.
8.2.1 TERRAIN COMPONENT
Apart from microtopographic features, a terrain component has a constant rate
of change of slope, which may be concave, or convex, or uniform, but not
concavo-convex. The component has a consi stent association of soils and
vegetation which reOect a uniform geology. Grant (1971) refers to major and
minor axes of slopes; the former is that line joining the highest and lowest
points of a slope, and the latter is a line at right angles to this, and slope is
measured along these axes. Such features as microtopography and rock outcrops
are not taken into account in classification. However, it is essential that they be
considered in description and in the separation of terrain components. For
example, an area which but for microfeatures such as gilgai in one part and rock
outcrops in another would be regarded as a single unit, would require division
into two components, since the engineering characteristics of gilgai soils are quite
different from soils lacking this microfeature. Again, an area with rock outcrops
differs, in engineering terms, from one which lacks such outcrops.
The exclusion of such features as gilgai , rock outcrops and other
microtopographics from the classification is a practical issue. ]n order to have a
workable scheme, a limit has to be placed on the variation permitted. This may be
a matter of subjective choice,
8.2.2 TERRAIN UNIT
A 'terrain unit' consists of a number of'terrain components' which together make
up a single geomorphic feature. The characteristic slope, soil and vegetation
associations of the terrain unit will be those produced by a synthesis of the
constituent terrain components, The terrain unit can be divided into classes, each
class having a characteristic association of slopes and a locally consistent relief:
Class A
Flat or gentl y undulating surfaces . These surfa ces are not necessaril y part of til e
one erosional or depositional geomorphic surface,
Class B
Slopes between Class A surfaces.
These slopes may be: (a) gentle; (b) steep; (e) escarpments.
Class C
Isolated hills and ridges, but excluding Oat topped hills such as mesas, whi ch
would fall in Class A (surface) and Class B (slope).
150
c
.=
;;
0
'"


u
"


.=

'"
Vi
c

;;
0
'"
;
'il
0
0 u
"0
.5
"
0


'"
u

E
" c ;;
2
'6


E <:

E
"

s
E
...
..


...
"
0



<
8
"
0 0
"


N
0
::E
0.

::E
-1! 0
>=
"
';:
0
0:

'"

0
0

"0 2 "0
""
E
""
0
.= c
"

"

0.
"
0

u c
"
'"
.
.:'! .=
0
g
.;;;
;;
c

'0

0
0
'"
>

"

-5 u
e u

>
;;:
'"
u ..: ;;
-"

0
0

,

t-
o
C
c
e..,2
E ;;
-" E
0."


Vi .::
-1!
>=
"
"
0
.S
"
.:'!
;;
0
_t=
c -
o

u
c::: .S
'0

e
0

..
:;::
" .
-"

"
"
"

c
.g Vi
" " E ;;
u

0
" ."
" "

"""
;;

"
"
;; .= 0
.

"
>
E
0.
8 8
0 0

E
"

'0

0
0
0 0
0
0
"
;,
" "


,
0
.=
"
0
"
N
C
"

c
;;
g..g
"

..
"
"
- E - E
J5

" 0.
"
"
;; E
o 0 -0 e

::E VI '0 :. VI
0
:;
0 .... 0
"
" "
-



;;

'0
... 0. .... 0

-5
0
:;
c
"
"0
-'! 0
0;, 0
0
"


"

;;

"
e- e- .g
"

,
'w
..
.



;;
"
C
E
0 "' .
."
"
E

C




"

0
.S!
;;

0 0
""
0 E .
0.
(;j ';;;
0 0.;;;
c
"
E
c c c

<0:1' ;: C
-5
0

,
" . 0
0 0
"' -

:; ;;
'"
E
"
<n. S!
0

;;
"
"
c c

'w . ,
E
.

0
u

."

0 0




0
"
"
;; 0 0

""
..: E ..:


E 0.+ + 0. . 0 >

0
15 1
V.
N
..,.

Table 8.2 Iypical descri ption of a terrain pattern in terms of terrain units . Lithology: onc. stone. sandstone. minor conglomerate. Siluro-De\ onian.
tightly folded. jointed. deeply weathered. Occurrencc: \\idespread in areas underlain b,' Silurian- Dnonian roch: iJreaS of lower relief. und ulating
terrain containing smooth sloped isolated hills. 'rerrain units : as shown. [After Grant (l96g).]
Number
2
3
4
5
6
Terrain pattern Occurrence
an:a ( ei )

5 Flat surface
noodplains
so
5
10
5
< I
adjacent to
drainag:e
channels
Continuous:
extcmi'e

leading to
drainage
ehanneb
Inclusivc in
undulating
su rface
Inclus ivc in
undulating
s urface
Drainage often
artifieally
covered and
controlled in the
Melbourne <J rea
Undulating surface.
Crests: rounded .
linear to 5
Slope\ : eon"ex
to 10

Slopes: eon\ex to 10
Complex hill.
Crests: rounded.
('onw." to ](Y"
Elongated rounded
hills
Crests: rounded,
convex to 5
Slopes: convex to 10
Minor stream
channel. often
depressional.
Slopes : concave
to 10
Soil
])escription of dominant
I .and use Vegctation
Uniform light grey or
grn' bro\\' n deep claye\"
Duplex light grey silt
10 20 em mer yellow !l1ot!led
cia\' o\'er C\V
rock at \ ariahle depth
Melbo urne area. Mostly ckarcd.
park land: other areas seatt cred
pastul"<':.
agricu lture
Melbourne area. urban
Je\cloprnent: othe!
areas
agriculture
messmate. manna
gum or culti\atcd.
Built up or mostly
cleared . grassla nd.
scattered some
areas woodland.
Dupkx light grey silt to Melbourne area. urban
20 cm ()\eI" yell o \\ mottkd ckn:: lopment: othel
hea\ O\ 'er CW pasture. some
Built up or
cleared. grass la nd. shon
gras,. scattered
some areas \\ ood land.
rock at \ ariable depth agrieulttll"c
Shallo\\ duplex light Of
davcy silt to
10 cm mer
mottled hea\ \
cla\' to I m
oc
Crests and upper light
grcy or grey-hrown silt
to 10 em over decomposed
rock with some rock outcrop
L O\\ CJ" duple x li ght
silt to 20 em over yello\\
maUled heavy-textured clav to
I 111 o\er decomposed rock
Shallow duplex light grey or
grey- brown clayey silt to
JO em over yellow mottled
heavy-textured clay to I m
oc
Crests and upper slopes: light
grey or grey-brown clayey silt
to 10 em (wer CW rock with
some rock outcrop
Lower slopes: duplex light grey
clayey silt to 20 em over yellow
mottled clay to
1 111 over CW rock
Uniform or strat ifi ed dark
brown. grey-brown or
yellow mottled
silty or clayey fine sand 01'
silty clay. some angular gravel
towards stream heads
.\Ielbourne area. urban
de\ elopmenL other
arcas pasture
Built up or mostly
ekared. grassland. "hon
grass. scatt ered
some areas woodland
l'-'lelhourne area. urban Built up or
development: other deared. !.hort
areas pasture grass. scattered trees:
\\ oodland.
Unused Grassland. gra.!>s.
manna gum.
peppermint. long
leafed bo.'>:.
ClII,' ,I' f)
\Vat cr a nd lakes.
Within the terrain unit , the geology is constant. However, gradations in soil
types will occur due to varying geomorphic conditions. For example, the soils on
surfa ces will ha ve different textural and profile characteristics to those on slopes.
Similarly. gradational var iations in vegetation arc to be expected.
8.2.3 TERRAIN PATTERN
/\ ' terrain patt ern' is an area of constant geomorphic association consisting
of recurring topographic. soil. and vegetat iona l associations. The terrain pattern
is. in effect. made up of a limited number of terrain un it s. Boundaries of patterns
arc fixed by marked changes in terrain units, changes in the type and density of
dra inage channels, and marked changes in relief amplitude.
Table 8.2 is a simplified version of part of a terrain evaluation. at the pattern
level , of an area near Melbourne, Victoria. This emphasizes the importance of
the topographic c lasses in relation to terrain units, and the variation in soi ls
within a given unit or component.
8.2.4 PROVINCE
A 'province' is an area of constant geology at the level of the stratigraphic group,
or of a large pluton or lava field, Topographic soils and vegetational features will
vary considerably throughout the province. The province is clearly constituted
by a number of terra in patterns, some at least of which may be recurring.
depending on the geological structure and the regiona l geomorphology,
8.2.5 TERRI\I)\' EVALUATION AND ENGINEER ING GEOLOG ICAL
I NVESTlGI\ T I ONS
Terrain evaluation does not replace sit e investigation. but rather supplement s it
by providing a rational basi s. Engineering geological investigations may bt'
carried out at two levels: on a regiona l basis to assist in the selection of the most
satisfactory location for a project; and as a detailed site investigation
Classification to terrain pattern level (or, in exceptional cases, terrain unit level)
is usually sufficient for regional stud ies. However, for deta iled site invest igat ion,
classification to the terrain component level is essential.
The area described by Table 8,2 served as a basis for site and material
investigations for a new highway, although the original purpose of the evaluat ioll
was for urban and regional planning. When the terrain has been classifi ed .
engineering geological and geotechnical information can be assigned In
appropriate members of each class of terrain. Since a basic assumption ofterraill
evaluation is that all occurrences of each member of each class are
engineering geological and geotechnica l data appli cable to one terrain
154
IlICIl'I be [ ca II Iw,' lI , i 1'111 .11 r tl I" ull OCCli 1'1 of t ha t ITl Cl11bCI , On I hl :-' hfl 'l l\. II I"
poss ibl e t () 1"1 cd Il"I t'.n II n lllll l'lI l c ha ics a nd mat eria I sources OVCI I hl' :11 (.' 11
evaluated and cllI \s!lICd ,
H.3 Geological maps
rhe most concise and clear method of presenting geological data is on a
geological map, Such maps a re prepared at a variety of scales for a vari ety 01
purposes. For example. a map to depict, simply. the geology of a region in terms
of rock types. their distribution. relative ages. and structure may be at a sca le: oj
I : 25 000, On the other hand, a map showing quite detail ed informati o n for a
mineral prospect or an engineering site may be at a scale as large as I : 500. 0 1
eve n larger. It must be remembered that the detail , accuracy and method of
ma pping will all change with the scale at which the mapping is carried out. For
example. for small scale maps. the procedure involves the interpretation of at: rial
photographs with field observations recorded directly on these photograph"
Maj or lithological units and major structures only are recorded, Where dctai led .
large scale maps a re required instrumental surveying by tachometry is used.
while every possible geological feature is recorded. Engineers should be aware of
Ihe range of reliability, detail and accuracy; they should a lso be aware that, the
,mailer the scal e, often the greater the amount of interpretative , as opposed to
factual. content of the map,
Geologica l maps prepared for civi l engineering purposes record not onl y
hasic geological information, but additionally, geological data of value 10 Ihe
c: ngineer for planning, design and construction purposes. Engineering geologi ca I
ma ps themselves vary depending on the purpose of the map, Students arc
re ferred to the UNESCO publication Engineering Geological Maps for a full
presentation of the various types of such maps.
The geological map is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensiona l
dala, From his mapping, the geologist is able to predict, from surfa ce
ohservations , subsurface geology, The predictions, however, must be checked by
methods other than direct surface observation if the information to be gi ve n 10
t he engineer is to be totally reliable. Some subsurface conditions, e.g. weathering,
\-' :1 n be predictcd from surface observations in such a general way that they are of
vu lue only at the planning stage of an engineering project. In order to resolve
clo ubtful geological relationships and conditions, it is essential, in engineering
,l-\cological investigations, for some subsurface exploration to be carried oul.
rhe engineering geological maps for an engineer ing proj ect should s how the
lollowing:
( I ) Geo morphological features, including unstable areas, and area s 01
I" o" io n and deposit ion.
(2) The di stribution of rock and soil types, their character. strati graphi cal
tl' llI tic..)ll ... hips. structural fea tures. and physica l and engineering
(.1) Weathering conditi ons. including thi ckness of weathered 70ne. grad!.:, of
and pro pcrti es o f wcat hered rocks.
(4) II ydrogt.:o logical cond iti on:... including wi.ltI.:r tahk IlIld 111Il:luatioJI\ .
aquifer properties. springs. and groundwat er qualit y.
An exa mpl e of a basic geologica l map prepa red for a sit e inves tigati on is shown
on Fig. 8.1.
DIIIl
Fi ll
W
D
HWGneiss

[+++ +J Quanlfeldspar
D
++++
rock HW
River bed deposi ts
Aeolian deposi t s
HW Amphibolite

++
+ + + + +
+ + + +
++++++
++++++
k\\ j MW Amphibolit e

'-_ ____ ':.: 0'-___ --""40 rI\

Fig. 8.1 Engineering geological map prepared fo r site of new railway bridge. Broken Hi ll. Austra lia
8.4 Subsurface investigations
I nvest igations of subsurface geological condi t ions a re of two main types: dire,,' 1
a nd ind irect. The former involve di rect observat ion of t he rocks and soil s. til r
latter. the inter pretat ion of geological co nd it ions based on the measurement 01
ce rtai n phys ica l propert ies . Direct methods include dr ill ing and boring, sha ll
sinking, trenching and tunnelt ing. Indirect met hods utili ze geophysical
tech niques. For the det ailed geologi cal investigation of an engineering sit e ill '"
standard practi ce 10 use both direct and indirect method s.
8.4. 1 DRILLI NG
Rotary drilli ng and percussi on boring are the two groups of methods lIsed fIll
d i ~ e ~ t sub.surface investigation and sa mpl ing. Rot ary methods include aUtl
rl
dri lli ng, di amond dri lling. and cal yx drilling.
116
~ he ri rst of these met hods lI SCS a ha nd opera ted or mach i nc driven 11 UttCI II lid
prod uces a di st urbed sa mple. Its use is limited to soil s and unconsolidated
sediment s, whi le the depth to which drill ing may be ca rri ed out is rela ti vely
sha ll ow. The method is ideal for shallow investigat ions for fo undations in soi ls.
unconsolidated sedi ment s, and completely weathered rocks.
Dia mond drilling is the technique most frequentl y used for deep investi ga ti on
of rock. In theory, a continuous core is produced, whi ch can be exa mined to
determine rock t ype, condition of the rock, including grade of weathering. the
type, spacing and condition of fractures , rock material and rock mass q ualit y and
evidence of major structura l feat ures such as fault s and folds. Samples arc
ava il able for testi ng of properties. The borehol e itself provides hyd rogeologica l
data, while television and photographic techniques are avai lable to examine the
wa ll s of the borehole.
The success of diamond drilling depends to a large degree on the type of
equipment used, and the skill of the operator. Core is cut by a bit into whi ch a rc
set industrial diamonds. The core passes up into a core barrel, from wh ich it is
extracted when the length drilled reaches the length of the core barrel , orearli el'.
if the operator experiences d ri lling cond itions whi ch require him tempora ril y to
cease drilling. The type of core ba rrel used is crit ical. So-called single tube core
barrels, which consist ofa single steel tube, should never be used. Core in such a
barrel is subjected to vibration, rotation of the barrel , and scouring by drilling
water whic h passes down the barrel. As a result , all but the strongest core will be
lost. and it is frequently the weaker core which is of most interest to thecngincc r.
The type of core barrel most commonly used a t the present time is the M
series triple-tubed core barrel with split innermost tube. Because of the
a rrangement of the tubes, core in such core ba rrels is free from effe cts of rota ti on
or the outer tube, and fro m the scouring action of drilling water, whil e the effects
of vibration are very much reduced. The correct selecti on of bit size is also an
important factor in ensuring high core recovery of even the softest rock. The
'i tandard sizes used for engineering geological investigations are EX ( 18 mm
d iameter); AX (30 mm); BX (41 mm) and NX (54 mm). The actual corcs
recove red have slightl y smaller diameter, e.g. NX core has diameter of 47 mm. II
is usual practice to begin drilling with the largest size bit, and progressive ly to
change to smaller bits as the qualit y of the rock improves below t he zone or
wea thering.
The logging of core for engineering purposes requires great care and ski ll ,
hot h in observing and recording. Standard procedures are set out in the
Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report (1970). A sample
log is shown in Fig. 8.2. The log should record detail s of drilling techniques a nd
dri lling progress, with particular mention being made of loss or return of drilling
water, a nd the stati c level of water in the bore. Geological aspects to be recorded
lire the core recove ry, and RQD, and fracture spacing index, for each run; rock
type and cond iti on (including weat hering grade); st ructu ral features including
type a nd condit ion. and esti mates of strength (usuall y point load index). As
lIluch info rma ti on as possibl e should be recorded gra phica ll y.
Eve n the most carefull y logged core should not be destroyed. but it sho uld he
117
ca rcfu lI y stored r or fut ure reference a t least unti I t he proj ect I () t wh lell the d 1 i IIi
was done has been completed . During design and conMfuction it is nOI
uncommon for reference to be made to core.
Diamond drilling has an advantage over most other techniyucs not onl y in
the production of an 'undisturbed' core, but al so in the fact that the direction of
drilling can be varied between vertical and hori70nt3L It is often techni call y
dcsira ble. and more economical. to d rill inclined or horizontal holes. Thi s wi ll be
di scussed later in thi s chapte r. One problem develops, however, in that inclined
and horizontal drill holes frequently deviate from their initial direction and
inclinat ion. For this reason, if the data obtained from the core are to be reliabh.!,
it is essential to s urvey all inclined and hori zontal boreholes for both direction
and inclination.
The third main met hod of rOlary drilling used in engineering investigations i.,
the calyx technique. In this case, a rotating steel bit combined with chilled steel
shot serves as the cutting agent. Calyx drills are of various sizes. but the two mOSt
common are 48 in. and 72 in. diameter. The main va lue of these drills lies in thcil
size. since the geologist and engineer can be lowered down the borehole and
examine the rock in SilU. However. the cost of ca lyx dril ling large diameter
is extremely high. and the technique is used only in except ional
Percussion drilling depends on the breaking up of the rock or soil by impact,
and sampling at regular intervals with a sampling tube. The method is suitabl<-
only for soil s and soft rocks, and suffers the further disadvantage that the
samples obtained are broken and disturbed. A more serious, and somet ime\
critical disadvantage of the method is that it may fail to disclose relatively thin.
but possibly highly significant beds or structures. For example, the foundation,
for the Yallourn D Power Station in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, well'
investigated using percussion drilling. Samples of brown coal were correctly
described, but the broken nature of the samples in a saturated cond iti on
precluded the recognition of a layer of thixotropic weathered coal up to 50 el1l
which developed on the fresh coal. It was not until foundation construction wa.,
in progress that the existence of this low strength, thixotropic material. wa\
recognized. As a result, foundation design required considerable modification
Similarly in t he Fis herman's Bend Industrial Development. Melbournl"
percussion drilling did not indicate a continuous bed of black, organic, highlv
compressible silt 20 cm thick, which again was only discovered
foundation construction and which also caused design alterations.
Although the method is used in engineering investigations, it finds its
application in water boring. For this purpose, fine geological information 1\
usuall y not required; the main purpose of the bore is to serve as a basis for tht
production of groundwater. and geological information gathered is u:->l'd
primarily to define relatively thick aquifers and aquicludes. Even so. in this cas(',
percussion drilling provides no information relating to structural defects, such a.,
joints, which may be very important in hydrogeological studies.
Reference is sometimes made to wash or jet boring for engineering geologicul
investigations. The method is based on using a water jet to wash out Ctlll II
materials which are then examined. Extens ive experience has indicated IhHt not
ISH
BRIDGE RENEWAL
ENGINEERING BOREHOLE LOG
BROKEN HILL LiNE
FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION
MT. DARLING CREEK
R6TROGRAIJ
.91'&A,RC.o
Ot/ARTL-

scwsr/
UYLcw/r/c
6'NEISS:
105-4
247.349
0
....0" ..,.. _'_.... 90
II,
I I
i

0
R
p

"
c
:
q
J
"
-
:

"
"
"
-
- '"
J
H
I Ii

3
.;!S .$'- 77
P-e#
N H /J.l
WND
FIK. H.2 Pnrl the hore dri ll ed to tes t foundation rock at lir e site ofa new rnilwuy bridj.'\c.
Ih okcn lI ill . i\U/I' lrnlru 19HO).
olli V IN h'{'I lll i\lll l' (1 /011 vi dor 111 1 r II HIr U'(II II1 /-1 il1 vcsl igli l ions, bill II 1s0 lli lltl!
Hlv '1<l I," "OIl I,'OUS II.' SUIt S, tli t, 1111111111d Nhould Ill'Vt' , he lI sed fo r sile.: ill vcstl Hl lIl lI1I
PIII'I)(lS' S,
A It ho ug h COI'(.: or 0 1 he.: r Slim FI ll's II ' t' ohtll i ne.: U fro m cI ri II i ng, i n ,\' illl COlltl it 1011
Hre i llfer/u'e/ed fr o m these sarnpl 'S, fo' xl1cri cll ccd enginee r ing geologists tire lul/ ,
aware that the 111 0s t carcful int erprctati o n ma y no t a lways prese nt a n li e ' 111 /111
desc ript.i o n of the actua l geologica l cond iti o ns. Modern techniques li Nin.,
bo rehole ca meras and bo reh ole television pe rmi t the geologist to exa mill (' 11 11
wa ll s of t he borehole a nd to combine the data so obta ined with the da ta fr oll i 11 11
Co re o r other samples. In t hi s way, the accuracy of the interpretation is ,I
considerably. For large diamet er ca lyx dri ll holes, the wall of the holt' tlill
aClua ll y be mapped.
Boreholes of any considerable length, and especially inclined o r
diamond dr ill holes, do not maintain the desig n orientation, but ca n g radlildh
di ve rge fr om t he set out direction and inclination, If the geological inforrnHlli l1i
o bla incd fr o m t he dr illing is to be of full value, it is essential to know the pled"
positi o n of the borehole, For thi s reason, it is essential that a ll hori zontal 111111
incli ned bo reholes be surveyed for direction and inclination, Inst rulll cnt s 11 11
Hva ilablc fo r t hi s purpose, recording photographically the directi o n 111 111
inclinat io n a long the borehol e at predetermined intervals. Since determinlltl Pil
of direction is based on the use of a magnetic compass, steel casi ng, or I II I
prese nce o f ma gnet ic minera ls in the rock will give erroneous A ..
technology develops, thi s serious probl em may be overcome.
A dr illing programme for engineering geological investigations ca n be V(' I\
costl y. It is thercfo re essential that the programme be very thoughlfull y plillll Wri
10 give the maximum of informat ion for the minimum cost. P lanning is a jOllit
exc rcise of geologist and engineer, and is controlled by the geologica l pro bk""
which require to be solved to provide the engineer with the informati OI1 hi
rcqu ires. T he site engineering geologica l maps should serve as a ba sis /i n
dcciding t he number of bores required, their location, direction, incl inati o n II lid
depth. If st ruct ura l features are esse ntiall y hori zontal, vert ical drillho les Will
provide thc most informatio n at minimum lengt h of hole. If, on the other hund
the.: struct ura l entiti es are vertical, then horizontal holes would be the 111 0 /11 1
effi cient. For inclined structures, boreholes should be drilled as ncar no rm: d I II
th e dip as is practi ca ble ( F ig. 8,3). Ca reful desig n of a drilling programme t ' UIl
reduce costs o f th e total in vest igation quite signifi ca ntl y,
FIll , H . .I Drittinij of horcholcs
III ! c l ulioll !O S( ! lI C(UI'C 10
IH' hl l'VC tllUXi l1lUlll iufol'1l1Uliol1.
I ()O
HU (lHlI'II YSl t ' AI I NVIS II ( I A II ONS
III ' tlp hys icul 11)(,; [ hods Ill CII SlIl't.: some spec ifi c pro pert y of roc k mass is
hlll' l p1'l.: ted in terms. Most me L hods a rc rO,r
ill vl''' l igH l io ns, bu t o nly t wo o r th ree are ge nera ll y u, sed.
\\ lut' h meaSure t he ve locit y o r so und in rock; and electncal resistivity techniques,
wlil ch measure th e clect ri ca l res ist ivity of the rock are the most
IIl'pli t uble. Ra di oacti ve methods are used in and
IIIH Vit y techniq ues have only limited value for the engmeenng. ,
Se ismic tec hniques used are of two types: seismic which .IS the
IIHl lhod ge nera ll y used on land; and seismi c refle,ction, used 1Il th.e of
111 11 1 inc probl e ms. Seismic methods require a velOCity to eXIst In lock
IIIIISS. The seismi c refraction method depends on measun ng the of
1l1li 111 1(1 waves in rock. Sound waves travel from the source down to t he
IH
l
t we.:e n two rock unit s with differing velocit ies. At the t he wa,ve IS
1l
'
11 Iletcd, and it s time of arrival at the recording IS
I illlo d ista nce graphs (Fig. 8.4) are prepared from which the thickness,
I Iy , H,4 Scismic refraction
[hue' graphs,
Shot
pOint
y
--

:
I I I
I I I I
' I I
\. ,'7]11 i
til it' nla l io n a nd seismic velocity of a layer can be determined: Correct geo.logical
Int erpreLaLi on req uires some additional usually provided by a dnllhole,
"t" I'i Jl1i c refl ection profiles provide travel time data, and record a st ructural
I'l o fi le. . I . I
Hiet t rica 1 resistivity methods are most useful m areas where the geo oglca
units have strongly contrasting electrical properties, usually. governed by
l
'Ol'os it y a nd moisture content. These methods are partIcularly use.ful
. . . f I has been used wIth
I il l delinea ting sa nds, gravel s a nd clays , 1 II1g , '. ,
!ll iltlle success, in defining fault z. o nes in mass Ive Igneous rO,cks. Re.slst lvlty
IOfJ. t\ ing o f bo reho les is used to give add iti o na l information whi ch can
core dHta ,
16 1
I Ill' I-Il'Opil\'Ioj Il '1I1 !! ',lullqul'iIi 11\' .. 11I1 11l' Illpid it y. lind I -IIIII \I- ' V
low ,'(I'l l, with which , 111 111 111111 11 011 ' ''' IIhIOIIlI.'(1. I he sit e of the McKliv
rowel' ,SI II II OII , AU'l IIIIIIll , Wl r "l o n lkcply weat hered granoclioli li .
Hnd precise IOc:ltl on dcpl.! lIdcd on till' wl.'lI thcl'i ng profi le. and the IOCH tioliul
fault zones, Seismi c I'Cf'I'II Cli oll Sill vcys gave clata , after 3 weeks, WhIr h
It was es t',mat ed wo uld have requiJ'ed s0l11 c 4 months of diamond drilling. at I )f I
of t he estimat ed cos t of t he drill ing. Zones of completely weat hered. J11 0d cl[rlrh
weat hered ',lIlel fresh rock we re defined. whil e the approximate positi ons 01 till
fau lt zones In the dense scrubby ter rain were delineated (FI g 85) . tt I
. . , P CI m I ] ntl I II
o
50 100 III
': II! . ('nlllOli l S .of fre, h rock surface determincd by rcfracti on al Mc Kay power ..: !iIII!)11
KI CWl I , l\u"l nli1:l.
d e'J ign of :lll .e ffi cic nl cl i<1 mond drilling progra mmc to in vesti gat c I he e ngi ncc; r
l: hlll uc tcn ..; tI CS o f the fau lt s.
the vn llH: of gco phys icH lmclhods of inves ti ga tion fo r cli ginC!..' l lli p
WOI k..;, II !lumber of pr' oblCIIl S mHy ari sc. Fo r cX llrnplc. in scismic I'cil'lI l' IIOII
ddll c ultl l ... IIwy UI l\ C in Ihe idclltili cllllOll 01 II low velocit y Ill ye l
undc rlying II hl tJ. h ve locit y la ye r. I hi s pl' oblem occ urred during tunnel
IlI vc ... ti gation:-. in I u:-. man ia. where hi g h ve locit y d olc ritcs ove rl ie low ve locit y
'w<lill1 e nll:lr y roc ks. In the case of res ist ivit y stud ies, a hari/.o ntal surfa ce, and
... 1111 ti fi ca t i on arc ass u rncd. I nan irrcgul a r topogra phy, resi sti vi t y rneas u reme n ts
hl'come diffi c ult to int e rpret. Furt he rmorc, since moisture cont ent of the rock
Ililluc nces resist ivity, the d ept h of the water table will inOuence t he results, a nd
where lhe water tabl e is ir regu lar, interpretation of the res ult s may be quit e
ddli cul t.
K,5 Other methods of investigation
So-call ed wash borings a re somet imes used for engineering geological
Illvest iga tions of soils, or unconsolidated sediments. Most e ngineering geologists
heli evc that these are of no val ue, in fact , may give misleading data, unless the
I\o,.eholes are subsequently logged using geophysical methods such as gamma
Illy logging and resistivity logging.
It is sometimes desirable that more preci se information is required than is
pl'Ovided by test bores and geophysica l sur veys, or that in situ tests be conducted.
hH' either of t hese reasons, test shafts. test trenches, or test tunnels may be
('xcavated. From an investigational point of view, such excavations have the
IHlvantage that the rock or soi l can be examined in s;lu and the behaviour, in
,'xcHvation, studied. The di sadvantage is the high cost of the work. For this
Il' U!\On. excavati ons such a s shafts a nd tunnels are usually planned to serve some
lither purpose, as well as their prime purpose, in the const ruction phase of the
pl'Oj ect.
To illustrate this point, reference may be made to the investigation for t he
McKay underground power stat io n, Vi ctor ia , Austra lia. Here, apart from
\l' ismi c refraction surveys and diamond d rill ing, a n exploratory shaft was sunk,
Iliid an exploratory t unnel dri ven to examine in SilU the well developed and
lIosc ly spaced sheeting which, it was believed, could innuence stability of the
"! tllii a n arch. Ex tremely valuable engineeri ng geological data. apart from t hat
,"rcct ly sought, were obtained. Subsequently, the shaft was broken out to full
to serve as the access to the station, and the tunnel broken out to full size to
"1(' 1 vc as the tail race tunnel.
All ex ploratory excavations must be carefull y surveyed geologicall y, and
1I,'eurale (including photographic) records prepared. These will indicat e rock
Iypes. conditi o n of the rocks, structural defects, and ground water conditi ons. In
udd ition, co mments rel ating to the stability of the excavations, any problems
I'lico unt ered. a nd the location and t ype of support required should be included
Itl t he reco rd s.
H,l, Laboratory investigations
I Icld in vesti gation o f a n e ngi neering site is, in itself, inadequate for design
PilI poses. I t is essential that laboratory testing of mate rial s be performed a s an
Ii II "wnI part of the sit e st ud y. The tests carried out wi ll depend on the proj ect
Iwi Il g invest i gll tcd, and Ihe nllt ure or t he sit e. In ge ne ra l. for soil s. tests a re made
III }t l!\d I Il l-\, II ldl'" 11 101'1' 1111' ''1, ' oli so lidulioll ,l llld
(: hIl IIi CICI IS1H.'N. 1I11t1 t'll" Ill ' Hhili ty, Unde r' 1\ 0 11 11 '
l' ;1 ' 11111'11 11111:1:', ' pcc ill ll l', t, IlllI V Ill' II' qlll ll' d , l"!-4. 101 di' pcrsion,
IIl1d clay mi n(.! ndogy Hnd
FOI' rocks. st rengt h li nd defol' lI ll1 tio ll (clust id ty :Ind cree p) tes ts, Sh t.'I LI
plI rn meIer's, d ura bi Ii I Y (lnd per mea bi Ii ty tesls basic. I f the rock is to be used 11 /11
It road aggrcga te or a conCrete aggrega te, the roc k wi ll need to be test '(I 10
determine it s suitabili ty fo r the purpose.
In the labora tory phase of the investi ga tion, the enginee ring geologist will
undert ake geome tri c a nd kinema ti c a na lysis of fracture systems, whi ch n ULV
require labora tory test ing of the shea ring res istance on t he fractu res, lI sing l ilt'
II oek shear box.
All lest res ult s o bta ined in t he labo ratory require ca reful ana lysis by bot h I hI'
geologist and the engineer. In pa rt ic ul a r, considerat ion mus t be give n to t il('
applicabi li ty of til e res ults of tes ts on soil a nd roc k material s to the soil o r r'od
I11I1 SS. Ir poss ible, relat ions hips s ho ul d be esta blis hed betwee n and
prope rties. For example, the deformat ion lll od ulLl "
vn lucs from plate loading tests in the fi eld are commonly up to one ordel' 01
IYlnsn ilUdc lowe r tha n those measured in the la boratory. It was found by Evtlll /ll
( 1978), for sa ndstones in the Sydney Basin, Australia, that a reducti on indn
cou ld be established which would relate va lues of the modulus of elasti cit y
determi ned from laboratory tests to field values. It was found too that thi s indr ,'
wns un index of the freq uency of j oints in t he rock mass. At least forthe
li nd elnsticit y of rocks, the labora tory tests give a much hi gher va lue tha n the II'
,\'l' lI vfi lue, and th is fact has to be borne in mind by the designer using test result s
H,7 I{cport ing geological investigations
' I he purposc of the geological investigati on is t o present to the
geologica l da ta whi ch is req uired for pla nning, design a nd constructi on. "I hi'
11I'csenta t io n is in the form of a report whi ch, beca use of its purposes, diffe rs III
essent ia ls from a standard geologica l report. The engineer' s prime interest li es III
those geologica l fac tors which influence safe a nd economic design alltl
COns! ruction. For this reason, the geologist's report will concent rate o n th is H I ell
Nonet heless, engineers should be a wa re that proper comprehension of the.oj t'
specia l aspects is de pendent on a n apprec iati on of the geological features at I hi'
sit e. The report , therefore, will begin with a descripti on of the rock types, til "i l
di strib ution. ages a nd re la tionships, a nd a concise statement on structure a nd
weathering. Thi s secti on of the report will be illust rated by geologica l ma ps a nti
sect io ns. a nd st ruct ura l di agra ms.
T he second secti o n of the repo rt will consider the geologica l fa Cia l'S 0 1
,'cI 'vnnce to Ihe engineer. T hese will . of course, vary wit h the na tu re of thl'
proj ect, but wi ll a lmost invariably include deta il o f st r uct ura l fea l ures IIlld
\V'l lt he/ill g. Hc'ompa ni ed by the appropri a te engineer ing geo\ogicH I II lId
lllilpS. Engineers will not ex pect engineer ing aspects to Iw
l' oIl Nidt.: rcd. hUI Ihe geOl ogist s ho uld draw att enti on to those rCHlu rcs whi c h il Iii
rtl ll , u.I 'rcd IIlll y he 01 ir llpol lIIII CC, e.g. Illu lts ,joill h IIlld bedding planes. in so IUr'
11\ the ... e could illflucnce stabi lit y, foundat ion slUbili ly. or leakage.
' I he t hird scct ion of t he report will present the result s, a nd int er pretation, of
held :Ind labora tory tests, d ra wing attenti on t o the relat ionship between
pl o pcrti es determined in the laboratory, and the fi eld va lues of these properti es .
I he sources of da ta , such as deta il s of bores, geophysical sur veys and laborat ory
tests should be incl uded as a ppendices. The re port will end with a summary of t he
l' oncl usions reached , a nd recommendations for fur ther investigation.
T he presenta ti on of the investi gation report does not const itute the end of the
l' lI gincc ring geologist' s work. Rather, his observations will continue throughout
Ihe constr ucti on pe ri od, a nd it is almost certain that geol ogical features will be
tli..;closed which dema nd some cha nges t o design. In any case, a detailed record is
t l' q ui rcd of geological condit ions at the site for future reference. On complet ion
II I the project, a final geol ogical report should be prepa red whi ch stat es clearly
I he geological facto rs which proved to be of enginee ri ng significance, as well as
II H; luding a n object ive compari son of the geological predi ct ions, and the
l' o nditions act ua ll y encountered. In t hi s way, a case hi story is recorded which
"'l' r vcs as a cont r ibut ion to knowledge in engi neering geol ogy.
Itcfcrcnces and further reading
ALlchi,on G. D. & Grant K. ( 1967) The P UCE programme of te r rain descri ption. In Fuurth
UI'Jl/fll/al Conference Ofl Soil Mechanics and Foundat ion Engineerillg. Cape Town.
"ILon. (1982) Trailling and Reference Manual. National Waterwell and Drilling Association
01 Au,tralia. St. Ives.
"nun. ( 1976) Engi nee ring Geological Ma ps. UNESCO, Paris.
( IIII chl cy C. R" Grainer P., McCann D. M. & Smith D. I. Some applica tions of geophysical
tl dllliql.l cS ill engincering geology. In Pl'o('. 24th Illf . Ceul. Congr. pp. 163- 75.
Ilrl vic\ w. N. (1980) Geological investigation for bridge si tes near Broke n Hill. Unpublished
MAppSc thesis. Uni ve rsit y of New South Wales.
I II WUI ds R. J . G. ( 1972) The engineer ing geologist in project reconnaissa nce and feasibil ity studies.
(llIIlff . /1. Engllg. Ceol. 4. 283. . . . '
t \lu n, R. S. (1978) Time de pendent factors inOuenci ng roc k slope stabIli t y. unpubli shed Ph D t heSIS.
of New Soulh Wal es. Sydney, Aus t ra lia.
tll ' lllogica l Societ y Engineering Group Worki ng Party (1970) T he logging of rock cores fo r
I IIWll ccl'ing purposes. Qllarl. 11. ElIgng. Ceol. 3, I.
1011 111 K. ( 1968) A terrain evaluation system for engineering. CSI RO. Oi\'. Soil Mech. Tech. Paper 2.
I \litH
(1111111 K. ( 1971) Terra in evaluation as a basis for engineering geology. In Proc. AIISI. N.Z.
I Wt/l' I'I' " ce 0 11 Geol1lechallics .. Melhuurne.
(1L1 1t1!hs D. H, & King R. F. (1 965) Applied Geophysicsfor Engineers and Ce%gisls. Perga mon
Oxford.
J . J . ( 1950) Exploration Geophysics. Trija, Los Angeles.
to. 1\ 111 J. L. & Price D. G. (1972) Seismic evaluat ion of rock masses. In Pro'. 24lh 1m. geo/. Congr.
1']1 176 1'12.
9
Geological Factors in Engineering Works
9.1 Introduction
In t he preceding chapters, the basic principles of geology and the general
application of these principles to civil engineering have been expla ined. In the
material which follows, specific applications of geology to engi neering works arc
discussed, ill ustrated by actual examples, or case hi stories. It is from the
experience of actua l constructi on and service that the fundamental issues of
engineering geology have been establi shed. Although both engi neers and
engineering geologists learn from mi stakes, i.c. failures of engineeri ng
structures, they also learn from successes. The case histories include both
fai lures and successes, deliberately selected to illust rate principles.
9.2 Dams
Dams arc structures designed, and constructed , to impound water in a reservoir.
The dams may be of concrete, or of earth a nd rock. Concrete dams are of three
basic types: (i) mass gravity, in which the load of, and on, t he dam is spread over"
la rge area, and therefore one in which the foundation pressures a re rela tively low:
(ii) buttress, in whi ch the load is ca rri ed to the foundation through a series 01
narrow buttresses, and hence founda ti on pressures are very high; and (iii) arch
dams , which are thin structures, and again, foundation pressures are high. This ii\
particularly t rue in the abutment s where pressures a re transmitted to th t:
foundation rocks by a rch action. Founda ti on pressures in the channel sec ti on
can be quite low. It can be inferred from these statements that the mass gravity
dam is a soluti on for those sites in which the rock founda ti ons have less tha n
superior strength, although relatively high shea r and compressive strengt h ma y
be req uired in t he foundation rock. Buttress and arch dams require high qualit y
foundation rocks. Earth dams can be, and often are, founded on soil s, but
frequently, particularly if the soil is of no great thickness. the core is founded (HI
rock. Other factors, have to be taken int o account. At a damsit e, the bU\ Il'
geological requi rement s are:
(i) suitable founda ti on mater ials, in terms of strength and deformatioll
cha racteristics; (ii) dura ble rock; (i ii ) structural patterns such tha t th ..
foundations are stable and leakage a long structures is minimal ; (iv) for concu: l!'
dams, shallow weathering in order to avoid excessive excava tion of went hcH' !!
material ; and (v) sta ble slopes.
166
9.2. 1 Si IIt ANI " 'I \M. tAt tH)ttNtA
"I he experie ncc 01 thl' St hancis Dam demonstr::IIcs that no geological kHllIll'
should be overlooked . I he dam. compl eted in 1926. was a mass gra vi lycfHl(" II.' ll'
st r uct 1I re, 62.5 III high a nd 213 III long, constructed on the Sa n Pra neis,,! lilt II
Canyon. The sout h-castcrn abutment. channel secti on, and lower pal I of Ihl'
no rth-western abutment of the dam were founded on mi ca schi st, whic h is (;.111 Il l'"
aga inst a yo unger conglomerate. This conglomerate constitut ed the founda lioll
of the north-western abutment. The foliation in the SChistosity dipped rOllghl y
parallel to the sout h-eastern wall of the valley. Zones of shearing W(..'It'
numerous. T he rock had low strengt h and di sintegra tcd rcadi ly, III('
conglomera te was a coa rse textured rock wi th abundant gypsum. J)U1 1I11-t
const ruction, the concrete of the south-eastern abutment was placed di rectl y 0 11
the smooth foli at ion surfaces of the schist. In the cha nnel secti on. a nd the JOWl' 1
north-western abutment section, the concrete was placed across the foliatio ll
surfaces . The fault, known as the San Franci squito Fault , is inactive. It dipped
35 40" north-westwards , and consisted of up to 2 m of gouge. Fa ult move mellt
had resulted in shearing and fracturing of the conglomerate. The conglomera te:
was a very low strength rock.
It seems (Ra nsome 1928) tha t no geol ogi ca l study was made of the site bcfol C
design and const ructi on, nor were any st rength or durabilit y tests carried Ollt Oil
the founda tion rocks. The storage filled early in March 1928, and the dam fa;le-d
shortly thereafter, the failure beginning on the north-western abutment. Alt t' l
the fa ilure, only one small (channel) section of the dam remained standi ng I ; i ~ ,
9. I), a nd blocks of concrete of up to 10 000 t were swept up to J km downs t I "11 111
Conglomerate
Remaining section of
dam after fa ilure
"-
Schi st
I-III 1). 1 Geological section of St Francis Dam si te. Cali forni a, showing the situation after talltlll'
Li\fler Ran:.ome (1928).J
lip to 20 m thickness of foundation rock was sco ured out in some sections,
SlIhseq uent study showed that the conglomerat e was a compacti on sediment . t he
III lttl'ix d isi ntegra ting when the rock was immersed in water, with a total loss of
" ,, ngth. Addit ionally. much of t he matrix was solubl e gypsum. S liding. during
Ihl' failure, also occurred along the foliation in the schist o n the sOli th-castel' lI
"hUlment ,
'I 1 2 MI' ADOWIl ANK DAM. TASMANt A
l11t' MCH(/owhank DHm is a mass ive buttress concrete dam. 41 I'll lli l-\ h.
Iii 7
l'nONI I IIrh' d () II 111\' l )c l w(' tH I( I \it' I . 111 /'1 11111 II lit I li r I (lit ndu I lOll rocks II r " I r 111 "''' 1\
Nl lIlt l lc !tltl l'S, 'l ilt\l IOrU,,'S IlI ld tlllt!l NltllU'N. lor tll ltl H It-lltictr ll1r beds, dippinH \ .,
nor I Ii t/lNI Wl rl tl s, :I nd wil h I I (l OWIl Nll l' lI III ' OlllpOll c nl of dip o f 10. Ill'cccill Iillln
Of,.'f,.' \lI' ICd , whi ch cut Heross hcds, /ltld cUlrl ed sll' o ng wutel' fl o ws, whilt' 1111
hl'lhl h\H plull c:-, wc rc oli cn mlll'ked hysoll ' Iling, I he I"Ock mass was broken, ul.'l ll
hy opcn Il Ci li veni c. 1i joint s.
I he sile was by surface mapping, diamond dril ling and il K III
(I ill tl1 ct CI' clll y x d ri II i ng, 1I se ismi c refra ction s u rvey. a nd seve ral test t rcnchl,;\1 111111
It''' 1 , holh, I)ctai led tcs ting o f th e rock IlHHeri a ls was ca rried o ul in 1111
Illhol IIl o ry, li nd ill Silli shea r tes ts werc carri ed out in Ihe calyx drill holes. III ,If"
I 's Is Oil bedc! ins plane scams gave va lues for C of7 kPa (I p.s. i.) and for tall flllil
0. 25. Lubo"ul ory lest s gave va lues of C = 2 1 kPa (3 p. s. i.) and Ian'" = 0.36.
I)elllil ed engi neering analysi s fo ll owed to determine a suitable facto r ofsu"'l\,
II WliliSI failure by slid ing. The ana lysis showed t he need fo r a massive I ull 1 1'1111
dalll , mlher than the originally planned gravity, and pre-stressed cable a nl'l lill II
wr' o providod 10 supply Ihe balance of norma l load (Fig. 9.2). The ge,lI' 11,1
COllll11cnl by the e ngineers was that t he experience gained confil'med I"
illlpu l lunce of thorough geological investi gat ion a nd part icula rly 01 "1111
i,.'xcltvlllions at a damsite (Maddox el al 1976).
Gro., 1 Clrr ll1l1l '-__ "'--__ 320 m
"'1! . 9.2 Sccti oll of buttress foundat ion, Mcadowbank Dam, Tasmania. [After Maddox 1'1111
( 1976)1
9.2. 3 MONAR DAM. SCOTLAND
MonaI' Dam was constructed on the River Farrar, Scotla nd. It is a dOllhh
arch dam, 16 1 m long overall and 35 m high. Init ial invesliglliloli ll
of two s hall ow diamond drill holes and a surface geologica l SUI \In
Suhsequentl y. an ex pl oratory tunnel was dr iven on eHeh
IUllhcr dil1l11ond dri ll ing and trenching were ca rried Ollt.
' I li e foundation rock was H ma ssive jointed granulit e, largely UIlWCll lhf,.' II' II .
:Ill y WClllhcl'ed l ock iniliully prese llt huving been removed in pasl glaciu l CI' ONI \;I
III Ilvtly, I he Wl lI lI lhtl' Wl l " Irlllll(h't1 hy I I lumplOphYIII;.' l ype t1 y k', whH..' 1l II WO'
mi ght influCIl !.!c Ihe stubillt y o f Ihe BOlli III sl lll and
IfdlOll llOI Y lests WC I C CH I li ed OUII O dClermine strenglh und e lasti cit y. Tests to
iI! 1I' lllline th e d ynami c clasti c modulus gave fi eld values of about 40% of the
LdlOllltory va lucs, s uggesting that j ointing exe rted a strong innuence on the
pi opc l'ti es of Ihe roc k mass.
hHlr main sets of joint s were recorded , one of which was almost certainly
1II ' c' I ing. T hese sheeting structures dipped towards the centre of the valley, were
JI" ,"cd al 30 45 cm and were smooth, although the open structures were filled
II IIIr dehr is. Joinls of the other three sets had dips of 40" or less, and one of these
\\11-' nbo interpret ed as a stress relief st ructure (Henkel el aI 1962). Thejoints
II tltkd to be di scontinuous. Many of the joint openings were clay filled. F riction
I' . 1< on Ihe j oinls gave values of about 50" for the angle offricl ion; clay filled
jlllllls gave ave rage value of 25 and micaceous joints 300.
Ana lyses oflhe effects of joints on the stability oflhe dam were carried oul. It
II, 1111 II ss umed that, until movement occurred on thejoints, the rock would behave
,1_111\ clastic mass. A programme of grouting was carried out to provide a curtain
111 I seepage losses from beneath the dam; to fill the joints and so minimize
111 101 mation of the foundation; and to increase the shear resi stance along the
1"III ls.
I he stresses in an arch dam and its foundations are generally calculated by
Ilrl ' designer on the assumption that the rock mass is elastic, homogeneous,
Iltll l I o pi c, a nd continuous. It is, of course, necessary that the foundat ion stresses
III k'ss than the strength of the rock, but it is also necessary to ensure that no
IItll Vl.' tnent can occur on the discontinuities in the rock mass. It is crit ical in t he
''' ' lIlogica l investigation for an arch dam that the spacing, orientation and
IIIIl( lili o n of all discontinuities be determined by the engineering geologist.
" DARTMOUTH DAM. AUSTRALIA
I lit, Dartmouth Dam is a mUltipurpose, earth and rockfill structure, recently
, " ,I,(f ucted on Ihe Mitta Mitta River, Victoria. The dam is 180 m high, 670 m
IUllg IIncl contai ns 14. 1 )( 10
6
m
J
of material. The impounded water, of high
1"" ' Iy. is 10 be used to boost waler suppl y (via Ihe Murray Rive r) 10 Sout h
\IPHralia; fo r irrigation; and for control of salinity in the Murray River.
I he geological investigat ion involved mapping of the damsite at scale
I O()o. Ihe drilling of 10 diamond drillholes (8 inclined, 2 vert ical); the augering
(II,i ll g power augers) of 49 holes to refusal, 3240 m of trenching, and 13 seismic
II' I'II CI ion traverses. Groundwater monitoring and a seismic risk appreciation
IlIlhli tul cd an esse ntial part of the investigation.
I he rock at Ihe damsite is a closely jointed, sheared and locally foliated
.,'lIll itic rock. with an irregular pattern of weathering. Minor dyke intrusion had
IlI'l' lItred . The geologists carefully mapped all structural discontinuities since it
WI! 1\ f,.'o ll sidered thalthese would constitute the main foundation hazards insofar
II'" sl'cpuge along them could result in erosion and piping. Permeable and
1IIIIIpi essihl e mUl e ria ls we re removed and replaced with ei ther concrete or well
1()9
1'lI l1lPllt ' II' d lill WIII, It, 1111' 11 14 II I HIlt' IV II "IN III('d IOl'k O(.'(.' Ulll' t! , IIH'V
rO\I'Il' d wi lh \I Ill Vl' 1 01 "OIH' II ' II ' III Ij hilh lI ' h' 111111 thick ,
A II \I III hl' l Olllltqlll \ hl' !11 1011\'" Wr l l"HI' Io/I' lIlllllh 'Iulilldali (l lllllld, \01111' ''(
Whll' h Wl' l l' 'WI mill , 01 lI elldy ,"': 0,10 I Ill' d lllllll xi\ , 1 n gc ncrn l, duc 10 Ihe hi t-l h t IItV
)l0 II N" I'ollt ent , tlt ese wei" illlPC11l\ 'lI hh:, hut thc rock adj ace nt 10 til ' Ill \\1'
l'io"ll'ly joint cd lind hi ghl y pcnnCllblc. Special alI eni ion was given to Ihe
0 1 I hese loncs,
Sheeti ng st"UctU I'CS were we ll dcveloped on the abutments. These CHl lill1
"11' 1111\ "1 whi ch consisted orweathered roc k up to 2 m thick. These zo nes rcfll1wd III
IH'I'l' pl ce mcnt grout , and had very low permeabi lity, No net heless, co nCCl1i \ \ 1l1li
Il l' hl Icga rding the crodabilit y and compactabilit y. Chemical grouting A
mOllomer A M9 errecti vely scaled this mate ri al as indicated by water pll:"I\ \lII
11.'''11..:,
I hc problern s or thi s very large ea rth dam centred on ques li otl " III
Pt' l rll Cllhi lit y or the rounda ti on, and in places, compactability. The si te is
nlltl it' lcgu!;Hl y weat hered. The gene ral foundation level was on I:l
wt'u Ill elcd to moderat ely weathered rock ma ss, higher grades or weHthl' Il' lt
1111111' 1 lui being removed , ge nerally, as we ll as specificall y from structural (lr ll'll
wit"", we,"hering of t he roek mat erial was high or complete (Fig. 9.3).
"1,,, 1) ,1 ",xcuvlIti on rOI spil lway. Dllrtmouth Dam. showing Ihe hi ghl y weathered nature or lht'
I
'1 .2J GFNtSSIAT DAM. AIN. FRANCE
Bt,t'n ll sc Or experi ence with the S t Andalusia Da m in S pain, the Kentll cky 1)/1111
III Ihl.! USA, Hnd fI number or other damsit es o n limestone, cnginec i s !1I 1
1\' !tI t:IlIr11 to consi dcl' dam constructi on on. or close to. a limestonc IOlI lldlltlPIl
170
I I" Ihls 1l'1I\() tl . ti ll' (ktlls'iUtt I )"IIlII I Ai n, ill h l H1Cl', is oj Illt CI CSI. Il u.! ( !tllil b 11
'IIIII ' II,' le tll'! lvil y lyPI.!. 104 m hi gh, Ihe resc l vuir cxlcnds huck Irom the dam rol'u
.(, t,,,, cc of 23 km.
I he dum is locat ed o n it sync lina l rold in Cretaceous limestones, overlain by
1'lliulY lime rich sa ndstones, cla y marl a nd thin limestones. The wall s of the
1,lh'v nre covered by thi ck talus. As was anticipated, the limestones have a
IU llIl hc l' of qui te large soluti on caviti es, but these were filled with what proved to
III IIIlpermea ble debri s,
11< part of thc sitc investigation, a shaft was sunk t040 m below the bed of the
11\1'1 . from whi ch explorator y tunnels were driven to test mass permeability. It
'\llfoJ Imllld that t he permeability was not high, and the initial concern was
. 1I11, ,,, utcd. 'Buried va lleys' posed an additional problem, but it was found that
tit. 1I111teriai filling these was also impermeable.
1 he alluvium in the floor of the valley required consolidation to withstand
tIlt lond of the temporary diversion dams. Steel sheet piling was driven to 9 m,
,\lid dlly-s ili cate grouting was carried out. Any cavities in the limestone were
II"hed o ut and fill ed with concrete. The dam was successfully constructed, and
III 11(" vice behaviour is sat isfactor y. Thi s is considered to be due largely to the
1Il'I II HtI structure.
'I \ Buildings
I """dll tions for buildings are usuall y (but not invariably) placed at shallow
til plh, and are therefore on soil or rock in an advanced stage of weathering.
I IIlilida tion pressures are relatively low. Where the foundation materials have
" 11 11 ,vely high strength and good deformation properties, the foundation type is
, Illp footing, which may by cont inuous, or isolated. Such foundations support
lilli' or several columns. If the properties ofthe foundation materials are inferi or,
II 1' 1 he pract ice to adopt mat or raft foundations , which spread the load over the
\\ hol e a rea of the building. In cases of very inferior foundation materials, piles
"II' tl sed: these may be either pre-cast , or cast in place.
Sometimes problems arise from factors other than the strength and
III 111 1 Illation characteristics of the foundation materials. In cases in which the
.. \I , lire expansive types, relative movement may occur due to wetting and
.11 YlII g. which set s up stresses in the structure, result ing in seri ous structural
Buildings located on unstable slopes are also liable to damage, or
Ih '. llueti on, in the event of slope failure.
'I t I THE TRANSCONA GRAI N ELEVATOR. WINNIPEG. CANADA
I Itt> In itial investigation of the site appears to have been restricted to plate
hrn I ing tests a t the surface. It is now known that this is a n unsafe practice unless
II,,' les t !'es ults are int erpreted in terms ofthe geology of the site. Beneath a loaded
IIl' n , t he load iss pread , in a cone, with slo pe ofabaut I : I. Ira small test plate is
II 'Wd , il is in ves ti gating onl y the chara cteri st ics of the material to very shallow
II l"p lh . find , irinrcri or n"llli eria l occurs below thi s depth, which will be ca ll ed on to
17 1
carry the load o f the much la rge r compl eted structure. t he !'I lIrl ucc pl ate
tes ts will give no indi cation of its load bea ring cha racteri sti cs.
At the site of the elevators, a desicca ted surface layer of glacia l lacustrine
deposits overlies very low strength saturated clays. Subsequent tests showed tlUlI
the surface mat erial had strength of 160 kPa, whil e the deeper material had
strength of onl y 55 kPa. These weaker clays, it was fo und, would be influenced
by the load of the large area raft founda tion.
Foundati on failure (Octobe r 1913) resulted in the ti lting of the 6-bin elevator,
whi ch came t o rest at an angle of about 27 from the vertical (Fig. 9.4b). The
elevat or suffered no structural damage and was later jacked to a verti cal
positi on, and supported by piers sunk down to hard rock.
'---_ ---" 10 rn
.0. " . .0.
-- t=' 0" .".,,,c.,co<>,,:,,: :' -.@0C"!. Suit clays
and Sil lS
, .
. .
.. ,
." .. "" " "
I - : g Limestone
Fig. 9.4 Transcona Grain Elcvator. Winnipeg. Canada. showi ng gcological condit ions and mode ot
fa il ure.
9. 3.2 YALLOURN POWER STATION. AUSTRALIA
Thi s large brown-coal fired generating station is located in the Lat robe brown
coalfields of Victoria. At the site, the brown coal and associated clays and sand"
ha ve undergone monoclinal folding so that the beds are near vertical to verti cal .
and in places slightly overturned. The coal measures have been eroded and a thin
overburden of sandy clay, and gravels has bee n deposit ed on the erosion surfacl'
Investi gati on of the site was carried out using percussion drilling, and SOI1W
40 hol es were dri lled. A contour map of the surface of the coal measures w" ,
prepared, and, after a study of the properti es of the coal measures materinl ll
( brown coal, sa nd , tough li gneous cl ay a nd ligneous sa nd) and of the OVC I
burden, the decision was made to use the latt er as foundat ion for about ha lf t hr
st at ion. and. where the overburden was t hin. to utilize the coal measures.
Because of the structural conditions, the foundation materials in the COll i
measures were highl y variable, trending diagonally across the station sil ('
Isola ted footings were used to support columns, and such installations as boil cl ,,!
and turbogenerators; because of the variation in foundation ma terial s. eaeit
footing required detailed consideration to avoid differential settl ement (Beavl,.,
1975). The foundation conditions for the two turboge nerato rs are shown III
Fi g. 9.5.
172
' I he rnnrll IH ull krl! I' II IH'l' lll(,: d fo undnt iol1 s in the overh urden when: till \
mat eria l rested 011 h lOWIl COll I. The wea thered surfa ce of the coa l wu..; ill II
thi xotropi c condi tion. nnd li q uefi ed when subjected to vibra ti on. I ... or thi s
reason, foundati on levels fo r some of t he foot ings had to be lowered fro m th l.!
overburden ont o fresh coal.
Fig. 9.S Geological conditions
in foundations for
l urbogcneralor blocks. Yall ourn
D Power Station. Victoria.
Aust rali a.
9.4 Road and airfield run ways
0'--__ ---",, 0 _ _ __ 2,,0'--_ _ --"'30 rn
In terms of foundations, we are conce rned in the case of roads and airfi elds wit h
t ra nsient and impact , i.e. dynami c, rat her than stati c loads. In the case of
ai rfi elds, a pron area foundations are al so subjected to static loads. Geologicul
factors are invol ved not onl y in foundati on problems but al so, in the case of
roads, with problems of location, terrain stabilit y, stabilit y of constructed slopes
a nd fill s, and the suppl y of constr uction materia ls.
Location of highway routes requires a knowl edge of the regional geology,
combined with a sound terrain eval uation programme. Data from these services
a re used to fix alignment s, define unstable areas, and provide a basis fo r the
location of construction mate rial s. It is essentia l, from the point s of view of
planning, design, and economi cs t o know the construction conditi ons I he
eq uipment required, and the respective lengths of cut and fi ll. These can ; 11 be
determined from a proper terrain evaluation.
In certain segments of the proposed road, more detailed investigations ma y
need to be carried out. In the case of unstable landforms, geological da ta arc
required for stability analysi s and for the solution of foundation probl ems. Fo r
proposed deep cuttings in rock, determination of the geometry and conditi on of
st ruct ural defects , as well as details of the weathering profile will be required . In
some a rid and semi -arid regions where the soils may be saline, areas of sa linit y
wi ll need to be defined, since saline soil s are notorious for causing pave ment
fa ilure. Again, in some cold, wet areas, swa mp deposits and bogs prese nt diffi cult
foundation problems.
9 .4. 1 WI NDY POI NT CUTrI NG. OCEAN ROAD. LORI'I E. AUSTRALI A
Movement of a cut slope, and of the hill side above it , threatened to dest roy a
secti o n of a main tourist road. The rocks were Cretaceous sandstones, dipping Ht
27 t owa rds the resort beach. The beds were broken by ve rtical to nea r ve rti ca l
joint.s spaced a t from I t o 10 m, and whi ch showed progress ive opening as the
slow movement a lo ng a bedding plane progressed ( Fig. 9.6). Detail ed sludy 01
17.1
o 10 0'0 10 ti n !I I

,
,
"", ItO
/I,
'"
I,ll
III,
,m
",
III 'h
,'II
____

'"
6
"'I
-----------------
100
80
g60
i
g 40
20
o
Distance !m)
_/
-
/
_/
Fig. 9.6 StruclUml geology at t he site of slope failure. Great Ocean Road, Lorne. Victoria,
Australia.
movement patterns, and of joints showed that movement was occurring by ,"1 11,1
along a bedding plane which outcropped at road level, and agai n, just below Nt'li
level.
Analysis of movements, and of the forces involved, resulted in t he ill
45 stressed rock anchors which tied the moving wedge of rock into t he Slu"l1
underl ying rock mass, In addition, ge ntly incl ined boreholes were drill ed I"
provide drainage. Monitoring of the cutti ng over 10 years has provid'd 1111
evidence of further movement.

M()I{}HWAV ON It A( d AN M()() I(S. WAi l S
NOli II of POll IlIlhot , WII k:s. t he POll l'albu] By Puss H 011(1 CI OS'iCS t li t.:
Moors (Of 1\ Icngth 01 2 km, ' I he deposit s life CStulll illC find comprise silt s. soft
I luys and peul . wit Ii U I hi ckncss of somc 15 m, rest ing on glacial deposit s. WheJ' e
hlil lcd It' ibUlur y vu ll eys j o in lhe main buried glacial va ll ey, the superfi cial
dl
1
posits arc much thi cker. Along the line of the road, the s urface cla ys had
tl
1
uhol1nbles trength, b'Jt pea t beds lip to 10 In thi ck had virtuall y no strength and
WI' IC high ly compressible.
Any cmban k mcnt placed on the compressi ble peat beds would ha ve resulted
In una cce ptable sett leme nts. If di spl acement of the peat had been attempted by
IIl l1 c huJ'ge, a n adj(lce nt rai lway embankment wo uld have been endangered. The
IWh l1 ion adopted WHS to place a re info rced concrete raft , 36 cm t hick and 263 m
wltl e. support ed by five rows of 45 cm diameter cast -in place piles, which rested
"" bedrock, at 2,) m ce ntres (Rogers 1972),
'1 ,1,) K I NGSFORD SMITH AIRPORT, SYDNEY, AUSTRALI A
1(I'l' ol1 struct ion of t he Kingsford Smith Airport, to accommodate modern
"1 11.' luft . required a diversion of the Cook Ri ve r, and exte nsion of t he mai n
ntlt Ih south runway into Botany Bay. The material at the sit e is a medium
sand, locall y overlain by silty, organic alluvium a nd overl ying estuarine
,\1 111 "1 und clays.
I he main interest in this project lay in the Botany Bay extension of the
IIlll wll y. Test boring showed that t he materials had satisfactory strength and
1II 1' lll emcnt characteristics, and 50 the embankment was placed directly on thc
II llds. The initial material used for construction was dolerite, part ly in a fresh
lll llditi on, partl y sli ghtl y weathered. In the early stages of const ruction, it was
,,"-c, vcd Ihat the sli ghtly weathered dolerit e generally, and the fresh dolerite in
1"11 t, was rapidly disintegrating, Research showed that a degraded chlorite,
pi ('''Ic nt in small proportions, but disseminated throughout the rock, expanded
wil t' n in contact with sea water, and caused di sintegration of the rock. The
II lI lt eria l was a bandoned, and fres h basalt was used, although it was necessary to
11I1I1,' POri t hi s about 100 km,
Bridges
IllHl ges arc built as crossings over rivers, mari ne inlets, rai lways a nd roads. There
II l l'lI number of designs, but the most important are the simple beam, ca ntil ever,
Iltrh. rigid frame, a nd sll spension. All types exe rt a verti ca l load o n thc
lou ndut ion, a ltho ugh the load from the a rch type is inclined, and can be resolved
Into t he horizo nta l and ver tical. The fo undat ions of the ri gid frame bridge exert
hllth vc rti cn l a nd horizontal loads, whi le in a suspension bridge, the loaded
1 HhlCI\ lend to pu ll the s upporting towers in wa rds, so that, to oppose th is
Illl(iel1cy, the towers arc strengt hcned by ancho red in rock.
Apui' t from geological co nsiderat ions in lhe des ign of foundations, fO l'
IIIHIHCS crossing rivers or marine inlets, attent io n has to be paid to the efrecls of
\'IUIl ' I II " Hlld Ilcl1.1 I I Hl Vt' 11 IC ' lll Ii II II 111t' Ic 111111 IIH il lll S 01 I Ill' H ud I I) ti ll: .... I I!' t h
0 1 111 11 l o w i ng I Ill' \'111111111' 1 \\ "hI! IIII1 V I H'(' \l r III MlIll l: In Il l/ It I
\\or (l "! , (" oll , id(" IutiOIi 111 1"1 10 IH' p. i Yr nlo till' l' lodllhi l i l y 01 hOlh hed li nd
!)j I SY DNI' Y II AIUlOIiH II IUI)( iI . AilS II(AI I A
I hi , hi idgc is an arch-spa n sli spension Iype, construcli o n of which "It
f.' ornplcleci in 1932. II ca rri es two ra il lracks, a pedest rian wa lkway, a nd 6 111 1H" III
1II 0to r trarnc, Ovc rall lengt h is 1150 m. The rocks of t he area a rc '1'1 il" "' 11
IllIwkcs hury Sandstone which is a unit comprising t hi ck, hori70llt a l hed", II I
sandstone of va rying text ure, wit h t hin beds of s ft , hlgl1 l\
(.'ornprcssible shale. At the surface a nd cl ose to the surfacc, the rock, 1111
c.:o mplelcly 10 hi ghl y weathered, a nd in thi s cond iti on have st rength or 0 ,11 \
II bout 40% of t he fres h roc k. The ma in geological factor, apart from
WII ' t he possibili ty of slid ing of foundations on, a nd inadequa te st rengt h 01 , t ilt
, Ilu Ie heds.
IlI iliH ll y, the foundat ions were to be placed 5 ft ( 1. 5 m) into rock , wi l li 1\
llIa xi mum load of 31 to ns/ sq. ft (3.3 MPa) . However, as a resul t of obsc rvuti t1l1
li nt! Icsl:-. d uri ng excava ti on, whi ch showed t he characteristi cs of the wea l h"' 1 !" d
loc k to be unsati sfac tory, excavat ions were made t o 25 ft (7.6 m) int o rock, uil il
the fo unda tion area increased t o red uce t he load to 13 t ons / sq. ft ( 1. 4 M I' lOl
i'll ch f ou ndat io n was des igned to ca rry a t hrust of just over 20 000 t inclil1l' d II I
lO lld a ve rt ical load from t he pylons of I I 000 t.
'l .6 Underground openings
I 11 11 nels a rc constructed for a va riety of purposes: t o carry traffic, water, 1' 1)\\1 I
cu hlcs, and to provide access to la rge underground chambers such II
hyd roelect ri c power stat ions. Excavat ions may be in rock Chard ground') 0 1 ' 0I l
('soi'l ground') , a nd t he techniques of const ructi on will depend on t he tyr " " I
I-\ l'Ound, Geological factors play a signifi cant role not o nly in t he mel hod II I
cxcHvalion, but in the shape of cross-sect ion and on t he stabil ity of 11 11
C.xCH vat ion. W hi Ie some t unnels are des igned to be full y lined, ot hers a rc
to be tlnJi ll cd. In th is latter case, safety, and efficient o perati on may rcqu ir'c , 11 111
lini ng he placed where the rock condit ions a re such that fa ilure mi ght OCt' llI
It i:-; oft en diffi cult to j ustify economi cally a detailed geological invcstigll t 11111
101 II lun nel, unless t he tunnel is to be at a shall ow dept h. For deep IUII II !' I"
<. 11 ill ing investi gat ions a re certainly uneconomi cal, a nd most III
sti ch i.I case consist of a surface geological survey supplemented by geophYN ir ul
invest igati ons a nd a limi ted amount of drill ing at portal sites. or at points wll l"ll
,nnw criti ca l geological problem may require solut io n. On the other ha nd, 1111
openings, such as underground power stat ions, very detailed geolotl l" l1l
invest igat ions arc essent ia l.
Pl'Ohahly the t hree most importa nt geological factors to be considcll'd III
II lI l'd I'ock ll l1ci crground excava t ions a re rock weathering, in so fa r as qUl ll ity II I
I ot' k, lind sound cove r arc conce rned; st ruct ure, which will control the stHbi lit V " I
ti lt: CXCllvll lion: li nd groundwa ter hyd rology, T he natu re, conditi on, 11 11(1 (ill
17()
11, 10 I 10 11 I II t h I,' 0 1 H' II I II 11011 0 1 I III,' i,.' Xl' lI VI I t 1011 ) I hf. /I It It uti l,' 0 1 , I lur l u IHI delcet s HI C
rl ltll'lI l Ill ctot's In the shUI)C 1111(1 stnhi lily of' t he cxcuva ti on,
1' 1( 1"1 (,,' 1 ic nee 1111 , :-. hown, for cxHll1p lc, that j oints whi ch Hre para ll el to the long axis
0 1 11 11 excHvat ion cu n creat e insta hi lit y or wa ll s.
Gro undwa ler assurnes co nsiderable importa nce in so far as it , too. ca n
ITilluence stabil ity. Inflows of a ny magnit ude ca n ca use hazardous working
rOlldit ions. a nd, in a power stati on, damage to mac hinery. The development of
pi o undwa ter pressure behind tunnels a nd power st at ions can also result in fa ilure
of the lining. This is especiall y the case for steel lined pressure tunnels.
I n soft ground , the problems are enti rely different from t hose in hard ground
IIIllnels. All soft ground t unnels a re lined. The maj or problem is the controlled
t' '( cHvati on of some materi als, such as clean dry (runni ng) sa nd, a nd sat urated
!lowing sa nd . Under t hese circumstances, chemica l grouting, or forepoling will
have to be used, or the tunnel may have to be dr iven by shield a nd compressed air.
1/ .6 . 1 COOLING WATER TUNNEL. YA LLOURN D STATION. AUSTRALI A
1\ tunnel to serve as an inlet for cooling water was const ructed in both hard
}41 nund a nd soft ground at Yallour n. Brown coal, sa nds and clays of lower
I erti a ry age overlie, disconformably, Cretaceous sandstones and shales . Bot h
IIlIit s a re monoclina lly folded , with di ps of from 20 to 90 in t he Cretaceous
heds, and fro m 70 t o 90 (and overturned) in t he coal measures. The brown coal
II l1 d Cretaceous sedi ments were st rongl y j oi ned wit h fracture spacing index
III em.
Beca use of the shallow depth ( [8 m) a nd t he locat ion of t he tunnel in relation
10 the foundat ions of exist ing stations, a deta il ed geological invest igat ion was
,'ompleted along the full line of t he tunnel. The upst rea m secti on of the tunnel
WII S excavated in Cretaceou<.; sandstones. Pneumat ic shovels were used since t he
joint ed nature of the rock did not require the use of explosives. The
t'ondit ion of the rock, however, required heavy steel ribs for support, some of
whi ch failed by buckl ing. Wi thi n the coal measures, t he sections in brown coal
li nd clay stood for at least two weeks withoL. t support; concrete li ning was pl aced
III two wee kly intervals. Saturated sands were in a flowi ng condition, and
Nccli ons of the tunnel in t hi s material were dr iven using bul kheads, and
I ,,!'e poling, with the advance being by heading and bench met hods . The
in t he sa nds contained H2S in solution whi ch was released in toxic
q ua nt it ies, so that additional forced ventilation was required.
'1 .6.2 QUEEN'S - MIDTOWN T UNNEL, NEW YORK
I )rive n under East River as a traffic tunnel , t hi s structure is about 10 m in
tfill Illeter and was excavated in bot h hard ground and soft ground, using a variety
01 methods incl uding convent ional drill ing and blasting, shield, and compressed
1111 techn iques. Because several other tunnels existed in the area, the geology was
k Il own to some degree. However, di amond dri ll ing was carried out to determine
Ihe rock level beneath superfi cial deposit s. This work showed t hat the tunnel
woul d he d !'iven p,,!' t Iy in rock (schi st , gneiss dolomite a nd limestone) and partl y
177
In li O II "I . Will! 1111' 11I j.\ hl V III 1' () l llpll' H: i y w'ut hcl ct! in '1() 1I 1I
, ,' ,110111'1
I , ."H' II vi ii H)n 01 10 ' k II 11l1l l.' d l ' on H' 1I1 11 111111 t II II IH.: II 1 ng I1H.: 1 \10<.1<. , bu I CII I ' hlld I , I
hi' t' \l' ICi'll: d ill hlu"I t ill 8 10 OVOId dllll laj.\l' to II II CI II' hy power plant. Methotl '4
lII'ld lIit welt; u'lcli 10 dri ve th rough the glrll' ml
'1 I1IHls, l'I lI y'l lllld grH vel s. In one sect ion, the tunnel encount ered loose lip Jllp
II OIllllldr.; I' Sllr fa ee works. Thi s had to be consolidat ed by grollting. Even so, t IIi "
lui (/I S did the sands and gravels) required support ror safety.
'I (I. \ I'()A II NA UNDFRGROUND POWER STATION. TASMANIA
I hi, "Wli ol1 , 9911l lollg, 14.5 III wide and 28 m hi gh. is located 165 m undergl'()l11I 11
III hOI i/ ont:! lI y bedded. rine grai ned, dense mass ive mudstones, wit h thin bed,"", 01
"I l1ol l'. I he site is adjace nt to a steep escarpment some 1000 m hi gh. ThiN ,,,
IwliL'vcd 10 hllvc been responsible ror the anoma lous horizontal 17.7 M Pa I" ,\/1/1
normal to the sta tion axis, as against 8.6 MPa vert ical stress Hnd I) '\
MPII ilori / ontal stress parall el to the station axis.
101' the strengt h of the roc k mat eri al gave va lues or 34- 69 M Pa, Hnd 101
tl\l,,' 11/\;111 strength 34 42 M Pa. From ana lys is, the designers concluded thnt , III
1 ht.' I.'X l" ing st ress fi eld, a circular arch roof would be unstable. A nat roof wouhl
Iw stnhlc. except that ncar the wa lls, stresses in t he roof would exceed t he st rell H' h
III I hl: I'ock, For this reason, a trapezoidal cross-section was adopt ed for thc 1001
( I ' iH 9 .7) .
Const ructi on proeeedcd wit hout difficulty. Suppo rt was provided by l' tH
holt 'l , mes h lind gunit c. Although the des ign ass umed that the rock was clt l'l ll i'.
pi ovi,ioll was made for cree p in the machine foundatio ns, whi ch were 111 UIII""
(Ill .. Iiding j oint s. A total movement of 4 mm occurred in the first yea r. Nil
IllOv ' ment has been recorded since.
1/ ,6.4 ItOUNA 2 STATI ON. NEW GUI NEA
I hl' rnachine ha ll . located in agglome rate, 160 m below the surface, is 39,5 III
long. 11.5 m wide and 21 m high. The geological investigat ion involved SUI hili
" " V 'ys H nd a total of 1080 m of diamond drilling. The agglomerate is co:" " ' 11
'1 11111 ificd wi th laye rs or coarse angular agglomerate, with a matri x of welded I li lt.
lind lounded agglomerate. wit h a slightly to moderat ely ind urated tuff 11111111 ,
I ell scs of tuff also occur, whic h are up to 5 mm thick. The beds occupy a gell tll
synclinul fo ld; wilh dips orfrom 5 to 10 .
.Joints, which arc ope n at the surrace, ti ghten wit h dept h. They consi st o l' l WIl
Nfl'l' pl y dipping int ersecting sets, with the long axis or the sta tion 1111
IIlIl"'iccti on . .Joint pattern and spacing va ries rrom bed to bed.
I uction, the joi nt s fended to open, accompanied by rni nor crumpling of 1111
H) ' k odin 'enl to the j oi nt s. Alt hough no groundwater problems occllll ni
d II I i const ruct ion, si nce t he stat ion was placed in service, seepage HI t h . III It, ti l
lO()O() I h I is occurring from lhe turfs and more pe rmeable agglomerat es , 11 11
loof IN ,'i tahi li :t cd with rock bolts, and bolts we rc lI sed to strengt hen thewll ll s, I It t
I IX
9.7 Roof of PO(ltina
l!nderground Power Station,
I
whole roof and the upper part s of the walls are protected by mesh and guni te.
I he lower parts of the walls are inclined.
9.7 Coasts and harbours
I\vo basic geological problems are involved in beach and harbour engineering:
<lability of bays, beaches and cliffs; and foundations for engineering structures.
I he former problems cent re on geological processes such as erosi on, transport
lind deposit ion; t he latter on the nature and propert ies of the sea floor. Long
expe ri ence wit h harbour wor ks has shown that unless natural sedi ment
movement is considered and the effect of har bour works on this movement taken
Illt o consideration in design, the harbour is almost certain to silt up rapid ly, and
to req uire rrequent dredging to maintain its ut ility .
9.7. 1 PORTLAND HARBOUR. AUSTRALIA
III an earli er chapt er, the erosion or headlands and t he tra nsport of the eroded
II 111 teriai by longs hore current s was di scussed. As part of t he preliminary geo-
inves ti ga tions fo r the new Portland Har bour, test s were carried out
lI 'i ng marker minera ls (mainl y garnet) to determine the direct ion and rate of
"It.' diment l11()vcn1Cnl (Fig. 9. 8). T he conclusions drawn from t his work were t hat
179
'I ,K Snnd IIl{) VCmCIlI at
1'lul lulHI 11 :ll houl . Vi ctoria.
AUli ll/lllLL
(II)
(Il l
M,Hkcr
rninorul s
II bOO m
"" ' ---'
1
",, __ pior
Boa t ha rbour
o 10 20
minerals
'1
r i Breakwat or
: .
. .
. '
_,r" "
\
,
I
lite snnd in the proposed ha rbour area had an a lmost entirely loca l ori gin Hllil
lhlll only a minor amount of sand would enter t he ha rbour due to long sholl'
ti l ift. In the rough winter season, in parti cular, virtually all transport ed sand
hypusses the harbour area. It was found that a seasonal interchange OCCUI N
hetwee n harbour noor and beach, so that onl y a ve ry minor amount of d rcdgill /o(
is Icquircci in t. he harbo ur a rea. Thcdes ign of the deepwater pi er was mod ifi ed III
pl eyent the accumulati on of sa nd .
9.7.2 III " KI NG'S WII ARF. SUVA. FLII
I he,: sit e of the whHrf, whi ch replaced one destroyed in an ea rthqua ke, consistN III
IXO
poorl y l 'ol\,'mlltl ll l l'd 11111111 !l' S(: diuu: nt '\ OYCI' lyin" n Yl' ! ,'i t l!! 10 hr iHle l1Iudstonc,
Some fill from 11 11.,' ' 1I1'l i'l hll l'houl' works ovcrlies Ihe mlliine sediment s. T he
whurf is led 011 holl ow concrete pil es dri ven t hro ugh t he fill a nd the
rfwrinc sc..: din"l cnl s illl o the mudstone bed rock. The pil es ave raged a length o f
40 Ill.
A curt a in wa ll at t he back oft he wharf was constructed using steel sheet piling
whi ch. for stabilit y, rcquired the placing of bacHil1. The surcharge imposed by
I hi s bac kfill causcd some concern for the safety of the foundations of proposed
huild ings nea rby. For this reason, these were changed from shallow strip footings
10 pile a nd beam support.
9.8 Engineering materials
The search fo r construction materials, whet her soil or rock, is based on a
knowledge of the regional geology, and weathering patterns. Irrespective of the
purpose for which the rock material is required, any quarry sit e will be located in
arcas of shall ow weathering, while the purpose for which the rock is required will
often determine t he t ype of rock selected for development. Soil borrow areas will
he located ei ther in areas of deep rock weathering, or in areas of extensi ve
deposit s of transported soils. Whet her it is rock or soil which is being sought,
fina l site selection wi ll be made only after geological surveys supplemented by
subsurface invest igation to prove the extent of the deposit , and laboratory testing
10 prove the suitability of the materials, and to determine their physical
properties.
9.8. 1 ROCK MATERIALS
Roek whi ch is to be used as concrete aggregate should meet certain physical
and chemi cal sta ndards. It must be fres h, have hi gh st rength a nd durabilit y, and
prod uce a crushed product which does not contain a signi ficant proportion of
platy or clongated particles. It is desirable that the particl es have a reasonably
particl e shape when the rock is broken or crushed: for example, flat, slabby or
platy fragments are almost invariably unsatisfactory, irrespective of the purpose
fo r whi ch the rock is required. These requirements are more likely, but not
necessa ril y, to be met in igneous rocks.
Rock whi ch is to be used as concrete aggregate shoul d meet certain physical
and chemi cal requirements. It must be fresh, have high st rength and durability,
und produce a crushed product whi ch does not contain a significant proportion
of pl aty or elongated partieies. It is desirable that the partieies have a reasonably
ro ugh surface, to ac hieve an effective bond with the cement mortar; for thi s
reason, some river gravels are undesirable, due to the very smooth surface of the
pebblcs. In chemical terms, t he rock should be free from materials which may
rcact with the cement to produce a deterioration in the concrete.
It is known that some materi als are deleterious in concrete, e.g. organic
mHt eri a ls and sulphates. It is a lso known that some minerals react with some
types of ce ment to ca use ex pansion a nd di srupti on of concrete: this is known as
1 he a lka li uggrega te rea cti on. I fthe aggrega te contains aci d volcanic glass , opal ,
IX I
\' hlll n1t!ouy II I IIt lH' 1 l' l yplOl' I VN tllllllll ' IIIInlN 01 Nll kll. 1111(1 till' l.'clJl enl htl.'l 1111
rllk!!ll I "10<111 Kw() l'II III (' III OIIlHH ' thlll1 0,6%. thi s r'lI ctioll ,
"""', hut {l ot's 11 01 li ce 'SStl l ily I\(.'C,' III It 1"1 "SNl' IIIUd, th!.! lcI'ol'C, thllt ollll ggl'
II wl u(liul-t ,",fl uds. he 'xll mill'U "'lIt dr dl V to dctl.: ! minc whelhcr' 01' not 111 (.'''11'
pot l' lIl ilrll y hili 111 I'u I tTl incl'lI ls H I'C pi cSc nl , 1f t hl.:Y III'C. t hcn t hc aggrcgate shoul(1 I'll'
I l' ll'I.' l t' d, 01' the enginecl' must Cll Slll'C that a l ow alkali cemcnt is uscd,
Rond ngHlcgutes have requirements whi ch vary with the posi tion thl.:Y wil l
(H'l' UPY on the pHvell1eni. Load bearing aggregat es carry thc traffic l oads lIlid
1I II II slldt them 10 t hc subgrade. These require hi gh st rength and high abl'llsiw
I t'I'I I,'Hllnec, li nd to have an angular particle shape. The basic igneoll s rocks hl1 vr
1)I ,wcd to he the rn ost sat isfact ory. Aggregates for bituminous mi xes for t il ,'
'l llllnce course require to be resi stant to abrasion, and to have qualiti cs whit-Ii
,' n'l \ll e 1\ PCl'I'l1H nenl bond i ng wi t h bit limen. It is dcsira ble, al so, for safety rea SOli N
11 111 1 I hese aggregat es be dark in colour, and to have angul ar particle
"gu ill , the husic igncous rocks, especially basalt , have proved to be the mONI
"111 i.'i f'nci ol y.
Rip rnp is usc(1 as a protective layer of rock on embankments in orch:r 10
Ill ol cet the soil of the cmbankment from erosion, and to increase stabi l i ty, II iN
1101 mllll y rcq uired that the broken rock have a shape which produces a stllhh'
rn! , .. l ocki ng of the boulders, while the rock material must be durable undcl' t il('
'C1Ildi l ioll S 10 wh ich i t wi ll be exposed. I n parti cular, resistance to al ternatt'
Wf,,' lIlll g lind dryi ng is frequentl y a prime requirement.
'l .M.2 SOil S
Soi l"l used r I' engi ncering purposes may be either residual soi l s, prod uced ill ,villi
hy thl.: wcuthcring of rock; or they may be transported soils which have be ' II
tlllll SpOtl ed to Iheir present locat i on by wi nd, water or ice. The nal UH"
' oillposi ti on and homogeneit y of residual soi l s wi ll depend on t hese quali ti cs 01
the purcnt rock mass, and on cl imati c factors. Transported soi ls are usuu ll y
highl y VIl f'iHbl c in both texture and composi t ion in anyone deposi t.
Gssent iulto the i nvest igat i on of a potential soil borrow area are t he def'ini l iOIl
of' t he Intend and vert i cal extent of the soil s, and t he deli neation of soi l typ 'N
hused on tex turc, composition and relevant engineering propert ies. When a SOi l
i s distuI' bed and reworked , a new fabric i s imposed, which hasa signi f'icant err '(.' 1
n il it s engi neering properti es. Thi s i sa factor which has to be borne in mind whell
'fi l l ying out tcsts on soils.
ndercll ccs und further reading
.I . G, C. & Tri gg C. F. ( 1976) Cast Ilisforits i ll /;;I}: i ll(,l'ri ll}: Ce% }:I'. Etek Scionu',
I lIlIdoll
11.11011 ( 1')lUl ) f)nrlm(lUlh /)n01: geological rep0rl . Stal e Rivcrs and Wal eI' Suppl y
VkWIUI
Ilt'nvlli I (' Pll gi nccl i ng gcology of '0' power Slat ion. Va l1oufIl , Vi cl orin , Qllttrl , .1/, " '11).11114
(,'/'01 N, 101 17,
, r1 t-lt li Ct' 1 i ll t-! (lcolllHY Group (1980) Papcl' s. Scri es I , Gcol ogic:.l Socicty or AI IS1H1l h. ,
SVt lr HIV
I X2
1 (h'n!tl t-\y (l l nup ( 19M?:) l' Ull t' I N, St' IIl'N 2 Soc1t' l y 01 AUNtlllli ll ,
I..lVdlwy
lit' l1kcll), .I " KliIll.I , I ... l loyd 1), ./ , & SkCmplOrl A, W, ( 1962) Slfl hi tLl y of foul1dutions of MOrlal'
I)lull, pp, 425 41. I , lin". )Slh (' fll1gl' . Largc Dams. Edinburgh.
111 .. tlt uti {1 11 o f 1 .. giIICC. ... ( 1969) Dlxil/ l'nil/): GpO/OKI'.
C. ( 1979) Url/ 'k "'t'dulI/in (till/ h'IIRil/N'rillg. Cambridgc Univcrsit y Press, Cambridge.
"-l llll dox J, M., Ki nsllcr F. I.. & Mather R. I). ( 1976) Mcad owbank Dam: Foundations, Ci v. Eng.
111 ' 1, ElIgl' s, "usi . pp, 32 1 ))).
Itun,ome F, L. ( 1928) Geology of St Franci s dam site. Ecoll. Geol, 23, 55).
S, H, (1972) Foundat i on problems of mOl orway construction. Quart. 11. Engng. Geol. 5,

I R3
10
Environmental Geology
111.1 Introductory remarks
Whi le it is true that geologists have always been concerned with the crrcct.'i II I
II l1ning and civil engineering works on the general environment , it is onl y III
1I,'cent that systemati c study of environmental geology has IWI' II
tlI Hh.: rlnkc n. Signifi ca nt adva nces have been made in the appli cati on ofgcolop.\'
10 l cgio ll UI and urban planning, to the di sposal of wastes of all kinds: sol ill ,
liq ll id. and rad ioact ive, and to the general effect of engineering works such
dams. Environmental issues often tend t o be highly emotive; it is cssc nllul ,
I hcrcfol'c. for lhe engineer and geologist to a pproach these issues as obj ecti vely
they npproach ot her probl ems in their professions. The soluti on is 011 1'11
COrl1I')l' ol11i se, based on a balance of scientific, engineering, socia l, economi 111111
politica l considerations.
Fnvil'onmcnl ai problems are clearl y due to a number of fa ctors, the nWII
in'lpol' tant of whi ch are population growt h and advancing technology, togct 11 1'1
wi lh Ihe affl uence which the latter has tended to produce. The probl ems III '
Illllnifold: but the geologist is primaril y concerned with those associated wllh
' soli d' cHrth and groundwater pollution. In studying these problems, Hlllltll'l i
eve l" y bra nch of geology plays some part: mineralogy, petrology, SII"u t lll ill
geology. strati graph y a nd geomorpho logy, as well as applied aspects such ,,,
hydrogeology.
1(1.2 Gcology and regional planning
II lIphl-l 7Hrd development of regions for resident ial and industrial purposes iN 11 11
IOllge r socia ll y acceptable. since, without ca reful investigation and
sCl'ious environmental probl ems, which can be avoided, might arise in the fU11I1 1
' I he hasic geological invest igation has as its aim the recogniti on of arC/I'i IIf
unstable landforms, va rying foundat ion conditions, potential floodi ng and <H IWI
1111 iii I'a l h a1 ..uds. expl oi table soil and rock, in add iti on to groundwa ter stud!!'
II lid the siting of required engineering works such as water storages . sew!.'!!I"1
tl en lment plant s, and waSle di sposa l, both domestic and industria l. With hU,lj 1!
dlltu provid ed by the engi neering geologist, it is possible for pl Hnncl's lI lIll
ell gineers 10 defi ne pot enti al residenti al and indust rial areas, and to lOCa l!;
("' nvirOllmcntn l dama ging activities, e.g. quarries, sewage treat.ment w()I"k."i. 11 11 11
wllste disposa l sit es, in arcas where least harm wi ll be dOll e to soci al ameniti l''j III
(,I II tyillt\ (l ut Ihe m:ccssHl'y sur veys, the gcologist must he aWHre of both 011
1M
Wl' lI l1"1 Slwclli<.' I,"I"I UI.'\, hll Ihl'SIJl VCYs will be, ill the
lllsi iIlSIIIIICC. Al:llc lul unci ' I he morc ge ncrnl investigHlions wi ll then be
I" II owed hy deilli led stlldy of Ihe spccifi c problems.
/\. gc ncra l, rcgional sur vey for environmenta l geologi ca l purposes defines
lit C:I\ of' rock outcrop and of superficial depos it s, and, for the former, describes
lOck types, out crop a nd weathering patterns, age, relati onships and st ructure.
I opographic ex press ion of the va ri ous rock units, the soil types developed on
Ihel11, and characterist ics of the soil s are also described. Thi s work permits the
,"cognilion of environmental units (Fig. 10.1 , Tabl e 10. 1). The example
-----Aoads
----- - Unit boundaries
J
4
00 "'- Cont ours
I, 10, 1 Envi ronmcllIal units as defined in Table 10.1 for an area in the Bat hurst Ora nge Growth
('I' nIl C, New Sout h Wales, Auslralia.
IIlustnll cd waS pa rt of the survey for a regiona l growth centre, and lies on the
outs kirt s of I he arCH sludied. Interest was ce ntred in the development of market
I X5
l 'X II I H' II W Iud II 'l ll Il ', .. III t o j I II ' pi opml.' d g l OWl h celli I c.
Whcn pIJ I II Il CI.\ havt: la id o ut 11 brond tO I dr.:ve lopmclll . morc dctai led
cl1 virOll rll enlll 1 gcol ogicll l will bc rcquired. These wi ll include dctai led
f.tco logicul. geomorphi c a nd hyd rogeological ma pping and geot echni cal
investi gatio ns. Speciri c area ma ps and report s will be prepared as a basis for
detail ed des ign a nd construct ion of the vari ous elements of the project.
10.3 Urban planning
rile aim of urban pla nning is to produce a design of residential areas, work
places, recreati on areas, transport a nd other service faciliti es so as to utilize land
resourccs in the most benefi cial way in both t he short and long terms. One of the
most importa nt aspects t o be considered is the effect of changi ng the patterns of
la nd usc.
With urbanization, a number of critical changes are induced in the
enviro nment , including hydrological characteristics, which, in turn affect other
clcme nts. As land use changes, run-off behaviour wi ll change: e.g. natural
grassla nd and forest catchment s have a much lower run-off coefficient , and
higher infiltration factor than areas which are paved and covered by bui ldings.
rhi s has two important effect s: a reduction in groundwat er recharge, and an
increase in flood potential. For t hi s reason, natural drainage lines in small
ca tchment s should be left in their natural state. Further effects are the di spersion
of ba red soils, during development, by raindrop impact , and a sharp increase in
yield from drainage basins.
It is imperative. for urban pla nning, that the suitability of the area be assessed
in terms of stability. Areas of actual or potential slope instability are to be
avoided. Lives and propert y are at ri sk if homes are built on unstable slopes. The
II ct ual preliminary construction of roads and services may aggravate the
sit uation, whi le aft er construction, increase in water intake to the slope from
hOll se drainage and septic tanks may further aggravate the position. If a slope is
potentially unstable, careful attention must be given to domesti c drainage. In the
Camden urban development on t he outskirt s of Sydney, one housing area was
located on slopes with a long record of failure. One new road had to be
II ba ndoned, and several homes are endangered. The disastrous landslide in
Dunedin. New Zeal a nd, in 1979 (Fig. 10.2), illustrates the danger of using
unsta ble slopes for urban development.
Two primary factors concerning environmental damage, resulting from
urba n development, have to be considered. The first of these is pollution of
surface waters a nd groundwater. Biological contami nation is possible from
sept ic ta nks, while chemical pollution from detergent s. and industrial wastes will
ulmost ce rtainl y occur. In addition, recent data suggest that contamination of
.\l oil a nd wa ter by lead from car emi ssions is becoming a problem in urban areas.
T he second fact or whi ch has to be considered is what is call ed the sterilizat ion
o j la nd reso urces. La nd utili zed fo r urban development immediately becomes
III1Hwlil ablc fo r a ny other purpose - extracti ve industry, farming, or forestry.
UnslHbl c HI' CHS d ue to unnatural call ses also ha ve to be considered. For the
I H7

..
, ,
, ,
" :
" '
, ,
, '.
o lOa rn
'-----"
),
(;' ,
, ,
, '
............... -'----"-- Scarps
-- Open f issures
- - - Cl osed f issures
- - --.. Direct ion of movement
--t-___ Surface fol ding in slumped debris
lol l; . I tI.2 Mup oj I he rous landslide of 1979. Dunedi n, New Zealand . \ After Coomb, ( 11)1< J ) I
rnost pH rl , I hesc Hrc a rcas of subsidence due in some rare cases to the exeCS'l l \'!
r !.: 1l1() VII I of groundwa ter, or. more commonl y, to mining acti vit y. Some a r CII "! III
( 'II Ii for n ill ha vc suffered severe su bsidcncc d lie to oi I ex tracti on. but su bsidclIl ', I"
" hll ost unive rsal in coalll1ining a reas. It is not generall y appreciated that gnHlll i l
nHl v' mcnt s lIrc IIl sa associlltcd with open-clil coa l mines. In Germuny and
IHH
Vil.' lOr iu , '1 11 0 1l }l 11 0 11/0 111 111 , und Il'SSl.' 1 w rt l(.' I1 I. tIlOVt,' tlI Ctl! '1 li lI V!.' h l'CIl
I l'CIH' d cd i n It I () Il l: II P til l O() III ! I o m t h . nll t 1\ 0 1 o pen CII I S. I hc.:sc 111 ovc n1cn ts
les ult in da lll agc 10 wo lci a nd scwcl'agc sc rviccs. a nd buildings.
Onc import a nt gcologica l facto r which has to be considered in urban
developmcnt is thc suit abilit y of t he soil a nd rock fo r founda ti ons. I nformat ion is
rcqu ired on the strength, deformati on, and water- reacti ve cha racterist ics of soils
and rocks; the thi ckness of soils, and the weathering condition of the rocks .
Add it iona ll y. informa tion on groundwat er conditions will be necessary for the
design of deep foundations. Areas with specific foundat ion problems (e.g. highly
compressive soil s, swelli ng soil s) must be clearly defined.
Fi na ll y, in urban planning, geologica l factors will influence location of
services: waste di sposal , water supply, transport corridors and roads, and
const ruct ion materi a ls. Waste disposal involves both domestic and industrial;
a nd solid and liquid wastes. Solid wastes ca n be used to fi ll old excavations such
il S quarri es and sand pits, and, if the wastes are properly placed and compacted, it
is poss ibl e to put these ' landfill' a reas to use at a subsequent date. It is important ,
however, to ensure that pollution of streams and groundwater does not occur. In
the Mena i wa st e di sposal area, south of Sydney, Australi a, geological studies
ha ve bee n conducted to ensure that pollution of the Georges River , with it s
extensive oyster farms, does not occur (Knight et aI1978). Liquid waste (sewage)
d isposal may be by reticulated sewerage, or septi c tank, system. For the former ,
carefu l locat ion of treatment works is required, as well as knowledge of the
geology of the urban area. Thi s latter will control, to a hi gh degree, the costs of
the system. For t he septic tank system, the main considerations are the
per mea bilit y of the soil, and the likelihood of biological poll ution of
groundwater. Industrial liquid wastes are commonly di sposed of by well
inj ection methods. In the past , unplanned well injection of these wastes has
effectively destroyed urban groundwater basins.
Water supply services can be of two main kinds: large surface storages, often
with necessary purification installat ions, or groundwater. Large surface storages
a rc costly, and tie up quite large areas of valuable land. Moreover, the supply is
frequently subject to climatic variations, with shortages in times of dro ught. On
Ihc other hand, groundwater supplies require a much lower capital outlay, and
provide a regular supply. In thi s case, however, the resource is only very slowly
renewabl e. Economic factors are probabl y decisive. For example, in part s of
New Guinea , it was found to be more economical to use groundwater, increasing
t he number of bores as the urban area developed . The sa me procedure is adopted
in a number of developing countries, such as Indonesia.
T he provision of transport facilit ies involves geology bot h directl y and
indirectl y. Directly, geological data are required for road locati on, incl uding the
foundat ion conditions, and for the assessment of batter stabil ity conditions with
respect to erosion and slumping. Availabi lity of construction materials also has
to be ta ken int o consideration. Indirect ly, road location has to be considered in
soc iological a nd aesthetic terms: the possible destruction of significant sect ions
of recreati on areas. a nd of na tural environmental importance. In this sphere, the
geologist Can give va lua bl e po li cy advice.
I H9
10.4 Waste disposal
Bri ef reference has been made to the di sposal of domesti c and industrial wastes.
Here. these problems will be considered in more detail. As well , the geol ogical
aspects of the disposal of radioactive wastes, a critical problem, will be discussed .
With increasing urbanization, industrialization, and the continued usc of
radioacti ve materials. safe and environmentally acceptable methods of waste
di sposal have become important political and social issues.
10.4.1 DOMESTI C WASTE
Two main types of domestic wa ste have to be considered: garbage and sewage. In
developed count ries, the average garbage amount s to about 3 kg per person per
day. Although some municipalities dispose of much of the garbage by burning,
the most common practice is to place the garbage, with or without treatment,
into the ground. This immediately creates a problem of pollution of surface and
ground waters. both chemical and biologicaL In California, it has been found that
continuous leaching over a period of one year of so-called sanitary landfill
(garbage covered wi th soil) will extract 1.5 t o f Na ' and K' , It of Ca" and Mg" ,
0.9 t of Cr, 0.2 I ofSO,'- and 3.9 t of HCO-3 per acre foot. Much of this passes
into the groundwate r body, rendering it unfit for consumpt ion.
Because of these hazards, it is essential to ensure, as far as possible, that the
base of the fi ll area is sea led to prevent pollution of aquifers. An associated
geological requirement is suitable earth-fill mat erial to ser ve as a cover
(Fig. 10.3).
Fig.IIl.3 Landfill d is posal of
urban IVa stes. Kainant u.
Guinea. (Photograph by
of M. J. Kni ght.)
Sewage disposal ranges in type from the primiti ve pit latrine, through the
septic tank, to chemi ca l treatment, with settling tanks or lagoons of the hi gh
quality ret iculated sewerage system. In every case, some pollution of ground and
surface waters may result. The composition of domestic sewage, based on a
water carriage capacit y of 3601 / day, is shown in Table 10.2.
The potential of groundwater contamination can be assessed using
geological and hydrogeological data (Le Grand 1964). Factors which ha ve 10 be
taken into account are depth to water table, sorption capacity orthe soil , whi ch
190
I:ablt' 10,2 (' oUl l hl'l I HlII 0 1 d ,I IHr\IK \l'\\.I gC
rng I 5-day 20 C No. 1; 0111 01 III
lo tal urg;mi t inorg:lnic ll ioc hcmic;tl ba cteria PCI I OO ml
oxygen dl.!llland
(mg I )
Total SOO 450 350 200
l Ull
275 175 100 150
$cn ieahk 175 50 125 70 5 " IOUl
100 70 30 sO 5 " 10'1
525 275 250 50
is a function of particle size, permeability of the soil , gradient of the water table,
and the distance between the pollution si te and the point of groundwat er
withdrawal. Ratings can be established which permit the fixing of areas of safe
gro undwater use.
10.4.2 INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Industrial wastes comprise three main types: solid, liquid and gaseous. The
gaseous wastes are normall y disposed of into the atmosphere, with consequent
fall-out onto the ground, via 'acid' rain, producing acid soils. Solid and liquid
wastes are placed on, or in the ground, using natural or artificially created space.
Disposal on the surface inevitabl y leads to contamination of surface and
groundwaters.
Surface disposal of wastes can produce readily observable pollution (Figs
10.4, 10. 5, 10. 6) , but if the principles adopted for sanitary landfill methods arc
applied, thi s can be minimized.
Three main methods exist for the subsurface disposal of wastes:
(I) pressure injection of liquid wastes into deep permeable formations;
(2) incorporation of liquid wastes into cement slurry which is then injected
into fractured, impermeable formations;
(3) storage in caverns in salt formations, e.g. in oil fields. This applies to sol id
wastes.
I n a ll of these methods, knowledge is essential not only of such geological
properties as porosity, fracturing, and permeability, but also of the likelihood of
chemical reaction between the rock and the waste. Even then, other factors have
to be taken into account. The Rocky Mountain Arsenal has produced chemical s
for use by the United States Army. Initially, the contami nated waste water was
disposed of in shallow wells, which caused pollution of the shallow groundwater.
As a result , the decision was made to use a well 3675 m deep. The response to thi s
was a series of earthquakes reac hing a maximum intensity of 4.3 on the Richter
scale.
10.4.3 RADIOACTIVE WASTES
Radioactive wastes are produced in two stages: at the mining stage, and as end
products of nuclear reactor and related processes. At the mining stage, the mine
19 I
H", I II." l)"ptN !! 01 dairy
\\jI'tl''' , j{tlchc'lcl , Victoria,

HI.! .
1I 1'\'lHltl' treBled timbe r waqe
COlll C, Vi ctoria.
( I' holograph by
l ' tHI II C"Y nl 1' 1' 1\ , Viclo ria.)
I II! . 10,(1 IJl'aniUIll
I(urn Jungle, Nort hern
I l' l l.lory, Au, l ralia.
(l' hnl oW,.ph hy courtC\Y
01 M, ,I. Knight .)
wastes, including tai lings fro m treat ment pl a nts, are dumped on the surfa ce lI lid
hcld in ta ilings da ms. At R UIll Jungle, No rthern Territory, Austra li a, ta ilings olt
plll cc(l in a la nd ri ll da m. I n t he 1974 5 we t season, the ci a m overfl owed , w;t h II II'
resul t that pl a nt s and fi sh were ki ll ed. At Gra nd J unct ion, Colorado. lJSA
100000 t of t tl iii ngs were used as la nel r; II on whi ch bu del i ngs, i ncl ud i ng a sc holl l
we rC Increased radioacti vit y was repo rt ed in nea rby ri ve rs. whrh
I t' IUlI" nlso suggest an increa se in infa nt death ra te a nd a n increu ... c III
pullll o n:Il Y carcinoma . Build ings wcre removed from t he la nd fill sit e.
Rcnclor Brld relnled wastes are defined in terms of leve ls of r/ld iOt! " ivi ly. !lnd
dll utloll {'H elOl's 111 (; pr'cscrihcd fo r cue ll h(; fol'c dis posa l (Tahl e 10.3),
1 11111, HI . \ 1(11111 11111 11\\' 111111111111
Wlt ' lt'
[ ow level
Illt cr mcdiah:
lc\eI
Ij igh leve l
1)1111111111
1. 1(.; 101

1000 Nud c:t r rcactor waler
1000 100000 Radio-isotope preparation
laboratory
> 100000 Fuel elemcnt a nd processi ng pla nt
Low leve l wastes are treated by fl occulation and ion exchange, and are then
di scharged into drainage systems. Thi s is unsati sfactory, since natural processes
ca n reconcentrate the radioactive material s, e. g, by absorption onto cl ay
mineral s, Attempts have been made to dispose of intermediate level wastes by
inj ection via wells, into ' safe' rock types . Other method s include injection in a
cement slurry. At present, high level wastes are solidified in concrete, or adsorbed
onto vermi culite or zeol ites, stored in drums and buried underground, After 10
yea rs most radioactive elements present have decayed to a low level. Thi s does
not take account of those elements with a long half-life.
Experimental work at the Australian National Universit y ha s shown the
possibili ty of a new method of di sposal. A synthetic rock 'synrock' made of
barium a luminum silicate, wi t h oxi des of zirconium ca lcium titanium
potassium and aluminium is highl y resistant to Incor;oration of
wastes in synroc, which is then buried , insures against leaching out of radioactive
materials and consequent contamination of groundwater .
10. 5 Geological hazards
Geological hazards are a particula r group of geological processes that endanger
man and hi s structures. The main types are floods , rock ava lanches, earthquakes,
la ndslides, soil erosion, moving sand in arid regions, tsunamis and volcanic
erupt ions. The role of the geologi st in the study of these environmental issues lies
in prediction and control. In one sense disasters resulting from natural event s
could be said to be the fault of man himself: he is aware of the risk of floods, of
ea rthquakes and vol canic acti vit y, but he cont inues to develop areas subject to
t hese disasters since social , poli t ica l a nd economic pressures tend to prevail.
Fut ure developments should be determined on t he basis of hazard assessment , to
avoid di sasters wi th their high toll of human life and of propert y.
Geological hazards are, to a large degree, incapable of prevention by human
agency. In some instances, such a s floods and soil erosion, management control
after the first event may prevent a repetition. Hazard event s are, for the most
part , proba bili stic in their frequency di stribution, but almost invariably a high
degree of unce rt a inty exists as to the specific t imi ng of a future event. The event is
usua ll y o ne of sudden occurrence, and is usually spatiall y concentrated .
Basicall y, the pro blem fa cing the environmental geologist is the recognit ion of
the hazard, and the predi ction of a n event in space and time.
A number of a pproaches ca ll be adopted, The most obvious is, having
I' CCOglli1,cd the hH'l Hl' d. to avoid deve lopment in thc a rea . A more usua l approach
191
I ii to IIl' l ' Cpl tl1 l1 l tht.! 11lI 1/1I' d r,;Vl.: llt will tll ke pluce , and to design struCIlIIl' /'j
II PPOI pi ili lely, e.g, in se isrni cHlI y !l cli ve urell s. T he third approach is 10 HC 'cpt
thllt thc ha/ lll'd event wi ll OCCllr, Hnd acce pt the ri sk involved. Whi chevc r 1/'1
lI <i opl ecl , ccrt ;li n hasic data are required as a basis fo r the decision. The dilla will
jlll' lude a statement of the hazard, the frequency of the hazard event , and tht'
Ill ll gilitudcs of past cvcnt s. These data ca n be recorded on ma ps (e.g. Fig 10.7)
Pl ccl ict ion of future event s, and their magnitude can be based on
lIl uthernati cal n10dcls using the basic data, or on stat istical eva luati on of P" \'


,
/ 1 ....
(\" .e.
--
,
I,r
, -
,
,
.'
I Kpoctod rOlurn period (Yr)
' , 1l!. 1II.7 I' anhqua ke ha'lard ma p for the continent of Austra lia.

. -
--,
/ 1,
,'r' I
I
I .r'
\ ,','
, ,
, ,
, ,
" (' " /1 .
,
,
I
'.
Brisbun"
,
/
,
,
I
,
. ,
. .
..
The physico-mat hematical approach to hazard event predi ction involves
simplifi cati on of natural processes to systems t hat follow physical laws Hntl
which ca n be described mathemati ca lly. An example of t hi s is the soi l mcchani('s
1ll r.; lhod for the descripti on of landslides; in this case, the fa ctor of safelV
("lI lcullll cd is H slal ement of the stabi li ty of the physica l system. It musl always IW
I (' r1l cmhcl'(;d thall he physico- mclthematical mode l is conslructed o n the basis 01
It numbe,' of II ssumpli ons whi ch be va li d. but o ft en arc not. Thi s plHces It
d(,.' fiIIi H ..' I'CI.; tri cli oll 0 11 Iht:.: mel hod HS II reli uhle pl'edi Clor of' hUi"HI'd cvent S,
A mo re ,'cliablc method is H stHli sli cHI cwlluati o n ofrccOl'dcd event s, for the
predi cti on of di screte hU/ ards (e.g. fl oods, la ndslides, ea rthqua kes, vol cani c
erupti o ns) as di stinct from non-discrete hazards (e.g, river bank erosion, slope
creep. ground subsidence). The basis of t his method is the fact t hat discrete
hazards tend to be repetitive in time. The raw data for the a nal ysis consist of
records of times of events, and intensity of events, from which the probability of
recurrence of an event of a given magnitude in time can be calcula ted. In t he case
of non-di screte hazards, the rate at which the event is proceedi ng can be
measured, and used to predict future development. In many cases, rates may vary
seasonall y, so that variation in rates has to be taken into account. For example,
with stream bank erosion, it can be measured that erosion is occurring at a rate of
x m j yr. !fit is intended to construct, say, a building near the stream, without any
re medial measures being taken, and the building is to have an economic life of25
years, then the building would need to be sited at a distance from the stream of
more than 25x m .
Most natural hazard processes are very complex, and difficult to model
accurat ely, or analyse stat isticall y. A lack of measurements or observations
through time may add to the difficulty. Nonetheless, the engineer may have to
make pract ical decisions. In such cases, observat ions can be made of the present
sit uation, and deductions made from the results of the obser vations. As an
exa mple, a geologist may observe tension cracks on a slope, with groundwater
seepage along the slope. The deduction from this is that the slope is unstable, and
likely to fa il. This method can be extended by t he use of aeria l photographs taken
at int ervals over a period of yea rs, o ld maps, historica l records, and personal
int erviews with residents.
Engineers and engineering geologists involved in hazard prediction tend to
favour the observat ion-deduction and the stati stical methods. In some cases,
such as eart hquake and volcanic eruptions, geophysical techniques are being
employed to gather data which will increase the reliabil ity of prediction of hazard
events. Similarly, borehole tilt meters are being used to indicate slope
movement s. At present, however, it is possible only to predict the probability of a
natural hazard event: it is not possible to predict accurately, if at all, when the
event will occur.
10.6 Environmental impact statements
Environmental impact can be defined as the act ions produced by a development,
or by works which are capa ble of affecting the characteri stics of the environment ,
i.e. of the area involved in, and surrounding, the development or works. Laws
are now in force in many countri es which enforce the investigation and
eva luation of the consequences to the envi ronment of all large engineering works
such as dams, pipelines, motorways, hydroelectric schemes a nd mining projects,
a nd of urban development. Geologists are invariably involved in environmental
impact investigations. They are normally the first in the field, and are in a unique
pos iti on to rai se poss ible issues whi ch the offi ce investigator may not be aware
of, It mll st be bo rne in mind thaI not all impa cts arc necessaril y harmful. Some
effects ma y be quit e' benefi cial. II is obvi ous that the subj ecti ve clement is likcly
I !) I
III !It' 1111111111 11 111 III 111\ 11111'11\'1 "!I IIII V I \'lIpo ld I" til ( 1
1
)71) 11 1\ \1
lin 1\.,\1 II nl ll l l !.\; 'V'd i.' UI 0 1 ,Hll d V" ' ,,! 10 I Il l' u'W ..... IIli. 1\1 IIIIIH
pllll ' lllv!' Ihl lj npploul'll [1111., 10 'ul v!.' ,unit.,' 0 1 Ihe hfl ' IC pl ohl em .. of I1 l lpllll
Ill ' 1II1 fH1IiIlCl1t1( )1l 0 1 tiUI II, t il e e .. lllbl b .. hll1clIl o r CHU';C l' It, 'l!
tI' 1idIlIlI Nlilp" li nd Ihe wcightlng 0 1 impu!; t tllJl gni w t ll.: s.
I Il l' l' Il Vi, Oll rll enlni irnpUCI st ud ics for la rge dum projects lind mini ng Pl'Oll'I' IH
ru n hl' " 'led liS illustrllt ions of the issues involved in the preparation 01
I' ll vi HlIln'l ' l1ud impnct Stfll ement s. Impact s have to be considered a t two sClIh'\.
I h(' nd loca I. At the rcgiona l lcvc l. benefi cial aspects ea n acenre f hH1I1
(' ClIIIHI I (c.g. Bri sba ne Ri vcr, Quee nsla nd, Aust ra lia) , hydroelectric POW\' ,
H" Il l' rlition, wn lcr suppl y for irri ga t ion a nd domesti c purposes. The Dartmolll h
I )"111 III Vir.; lo. ia , dcsc ribed earli e r, was constructed to reduce sa lini ty ill III I'
Mliliay Ri vc l . Di sad van tages which could res ult from a la rge (hi m 1111'
11Iolill-tlcu l: ull crlltion of the downstream (and poss ibl y upstream)
tll t' tI 11.' 11 I: the possibl e increase in di sease vectors sli ch as mosquil ol'''',
tll c loss of land and the alt eration of microci imat es; and aCs l1H.' IH
1I Il' lu\; .. 01 tll c original va ll ey.
A'I 1111 CXIltl1 pic, t he I I igh Aswa n Dam in Afr ica may be considered. Thc dllli l
prllvl<ll'" benefit ... in increa sed irri gation potent ial and a n inc rease in Ihe fi :-.. hlll t'
Ind ll ... tI Y. Il owevcr, deleterious impacts have been beach erosion , and Ihl'
n ' '\'wli on o( hCHeh- no uri s hment mat eria l supplies; a nd an increase in di sco'!!'
Wt' IOIS cs pecia ll y mosquitoes, the buffa lo gnat and t he bilha rzia snai l. III
1,1". HUI Sudnce
, 1\ 1' ( l' lml of
, New Sutl lh
1\11'111 111 111 by
0 1 1(. \V Corkery,)
"'v. , l iI .
I
} Mnll' l lt! ,a nd
1I11111nl l , Nl' W SOllth
(I 'lltIlOgtrlph
II\' 01 M I Klllt-\ hl )
1%

Fi g. It), I () r in mini ng :\1
Ernm:l vilk:, Queensland,
AlI s' nilia, (Photograph by
courtesy of R, W, Corkery. )
Fig. 10. 1 I Overburden wastes
from brick pits Liverpool, New
Sou th Wa les, Australia,
(pholOgraph by courtesy
or R. W, Corke ry. )
addit ion, nu merous water weeds, in particul a r the water hyacint h, are flouri shing
a nd creating problems.
It is at the local level that geology becomes more directly involved. Local
effects of a large dam incl ude soil erosion, especially during t he const ructi on
period; river bed erosion downstream; silt at ion in the storage; eart hqua ke
initiation from the water load; and changes in the groundwater regime. The latter
ca n have a profound infl uence on slope sta bility. Local changes of less direct
interest t o the geologist include changes in t he fa una and flora; and poll uti on
generall y d uri ng construction.
The impact of mining on t he environment has to be considered in terms of t he
several phases of t he project, and on the type of mining. In the firs t of these t he
impact of expl orati on act ivities has to be considered as well as that of mi ne
deve lopment. In the second, t he impact of open-cut mining may differ from that
of conventional underground mines, while the effects of beach sand mining
demand special consideration. The product mined has to be taken int o account ;
the impact of coal mi ning may be quite di fferent from that of metalliferous
mining, whil e in the latter case the type of metal being mined may be quite
significant.
The exploration phase, as a general rule, has little impact on the environment.
Remote sensing techniq ues have none, while geological fi eld surveys result in less
da mage thanreercat iona l walking. Nonetheless, the passage of four-wheel drive
ve hi cles a nd t he li se of ex plosives in seismic prospecting can res ult in damage to
197
1111111 , nud llil'l"l lhl y l'OUNIIIII!l' 1I hH 11 "1 1111 II ", 1IIIIi ll l1l lll 01 soli I li t' I\.'u l
IIcTd 101 "I lnd y II I Ihl '" p hnsl' 011 I Ill' IISSl'I\S HII,' 1I1 01 soil erosion POI i! lllhd,
II lid, II 11111'1 pilI Ill ... lil po ... ,'I ihlr ' I I", lui' S IIII1SI he laid down, lind ohsCI v ' d ,
will \'11 I'l'(hion-illducing HCli vi lie1\,
S Il'lI l1l t' ll vi I nnmentu l i mpHcts Cll 11 occur II t I he lat c st age of ex pl orn t ion
III wi th the drilling of sit es and delai led geophysical and geocherni 'I d
t'X plOllltiorl , ' I he constructi on of roads to give access, and service, to si lt'''I
II pel'manclIl effect on theenvirOll111cnt; t he actual area in volved mll y
he "i lllllll . hUI the aes thct ic da mage can be co nsiderabl e. Road consl ructi oll
Will b ('j l1) ulso ca use the spread of pla nt di seases, an impact noted in sout h
W('''I t\.' 111 Wc .... tcrl1 Austral ia where ja rrah di eback was spread via soil on vehi ch'
I Vl l'lrj, I\. I investigation sites, the effect s of camp wastes have to be studied , as wel l
I1 Irj Ihl' ' ll eeis of loxic minerals in dri lli ng slurries. These should be confined ,
I
1111111"11"1111111
11111111'1. '''1111
11"!lllIy I"w utl l ',1t L
."I""ln". I'
_111 .", .. ,,,,,,111,,,,1.
I , tuny ... ,,1
1",llIlllIlIInl

UtlOlIlI!lw .. lt,
I HIIII I .
wulnllullIpl
Mmc
I
Opnn cui
Icoli i. mel ols. IIOO,ego.o)
hlljJIIC'S' U,lI hCll ni
III'lIO OMCIIVUhO!>S
(Ive.hu.dcndumps
n(l'SO

lonu 10"" use 1o.
wnHIO (ri sposnl
I
FIU, IO,11 I ' ll v i l' orllllcntal impact or mine development.
I
Slrtp
(sand, mmmals)
Impact on surface
YcrY9,eal
destruction of
l andforms,
vegetati on, fauna
.el1al),l il atiorl cosUy
I
Surfaco
I
I
0 .od9111 0
(sand, minOill lJ1
5OO, ",onllllloll
problem.
(IOSlructlonOI
3QuOtiC 11 0 111
and founa
loss of
valualJl(I tOllllOIl
rohabil i tatlon cn.tly
I h . effects of mine development arc summarized on Fig. 10.12. U ndergrouild
clevelopmcnt has minimal environmental impact; the most seri ous
III(' ,'l uhsidcnce, whi ch in general , is associated only with coal mines; and surftH,' \'
w"' te dumps . These latt er ca n result in dust problems; safety problems (e.g. th.-
I\. hctliln di saster) and the poll ut ion of streams and groundwater by ICHChill t-\
I. om d mnps and tai li ng ponds containing metalli ferous minerals. I n the cas!.! 01
0pl' ncut mines, t he environmenta l damage is more widespread and mOil'
"I IHnificunt. Large excavations a re produced, and overburden dumps are Oft\.' 11
111\1 ' h IlIrger Ihan normal minc waste dumps. In add ition, crustal readj ust mcll llrI
IlI ound very large excavati ons ca n result in damage to buildings and se rvice"l
I hi s hil S occurred, for exa mple, in a zone up to I km wide, around t he La tro lw
Vu l1 cy opcnMc ul brown-coal mines in Victoria, Austra li a. Furthcrmon' ,
l' lI Vil ollr11enla l damage by dust and noise ca n be qu ite seri ous. Open-cut rn incN,
howr vcr. have potential for rehabili tation as lakes combined wit h durll ]!
111 n{\ scl1 pi !l g, for recrea tion pu rposes, or a lternat ive ly, as sites for waste d isposlI l
Sirip mining is parti cularly damaging: the impact on the land surfa ce
'; In nclforms are dcst royed or se riously modifi ed, a nd the natural vegct u tion
1"1 ('l l1nplctcly destroycd. As a result , t he nat ive fauna is lost to t he arCH,
Pl' III HIII ' llll y. fi nd although rehabilitati on ca n be attempted, this is a ve ry IOllg
H' IIll PIOCCSS nnd t here is no clear evidence t hat t he attempts are complcll' lv
/Il 11{'l'\.'sslu1. In tiny CHSC. I' chnbilitalion is very cost ly, Attempls 10 rcl1abi lill1tc Ih('
JlIK
MYIlIl I l1kl'S SOLId rnhllll l-\ IIr(,;1I 111 Nt'W Soulh WIIieN, l\ u1'i ludill, ho ve , some 10
yelliN IIII C)', he' ll onl y I1HlI gilll dly success ful. Dredging. usullil y in river va ll eys,
has equu ll y se ri oll s ef fects, but these a I'e ort en much morc widespread than is the
case for strip mining. Sedimentati on problems ca n arise downstream of the
dredging site and the strea m flow regime possibly di sastrously affected. Valuable
topsoil, essential for agricultura l purposes is lost, while aquatic fauna and fl ora
are dest royed, oftcn completely. Rehabil itat ion is ext remely costly, and unless
great care has been take n to preserve topsoi l, repl acement is rarely economically
possible. Eve n if thi s is t he case, the natural soil profile has been destroyed, and
the land, even after rehabili tation, remains ei ther poorly producti ve or
unproductive. This has proved to be the case in t he Ovens Vall ey of Victoria after
gold dredging, and in parts of Malaysia after ti n dredging.
The environme nt al impact statement for mini ng has to consider not only the
actua l effects on t he environment of explorat ion and development; frequently
the possibilit y of rehabili tation, and t he costs of rehabil itation have to be
considered. Rehabili tation costs possibly can be such as to render the mining
operatIOn uneconomical. It is imperat ive that this be known belore mining
commences. The environmental impact st udy becomes, t herefore, not only
desi rable, but essent ial.
The geologist is onl y one member of a multidisciplinary team involved in t he
preparat ion of an environmental impact statement. His task is to gat her relevant
geological data and to analyse these data to assess t he impact of t he proposed
works on the geological environment insofar as t his affects the total
environment. The geologist' s rol e does not stop at this stage. He has to give
considerat ion to, and make recommendations for , means by whi ch
environmental impacts can be monitored and, if necessary, corrected.
10.7 Earthquake hazards and nuclear power stations
The widespread development of nuclear power stations, and t he possibility of
accidents occurring which could res ult in di sastrous effects on t he envi ronment
including people living in the vicinity, req uire a very careful considerat ion ofth;
earthquake hazards at t he sit es of t hese stat ions. Since t hose responsible for the
location and design of nuclear power stations are aware of the dangers, a great
deal of wor k has been done to develop rel iable met hods of hazard prediction,
and also to develop met hods of analysis as a basis of design ofthe power plants.
Nuclear power stat ions are designed to withstand t he effect s of two possible
eart hquake events. These are t he ' operating basis eart hquake' , which is the
maximum level of ground motion whi ch could be expected to occur during the
life of the pl ant (normall y about 40 years); and the 'safe shutdown earthquake' ,
which IS t he maximum level of ground mot ion t hat could possibly occur at any
tIme III t he futu re. The st ructures and equipment must be designed so t hat
operations can continue, wi th safety, duri ng an operating base eart hquake.
Simila rly designs must be such t hat the plant can be shut down safely in the event
of a safe shutdown ea rt hquake.
Methods of ana lys is are quite complex, but t he basic data required incl ude
geologica l and soil s information, as we ll as data on past eart hqua ke events. The
199
1\'lj lllltlNI' 0 1 'I NIII Il' IUl l' t o Vi!)WIi OIi S 11111111.' 11 (.'(.' (1 hy tlH'
IIt'lOIIIUlhll1t y,I HHlthr tlutlltlllll l'qll l' lIl' y,1I 1 tlll' lounda tl on I'Ocks II lid soi ls. I hI.'
Itllllldlitllill ,'1 trUl' !lIt ' 111 1(.' 1 Il \' l Ion IN o lluIHIIIIl H.' Il I HI impolt llrl CC in lll cclI.:sigrl of
l'lI rthqll llkc,. ICSiSl:tll1 s t lll ctlir s, I he mOl ' fHe l OtS in t he fou ndation
Il Htlt' dll1 .. Huettll i nt el'uctlon un: t he non .. linen r defo rma tion behavi our f Ih '
soli nnd lo ' k: the shape. siife, fl ex ibi lit y and depth of the foundati ons; and til '
1IIl l-t ic of incidence of the vibra ti ons generated by the carthqullkc. Idea ll y, til '
l oundations be placed on rock ; the h;:l'la rd increases si gnificant ly if soi l
fUIIlldlltiOll l'l lin: ado pted . Despit e a ll of t he inves ti gations, and anal yses. til L'
Illtl', l llllporlllnt factor to be cons ide red rema ins thc seismic history orlhe area in
which the nuclear pl ant is to be sit ed: the frequency, intensit y. magnitude Hnd
I-\ Iound nccclerations or past ea rthquakes are essent ial inrormati on,
Ihfcrcllces Ulld rending
Allntt (1975) I he EI S Techn ique, !\ustraliiln Conserva tion Foundatio ll .
A II HU, ( 1975) for radioacti ve waste graveyards. ClIl[fumia Ce%KI' 28.
Jl ull JI A., Il nlll W, I ... Mac{lonald G. A. &Sco\t R. F. (1975) Ceologicollla: ard\. Springer Vc r' lut!,
Vlt' ulln
I C, (cd ,) (1960) Ua(/io{/ cliw' Wax/e.\, 71t eir Trl'llllllelll {Ind Spon, London,
( ' ,Ink 1 I), ( 1972) Sympo!'. ium onllndergro und waste management and environmental implicat ion ..
1111 h \ II/ ', 1'/'/ , (i('() I, A/f'lII . 18.
t I), S, ( 19HI ) hl' t !\ bboh(ord la ndslide. /JUlll'l ill de liasun des 11I/)urmu il"l'S P O //(I 1'1
(/mll\/ ' I' I '\I'j 'l illl \', .I an. J 9H I.
,111\0,011 I' I , (11)75) EnvirOl/lllelltal Geology, Harpe r, Ne w York.
(jul lry J I ( 196K) in geologic basins. Am. Ass. Pel. Geol. Mem. 10.
Kelic i I A, ( 198 1) /;'1II 'il"OlllIIl' lIItJ/ Geology. Charles a nd Merrill. Columbus.
K II/Kill M, I ,. I connrd J, G, & Whiteley R. J. ( 1978) Lucas Heights waste landfill and dowllslrcflln
1l'udlU tc lIunsport. /JIIII , 1111, A.I,we, Eng. Geo!. 18,45- 64,
I r (lr urut I I , " , ( 1964) Sys tem for cvalualion of contami nation potential at some waste d ispoal
,I 1111 11'(1/'" Ut'l , A,Hoc. 56,959,
1 rtl iluid I , II .. C'l a rkc F. E .. Hanshaw B. B. & Balsley J . R. (197 1) A procedure for evaluJlt intl
t' U\' /lIHttllcnt/d impa ct. United Slat es De pl. of Interior, Geological Survey Ci rcular 745.
I l1rl k It W, (cd.) ( 1973) F/) l'Il,\ Oil EIIl'irol1l11enlal Geology. Oxford University Press, Ncw YOl'k ,
200
Appendix 1
Geological column and time scale
Eca System 0' Epoch Approximate age in
Period millions of years
of base of syste m
Quaternary Recent
Ple istocene
Pli ocene
Miocene
Cainozoic
(recent life) Tert iary Oligocene
Eocene
Paleoce ne 65
Cretaceous 135
Mesozoic J urassic 180
(middle life) Triassic 225
Permian 280
Carboni fe rous 345
Devonian 395
Paleol.Oic
(ancient li fe) Sil urian 430
Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570
Precambrian Many local systems and ser ies
are recognized
20 I
Appendix 2
PrOI)erties and identification of minerals
Prope l'! ics of mi nc ra ls wh ich a id in ident ificat ion are: hardness, s pecifi c gra vit y.
crysta l habit , colour, lustre , cleavage, a nd fract ure; and for the ore-minerals.
Ila rdncss is dcrincd by an arbit rary scale of sta nda rd mi ne ra ls. known II '"
Mohs' Sca le of Hard ness, a rranged in degrees o f increas ing hardness from I to
10 Crable A2. 1) .
Tlt hl C A2. 1 Moll s' Scale of Hardnes s.
Il nr dl1CSS Standard
mineral
10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 To paz
7 Quart,.
6 Feldspar
5 Apat it e
4 Fluorspar
J Ca lcite
2 Gypsum
1 Talc
202
.1
fUlger
nail
I
Scratched by
I
copper
coin
I
fil e
f
knife
I li e "1U.:cili c g JII Vll Y 0111 111 i 11 1.: 1 111 CIlIi he ti!: t l" l lIlIll l' d qtllh'lH' l,' tll UI Cl y In !!If..'
Itd')ol'!I(()I y. I II t he field. tlli s b not possibl e. lIlld it IN t o tk .. cl'ihC spcdlic
grn vi ty as ' Ii gh" , ' l1"l cdiurn' or 'heavy'.
C rys tal habit is de te rmined by the phys ical conditi o ns al t he tirnc of
formation and growt h of t he mineral. Since the mode and conditi ons of
fo rmation or a mine rai ma y some times be an ind ication o f what the tni nc ra l is .
the s hape orl he mine ra l, o r it s c rys tal habit , may be he lpful in th e id e ntifica t io n
of the minera l. Sta nda rd descr ipti ve terms for crystal habit a rc s hown in
Table A2.2.
Table A2.2 Crys tal habit.
Individual cry stals
Platy or tabula r
Prismatic
Acicular
Fibrous
Cryslllllille aggregates
Dendritic
Reniform
Botryoidal
A mygdaloidal
One pair of parallel faces much larger
than the others
Crystal is elongated in one direct ion
Crystal is very long and needle-like
Long rlbrous crystals.
Crys tals diverge fr om each other like
branches
Kidney-shaped
.'Bunch of grapes' habit
Infilling of ves icles
201
T2.bIt- A!A Propenies of some common mine rals.

Q=tz
Fddspan
\.ap:.e
Hornblende
".

Ga.-n<t
OIi\i.ne
Calcite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Gakna
Sphalerite
Pyrite
Chalcopyri te
\(agnetite
limonite
Hematite
>. -:: :.>
:.i
:.. :.> _ l...
-= J . '""
-= g c -
"
:.> -= <r.
-= "0
'"

- " :l

>
Colour
Colourless
Variable
Black
Black
Brown- black
White
Red
Gree n
White
White
White
Grey
Red-brown
Brassy
Brassy
Black
Orange-red
Dee p red to
steel grey

n 0
i .;!
r.
o

"
-' - <r. -J:

-0-0
C

!) -

"
",M

'" <
:... ;:. = -:::;.


;;
.=
c . C

- " 0

o
- -
l... ::

r 7 g '0
-;: ==
= E
- "
...c -J _
ot. "
.-
z



g
'0
"

...
<
"
..
Lustre
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vitreous
Vi treous
Vitreous
Satiny
Dull
Metallic
Vitreous
Streak
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
White
Black
Cream
Metallic Black
Meta ll ic Black
Dull Black
Earthy Brown
Sub metallic to Red
Metallic
o


""0 E
" 0
-;;; '"


<..1 ..0



'-' .;:
== :!




00
,

H
7
6

5'h


7
6'h
3
SG
1.6
2.7
3.3
3.3
3.5
2.7
3.6
3.s'
2.7
2 2.3
3'h- 4 2.9
2!h 7.5
4 4
6 5
4.2
5 4
5 4
5- 6 5.3
Cleavage Fracture
nil
2
2
2
1
1
nil
nil
3
3
3
3
3
nil
1
nil
ni l
nil
Conchoidal
On cleavages
On cleavages
On clea vages
On cleavage
On clea vage
Uneven
Uneve n
On cleavage
On cleavages
On cleavages
On cleavages
On c1ea vages
Uneven
Uneve n
Uneven
Uneve n
Uneven
<r.
.:) U
:: C
..... c::
up..
f -


;=- U t:: '- ;? -i: ." - v
o !:: '- 0 .::: {) 0 -< C
::J U
-
'" ;? u _
r:

o
::: .- '0 N '- E CJ)
-'I- .....
0" 0 C ("Q :; - V> 0
C
Remarks
Colour variable from colourless
to pink. grey, mauve
Colour white. pink. green.
Clea vage usually perfect
Cleavages pe rfect. Intersect at 900
Cleavages perfect. Intersect at 6()0 , 1200
Cleavage perfect
Cleavage perfect
Colour varies
Three perfect rhombohedral cl eavages.
Mineral effervesces in He!.
Cleavage perfect in one direction.
two less perfect.
Three perfect rhombohedral cleavages
Three perfect cubic cleavages.
Smell of HzS when r ubbed
on st reak plale.
Magnetic
'"
<=
o
0" E C &

..c IU' - .- 0 a... l... . -::: t.Il
>.'i: -;:-fi
0 ;;> ::J V Il.) C. ::::: t:
::J '- E c. ",- E >1)' 0;; u
'- OIUO"::':: - O O....t:,-o ("Q
'- ..c C';I ..0 V> ..... 0 C ""0 . :...
C';IIUV VI-. eDUOJ) C U
-
-
u
'" -
I--C '- <U >, '- C ro v
0 .:: ;-.D .:: 2 0 -;;; >.
'x E e E :-: E - U E c
v 0" Il.) 0 ""0 -'::"i ...c ' - '-

'E (';j f; U 0. '0
c _ > - Il.) ro 0'- - - u
..::.:: 0:\3 ("Q :'l "O '-- ..... Il.) 0:-:::: . -
0 .= :: '= 0. ; E a
3:: -.::: -i OJ) c:: 0 >. c
'- . -::: .-::: Il.) ..c c v; c 0 U 0.0
3 v- s ;Su g
'" Vl . ::.D _ ...:.:: eo'':: 0 0 '- -0
u u. c _ ,
c .- co u 0 u - :-:::: - 0.. -
ro3"("Qc _'- - :..o U OO ", .D
a. ;; g ;? ..e

::: u g co U -o:=! ""0 C
E ...c ' ;:' ;; F ::: """: 3 ::: ;: :;; E
>, ..-C_:-C 0
N
O;; - -:.r.
!HHWHW

c
.;;:
'"


:::;
Appendix 3
Field identification of rocks
-\fter Krynine D. P. and Judd W. R. (1957) Principles of Engineering Geology and Geofeclmics. McGra\\. Hill. ;\"e\\ York.
Grains or cryslals \'isible to naked eye, colour light
Angular particles
large Fine to
medium
Pegmat ite Tuff
Granite (+Q+ F)
Granodiorite( +Q+ F)
(Q+F)
Syenite (. Q+F)
:\farble (reacts with HC I)
Arkose
Very fine
Rhyolite
(+Q) and
Trachyte
(-Q)
S o grains or sparse crystals visible to naked eye
Breaks with rough surface
Foliat ed or
banded
Schist,
Gneiss
Glassy Dull Shi ny
Earthy appearance
lustre lustre
lustre
Rounded particles
Large
Conglomerat e
(+ 10% of grains
over 2mm dia.)
Sandstone
(bedded)
Fine to
medium
Quam' ite
Very fine
Siltstone
Erratic large grains
Rounded
Deposi tional
brecci a
Angular
Volcanic
breccia aod
agglomerate
fault breccia
Breaks with smooth or platy surface (usua lly has bedding)
Laminated
Not la mi nated
Quartzite Rhyolite. Schist Pumice Limestone Shale Shale
Slate
Phyllite
Clays tone
Mudst one
Ser pent ine
(usually
Limestone Dolomite
Trachyte (foliated) Volcani c
" h
Grains or crysrals I'isible /0 naked eye, colour dark
Angular pa nicles
Fine to medium
Peridotite (Q B)
Gabbm (-Q-B)
Diorite (Q+B)
Dolerite
Very fi ne to glassy
Andesite
Basalt
So grains or sparse crystals visible 10 naked eye
Glassy lustre
Obsidia n Shale
greasy a nd
be bandod)
Rounded to su bangular particles
Graywacke
Sandstone
Laminated
Shale (nexible)
Slate (brittle) (dull)
Phyll ite (shiny)
Nonlaminated
Basalt
Mudst one or clays lone
Appendix 4
Stercogruphic and equal area project ions
Stcl'cogrllphi c and equal area proj ect ions provide techni ques fo r the graph icl-!!
I l.: pr cscntati on and a nalysis of planar and linear defect s in r ocks. All pla na r
defects ha vc a n ori ent a t ion in space wh ieh ca n be dcCi ned by twa pa ra meters: dip
li nd st rike. The st ri ke of the plane is the beari ng ofa horizontal line in t hat plane:
1 he dip is t he inclination oCt il e plane. from the horizontal , in a direction normal
t o 1 he strik e. Thus. we can speak of the orientat ion ofajoi nt as being st ri ke 300
0
('lI' alternati ve ly N600N, 120 or S600E) and dip 50
0
SW (or 50
0
S 30
0
W). The
1'Ih.: rcogra phi c projection of this plane is a two-dimens io nal representa ti o n of I he
I II rcc-<I imcnsiona I o ri entation. If it is imagi ned t hat the st r uctu ral pl a ne li es in a
~ h e l ' e , then the int ersect ion of the plane wit h t he surface of the sphere will be a
grell t circle. The spherical proj ect ion of that part of the great circle lying in the
lowe r hen1i sphere, onto the equatori a l plane, is the stereograph ic proj ecti on of
the struct ura l plane.
S' , FR EOG RAP HI C PROJECTIONS
,",0 1' til t.: pl o tting of stereogra phic projections, a stereographic, or Wulff, net is
used (Fig. 1\4. 1). The procedure is simple, and consists of the following steps :
( I ) Pla ce a thumb tack thr o ugh the cent re of the net , and then pl ace a pi ece of
tl'H cing paper ove r the net , with thumb tack penetrating t he ce ntre of th e
pH per. Mark North point of net o n tracing paper. Trace perimeter of ncl.
(2) Ml.Ir k o n tracing paper, on t he perimeter, the str ike direct ion of the pl a ne
to be plotted.
(3) Rotate tracing paper unti l st r ike mark coincides wit h Nort h point o f net .
(4) I\ long the East- West diameter of thc net, mcasure off the dip of the pl ane,
in the appro priat e direct ion. The East a nd West points on t he perimctcr
co rrcs po nd to 0 dip; t he centre of the net to 90 d ip.
(5) Trace o ut th e g reat circle joining the str ike point a nd the dip point. Thi s b
t hc stcl' cogl'aphic proj ect io n of t he plane.
(6) Rotul C tracing paper unt il No rth point coincides with th e Nort h po inl of
t he net.
II will hc npprcciul.cd th a t the o ri ent a ti o n ofa st l'lI ctllrallinc, including lhe
Ii Il l,; () f i IIl crsccl i on of! wo plf! ncs, ca n bc dcterm i ned by slcrcogra ph ie Pl' oj cct iOIl ,
' I It ol'i ' nlHI iOIl or II l inc is deri nud by it s trend 11 nd plltll gc. T he trcnd i s t he Sll' j kt'
.l OK
Fig. A4. 1
of a vert ical plane containing t he li ne, a nd the plunge is t he inclination, from t h '
horizontal, of the line in the vertical pl ane.
To determine the trend and plunge of a line (e.g. the line of intersect ion oft h '
t wo planes of Fig. A4.1), t he following procedure is adopted:
( I) Rule a straight line from the centre of the net through the point of
intersection of the two planes. This is a stereographic projection of the verti ca l
plane containing the line.
(2) Read off the strike of thi s pl ane. This gives the trend of the line.
(3) Rotate the tracing paper until the straight line ruled lies on the N- S (or
E- W) axis of the projection.
(4) Measure the plunge along this axis. Zero plunge is at the perimeter.
T6 plot the project ion of a line:
( I) At the perimeter of the net, mark on the tracing paper, the trend of t he line.
(2)Rotate the tracing paper until the poi nt marked coincides wi th the N or S
points of the net.
(3) Measure off t he amount of plunge along the N- S axis, and mark the point.
This is the stereographic projection of the line.
POLAR AND EQUAL AREA PROJECTIONS
When it is necessary to consider a large number of planes, it is co nveni ent to plOI
t he projection of pole to each plane, rat her than t he stereographi c proj ecti o n of
the plane it se lf. The pol e to a plane is the norma l to that pla ne (Fi g. 1\4.2). 1'0 1'
t he Sla t ist ica I ana lysis of a la rge n U 111 be r of pia ncs, poles to l he pia ncs a f' e pl ott ed
!-I ll . \".2
! tl ' lutNl tW
N
5
" " Ihe equa l area. o r Schmidt , net (Fig. A4.3). It is possible, often by vis ual
inspectio n alone, to determine from such a plot whether or not a definite pa tt ern
exists. Morc accurat c results arc obtained by counting the intensity of poles.
uSlI lI lI y ex pressed as a percentage of t he total n umber of poles per I % of the a refl
of the projecti on. To emphasize t he pattern, the diagram is contoured wit h
'o nl ou rs joining point s of I, 2, 3 ... % of point s per I % uni t area of project ion.
1 10
Fig. A4.4
This procedure can be performed manuall y; this, however, is both tedious and
time consuming. It is quicker to make use of computer techniques, whereby the
raw data (d ip, strike) are supplied to the computer, programmed to produce the
contoured diagram.
If a pattern exists, the contoured diagram wi ll have well defined maxima.
The centre of each of t he maxima can be regarded as the pole to the mean of the
set of pla nes whi ch contributed to a particul ar maximum. From t hi s it is possible
t o derive the pattern of fract ures present in any given sect ion of a rock mass (Fig.
A4.4). The equal area proj ecti on is used not onl y for the analysi s of
macrofractures in a rock mass, but may also be used for the analysis of
microfractures in the rock material, such as grain boundaries, and cleavage
planes. In this case, the ori entati on of the planes is measured microscopicall y on
orientated thin sect ions using a uni versal stage.
One very important use of the eq ual area projection is the determination of
the symmet ry of the rock fabric. The symmet ry of t he diagra m is that of the
particular fabric under examinati on.
21 i
Author Index
Aitchison, G.D. 130, 148. 165
Anderson. J.G.e. 182
Allcwe ll . P.B. 51, 130
Rals ley, .I . R. 200
Barton, N. 48,5 I
Baynes, F. J . 74, 78. 79, 80, 90
Beavis, F.e. 33,37.5 1. 90, 112.126,1 30,172.
182
Beavis. J. e. 130
Bell. F.G. 138. 148
Berry, L.G. 25,56, 91
Bienia wski. Z.T. 48, 49. 51
Blal. H. 25
Bah, B.A. 200
Bouwer.l-I. 148
Brach. E, 9 1
Burwell , E.G. 85, 90
Ca pper, P. L 130
Cassie, W.F. 130
Cha nd ra, R. 91
Chorley, R.J. 109
Clarke, F.E. 200
Collins . .I .e. 200
Coo k, TO. 200
Craig, R. F. 130
Cratchley. C. R. 165
Davies,J. L. 109
Davis. S.N. 148
Dearman. \V,R. 66,67. 68, 73,74.90,91
Deere, J), U. 24.25.45.47.51
De Wies\, R,J .M, 148
Edwa rds. R.J ,G. 165
Eva ns. R.S. 70.90,164, 165
Eyre, \V.A. 88,90
Farmer, L w. 25, 51, 130
Fecker, E. 39. 4 1, 51
FJawn. P.T. 200
Fookes, P.G. 54,57,64.66,70,71. 9 1
Frankl in. J.A. 9 [
Galley, .I .F. 200
Grainer, P. [65
Grant K. 149, 150, 165
Gregory, K.J. 109
Griffi t hs, D.H. 165
Grim. R.E. 25
Ha nshaw, B.B. 200
1leath, R.e. 148
Henkel, D . .I . 169, 183
Hills,E.S. 5 1
Hobbs, B. 25, 51
Horn, \V.L 200
Hunt. C. B. 130
Hyndman, D. \V. 25
lIiev, I.G. 77,91
Ingles.O.G. 130
Irfan. T.V. 68.74,90.91
Jaeger, C. 146. 148, 183
Jaegcr. J.e. 51
J akosky, J .J . 165
Keller. E.A. 200
King, R.F. 165
Kinstl er, F.t. 183
Kni ght. M. J . 189,200
Knill. J . L 165, 183
Lafcbcr. D. 118,119, [20, [)o
Le Gra nd, H. F. 190,200
Leonard, J .G. 200
Leopold, L B. 109, 196, 200
Lewis. I. 91
Lien. R. 51
Ll oyd, D.J . 183
Loughnan. F.e. 65,91
Lunde, J , 51
Mabbutt, J.A. 109
MacDonald, G.A. 200
Maddox, J. M. 168, 183
Mars hall . T.J . 130
Mason, B. 25
Mat her. R. P. 183
McCann, D.M, 165
McNeil, M. J 11. 130
Mea ns, W.D. 25,51
213
Mlddl('ltlll , t , H
MIli cI, .1 .1' lOt)
MilllC, G. 127, I
MoneYlliakel . 1I .e. H5, ')0
Moye, D.G. 9 1
Murray. R. 25
Novik. G. 138. 148
Oilier. C. D. 9 I
Osi pov, V.1. 116. 130
Peck. R. B. 130
Pless. T. 138, 139. 148
Price. D.G. 165
Pri ce. N . .I. 51
Ragan. D.I\1. 51
Ransome. F.L. 167.
Reade. L. M. IJO
Rengcrs. N. 39. 51
Rogers. S. 1-1 . 175. I X).
Ruxton. B. P. 56,9 1
Ridl cvsky. v. 118. 148
Scott. R.F. 200
Sherard. J. t. 121. 130
214
\ W I ii \
I) I I /!-'
V.N I I /!.IIO
S(l\Vcl ,, (' . II. 11()
SmltCI '. ( i . l . 110
25
I I{ . W. 200
Tcr/ahi. K. 47.5 1. 120. 130
Thomson. P.J. 5f!.9 1
Tiedmann. H. R. 48,51
Trillllor, P.W. 148
T rigg. C. F. 182
Twidale, C. R. 109
Walling. D. E. 109
Walt on. G. 91
Warkent in. A. P. 1)0
Whit eley. R.J. 200
Wickham. G.E. 4l-l,5 1
Williams. r .F. 25. 51
Wolman. M.G. 109
Wood. c.c. 112, 130. 148
Wu. T.H. 130
Yong. R.N. 1.10
Young. A. 109
Index of Rocks, Minerals and Soils
Acid rocb II. 181. 186
11.14.1 5.1 78.206
Allophane 65
Almandine 17
Alumina 7 8
Alumin ium 8
Amphibole 5.6, 112. [ ]J
Amphibolites 27. 156
Anatase 65
Anauxite 8
Andesite 12. 186.207
AI)Hl ile. phys ical properties 113.202
Aragonite 9. 14
Arena ceous rocks 14
Ar kose 15,206
Augi le 60.65.205
Ba,>a lt 10. 12, 60.66.95.96
dam fou ndat ions 147
engi neering properties 46. 62 182
Basic glass
lava 95
rocks 11,117. [82. 186
Bauxit e I [ I
Uicdellile 8
Uioge nic rocks 82
Biotite 65. 126
physical properties 205
lI oe hmite 66
Breccia 15. 186
depos itional 200
fault 3 I. 37. 84. 206
engineering properties 32. 146. 168
volcanic 15. 206
Brucite 9
Calcite 9. 14. 15.47.55.59.66. 128
engi nee ri ng propert ies 69
physical propert ies 202.205
82
Calcrele 14. [02
Carbonat cs 5, 9.63.67. 98. 128. 138
('ataela, tic rock" 26
( ' Iw!cedo ny 65. 182
Chal copyrite 205
Chal k 13H
('hclnie;,1 \lrSllnie rock" 11,14
Cheri 14. 15
enginee ring properties 64
Chlori te 6- 9.64. 66, 69
expansion 175
Clast ic rocks I I. 67. 74, 76, 81
Clay 5. 122. 123. [28. 129. [61
as altera tion product 30, 59, 73
bleached I ! I
cat io n adsorpt io n 9
compaction [ 17
compressible
in concrete aggregate 89
consolidation 117
earth da ms 011 148
engineering prope rt ies 6,8. 9.138.169
eSluarine 11 7, 175
c.x pansion 7 8. I 12. 117. 132
fibrous 8
fi ssured 138
115. 116. 148
125. 143. 172, 173
nocculation
foundat ion
glacia l 117
inorgani c [15
ions, exchange
lacustrine I 17
laminaled 116
8.9. II I. 112
latt icc 8
li gneous [ 72
marine 117
matrix 118
minerals 6. 17. 59. 63, 64, 66. 69. 76, 80.
111 - 113. 117, 164.193
classification 7.8
mixed laye r l-l. 9. 64
motlled 152, 153
organic 82 83. 122. 125
p,lrticles 6.81.1/3.117.121. 126
permeabi lil y 138. 143. 147. 170
piping 148
plasticity 9
porosit y 138
4uick 117
remoulding 11 7
residual 115, 11 7
saturat ed 172
se nsitivit y 117
shrin kage H, 11 2

,,11 16, X,l, 11'
1,K. 11 2, 11 *1 111
Ihl.'lOl n1 IH\. K I. 11 7
III I!lIltil' l, H7. 177. 17K
WUI(' , 11 2
( lu V Hl\.' I. \ KI
(lJ, ycy 102, 122, 126,1 27, 1] 0 In, 14X
( ' IIIY'lOtlC 15, 152.206.207
cI1 W,u,:e l'lng propcrli c' 45, 75 7K HI
wClllhcring o f 70
( \url III, 15, I")() 191\
hrown 125. 147, 15M, 172. 173. 177
cnij Lll eering propertie, lB. 158. [73
( ' lIl1!-\l mll erat e 15.3 1. 37. 152. 167.206
lngi neel'ing prope rti es 32
( 'wl1l , leef, 92 93
( 'ludiClrI C 5. 6. 17
phY"ICld propert ies 202
11t'ltr tul, ()ck, 11 . 13. 14
1 )Iullltllld 202
I )II I1I1I1Il1CCOU'i silt s 122
1)1\,' ki tc X
I )IOII IC 12, 27. 94. 207
I) okrrt c 12. 3.1. 72. 87. 207
dr slr ll cgratiotl of aggregat e 175
Cll gIII CCI'illg properti es 71,89. 163
1) 010111 lte i), 15. 9H. 12K 129.206
cnglnecring 46.84.99. 136. 177
phy",c,,1 IHoperties 205
l' I1' llot e 5. 6
1 5. 6. 1[ .17, 113. 114. 156
I)hysical properlies 202.205
wel1 thcl'l ng of 59 61. 65, 66. 73. 112
l' cl ri clctC 14. 102. 12M. 129
1' 11111 14. 15
202
(illhhro 12.27. 60.207
(in1t.:1H1 205
( il1l1 lCl" 6, 11 3. 179. 205
(i i hh .. il c 65, 66
(i ligul 150
(jIlCI.... 17, 18.3 1. 58. 72, 73. 146. 156. [59. 206
ell gineering properties 46
wcu lhering of 83. 84. 87. 124. 125
Goethi tc 65. 66. 69
(hl ld 199
Gll uge. engineeri ng properties 31. 32.37. 4 1.
111, 1\9, 167. 170
( hnnl lc 10. 12.26.27. 99. 127,206
di"int cgrat lol1 86. X9. 117
ell gi ll cering pro perti es 46,64.66.67,7[.
711 KO. 116
wcathclIlIgol 53.55 60. 66.71.73. 94. 111 .
126. 169
(; tll rH\( IHH ll l' 12 75,1<6, Y4 . 114, 11 7. 162.206
(llll rlllllt l' 1/,27, IMI , l(.l,I
IlI rl\ l"I III, 1) /1, l id , 112. 11K
III fl' t ll l' t1t IlI lIt t 1.\ HI} , IHI
\' I\ gll ll'\' rlrl g pr ppl.: lll C" 9 7. 1.15. 147
(;ruywlLl' kc I.S,207
15.55.66. 6<).1<5. I I I. 11 1. 12X. 167
pli y, icnl 202,205
lI al ill.: 15.55. 6lJ. III. 11 3
7.66, I I I. 117
cngineering prol>Crt ies 112
Hardpan
Hemat ite 65.66.205
Hornb[ende 60. 65.205
Hornfels 17.99
Igneous rocks 2.10 12.40,16 1. 18 1, 182
Illite 6. 8. 55. 64- 66. 69. 86, 118
engineering propert ies 9. 112
Intermediate rocks I I
Iron ox ides 67.69.73. 102. I II. 1 [3. 127
Ironstone I I I
Kaolin 7
Kaolinite 6.8.64- 66.111.117. 124
engineering propenies 112
Lamprophyrc 33. 83. 84, 169
Lat erite I 11
Li gneous clay 125
Li mburgi te 12
Lime [02
Limestone 9. 14. 27,37.98. 172.206
cavernous 84.85.99. 170. 171
dolomiti c 9
engineering properties 46, 64, 7 1, 99. 136,
m, J77
sili ceous 82
weat heri ng of 82. 84, 88
Limonite 205
Magnesite 9
Magnesium 8
Magneti te 66.205
Marble 9,16. [7.27.37,206
d olomitic 9
engineering propenies 77,78
Marl 171
Metaquartzit e 17.42
Mi ca 5.8, 17.66.112114. 117. 167. 169
Mont morill o nite 7.8.64. 65. 69. 86,1 17, 11 8
engi neer ing propert ies 8,9. 11 2. 186
Mo rl'lonitc 206
Mudstone 15. 168. 178. 18 1, 186.206.207
Muscovite 60, 65. 69
physical properties 205
Mylonit e 3 1.32
Nonll o nite X. 11 7
12.207
Oh\, 1IL c I I i, I I I

Oplrlinc I1lnhl rr lll Xi), Uf l
65
P:dygors kite 1-1
Peat 11 0
engineering pro perti es 175
Pegmati te 12.206
Pelit ic roc ks 66.69
Peridotite 12.207
Phylli te 5, 16. 17.62, 129, 206,207
engineel' ing propert ies 24, 46. 64. 71 - 72.
74- 81. 136
Picrite 12
Pit chstone 12
Plagioclase 60-61, 66. 73
Plutonic rocks 10- 12. 14.26
Porphyry 186
Pu mice 12. 206
Pyrite 205
Pyroclastic rocks I J. 14
PyrophyUite 6
Pyroxe ne 5, 6, I 12, 11 3
Pyroxenit e 12
Qua rt z 5,6, I L 15. 17,55,59- 6 1.65.66.73.
84,112,11 4, 156
engineering properties 52
physical propert ies 202, 204, 205
Quartzite 15,98, 128, 129,206
engineering propcrties 99
Red earth 186
Rhyolite 12.206
Rut ile 113
Sa lts 14,85. 127
Sand 88,1 13, 117. 122. 123. 126. 129, 161
aeol ian 127
beach 126. 197
drainage of 147
drilli ng in 159
engineer ing properties [1 5. [32. 175, 182
excavations in 177
found at ion material [25, 175
ligneous 172, 173
mineral 196
piping in 148
porosi ty 138
settlement 175
stripping [98
unifor mit y coefficient [[ 4
wind-blown 55. 105. 125
Sand and gravel, channel 129. 153
in gl acial regions 103
tunnels in 178
Sund dunes 102. 105, 10M. 127
engineering properties 125, 126
Sand movement 180. 193
SII II\ III IOIII' 11. 1'. II I, W, 'H.IIH. 1.IH, I N, I,I /
1:\2, 11 1, 111, JUrl,.I01
22,24, ll ,II'. KI,
115. 13(1, I ll<, 16X, 176. 177
fLlI CtLl ICS III 40. 17.1
wealhering 01 59. 62, 70. HX
Saponite 1:1
Schist 5. 16. [7. 33, 99. 167. 206
engineering properties 24. 177. 17X
Sepiolite 8
Scrieit e 73
Serpentine 6. 206
Shale 15,27,30,3], 98, 99,147, 186,206, 207
engi neer i ng p rope rt ies 22, 24. 1:1 1, 136,
176-1 78
weathering of 55. 58. 59. 62. 88, 128, 129
Siderite 9
Silcrete 14, 102, 128, 129
Silica 7,8, 11. 55, 61. 67. 102
cryptocrysta lline 182
Silicates 4- 6, 60, 6 I . 113. 193
weathering of 63-65
Sill imanite 17
Silt 113,122,123,126,128, 152, 153, 175
drill ing in 159
engineering properties 143
estua rine 175
organic 122. 125. 158
sat urated [43, 172
Siltstone 13. 15, 152, 186, 206
engineering properties 46, 168
weathering of 53
Slate 5, 16, 17, 27,97, 186, 206,207
engi neering propert ies 78- 80
Sphalerite 205
Sp hene 113
Sulphides 69. 186
Syenite 12, 27. 206
Tachy[yte 12
Talc 6, 9
physical properties 202
Ti tana ugite 66
To nalite 62
Topaz 202
Tourmaline 11 3
T rachyte 12. 206
Travert ine [4
Tuff I I, 14, 15,96, 178, 186,206
Ultrabasic rocks II
Vermi culite 8.65.69. 193
Vol canic ash, 92.96. 97. 106. 122.206
Volcanic cinder 95, 96
Volcanic g lass 4,65, 18 1
Volcanic rocks II . 12, 14. 26,5):;,67. 11 9
Zcoli tes 6. 193
Zirco ll 113
217
General Index
\ 111111/1111 i 10
\ tWrl UII 19K
\ hi 11' 11111 54, 55
\hlll\ IIHl I' C\I' tancc 81, 182
\ hut l11 l' l1t ' ( lei' Dams)
AI' 1I 111111 (!cPO,i h 156
AI' l lI thI11, lOlle 133
\ t' lllIl p!1 01i1gn'l)ho; 42.1 5 1. 155. 195
\ 1' 11111 photography, pall erll 108.151
\ I' WI' tlIL1 l' II
ICII Cli()!l IXI. 182
1111 \III t IH2
1'1' 1111' 111 , rCiu.;tHlI1 18 1.1 82
r tl ll f ' l' tc 1/'1' COll crele aggregate
IIIIl I\' lI d 112
l ond HI) , 1M, lX I, IH2
I H2
, !l ope IHI. IH2
181
All pll oto" lI!! crpretation 92. 108
II nll l' r II 151
\ 1I i1r ld, :qll OIl 173
l\ u il l' ld, 175
Au lt t' ltl , 173.175
Al ln' Sfl llrl N' 11 8
A 11\1 \ II rldcpmi h 125. 126
AI1 !11Ulll fJ ll ' 101.109, 125
1\lIIi Vill ll1ll1il1" 101. 129
i\ lI uIII II1 111 . 129. 17 1. 175
hi nd.; Ik6
i\ 65
AlldHII ', X7. )o!H. 16S, 174. 175
\ 1I J.(k. III fri ction 41
II I HI(; I{! el1eC 200
A IIl1 l'1lrl e 2x
1\111 11111 I'hlt c:tu 95
\ qUl elude .12, IJ3. 134, 136, 137. 142, 143, 158
A\jllli cr J2. 14 1 143,146.156,158. 190
II lt C' UHl 1J4
\'lIlrllllcd 1.13. 136, 147
Ilt llllpll1g from 137
. 117
137
IInt'o nflil ed 13.1, 136
1/ ' 1' ( ' ''HUll! wut er; WUler table
Al i t H' r(' I-I I(II1 1.) 2, 101
A 102
21K
Arid l one 53.55.63.66. 85.92.93. 101. 102.
106. 108. 11 3. 11 8. 173. 193
Arrow(o wn 99
As perities 39
At mosphere 131 - 134
Atmospheric press ure 134
Anerberg li mits 120.121. 124
Auger 156
hand operated 156
power 156. 169
Avala nches. debris WI
rock 106. 193
Axial symmetry 19
B horiwn 110, 125
Backfill J 81
Oaglan Moors 175
Bald Hill Claystone 24
Baltina 196
Bar. barrier 105
offs hore 105
Barkhan 102
Baselcl'ct 101
Bathurst 66
Bathurst Orange Growth Cent re 185
Batters 88.189
Bays 179
Beac h 92. 173
bcrrn 105
engineeri ng works 92.105. 179. 180
erosion 196
Bearing capacity 84. 126
Bt!ddi ng 17. 18.27.69.206
cross 29, 40
effect on permeability 138, 139
Bedding pl anes 2. 4,26.28. 29,32,34.36.40.
41.82.84
bounded blocks 88, 98
in res idual soi ls 126
slope stabi lity 165.168. 17J 174
Bedrock 175.18 1
Beds 11 ,27 30.95.97.145.1 58. 168. 172. 17.1.
m
Bcndi go 16. 99
Berm 105
drilling 157, 158
Illtlltltl' tI )M
Illu, tll ll-t 177, 11K
lilli e t\InUHtUII!\ " 7, 9K
Ihll-tIJl1 g I l lgll l'IHIIl ' 72,90, 1)6
illig.. 17J
II nnd ing R. 112. 11 .\ . I 17
Illlr c hoic .. JM,(J I. 146. 149. 157. 165
C,llllera 1(10
d r:linage 174
gCI)pll yo; iI.:allest ill 161
ground wat er in 143. 144. 158
g. routing 145
im:lined 15H. 160
lug 157. 159
tilt 195
II:ltcr te' ts 4.1 . 135
.I t 't ' Core boring; Drilling
HOling 156. 175
Borrow area 89, 181. 182
Botany Bay 89. 175
B(liliders 104
IIreak O T );]), 29
IIrecciated zone 146. 168
Jl'C' Breccia iI/ Index of Rocks. Mi nerals and
Soil ..
Bri d ges. class ifi catio n 175
effect o n stream channel 176
foundations 156.159.175.176
geo logic'll considerati ons 175. 176
piers 116
pylo ns 176
supporting tOwcrs 175
Sydney Harbour 176
Ri ver 196
Brinle rocks 20.51
Broken Hill 24. 33. 40.66. 7 L 74. 78. 82. 9S.
128. 141. 156. 159
Bui lding foundation s 171
explorations for 45.47
loss of st rength 103
structure interaction 200
Iluildings 187
load 172
on permafrost 103
fm 195
.. tructural damage 17\. 172. 189. 198
Trascona Grain Elevator 171. 172
Yallourn Power Stat io n 158.172.1 73
Uul go Sandstone 70.76. 77
Bulkheads 177
Bulla 1 II. 11 4
Buried valley 17 1, 175
lIul1resses SJ, 84, 166, 167
(' llOri/ o n 110. 125
(';,ilH)/oic 201
(' al{icra 95
Cal yx drilling 156. 158. 160.168
('i lltlblian 201
(' 1I1I1{l el1 lIl' hulI development 111 7
(' lI pl.' l l)1l1 ll)) 2K 10
( ' Uprll:ll ) t ll l l 'l" 1\2
Ca pillary lllnge 1,14
Capillar y wat er JJ .l
Carbo nat ion 52.54
C lrbonifero u.. 20 1
Casing. perforat ed 144. 160
Cataclasis 31. 32. 57
Catac!asti c material 32.36,41
Catchme nt. area 131 - 133. 185. 187
Catena 127. 130
Cal ion exchange capacity 7- 9, 112
Cations 5,7. 8. 11 2
Caveabilit), 50
Caverns 82. 84
Caves 37.99. 107
Cemcnt 1.1.58, 115, 145
calcareous 14
high al kali 89
low a lk ali lX2
secondary SO
Cessnock 196
Cinder cones 95
Cirques 102
Civil engineering. st ructure L 143. 149. 155,
166. 184
Cleavage. mi neral 4 6.9, 18.52.57.59. 113.
202. 204. 205. 211
rock 16. 27 . .18. 40. 69
Clevedon Hills 88
Cli ffs 82.87.92. 97. 104, 105, 179
Clover Dam 38, 83. 84
Coal i 4. 82. 83
Coastal land forms 93. 104
Coasls 179
Coefficient. of internal friction 4 1. 112. IU.
117
of permeability ! 34- 136, J 38
uniformity 114
of weatheri ng 77
Coffs Harbour 53
Cohesion 7,8.2.1.50. 117
Co lac 96. 192
Colloids 54
Colluvium IS6
202. 204. 205
164
Colour of mineral
Compaction. test
Compression 83
Compressional wave 45
Compressive strength 20. 74
Concrete. disposal of radioactive wastes 193
disruption I. 89. lSI
foundation 143.167.169.170.17 1.175
orga nic substances in 181
sulphates in 18 1
Concrete aggrega te
alkali - react ion
clay in 89
sulphi des in Hl6
Cones 92, 95
164.1 81. 186
18 1. 182
COl1fining 20, 139
1<)
- H I, H. I, 1/1(1, 1/11 , 171
II " I h l I )Ul l1 11\111111 11111, 170, 1%
l I Imlt' I UI I", 11\IIII IIII II U'l' HI , HH, 111
I /I, IN(I, IIN ,'Iulll 11'1' 1 111 111 (111111\
1(1 11
IIl I tI )I) , 1 \0, 1"1\
111, I XI
W) , 111 1, 1112
H1 116, 11 M, 14iJ , 16.1, 165,
I I)]
( 'UII I\IUICU d lltl\ flI lIl \ I H, 42, 2 10, 211
( RI\CI 175
( ItPl' tlll l 24
(\lI lil IJ2 1) .1
( 'l il t' hllllcl 6 1 6.1, IW,
",\l IUlIIHLtioli .16. 47, 145.
ItI /oIWII l\ 70,72, 157, 16 1
( 111 \' It'CllYCIY 45 47, 157
( 'I II(' \ IIC\ 157
( '\lIll t" 102
( JII Jl ky ( ' ll flrli e 511
(1I Itt'I\
( tl't' k, 12iJ, I H6
(1 1'I' P, Cl llth 1.1. 20.21. 22. 11 2
tl llJ llt' 195
tlf lll'llepe ndell1 XX
152, 151
147. 17 1. 173.177.201
.1 1,31
( 111'11111 relLdJII \ It11Cllh 198
( ' IY, Utl hnhll 202.203
(' I y' llI lhnc l oc.: k\ 14. 30.37. 67. MI. 72, 73. 126.
II I
II 7,H.5X.61. 111. 203.206,207
( ' 1111 176
10 11K, 1I 0 1 c 105, 179
( II I oi l wull \ 1'1 3
(1111 1111\ 149,171
171
IIHHIlWring 174
in rock .14, 173
ill .. oil 147
Wlluly I' oi nt, Occa n Road 173
Will ' 102
( ydt)/oIllIjl hic.: pJOjection 42
l )u llll (l Ul1d ll li o n, Xl 166
hem ;tt g X4
d lUl1 l1 cl 'cct ion X4. 1.66. 167
l':O;l ,l vut io ll X4. 166,
joIIounuwlIt cr in 143, 147
k ll kil!\C K4, 166, 169
1ll lltcri nl.. 166
on 166
'I tllhitl l ), K4. 167 1(1)
WI'i ti helJlt g I M. 170
1)lum, uhulme nt .. 1M, 113. 166 170
Ill t h 1\ ,1, H4. 1M. 16M. 169
hlltll ,"" HI. M. 166 161:1
{1 1I\'(' 1 lH. 1(.1, Hit
II
47
CHVIH)Jllllc nl l1l ill l ll IL CI 11'! 4, 11)5 11) 7
Ini l ul c 167
h lil i Utl U Xli
foundat ion, 73
(j ell i .... iat 170. J 71
II igh J 96
I I iwasscc 1'! 4
Kent ll cky !S4, ISS, J7{)
mass gravi t y 166, 167, 171
Mcadowbank, Tas mania 167, [68
Monar 168
Mont e J acques 84
rockfi ll 169
Rocky Va lley 89
51 Andal usia 99, 170
Sl Francis 167
ta il ing 192
types 83, 166
White Swan. Ball arat 147
Da rnsiles 97. 101. 143. 147, 169. 170
Darcy's Law 135, 136
Da rtmoor 57,66
Darwi n 135
Daylcsfo rd 97
Debris 30.55,87. 102 105, r07. 169, 17 1
Deccan 95
Decomposition
Deformabilit y
Deforma tion
basal 29
5256. 60.61. 63.68. 81. 89
200
28
of rocks 17.21. 88. 164
of soil 124
tectonic 29
Del ta deposits l Or. 125
De nsit y. dry 45,74.77,79
sat urated 79.80
Deposition 29.92. 93. 100- 103, l iS, 126. 155.
179
Derwent Ri vc r 168
Dcsert a r mour 101. 102. 125
])eser! va rni sh 102
Devoni a n 33.40. 119. 152. 20 1
Diagenesis, process I I. 13, 14
Diamond drill ing .1"cl' Drilii ng
Differential sett le ment [72
Dip 38. 40. SO. 98.160. 168. 177. 178
in ste reographic project ions 208,2 10. 2 11
vert ical 18
Discont inuiti es 33,34.36 40. 43
elass ifi ca tio ll of 39 4 1
effecl in roc k mass 45. 47.52.57.62, 112, 140.
169
e pigc ne tic 40
36
in soi ls 120. 126
SUI .1H
Il' 40, II I
[ )l\l lI l l' /oI 11I11 01i n, 6l 6K. (1) ,1( 1,1( 1). 114,
117, t H, 167
IlI" pel,ed 116
I )nho l1l cy III
I )OIl IC 92
I) l lIi ll agc 94. 95. 15.1. 174
ic 187
hy 144
1\lltllral 187
well poi nl 143
[)luI na ge basin 102. 1 H7
[ )l lIi lta ge c ha nnels 152, 154
l >t ainage pall erns 94.9H. 193
Drain\, a pron 168
' UI face 146
Il l'il w<! o wn 180, 198. 199
III 1ft , longshore 105
I) lill holes 158. 160. 16 1. 168. 174
J)till ing 83. 142, 146. 156. 176. 198
a uge r 156,1 69
hil 157. 158
ca lyx 156. 158. 160. 168
d iamond 86. 156- 158. 160. 162. 163. 168.
169. 177. 178
j el 158
pe rc uss ion
progra mme
156. 158. 172
160. 162
rota ry 156
tec hni que 45. 157
Dri ll ing slurry 198
wate r 157
I)rumli ns 103
l)ul1C(lin 187, 188
Sl' C Sand
I}uricr ust 102
Dykes 26.32.- 34. 37. 38. 40.41 ,72,83,84,86.
93. [69
Dynamic fo rces 117
Fa rt h dams 83, 169
on cla y 112
co res 166
pe rmea bili t y 170
I)i ping fa ilure
148
protect io n
Oil soi ls 166
112. 147. 148
83
Fa nh matcrials 15 1, 158. 190
hl nhq ua kes 106. 19 1. 193
a rt ific iall y induced 191.197
da mage 180
e ngincering pro ble ms 200
inte nsity 19 1. 200
magnitude 200
ma p 194
nucl ea r power o; l <l l iollS. design of 199
pl edict ion 195, 199
l' n"l I{i vc.. 177
Pffec\ ivt .. i/ c 114. 12.1
I III ' tl e J! 11I 1t{' 1 1 H, }O, } I, II H, 74, 124
2 1
1' 1:1' t1C .. , 1IIllI t 20
El ect ri cal rco;i\ l ivit y tec hniq ue!'> 16 1
Elect rol ytes 11 6
El ect ro-os mos is I 12. 144
Em ba nkme nts. eros ion of 182
on pea t 175
rai lway 175
rip ra p 182
Emma ville 197
Engineering. act ivi t y 101. 162. 195
Enginee ring geological inves ti gat ions 83. 107.
109. 149. 154. 155. 158. 160. 163
Enginee ring geologist 2. 6 [, 67, 72.89, 130.
149. 160. 169. 184. 195
Engineeri ng geology 1.9. 108. 124. 149. [65.
166
Engineering materials 2, 18 1
Enginee ri ngst r uclure 8 1. 106. 143.200
Enviro nmental geol ogy 184
regional pla n ning 109, 154, 184. 185
survey 185
u ni ts 185. 186
urba n planning 187. 189
Environme nta l impact 195- 199
Eocene 20 I
Equal a rea a nalysis 42, I 18- 120. 208. 209, 2 11
net 21 0
Equipote nt ial lines 139. 140
Erosion. agent s 92.93. 100- 102. ISS, 172. 189
glacia l 102. 168
of head lands 105.179
inte rna l 148
rate 195
rock 11.33. 56.57, 93.96. 99.102.1 27, 169
soil 127.1 47. [93. 197. 198
by st rea ms 97. 10 1. 195. 197
tunnell ing 186
Erupt ion 95. 106
Esca rpme nt 98. 100. ISO. 178
E.s ke rs 103
Esl uar ine deposits 175
Eva po ra ti on 14. 55.63.105, 13 1- 133. 142
Excavation, backfill ing 189, 198
d rainage 143
e xplo rat ory 163, 168
foundation 83.84. 125. 176
gr oundwater in 13 1. 143
rock 36. 47. 170
slo pes 84. 86
soil 143
sta bilit y 34. 85- 86. 143. 163. 176, 177
st ress redist ri bution 28.44
underground 34, 48,85,87. 176
see Cut; Slopes; Unde rground powe r sta ti ons
Exfolia tion 93
Expa ns ion 17 1
Clay in Index o f Rocks. Mine ral s a nd
Soils; st'(' Soil ill Ge nera l Index
Expl orat ion aCli vi ties 197
21
I ldlill t . 111, 17, PI, '2, ' 7, 'H
I 111 11\\11, I lit)
I IU IIII 1(1\1'1 ItlH
J 111111 11 1(1(' :\ 7, :\X, H I, X4, M(" 95. I Oil. 1.16, I h i ,
1/1 )
I 92, 142
I 2,26. 2M. 110, 12(1
II cllVC 12
1I 11l1 1\\c\ ,II \ lrC" 114
Iidd 1\It; alltlnlX
ItlmCIII CIU 100, 167
'1 hc,u 17
'1ij.\ lIllil'IIIH';C 10 engineering geology 3 I. 100.
1/12. Jfl 5
,1\ \ lllIct \11:1 1 COll t !'II I 33.36. 93. 94. 98. 100.
1' 7, 160
Ilu ll\ l ' 1. 32, 100
\1l'l\ tIl Cllll g 5X. 72
\\l l' lll'h 11. 100
1111. l ll l ' (l, t06. 156. IX9
IOUlIll l llHlm Oil 170. In
Bcnd 125, ISS
2.1, xx. 95. 126. 134. 135. 139. 145.
J 10, IXH
I 1(1111\ Y 1. 102. 103
I hlt'cullllll \ tr llctill e 115. 116
HOl'ClI lll li(l1l 11(1. 193
Hllod, IHl ICllIi:11 IX4. IX7
1 1\I\ld conti ni 1'J6
1 101ld dcpo\ il\ WI
I l(hld pllllll nlluvia 125. 129
1' lllOdplulIl \ 152
Il on\l \, II I,,1I 133. 19.1. 195
How, 11 2
I \Il' k 1}6
II(lw IIII C\ 1.:t4. 139. 140
How nct 119. 140. 143
IItI C\ 126
Il ow stu'lncco: I I. 27. 2X. 40. 96, 97
d cpo\its 103
I lu\I\IIlICII \ui ne depo\ its 125
1} 2, 172
2. 1M. 4to:. 93, 9!:i. 157
17 1. 172. 177. 178
I Ll IIll II OII 2. 16 IX, 27. 40. 93, 99. 124. 167
I llll Illlll I<I() . 172. 173
IYIIC\ 17 1
hIl C( IIII1C\ 9J. 105
h ll l' lhlling 177
h Md, 2.27
h llllldHIIOI1\ 3X. 157
dcwlI tcl iug 143
(' ullhqllil ke (Iamagc 200
l' ,I({' II Vll l iofl X4
Inducc 172
filelO!\ 4X, XJ. 172, In
WIUllH!\\'ILICI 141
III lilllll Cd lock 111 11 \'1 119. 50. 16S
22
IIiUI I I I
11111 1\' 11111 1,I,X I, I 'IH. f6/l, 171 171. IHII,lO{)
171
tuft 17 1, 172,
1111 'l' lI tllHl1 171)
' PI CHt! 171
\ III P 11101l1 l1g 17 1, IXI
"I \l CIIlI C int cra ct ion 200
type 'elec!1tl1l 171. 20()
Oil 10(1. 171. 173.
fMC)
vihrat ions
Gap
12S
200
13. 24.40.55.59.64.72.79. MO.
I-' !'aclu re 33. 61} . 76. 79, SJ. 120. 1.l5. 145, 164
angle 41
area intensi ty index 36
equal area 42. 2 11
miner;tl 202. 204, 205
p,lI tern 40.43,48, 7(), 2 11
spacing. index 33. 34 36.45 4S. 57. 62. 67.
71 73, 157. 177
surface 39
Fract uri ng <;15, 142, 19 1
Freezing. of soil moisture 10.1
Friction. angle 50
tests 169
Frigid climatic zone 53,55,63
Frost acti on 55
in rock 54
in soil 93, IOJ
Gamma ray logging 163
Geochemical explorat ion 198
Geologi c,, 1 column 20 I
Geological facto rs 83. 104. 127. 145. 164. 165
Gcological fcatures 151. 155. 164. 165. 167
Geological ha7ards. predi ction 193 195. 199
Gcologic;tl investigations s('e ill vest iglllioll \
fo r specific purposes
Geological mapping 149. 155, 168. 169, 187
Geologica l repo rt 164
Geological sectio n 147. 164.167
Geologica l Societ y Wo rking Part y Engi nee ri ng
Group 11.14. 108, 157
Geological time scale 201
Geomecha nics 19
Geomor phic. feat ures 149 151. 154. IX7
Geomorphic processes 92. 93
Geomorphic provinces 127
Geomorphologica l. principles 92. lOX. 12x
Geomor pho logy 2. 92. 126. 127. 130. 142. 15 1,
154, 184
Geophy\ical inve\tigalioll \ 83. 142, 149, 156.
161 163. 165. 195. 19M
George.; j{ iver 1 X9
Geotec hnical 120. 155, IX7
Gibber 102
Glacial alea' 55
Cilaci ltl (i epo.;i" 101, 125, 175
{ihll' lUl 171
(.1adnll l1l1lIIIl1l1h 9,1, 102, 10 1
{dli CICI\ 102, IOJ
M Oilll!lti1l\ lJ5
(hll' gc IX(,
(;",rOlli M. 7X SO
(iol1lbll rl) 66
(ilabe\l \ 100
( iladalinn 122. 125, 154
( irad icnt 100. 101, 105. 107
Grading. curvcs 113, 11 4. 123. 164
(icand Canyon 97
54. 69. 114.1 24
Cir: lvi ty 127.131. 134
(ire,1I Glen Fa ult 100
Gre,1I Rift Va ll ey 100
Gl'Ound 19 1
ha rd 176. 177
movemcnts ! 88
\01', 176, 177
(iround accele ra tions 200
Ground morai ne 103
Ground water. accumulation 32. 131
Iwdy 131 - 132, 134. 146.147.190
chemical composition 140- 14 1, 143
circul,ll ion 31 . 36
conc or depletion 136, 143. 146
co nta mi nat ion 191.193
development [42. 143
di sc harge 142. 146
effect on concrete 140
atcngi nccri ng sites 2.48.131. 143.163. 176-
178, 189
e." ploi ta tion 134
!l ow 132. 134,136- 139
control 144. 145
di rection 136. 139
in foundations 143
head LN. 147
hydrology 176
inflow 49, 131. 143, 146. 177
investigations for 142. 158
level 135
monit o ring 143. 169
o bse rvation well s 136. 137
occurrence 102
po ll ution 141. 142. 184. 187. 189
q ua li ty 140, 14 1. 144. 156
recha rge 142, 146, 187
regi me 147. 197
resources 2. 102.131,137,142. 143. 189
rUll off 13 1
\Cc pagc 195
inlUnnel s 49.131. 143. 145- 146. 177
in wells 134. 136
withdrawal 191
GrOlIt curta in 168, 169
Gro ul holes 145
X7, 145
pcnCI ru t ion 145
(1I (IUIIlI " . IIIII I' lIl lln 1,1,1
danl\ XI, X,I, f m, 171
hi gh prc\O: \lI c 1'14, t' I'
lo w 145
preparati o n 145
tunnch tn, 145. 178
Grout ing cqui pment 17{)
(jrouIS. ccment 84, 144. 17{)
chemical 170.177
day 144. 171
non-part iculat e 144
orga nic polymer 145
particula(e 144
sil icate 145. 171
Gunnamalla 82
Haas powe r stat ion 86
Hamada 102
Harbours. backfill 181
design 105. 180
dredging 179. 180
Portland 179,180
sa nd move ment 180
Harcourt Gra nodiorite 74, 75.99
Ha rd ness 4.202
Haunted Hill gravel 147
Hawkesbury Sandstone 24. 35.45.64.74- 80.
176
Heading and benc h me thod 177
Hi ghways. const ruction material 154. 173
$t'(' Pavement ; Roads
Hills 128.152- 154.1 86
Hills(opes 106
Hingston Down Granitc 75
Hoc k shea r box 164
Hong Kong 56
Hooke's law 20
Horsts 100
Humid climat e 53, 55. 63.64.66,92,93
Hydration 52.54, 112
Hydraulic conducti vity 136, !43
Hyd raulic gradient 135. 136. 140
Hydraulic preSsure 43
Hydroel ectric. development 85-86. 100, 176,
195, 196
Hydrogeological. investigati ons 130,156. 157.
158, 187,190
Hydrogeology 2. [31. 184
Hydrological cycle 13 1- 132
Hydrological factors 127. 187
Hydrological st udies [42
Hydrology 2
Hydrolysis 52.54
Hydrostati c pressure 87, 134, 147
Hydrot hermal , altcrmion 26,30
Icc action It , 92. 102. t 10. 182
Icc Age 93. 103
debl' i\ 55. 103
Ill awa rra 62. XK
I I
(1/1, /I I , 1M
1111 111 11111 11 11 I n , I I I. 11), 111 1, I II/I, 111/ , IHI
1III IIIt IIHIII'III II ) 0, n, 2' , II I, II I), 11 \
1)7
IlIt t' l tl ul ll lt tl \ ltI 11 7
Illtl ll _lntl \ 1, I H(I
Cll llt:!C! ' n , 93, 99
loti t' lIl'1UIlI/oiC i) , II 1, 191
11' 1 htU ltl H I 'i H
10 111 \ tthC 4 ()
11, 32,38, 95, 97, 169
2, 4, 17, I H, 28. 33. 38. 57. 98. 105.158
\ 10. 40
III 30, J I . 34. 36. 82, 86,124, 169
11 1\'1,; 1111 II1I.:U I 3 1. 47. 88. 169. [73,
1711, 177
pu lU' l ll 30, 94, 178
Itl I (ll' k 39 41. 48 5 [. 69. 73, 82- 84,
HH, 1)1, 1M. 168
IIl ' t 01 I I , 34, [69, [78
26,30. 40
hI 126
lI' dUlll t' 1(), 40, 43. 7 1
lnl X6
20 r
i)H, 142
K lU llill I II
Kl t' WIl hydl oclcctri c projcct 146
Kll'wn Ri vcr l H. 24, 3 1. 56. 58, 62. 73, 83.101
!\ lI ll' ll l(lIl C 1II IfII y,i, 42
K 1I1i" 'i Wil l" f. Suva 180
103
I 105
I II lUll I rl
1)6, 100, 102. 131.132. [54, [98
1lllllcl[ nc 9. 18
I tl l1lll1l1 l ioll 40
I fi lid 187
I !lIlll f1 11 [9()
2, 55.56. 109, 151,198
II I UII {I //) fl CS 101. 102
92. 93. 104
",Inein t 93. 102
0 11 ,cdilllcnt ll ry rocks 97
01 tt: lllpt: ntte cli matic w ne 100
105. 106. 155. 171. 173, 184, 187
VUlclltllC 95
106, lOlL 193
t1l11 pping 107 109
pl edl Cliot1 194, 195
Jil hlpe fa ilure lin. [HS
HI vllil cys 10 1
I il tr obc ('0111 Sellin 147. 172
I il tl nile Vllllcy opcn-cu! mines 198
I II t! kc 7, 11 , 11 2, II !'!
I tL VII II, 111, 27,Y2, 95, 106. 154
I II Vll 11 \)ws 1)7
I 111m 1" 11 11'1111 )1; I) t t}(j
Id , M , 110, [I}II, 191, 19x
I lI ydll lt'
I I I ' j ' 11I111IcI
Ilqlld uctt(1tI 17:'\
liqUId li mi t 12 1. 123
l iqUidit y tII dex 12 1
I ithol ogicallayering 27
Li thology 24.62.99. 128. 149. 155
Li verpool brick pi ts 197
Loads. types 172. 173
Loam 127 130
Logging. core 70.72. 157
gamma ray 163
resistivity 16 [. 163
Logs. engineering-geological 157, 159
Longshore drift 105, 180
Lorne 107, 108
Lugeon, lest 43. 135
Lust re 202,204, 205- 207
M scries barrels 157
Machine hall 85, 86
Magma 10,33.61.95
Magnet ic compass [60
Mal leability 204
Maps. contour 172
earthqua ke hazards 194
engineering-geological 3. 155. 156,160. 164.195
fracture spacing intensity 35
geological 2.1 42. 15 1.155. 164. 187
geomorphic 3.107.108. 187
geotechnical 3. 164
hydrogeological 142. 187
la rgc sca le 155
morphological 108
rock: soil rat io 72- 73
slope category 107. 108
small scale 155
types 108. 109
Marine erosion 105
Masonry walls 88
Material sources - .\'ee Const ruction materials
Melbourne area 152- I 54
Menai waste disposal a rea 189
Mcsas 102, 154
Mesozoic 56. 102.201
Metamorphism, contact 82. 99
dynamic 16
thermal 16.33
Microfracturc. index 73, 76
Mi cropetrographic index 73
Mineral composit ion 9, 10. 11. 60. 63. 66. II I
Mineral resources 149
Mincralogy 1. 184
Mincrals I, 2, 10, 14
alteralion 74
cation cxchange 9.6 [, I [ I
indcntification 203, 204
properti es 4,202, 204,205
II
luck - I n rllll ll ij 1. 11 6. 9, 60, (d , 6) , 11 3
loee(ll1dnry ;\ 0, 65, 73, 76, g I , 82
tex ture 2
toxic t98
Mine' 14, 147, 196. 197
,\ '('(J Open-cuI coal mi nes
Mining, environmcnta l impact 184. 195- 199
Miocene 201
Milia Milia Ri ver 169
Modulusofe lasticit y 20.21,23.24.77.78. 164
Mohs' Scalc of Ha rdness 202
Moisture content 13. 161
field 22
roek 20 22. 77. 163
saturation 22.79
soil 1[ 7. 120. 121. 124. 127. 132
MOll oclinal foldi ng 172.177
M Ol1 oclinic symmet ry 11 8
Mo nt Pc1ee 95
Moonbi 53
Moraines. types 103
Morphoge ni c regions 93
Motorways 175.195
Mountains 93, 102
Mt Bea uty 100, 125
Mt Ji m Basa lts 96
Mudnows 14,10 1, 106
M udgee 79. 80
Murray Ri ve r 169,1 96
MyaU Lakes sand mi ning area 198
Narrabeen Group Claystone 75
Sa ndstone 74, 75, 138, 139
Natural haza rds. areas of 184
New Britain 95
New Zealand 95
Nile Ri ver 101
Nuclear power stati ons 199
Oligocene 20 I
Olinda 119
Open-cut coal mines
ground movements
Ordovician 201
Ore. caveabil ity 50
minera ls 202. 204
14, 147, 196, 197
188. 189
Orthorombic symmet ry 118
Out crop 18, 36, 38. 47, 56, 71, 96, 102, 128.
150. 152. 153. 174. 185. 186
Oulwash deposits 125
Overburden 172, 173, 198
Oxidation 52. 54
Pac ker 43
Palaeont ology 2
Palaeoi'oic 31. 82. 20 1
Pa leocene 20 I
I:'>arlicle size. dislribut ion 54. [ 13. 123. 138.
19 1
" III I CI Ii lJolt ('ul11 Iltl I U,lII I I ' Vl dlm!l OIl 150
lock 101
on Silline soils 173
subgrades 182
surface course 182
Pedi ment 102
Pcr mafrost. founda ti on engineering 103
thawing 103.104
Permeabilit y, coefficient 58. 97. 143, 144. 19 1
prima ry 20- 22.43, 80. 135, 136
rock 138, 139. 170. 171
secondary 31. 37. 43, 80. 135, 136
soil 117. 124.126, 134,137,138
leSIS 135- 137
Permia n 20 1
Pet rography 14, 81
Pet rology 2. 142. 184
Photogra mmet ri c studies
Photographic technique
Physiographic features
Pier 172
bridge 176
151
157. 160, 163
151
sand movement 176. 180
Piezometric surface 134, 136. 137
Pile foundat ions 17 1
Piles, beam support 181
cast in place 171 , 175
holl ow 181
pre-cast 171
sheet 171. 181
Pillar strews 96
Pi pelines 195
Pi per diagram 141
Piping 112, 121, 147, 148, 169
Pla ins 92, 101 - 103. 128. 129
Plast ic limit 121
Plastici ty 6- 8. 112, 121. 122
Plasticit y chart 123
Pl asti cit y index 121,123
Platea u 55. 95, 96. 98
Plate bearing test 164, [7 1, 172
Playas 102
Pleistocene 54,93, 103, 201
Pliocene 20 I
Plunge 208- 210
Pluton 154
Poi nt-load strength, index 49,64, 67- 70, 73.
82. 157
Poisson' s rat io 20, 2 1, 76, 78
Pollut ion 142, 184, 197
groundwater 14 1, 142, 184. 187. 190, 198
site 191
soil contami nation 187
surface waters 187, 190, 19 [, 198
Pore pressure 144, 146
Pores 17,22,57.133- 135, 137, 145
Porosity [3,20- 22.58, 59,124,135,137.161 , [9 1
Porlals 85. 86
Power stations - see Unde rground power
stat ions
25
I'l l I 1111111111111 \ t, 111 t
I'll I Ip1l11111111 \ .. . /1 \, II I, IO! , 1111 , I I, II I
I' ll r 1.1 " ,'
1111 11 1111 11", II11
111 HII I-. /I I
III 'v,' ltl , '1\
1' 11' 11 \ 101
2<1
" \ "lI d, 11t1l 1l 1' 111111 " Ull ll el. ll.. 11 2
I'UIllP IUl l' ..I.. I
l' Ulllputr, t I OIH C\Hl llned 1.16. lJ7. 143
111111' IIlIco lllt "e(1 aqlukr JJ6, JJ7
\\\' 11 pOI III metho(1 14.1, 144
1'lItll plll g well 1.17
I)Wlll h hlU,: kllllin t; 11.{9
,' lIlulllllne nlal problem .. 11.{4
I K I
()IUlII' r rIl Il Y .1.1. 55.56.201
ItIJ
Itlltll\lUl' ll ve 1lllIt erial "
I(llIlwlIV cnt blllll-.mc llh
12X
\(,'\111\ 111111 54
192, 19.1
175
1(1," ,' 1 \)I) , 10K. 150. 152. 154
!t1' llI111l' \C" \ lIl g Itl X. 150. 15 1, 197
Ih 'wl\ nil \ 17 1, IK5
knlo.agc I"
Ih "Hlllal .. ll e, ..e, 3 1. 47
1(,\, .. . .. 11 \11), lIl ea"Ulelll ent .. 161, 163
!t1 tUl ll lUg wall.. HH
I{Ld",l'" 97 99, 102. 154. 186
i{lIlple 29
\(III IIL p 17K, IHI
\ Itl clll hun klll ent .. 182
,pUll II )' K9. I K2
l{I V,' 1 hank .. 176
/l eu K4, 17 1. 176. 1')7
de pll \i l" 15(1
I(l ve l Il ill" 127
I(I Ve l 1I1 0lli h 100. 10 1
92, 101 , 1.11
dlVel\l()lI 175
1,lUd 105
C( Hlll'o l 169. 196
ltolld, 92. 171 174, 11.{5, 189 198
1' 011 I alhOI lI y- l'a,,, 175
nltluhHlCe\ 102. 103
\(lIlht: .. ler 192
I{urk 2. 157,206
liNt: 2, 1M, Ix5
11111"111I11"y 5, II , 16. 17.20,23,24.2628,
<IX, I 1X
hll111e 2(),5 1
lClll ell tall OIl 4S
i) , 12. 14. 15, 17.2224,4749,
/JK70
..ll c uglh 20.74
\ tllllllllti1 Y IN, 2121(, 4K. 169
tl\'I' I) 10 1, 1611, 17x
22()
j,I, IO, I},II J, {lX, /I , /I , I.t/l, I "
ti l'l I .. ,'. ' " I
.' 0, .1X, 'K, /lX, l OX
2, ,I, IK. 2\ 26, 21(,12, '-'
2() , 22, HI, XI) , 1)1), 1M, 167. IXI
1111 111 111\1 .. (I I 20 2.1, 41<. 67, 74.
7(1 7X, XI). 110. 1,14, 1M. 161) , 17X
j)luj)c tti e\ 2, 4, 26. 45. 6x 70.
149
clOdibilit y 171)
cxea vat abllit y j(9
fabric 17 19, 52.57 60. 63,67 6K 74. 76.
!:!3. 137, 142.2 11
fail ure 20, 3!:!
field inspection 66. 73
nexural stre ngt h 20
now st ructures II. 27. 2K 40
fraclures 26. 28, 30, 3 L 33 36. 39 411.. 57.
62.
homogencit y 22. 26. 27. 32,40,41':.53,62,
'9.1 25. 169
intact 20,22. 23. 43. 45. 49. 135
isotropIc. (sot ropy 18,23.26. 16')
jointing .11. 32, 38. 95, 97
mass 2. 4. 17, IS. 20. 23. 26, 34. 47. 48. 62,
63.67 69.71. 74. 76- 77. 79 SJ. 86. 87. 93.
1 I L 126, 135, 16 1. 164.211
mater ial 2,4,9. 17 20.22.26.37.38, 60.
67- 69. 74. 76- 77. 79 83. 86. 134. 135. 164.
181. 21 1
moisture content 20, 74. 77, 79
permeabilit y 20, 43, 53. 58. 74, 80. 134,
136 139. 164. 170. 171
porosit y 20. 45. 67. 68. 74. 77 78. 80. 82.
138. 139
resist ivity 161
saturated 134
sla king 8 1
stre ngth 20. 23. 47. 67 70. 74, 76. 1': 4, 1':9,
102.144. [57. 164. 167, 169. 178. 18 1
text ure 139. 142
uni t weight 20. 22
weathe rabili ty 1': 1,1':7
Rock bolts !:lK 178
Rock fall s 88
Rock fragme nt s 113. I 14. 128, 129
Rock ma ss quality 48, 5 1
Rock qualit y designat ion 45 48, 67 69, 72,
73. 157. 176
Rock: soil ra t io 67. 6K 72, 73
Rock structure raling 48
Rocky Valley 56, 72, 7], !:l9. 90. JO 1
Rollers 69
Roof bolts 86, 178
Roof s1abi lit y problem\ !:l6,87. 17!:!, 179
Route ali gnme nt 130
RUlll J ungle 192
Runway 89
sur e yie ld 143
S: ti ely la etnr 16X, 1'.111
,
'Uhlllt \ Ifill . 11 \, 11/11
'nil 10\
SII II ' 1.1, H\ 127
47
Sl ll ll plc, I! '!' SUl l "alll ple,
SlI lIlplttl g tu be
S. 11l I' r:ltlcl\\juihl ('an),(\11 167
Sa lId II'f' Index 01 Rue l-. .;;, M inera!" and Soil ..
Sat til a ted now 1.12
Sa t Ul' al ion 22. 1.12
lune IJJ, 14.1
Sl'Olll ningele(: tro n rnkrthtOpy 55. 116
Sdli .. to .. it y 15,27, 167
Schmidl net 2 10
S(:rce
Secoll(I;II'Y (:etllCrHalion 67
Secondary rllineral 65
Sed imenl load 10)
Sedimen l<try processes 6
Sedimenl<lI' Y rocks. det ril al 13, 14
Sedimenl:ltion 115
or rivcr J 9!-i . 199
Sedime nt s 11.13,14.28.99. 177
a CClltllll latiOll 102
cc menting 13
13, 167
13. 14
compaction
detri tal rods
harbour 179
marine 181
marke r mineral 179. 180
rnela- 186
lllo\'Clllenl of 105. 179. 180
.. I I
.. un-volcanic 97
unconsolidated 129. 142, 156, 157. 163
wind-borne 102
yield 187
Sce pa ge 84, 85. 13 I, 148, 169, 178. 195
Seepa ge press ure J 39, 140
See ps 132
Seismic reflect ion 161
re fraction surveys 86. 161 - 163. 168.
169. 197
Seismic veloci ty 45, 161. [63
Seismically active areas 194,200
Setlicment 89. 164
causes 126
peat 175
83
Sewage, po llut ion by 141, 142, 189. 190
t rea t mcnt 184. 189
Shafl. tesl 156. 163, 168. 171
Shear failure 20,88
Shear .') Irength 20,23. 38.88. 112. 113. 124
Shear rod 164. 168
Shear lone 31. 167, [70
Shearing resistance 39.83,1 17,1 46,169
Shec1 ing J O . .17, 40. 54, 83, 84, 86. 87, 93.163.
169, 170
Shiprnck 95
S il ore 104
111
110
S ill II I kl1f\l' 7, K, 7 1
1111111 Jl I
\ecuI1l1a r)' XI
Si ll , 26.12, .17, 40. 41 , S7
Sil t If'(' l illie.\( II I Rock,. Mlli ent l .. ,Lnti
Sil urian 152.20 t
Sinai 94
Sink holes 99, 107
Si t e. illlest igal ions 61.10.86,90. '.12, 14'.1 ,
154. 156. 160. 163, 168. 17 1 l B. 19M
laboratory testing 163. 164
reporting [64, 165
Si7e distri bution curve 11.1
Slake durability index 22.81
Slaking J 17, 11 8
38, 4 1,49
block 10 1
rock gl-l
Sliding. failure 34,84,87.104, 126.176
Slip 174
Slope grad ient 107. 108. 127
Slopes 92, 101. 107. 128. [5 [
charact eri stics 149- 153
const rucled 17 J
const ruc t ion on 187
drainage 146, 147
movement 119. 173. 174, 195
rock 48.50, 87.96, 97
seepage 131. 195
soil sequence 127.1 28.130,1 86
stabi li ty 34, 38, 84, 87 89. 93. 101. 110.
118 120.130.143.146.165. 166. 173. 197
unstable 118,119,171.187.195
Slumping 126. 189
Soi l 9.81. 110. 127. 149. 151. 163. 178
<I(:livil y 12 1
aggregates I! 6
alluvia l 124, 127. 186
analys is 118
anisotropy 113, 115, 120. 124. 126
binder 116
calena 127, 130
cohesion less 115, [ 16
cohesive 115, 116, 144
colluvial 127, 128, 186
composite 115
composi tion 123,124.127. 182
compressibili lY 12 1 124. 189
consiste ncy 120, 123
construction malerial 89. I lL 181
conti nuity 124, 126
densi ty 117, 164
develo pment 63.69,73.87, 110. 112, 121.
124. 126.127. 185
dis(:ontinui( ies 126
di spersion 164, 187
cffe(:tive si7 e J 14. 123
(.; Iu via li o ll ! 10
227
1' 1l )l 11l 1't' l l lIl' 110, 1 ' 1, 1'/1.
I,I!I, nt'
1/1, I 10, IHII
/1(\ , lO(l, I 12, 171
l ullll i. 111 , 11 1. 11 11 II H, 120 121. 12 1.124,
I }(I, 117. Itt2
l Ul l' j.l Hull rt l Ifl 2, 120, 121. 12.1. 112. 14H
10 1'lId a 11l1l1 I I I.
Wl1 d. lI lt 111. 114. 12J
I In, 124. 125. 127. Ix2
IIhl \ llI t !(lIl 110
124, 126
lutcrtl IC 63. I II
111 . 11 2. 120, 124.1 26.164
IlIl! tcrin l 111 . 115. 124. 134. 164
Hllnend 11 3. 114. 118
(\! KI IIIIC 110. I II. 122
Iwrt11 cll bili ty 117. 124. 126. 134, 136. 137.
164. l IN. 19 1
[l1 11( 1f( ( 11 9. 120. 126
11 2, 121.1 22
Illltl ( Iy H"ll de(1 114
plHe\ 120
124. 145
ri.! tl' tt ve 106
rr'l ldll ll l 90. J!O 112. J 14. 115. 117.
12 1, 1211 126, 182
171
..nlt \ H5
..It WHit ed 117. 134. 143
.. hCIII \ trengt h 113. 117. 124. 148
\ kclcton s rnim 118. 120
.. hIking 117, 11 8
.. olod ic 110:6
\ tnhili/ll lioll 9. 11 2. 144. 164
.. trcl1 gt h 164
.. t,.c .... 11 5. 118, 120. 124. 126.146
WUCllI rc 115 11 8,12 1,1 24
.. wcJl ili g 11 2. 116, 189
!CX lI lI" e 1"19. I I 1,1 13 115. 121.123.124.154,
1M2
1 hixot ro pic 12 1
11'H 11 ' 1)() rt ccl 110. 11 1.11 2. 115. 121.124,
125. 121>. 127. IR I. 182
l I lli/oli n I IJ . 11 4, 148
102. 106
v(J lch, nllio 110, 11 5, 11 6. 118 120, 124
wc ll gradcd 114, 11 7
Soil 110. 113. 115. 121 -
m
Sod cleep JO 1
SOI l hOl'l /on" 110
SOI l nl echnnic, 194
I I 1, 117. 120. 12 1, 124. 127.132
SOil pll n icfe, 110, 111 . 11 3. 11 5, 123 125.132
.. uhmelgcd weight 148
So li Ill o fi lc 11 0. II I. 127 129. 151. 154.199
Sill 1 163. 164. IIl 2
" Vtltrut Hc 123, 126
Illde,\( 121, 1M
Ii ll'l.' hllllIC! d I I I 113, l i N, 124, 126
"1, 11 111 '11 11111, I 'H, 1M2
II' l rltl ll l l h'd I \ 7
h\' (1 117
"iLul Utllllll ll lit y ctlcllt eiell l 11 4, 12 1
C!l VlitC' 17, 4.1. ti4. tiS. ti7.W. 171
CIt ,lllllet, ti2
PIOCt" y, 14.52,510(, 5t) , 63, 69. 7X. 82. 127
SOllie vel oci ty 45
Sor pti o n 20,21. 190
South A(riC:LI1 Gcotllecha l1 ic, Cla" ifieat iol1 -IHo
51
Specific gr:l vity 202.203
Spill way 170
Spion KOI)j e Cree k 94. 10 1
Springs 107.132. 142. 156
Sta bilit y sequence 6 1
Stabili zat ion, chemica l 11 2
soil 9. 144
Step and tread to pogra phy 96.98
Stereographi c nel 42. 208
Stcreogrl1phi c proj ectio n 208. 209
Sti ff diagra m 141
Stony. dese rt 108. 126, 128
Sto rage. Full Storage Level 97. 147
loss of wa ter 84- 1"15 . 97.99, 140. 147. 184
si ltati o n 197
surface 189
Storati vity 137. 143
St ra in 13. 2 1
creep 22
elastic 21. 22
St rata II
Strat ificat ion [63
Stratigra phic group 15 I. 154
Stratigraphy 2. 142. 184
Streak 202. 204.205
Strea m, bed 56. 102, 107. 108. JJ2. 195
channel 108. 153. 176
efnuent 132
n ow. regime 133. 199
graded 101
influent 132, 142
lateral 97
pattern 94
po lluti on 189
thal weg 100- 101
.5ee Rivers
Strea m d is placement 100
Stress- stra in. relationship 9. 2 1, 120
St resses. confi ning 20.21
deforming 19
rel ease 29. 169
residual 3 1. 42. 47
in rock mass 17. 23.28. 32. 33.36.42. 48.5 1.
88.178
shear 20. 146
in engincering 106
tect onic 30
20
Str ike 18, 50. 119
in kineOilitic 1L 1l!ll y<: i .. 20X, 2(1C) , 2 10, 21 I
III 111 \(' 110, II?
"\1111! IYH, II}I)
Sit (I t.; ltll ul delect' X7. 171. 117
Sit (I t.; 1l1i :.1 dmgll ll 1l\ J 64
Sl ruCllliul gcology 2. 142. 174.
St ructw al Wli ler I I I. 11 2
Si rueturc. geologica l 2. 92. 149. 154,1 55. ISH.
160. 16 1. 1M. 176
S Llhgl llcl e IK2
SlI lNllcll ce 195
culdent 95
due to Iluid removal 188
mill ing o perat ions 106. 18K. 196. [98
S ub, oil 121"1. 129
Sli lN II'fa ce investigat io ns 149. [55. 156. 18 1
Siunp 143
SlIpcrfi ci.rI depos it s 175, 177. 185
Sli rcharge 175.18 1
Sill f:lce geo logical survcy 168. 176. ! 78. 197
Sw' lrnp, fOllndatio n problems 173
Swelling s hr inking 7- 9, 112. 116
Syd ney Ai rport g9
Syd ney Basill 35.45.71. 74. 77. 81 , 164
Synclina l fold 17l . 178
Syncl ine 29. 98
I acho lllctry 155
I 192. 198
I al \! ), 171
J a, m;tnia 33. 163
I (lw() nga 16.32
I awo nga Thrusl 100
I ceto nic act ivit y 32. 92
I cnaeity 204
1 River 84
l ell silc sl rengt h of rocks 20, 23.48,74, 76. 77
I cra cks 195
"I cll sio n fiss ures 126
r erraces 125- 127, 129
I ernl cctl es 106
Terrain 55. 57,93.94,97. 100. 162
cl: lssifi ca!i o n 150- 154
component 150- 151. 154
evaluat ion 108. 130, 149,154,155.1 73
pa tl ern 150- 152. [54
province 150, 15 1. 154
slope 119- 120
u nit 150- 152.154
Tertia ry 33. 56. 96. 177.20 1
Test pi ts 149
l eslS. fiel d 47.1 49.1 65. 171
inter pretal ion of results 164. 171. 182
la boratory 47. 149, 163- 165. 168. 169. 18 1
reduction index 164
ill ,\' ;111 163. 168. 169. [78
I ext llre 2. 10
Textu red relief 99
T halweg 100, 10 1
I"hi n 'iection 21 I
T ida l influence 134
"I icl il l 176
I ltl t' It'\l1111
1111 II lt' H' I'I II)'
I IIIIC dCPl' IHll' l1 t l'r Cl' P
1 n!lll ijlltplll C 15<1
I npngrllphl e 94
I opographie linea lllen" 100
"I opogra phy 56. 9X. 99. 109, 142. I S I. 1'2,
163. 185. 186
Topsoil 19K. 199
Tors 93
Town planning 109
T ra ns missivity 137. 143
T ra nspiration IJI 133
T ra nsportation sed ime nt s 100 102. 11 5. 171)
Trenches. test 72. 156. 163. 168. 169
Trend 208- 2 10
Triassic 168. 176.201
Triaxial test 20
Triclinic symmetry 119
Tsuna mis 193
Tunnel lining 86.87,146,176.177
Tunnels, caviti es in 87
classifi cati o n 176
claycy secti ons 87
cooling wa ter 177
design 86, 87
d iversion 146
excavatio n methods 177. 178
exploratory 156. 163. 168, 17 1
fa ult s 86
geological facto rs 176
groundwater infl ow 49. 146
gro ut ing 86.87. 145
head race 146
investiga tio ns 163. 176. 177
Lia pootah 87
portal s 86. 176
pressure 45.85- 87, 146, 177
Queen's - Midtown 177
Reisach 87
in rock 47. 49.50.86
rock load 48
sa nd 177
secti ons 177
supports 48, 86. 87. 146. 177. 178
tail race 86. 163
Weinberg 87
Yallourn 145, 177
Ult ima te st rengt h 2 1.24,78
Ult r'dso nic velocity 77
Unconfined compressive strength 20. 124
Unco nformi ties 33.38. 40
Underground excavat ions 34. 48. 85 !H, 176
Underground mining 48. 197. 198
Underground po wer stllt ions 33. g6. 87. 177
179
excava ti on s!a bilit y 33. 86, 87. 177 179
Il aa s 86
172. 173
fll!' M6, 163. 17H
229
1II1 HI!
,,,uIIU, .. ' hull H\ H(I, t lH
fo. h 1\ 11' HII , HI. 1(,) , I(d
1' 0 1l1llUI 11H, 179
HIIII III H1
Hnull/l 2 " 1""011 I?H
I lu IH .. H6
\I hl ll llllll ' 171
IIII UI\ IIII 2.1, 24, 41\, 49,
701 /(1, I I 7
111I1I1\' d CliL"lIi cll!iOIl 'y,l CIlI 121. 122
1111111 11111 , (1 11 11;\, 14H
II,ultllllll lycocflicicnl 12)
111111 IH' IHil l 20. 124
111111 1'11 Slille, II mea .. 01 1' II1>Ii c Road, 123
iand/ol'lu\ 105. ISS. 171. 173. IS4.
I' 7
1)1) , 101.102. 127
11111111 JOO
wlLl cr 133, 134
Vu ll l' \' 92. Y7. !flO, 169. Ik6. 1')6
1I1I1I\' tl 171. 175
175
102
1I \t' 1 It)t)
WI
L11 \l:t lllIlCUt :Il Y 97
I lI h , lI u I y I () I. 102, 175
II 102
Vull l'), l' l
Vull l'Y 111101' lUI , 102. 171
Vl liky ItIt'llIali on 101
Vull l'Y!\ladlent 101
V:lll t' y 101 , 171
5.1. 93. 105. IJI 133.149- 154.1 86.
II) K
26, 4(J. M
VlhllllHlIl 117, 17;\
17.2 1,22,5:-:.1 10. 115.1 16.1 19,
I n, 124, 126, 13H
VokJluic acti vit y 92, 106. 193
Voitrllilc el' upl 193. 195
V,I k' UIIIC InlllHorm\ 95
Vl l k ullIIC\ 95. 106
Wull ' l()d, 31. 32
Wull " Clllt:\l1I 18 t
Y HH
hOllll g 15H,ln3
WU' le 11\ 4. 19H
19 1. 192
III CIIIH,: n.,: tc 193
19U, 19 1
19H
WlihaMc 190
ltU'CtI U' 11) 1
1111111, 111111 IX7, 19 1, 1l)7
Ilqlll d I HI), 19 1
WIII I' lll 191 , 11)1
IHI) , 19 1, 19J
1()
I Udltl l llll \l' I Ii() , II"
1\' li l lnl PI ,!, jI)1
JI))
\j llll ll ll \ 111 1111 111 1 11)0 192
\(' \\1111-1(' 19()
, ,,lttl I :-: 9, I I) I
'wlH (l ck' 11}1
II CHllnCll l IXt), 190
ullllcl/,\ltlLlIltI ,ltlragc 191,1
1
) ,1
W, lI er, atNlrhcd 132
aCl iol\ IIf 11,91, IOU. 102. 11 0, 131, IX2
c,q)ill:tr 133
ca pilla ry forces ]]2
catchment 13 1 133.147
den'ii ty 135. 139
gravitat ional r 33
intake area 141. 142. 187
intc rnow 1.12. 133. 147
percolat ion 134, 145
press ure 147
in rocks 131 133. 168
run-off 127.13 1. 132. 142. 187
sali nc
in soil s
112
13 1 1.13
sorpt ion 20
struct ural 111.1 12
subsurface 133
surface 187. 190. 191
in tunnels 146
vadose 133. 134
viscos ity 135
Waler press ure tests 170
Water storage 184; set' Storage
WaleI' supply 169.1 89. 196
Water ta ble 13 1-133. 140
cone of depiction 1J6. 143
in excavations 143. 144
fi UclUations 134. 156. 163
gradie nt 19 1
levcl 143. 146. 190
maps 134. 135
r erchcd 133, 134
in pumping tests 136, 137
regional 133
Wa terfall 62. 97
Waterways 109
Wave cut platform 104. 105
Wave refract ion 105
Wa ves, erosion 104. 105
Weal hercd ruc ks 86. 110. 124. 156, 157, 162.
16/) . 170, 176
cl assi fi cation 66 70.73
Weat hering 6, 11 .23,26,2H 30.33.36 3X.45.
47.105.124 126, 1J9, 164
ehc mical 52. 55.57.60.6 1. 64, 69, H2, H9.
112
cocfficicll t 77
con'[ l'I lct iolllllateria ls HH. IXI
degrec of 114
differential
61, (, 7 HO. H2. 15(1, 157
t< I
1111(' 11 1 mdl' l" n, 111
f\Ull l' ll\ 55. 56, (, 1, I:!,!'!/(, XI) , HIt} , IKI,
I x5
52, 54, 55, HI
pl ofil e 162. 173
rol e ()I 53 55,60,63.64.66, H6, H9,
1)3. 100. I I I
fOl e of hl]wgraphy 55, .. 56. 89. 127
Itlll C of 156. 157
Wcipa 66
Well injection H!9. 193
Well 143
134.1.16.137.1 43
Wc\tcrn Volcanic Plains 95
Whin Si ll 33
Wind 55, 102
Wind action II. 92. 102, 104. 105. 110, 125.
" 2
Wind erosio n 10 1
Wind wavcs 104

"

Wpllwtlhl 'I II
WlllltllltllllLloI II.!, 10, 11
Worn hiLi III ( 'IIIY'I ltllll' 10, 1/1, 11
W(lrLIhcY!1I1 III
WuHf net 20H
Wyangala Datil 57,5X
Xc noli t hs 27
Yackandandah 44
Yallou rn '0' Powcr StlL l l!" 1 KJ , 1.l t
172, 173. 177
Yallourn North open CILI I11Lll t' 1,11
Yalwal Creek 10
Yarra Yarra River IU
Yonki 190
Young's modu l u, 2r
Zoneofsat ll ration I U, ril l
Zonal soil dass ifi catill il 121
2:1 1