THE ORIGINS OF

METALLURGY
IN
ATLANTIC EUROPE
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE FIFTH ATLANTIC COLLOQUIUM
DUBLIN
30th March to 4th April 1978
Edited by
MICHAEL RYAN
DUBLI:'\.
PUBLISHED BY THE STATIONERY OFFICE.
To be purchased through any Bookseller, or directly from the
GOVER!\'I\IE1\T PUBLICATI01\S SALE OFFICE, GP.O. ARCADE, DUBLIN, 1.
1950
ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Chairman
Dr. Joseph Raftery
National Museum of Ireland
Secretary
Michael Ryan
National Museum of Ireland
Professor Ruaidhri De Valera, University College, Dublin
Professor Michael Duignan, University College, Galway
Laurence Flanagan, Ulster Museum, Belfast
Dr. Peter Harbison, Bord Failte Eireann
Professor M. J. .O'Kelly, University College, Cork
Dr. Barry Raftery, University College, Dublin
Professor Etienne Rynne, University College, Galway
Editor's Note
The Editor would like to express his gratitude and appreciatIOn to his colleague, Mr. Raghnall 6
Floinn, Irish Antiquities Division, National Museum of Ireland, for his assistance in editing the papers and
for seeing the final lext through to publication.
Summaries of the papers in preliminary form were published by the Committee as a booklet-
programme, Dublin, March 1978.
CONTENTS
Pages
81-96
97-105
Acknowledgements
Organising Committee
M. Almagro-Gorbea
Problems of the Origin of Metallurgy in the Iberian Peninsula (Pre Beaker Metallurgy) 1-6
A. Arribas and Fernando Molina
Nuevas Aportaciones al Inicio de fa Metalurgia en la Peninsula Iberica. EI Poblado de los Castille-
jos de Montefrio (Granada) 7-34
J. Arnal, A. Bocquet, A. Robert et G. Verraes
La Naissance de la Metallurgie dans Ie Sud-Est de la France ~
J. Guilaine et J. Vaquer
Les Debuts de la :'v1etallurgie et les Groupes Culturels de la fin du Neolithique dans Ie Sud de la
France (Languedoc, Causses, Pyrenees) 65-79
J. Briard
Problemes Metallurgiques du Bronze Armoricain: Etain, Plomb et Argent
P. Harbison
Who were Ireland's first Metallurgists?
J. S. Jackson
Metallic Ores in Irish Prehistory: Copper and Tin
M. J. O'Kelly and C. A. Shell
Stone objects and a Bronze axe from Newgrange, Co. Meath
L. N. W. Flanagan
Industrial Resources, Production and Distribution in earlier Bronze Age Ireland
107-125
127-144
145-163
205
215-228
207-214
229-250
P. Holmes
The manufacturing technology of the Irish Bronze Age horns 165-188
B. G. Scott
The introductions of non-ferrous and ferrous metal technologies to Ireland: Motives and
Mechanisms 189-204
G. Eogan
Irish Bronze Age manufacturing centres: Some evidence from moulds (summary only)
C. Burgess
The background of early metalworking in Ireland and Britain
A. Hartmann
Irish and British Gold Types and their West European Counterparts
J. J. Taylor
The Relationship of British Early Bronze Age Goldwork to Atlantic Europe
C. A. Shell
The Early Exploitation of Tin Deposits in South-West England
S. Needham
The Extent of Foreign Influence on Early Bronze Age Axe Development in Southern Britair
E. MacKie
The Origin of Iron-Working in Scotland
.
Resource Distribution and the Function of Copper in Early Neolithic Denmark
E. Tholander
A study of the Technology behind Nickel-alloyed Prehistoric Steel having a Laminated
Structure
251-263
265-293
295-302
303-318
319-334
335-343
B.
The Origins of Metallurgy III South-East and Central Europe and Problems of the Earliest
Copper Mining
J. J. Butler
Rings and Ribs: The Copper Types of the "Ingot Hoards" of the Central European Early Bronze
Age 345-362
W. Groenman-Van Waateringe
Weeds
P. T. Craddock
Deliberate. Alloying in the Atlantic Bronze Age
Members of the Colloquium
363-368
369-385
387-389
THE ORIGINS OF METALLURGY I' SOUTH-EAST AND CENTRAL EUROPE AND
PROBLEMS OF THE EARLIEST COPPER MINING
BY
BORISLAVJOVANOVIC
Hitherto, relations between South-East and
Central Europe during the formative period and
evolution of the earliest copper mining have been
examined from different points of view. These in-
vestigations have often been part of the general
evaluation of cultural processes which took place in
these regions during the Late Neolithic and Early
Eneolithic. There are also numerous interpreta-
tions of the origin of early copper metallurgy, based
on various analyses of the technology of winning
metals and the production of tools.
Much research has focussed on an explanation of
the origins of copper metallurgy by determination
of the chronological priority of the earliest use of
copper and gold. The conclusion has been drawn
that the diffusion of the oldest metallurgical
knowledge began from the Near East, and in par-
ticular Iran and Anatolia. Recent data confirm the
chronological priority of the Near East and
Anatolia, where the processing of metals began at
the beginning of the 7th millennium H.C (Vulpe
1976, 134; Todorova 1973, 27). It is doubtless im-
portant to draw a distinction between individual
usage of copper objects and their mass production.
A major research field in recent years has been
the early exploitation of copper and gold in metal-
liferous areas such as the Near East, South-East
and Central Europe. As a result of recent investiga-
tions an interesting picture emerges; the mining
regions of North-West Iran, Central and West
Anatolia, South Thrace, the Central Balkans and
the Carpathian Basin were not only the richest in
ore deposits, but also witnessed a simultaneous
local evolution of their copper metallurgy.
In all of these regions a gradual evolution of met-
allurgy has been ascertained, often with specific
local variation within a general technological tradi-
tion. Consequent upon definition of metallurgical
centres and territories, imports from production
centres to the peripheral regions have been deter-
mined by comparison of the distribution of
Eneolithic copper and gold objects, e.g. in the Car-
pathians and lower Danube Basin, including South
Ukraine (Cernych 1976, 181).
A partially complete programme of analysis of
Eneolithic copper and gold objects has permitted
geographical comparisons of objects of similar com-
position aunghans et. at. 1960, 61). Whilst several
groups of copper have been determined by
analyses, their direct relation to the ore bodies has
not been precisely established. Once again these
results suggest a local evolution of copper metal-
lurgy, showing stages in the basic techniques of ob-
taining the metal. One can mention also metal-
lographical analyses which indicate the gradual
development of processing of metal, even for areas
without any ore deposits, e.g. the territory of the
Tripolje culture (Cernych 1976, 182).
Today one can have access to better evidence of
ore deposits, exploited in the past, but which are
uneconomic for modern exploitation. It is now clear
that one should take into consideration a number of
less substantial deposits, possibly of major impor-
tance in the initial phase of copper metallurgy, es-
pecially with regard to its local evolution.
In examining the complex questions of the origin
and development of copper metallurgy in South-
East and East Europe, it seems that another pos-
sibility has been neglected. It is an examination of
the role of mining in the evolution of primary cop-
per metallurgy - including mining of other
minerals - during the Neolithic and Eneolithic
335
FIG. 1 - Map showing the general distribution of some of the copper-using cultural groups, South-East Europe.
periods.
A lack of direct data (total until recently) is
enough to explain the relative neglect of this theme.
The importance of copper mining is shown by the
fact that rich sources of raw materials represent a
basic prerequisite for independent evolution of cop-
per metallurgy. In that case the scale of the
technology of the early mining depends to some ex-
tent on the technical and resource base from which
it developed. Mining experience can of course be
diffused or transmitted in the same way as the pos-
sible spread of knowledge of metal smelting and
casting, yet it is hardly mentioned at all in discus-
sions of the diffusion of metallurgy. Similarly the
possibility of the diffusion of mining techniques for
other minerals is generally forgotten.
336
The investigation of early mining and its links
".... ith an explanation of the origins and develop-
ments of primary metallurgy in South-East and
Central Europe reveals hitherto unsuspected pos-
sibilities for a more exact understanding of this new
production advance. By the introduction of mining
into the investigation of the process of winning
metals, the technological sequence - consisting of
extraction of copper ores, smelting and manufac-
ture of copper and gold - is completed.
According to available data, copper mining in
the Eneolithic period has been discovered and in-
vestigated in South-East Europe at two sites: Ai
Bunar in South Bulgaria (Cernych 1976, 183), and
Rudna Glava near Majdanpek in North East
Yugoslavia (Jovanovic 1976a, 106), (fig. 1).
The first site consists of extensive surface mining
of massive copper ore deposits, exposed in clefts
over a length of c. 0,5 km. Ore extraction started as
open-cast, the depth of which is not always known,
but which extended to not less than 20 m. There is
a strong possibility of pit mining, especially where
two branching open casts join at greater depth.
Judging by the ceramic evidence, the main, large-
scale exploitation took place during the Late
Eneolithic culture Karanovo VI - Kodza Dermen
- Cumelni1;a, i.e. 4th millennium B.C. Settlements
of this culture were located in the immediate
vicinity of this mining centre (Cernych 1976, 183).
Among tools found in the zones of exploitation,
bone and antler implements prevail, while stone
tools are limited to a very small number (Cernych
1976, 183). Only one single damaged maul was
found, probably grooved.
On the basis of spectrographic analyses of the
composition of copper tools from east and southeast
areas of the Balkans, mainly Bulgaria, (fig. 1),
there is a theory that this mining centre provided
ore for South and r\orth Bulgaria, and part of
South Ukraine as well (Cernych 1976, 184). So,
there is good evidence for local metallurgical
production; the existence of a large and active min-
ing centre has been confirmed; ores ready for
processing have been found in neighbouring settle-
ments during the period of Karanovo VI; products
of evolved copper and gold metallurgy are attested
by numerous metal finds in this area, e.g. the ex-
traordinary copper and gold objects from the well
known Late Eneolithic necropolis at Varna (Ivanov
1975,2).
A second production zone of copper metallurgy
and mining has now been documented by recent in-
vestigations in the area of the Late Vinca culture
(fig. 1). The principal new discovery is the intensive
exploitation of copper oxide ores at the Rudna
Clava mine near Majdanpek in North-East Serbia.
The excavations have been carried out since 1968
by the ~ u s u m of Mining and Metallurgy at Bor
and the Archaeological Institute of Belgrade (fig.
1).
On the site of a modern open-cast iron mine (pI.
1), old mining works were discovered, following
magnetite and chalcopyrite veins with a rich con-
tent of secondary oxide are, viz. malachite and
azurite. Vertical shafts of this Early Eneolithic
mine of the beginning of the Late Vinca period,
represented therefore just the empty channels of the
veins, and the same was true of the horizontal or
PL. 1- Rudna Glava.;';:W side ofthe open-cast iron mine,
west platform 3 in upper left corner.
slanting galleries, to which the deeper veins had
branched (pI. 2). To date 25 shafts have been in-
vestigated at Rudna Clava; all of them were filled
with an accumulation of material, including
numerous stone tools and sherds characteristic of
the early phase of the Late Vinca group.
PL. 2- Rudna Glava, Early Eneolithic mine. Shaft No.4.
The date of the Rudna Clava mine has been
amply confirmed by three ceramic hoards found in
situ, with well preserved vessels, whose relative-
chronological position is in no doubt (pI. 3). The
hoards date the utilization of the mine to the transi-
tion from the Early to the Late Vinca B-Vinca C
337
7
14
2
8
9
3
4
10
o
15
50
11
5
100MM
16
12
6
13
17
338
FIG. 2 - Hoards of copper tools 1-2, Plocnik.

"fl
I-
-
H
ul
0 50 100MM

H'
ill



If{
IH



rl

,

I

J l-
2
3 4
5
6 7
8
-
o
-
50MM

u
5 6
FIG. 3 - Hoards of copper tools 3-4, Plocnik.
339
PL. 3 - Ceramic hoard 1\0. 2, access platform of Shaft :\0. 6a.
(Jovanovic 1976a, 108; 1976b, 84). This date is con-
firmed by the discovery of an altar with
characteristic deer's head terminals as well as the
closed finds of stone and bone tools and pottery in
the shafts and hoard no. 3.
The Rudna Clava copper mine can generally be
dated to the middle or second half of the 4th millen-
nium B.C., or slightly earlier. In relative
chronological terms Rudna Clava corresponds
generally to the Karanovo V-Marica group in
Bulgaria, the Herpaly-Csoszhalom and Lengyel
groups in the Pannonian plain, the t r ~ t i group
in Romania and the Stroke-Ornamented Pottery
culture of Central Europe (Jovanovic 1976b, 88;
Makkay 1976, 270).
A particularly important category of finds at
Rudna Clava is a series of massive stone hammers
or mauls, with a shallow, medial groove (pI. 4). Be-
340
ing unworked pebbles of volcanic origin, mainly
gabbro, the damage on their working edges or op-
posite sides is clearly recorded. Some of the ham-
mers were damaged to such an extent, that they
had been thrown away in the course of mining work
(pI. 4)
Variations in the size and shape of the hammers
points to some working specialization. There is a
wide distribution of this sort of massive, stone tool
(Jovanovic 1976b, 85; Jackson 1968,96; Wertime
1973, 879). Stretching from Europe to the Near
East and Asia, although local typological dif-
ferences are quite widespread, such tools are
always connected with ancient mining works.
Bone and antler tools, mainly scrapers or picks,
are usually very damaged.
Judging by the number of shafts, their depth and
dimensions there is clear evidence of remarkable
PL 4 - A pebble-maul from Shaft No. 2a.
large-scale exploitation of copper ore at the begin-
ning of the Early Eneolithic period in the Central
Balkans (pIs. 2 and 3).
Analyses of copper ores and copper itself from
Rudna Glava, carried out by the Faculty of Mining
and Metallurgy at Bor, the Department of Metal-
lurgy of the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
and the British Museum Research Laboratory,
showed a high concentration of carbonate minerals,
and a composition of metal similar to copper used
for Eneolithic tools (Ottaway 1976, 111; Tylecote
1977 - in press).
In view of the fact that excavation of the Rudna
Glava mine is not yet concluded, further work will
undoubtedly indicate far greater mining in the Ear-
ly Eneolithic period.
If the Rudna Glava mine yielded such con-
siderable bulk of copper oxide ore, and it is certain
that it was not the only Early Eneolithic mine, one
could pose the question-what happened to this
large amount of metal in the later Vinca group?
There is no clear evidence of the utilization of such
quantity of early copper in this period, and one
may suppose that such mining work was initiated
for the production of copper for exchange or export.
In this connection it is interesting to recall the
hypothesis of an expedition of Anatolian metal-
lurgists or prospectors to the Balkans for discover-
ing metals (Briard 1976, 24; Renfrew 1976, 186), or
the much clearer evidence of the export of copper
from the Danube Basin and the Carpathians to the
Tripolje area (Rindina 1971, 101).
There is considerable recent evidence for ad-
vanced copper metallurgy in the Late Vinca group,
e.g. the data on processing metals from the settle-
ments themselves (Gornja Tuzla, Fafos, Divostin,
Selevac); information on the production of various
ornaments and small tools (Gornja Tuzla,
Gradina-Stapari, Gomolava), (Jovanovic 1976a,
106), and the remarkable concentration of massive
copper implements at a single site - Plocnik -
(Stalio 1973, 158), (figs. 2, 3).
All of these Late Vinca settlements were located
in different parts of the Central Balkans; some of
these finds deserve individual mention, viz. the four
hoards of massive copper tools from Plocnik (South
Serbia), (figs. 2, 3). The bracelet from Gomolava
represents a rare closed find of a solid copper orna-
ment in the Late Vinca group, on the south border
of the Pannonian Plain, similar to the bracelet
represented in the Plocnik hoard-no. 3 (Brukner
1976, 12, pI. VII, 2). The hoards from Plocnik are
doubtless a sign of existence of a rich centre of cop-
per, serving the southern variant of the Late Vinca
group. This variant was otherwise metallurgically
more advanced than other variants of the Late
Vinca group.
The existence of early copper metallurgy further
north, in the Carpathian Basin, is documented by
the production of copper and gold ornaments and
massive tools. In general the metal products of the
Tiszapolgar group resemble those of the Late Vin<':a
group. This culture is found in the north-east cor-
ner of the Pannonian Plain (i.e. the Tisza Basin and
the Slovakian ore mountains), (fig. 1). In the
cemeteries of the Tiszapolgar group, grave gifts of
metal objects are frequent, e.g. Tibava, including
numerous ornaments and massive copper axes of
the Plocnik and 60ka type. There is the evidence of
smelting in the settlements of this group but data
on early copper mining is still lacking (Bognar-
Kutzian 1976, 74). Until now there are indications
of the exploitation of copper ore in the Early Bronze
Age in East Czechoslovakia, Spania Dolina, which
have been confirmed by previous analyses of metal
objects made of arsenical copper (Liptakova 1973)
and have also been located in East Czechoslovakia
as well as the Austrian Alps.
According to this brief survey, developed copper
metallurgy of the Early Eneolithic period was
generally linked with the metalliferous areas of the
Carpathian Basin, which supplied the northern
341
and eastern parts of Central Europe with imported
metal. In the neighbouring areas where sufficient
quantities of copper were procured by trade or ex-
change, e.g. the territory of the Tripolje culture, the
manufacture of copper was made on the same
technological level as mining production zones.
It is understandable that these differences in the
tempo of development of the early copper metal-
lurgy of South-East and Central Europe were
caused by an unequal disposition of ore deposits. In
other words, varying rates of metallurgical develop-
ment in the Early Eneolithic are linked to pos-
sibilities for exploitation of copper ore deposits.
Lack of evidence on copper mines of the Early
Eneolithic in Central Europe has been compen-
sated to a certain degree by well-investigated data
on flint mining. The well-known flint mines, e.g.
Mauer near Vienna, Lengfeld-Sud in Bavaria,
Krzemionki in Poland and Krasnoe Selo in White
Russia, have been dated from the Neolithic Lengyel
group to the Corded Ware culture at the end of the
Late Eneolithic period (Rutkay 1970, 74; Reisch
1974,69; Curina 1976,127). They confirm the ex-
istence of well developed technologies for mining
other materials during the Eneolithic period of
South-East and Central Europe. As there is
evidence of obtaining flint from the Middle and
Late Paleolithic periods (Reisch 1974, 66), it is
justified to talk about a palaeo-European tradition
of early flint mining.
Therefore one must suppose that the develop-
ment of the copper metallurgy of South-East and
Central Europe, depending on local ore deposits,
was based on adequate mining technologies such as
are found at the Rudna Clava mine.
In addition to the use of copper, gold and, above
all, flint during the Neolithic and Early Eneolithic
periods, other minerals were also exploited by
primary mining techniques. An example is the cin-
nabar mine of Suplja Stena, near Belgrade, where
exploitation of red pigment was carried out in the
earlier phase of the Vinl':a group Oovanovic 1976a,
108). Deposits of clay within the settlements
themselves were also used during the Neolithic and
Eneolithic periods of South-East and Central
Europe.
According to present information flint mining
was represented in nearly all regions of Europe, as
is clear from the rich production of flint during the
Neolithic period. The absence of evidence for flint
mines, as is the case at present in South-Eastern
Europe, does not mean the absence of such ex-
342
ploitation, but is a consequence of the state of in-
vestigation.
The exploitation of flint as the most suitable raw
material for making tools began, as one has already
seen, as early as the Middle and Late Palaeolithic.
It is therefore quite justifiable to expect a local
development of flint mining from the early stages of
exploitation. Chronological and technological con-
tinuity of flint mining and its mass production in-
dicates a hitherto unsuspected continental impor-
tance. Therefore it is understandable that, to date,
no views have been expressed on the existence of
separate centres of flint mining in Europe, or out-
side it, whence diffusion of mining experience could
spread.
Recent results of investigation clearly confirm
that the technology used in the flint mines of
Central, Western and Eastern Europe was very ad-
vanced. Besides, it has been shown that most of the
flint mines are dated to the Late Neolithic,
somewhat earlier than Early Eneolithic copper
mining. The exploitation of flint was always
adapted to local conditions, as can be seen from the
following facts: as a rule the richest deposits of flint
were utilized; selection was always made from
levels with high quality flint, while other sorts of
flint found at the same place were ignored; vertical
shafts branched at greater depth into horizontal
galleries; wooden reinforcements and supporting
props were developed to protect miners from falling
rocks; initial rough working of the flint was done in
the immediate vicinity of the shafts, while half-
finished articles were completed elsewhere (Rutkay
1970, 75; Gurina 1976, 83).
All of these elements signify developed mining
techniques and a high degree of experience in the
prospecting and use of flint lodes. As similar work-
ing techniques exist in Early Eneolithic copper
mining, it is difficult to believe that the technology
of obtaining a flint alone should be regarded as an
independent accomplishment of the European
Neolithic and Eneolithic population. Such a view
implies that the copper mining should be regarded
as a result of experience or knowledge brought or
borrowed from the metallurgical centres of the
Near East or the Aegean.
It seems that against such a conclusion on the
diffusion of copper mining technology should be
weighed, inter alia, types of mining implements and
the manner of their use. Bone and antler tools are
practically identical in both flint and copper min-
ing, but some implements - especially massive
mauls with medial grooves - are more numerous
and more varied in the contemporary copper
mines. This is related to the nature of the bedrock-
copper ores being always found in a solid rock
matrix. In examples where flint was dug from soft
layers of chalk, bone and wooden tools were usually
employed, but when flint was associated with
limestone matrices, the work was quite different.
There the technique of fire-splitting to separate
flint concretions was exactly the same as treatment
used for obtaining copper oxide ores in the Early
Eneolithic of South-East and Central Europe.
In this paper some lesser known avenues have
been explored in the complex network of the
earliest European mining and the origins of
primary copper metallurgy. The following can be
regarded merely as preliminary conclusions.
The origins of copper mining can be understood
as a continuation of the mining tradition developed
in Europe from the Palaeolithic period and for that
reason, autochthonous. Copper ores (oxide or sul-
phide) were exploited by the application of the
same mining technology in the Early Eneolithic,
from the time when the processing of copper was
already introduced. The gradual introduction of
the copper was a long process, as is shown by single
finds of metal objects from contexts earlier than the
Early Eneolithic. In South-East Europe, as men-
tioned above, finds of small copper tools have
already been recorded in the Cri and Karanovo III
groups.
For these reasons mining is an inseparable
phenomenon of the earliest copper metallurgy of
South-East and Central Europe. An understanding
of this mining is, at the same time, another positive
contribution to the standpoint of the local evolution
of Early Eneolithic copper metallurgy in this part of
Europe.
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