Introducing phenomenological research

By Linda Finlay Phenomenology is an umbrella term encompassing both a philosophical movement and a range of research approaches. The phenomenological movement was initiated by Husserl (1 !"#1 $%& as a radically new way of doing philosophy. Later theorists' such as Heidegger (1 ($#1 "(&' have recast the phenomenological pro)ect' moving away from a philosophical discipline which focuses on consciousness and essences of phenomena towards elaborating e*istential and hermeneutic (interpretive& dimensions. This paper outlines ways phenomenological philosophy is applied to research covering the following in turn+ Foundational concepts for research ,ariants of phenomenology -athering and analysing phenomenological data .valuating the /uality of phenomenological research

Foundational concepts for research

0pplied to research' phenomenology is the study of phenomena+ their nature and meanings. The focus is on the way things appear to us through e*perience or in our consciousness where the phenomenological researcher aims to provide a rich te*tured description of lived e*perience. The researcher1s pro)ect is' in the infamous words of Husserl (1 !"#1 $%&' to 2return to the things themselves1. The 2things1 here refer to the world of e*perience as lived. 3To return to the things themselves is to return to that world which precedes 4nowledge' of which 4nowledge always spea4s5 (6erleau7 Ponty' 1 89#1 "(&. The life-world : Husserl1s (1 !"#1 $%& Lebenswelt : is a 4ey concept and focus of investigation for phenomenology. The life7world comprises the world of ob)ects around us as we perceive them and our e*perience of our self' body and relationships. ;t is the 3locus of interaction between ourselves and our perceptual environments and the world of e*perienced hori<ons within which we meaningfully dwell together5 (von .c4artsberg' 1 =' cited in -ar<a' (%%$' p.!18&. ;t can be defined as the world that is lived and e*perienced 7 a world 3that appears meaningfully to consciousness in its /ualitative' flowing given7ness> not an ob)ective world 2out there1' but a humanly relational world5 (Todres et al, (%%"' p.99&. This lived world is pre7reflective : it ta4es place before we thin4 about it or put it into language. The idea of life world is that we e*ist in a day7to7day world that is filled with comple* meanings which form the bac4drop of our everyday actions and interactions. The term life7world directs attention to the individual1s lived situation

and social world rather than some inner world of introspection. 3There is no inner man ?sic@'5 6erleau7Ponty famously e*plains' 3man is in the world' and only in the world does he 4now himself.5 (1 "(' *i&. Phenomenological theorists posit there are certain essential features of the life world' such as a person1s sense of selfhood' embodiment' sociality' spatiality' temporality' pro)ect' discourse and mood7as7atmosphere (0shworth' (%%!' (%%"&. These interlin4ed 2fractions1 (0shworth' (%%!& act as a lens through which to view the data. The tas4 of the researcher is to bring out these dimensions and show the structural whole that is socially shared while also e*perienced in individual and particular ways. 3The overall aim of lifeworld research5' says Aahlberg et al ((%%=' p.!$& is 3to describe and elucidate the lived world in a way that e*pands our understanding of human being and human e*perience.5 ;n the life7world' a person1s consciousness is always directed at something in or about the world. Bonsciousness is always consciousness of something. Chen we are conscious of something (an 2ob)ect1& we are in relation to it and it means something to us. ;n this way' sub)ect (us& and ob)ect are )oined together in mutual co7constitution. This important phenomenological concept is called intentionality and it is a 4ey focus for research. ;n research' the researcher1s aim is to e*plicate this intentionality to do with the directedness of participants1 consciousness (what they are e*periencing and how&. Put another way' the focus is on the intentional relationship between the person and the meanings of the things they1re focusing on and e*periencing. For e*ample' one significant finding in research on one woman1s lived e*perience of having multiple sclerosis (Finlay' (%%!a& was how she was profoundly concerned about the impact on her relationship with her children. Dpecifically' she was distressed by the numbness in her hands which meant that she could no longer do the 3mummy thing5 and feel the softness of childrens1 s4in properly. The intentional' embodied relationship between a mother and her children was highlighted. Phenomenology as4s' 3Chat is this 4ind of e*perience li4eE5' 3Chat does the e*perience mean5' 3How does the lived world present itself to me (or to my participant&E5 The challenge for phenomenological researchers is twofold+ how to help participants e*press their world as directly as possible> and how to e*plicate these dimensions such that the lived world : the life world 7 is revealed. 6eanings uncovered by the researcher emerge out of the researcher1s attitude and way the researcher poses /uestions. ;n particular' the researcher aims to 2bracket1 or suspend previous assumptions or understandings in order to be open to the phenomenon as it appears. This brac4eting process is often misunderstood and misrepresented as being an effort to be ob)ective and unbiased. ;nstead' the researcher aims to be open to and see the world differently. The process involves putting aside how things supposedly are' focusing instead on how they are e*perienced. Husserl (1 1!#1 !1& originally identified several variants of 2brac4eting1. 0pplied to research' these involve+

i.

ii. iii.

the epoche of the natural sciences where the researcher abstains from theories' e*planations' scientific conceptualisation and 4nowledge in order to return to the natural attitude of the prescientific lifeworld (i.e. return to the unreflective apprehensionof the lived' everyday world&. The phenomenological psychological reduction where belief in the e*istence of what presents itself in the lifeworld is suspended. ;nstead the focus is on the sub)ective appearances and meanings. Husserl1s transcendental phenomenological reduction 7 a more radical version of the epoche where a 2-od1s eye view1 is attempted : tends to be re)ected as unrealistic by contemporary researchers.

Variants of phenomenology
Phenomenological researchers today face a rich diversity of empirical approaches from which to choose. Fust as there are many variants of phenomenological philosophy under the rubric of the broad movement (6oran' (%%%&' there are many ways it has been operationalised in research. The competing visions of how to do phenomenology stem from different philosophical values' theoretical preferences as well as methodological procedures. Aifferent forms are demanded according to the type of phenomenon under investigation and the 4ind of 4nowledge the researcher see4s. Gather than being fi*ed in stone' the different phenomenological approaches are dynamic and undergoing constant development as the field of /ualitative research as a whole evolves. 3The fle*ibility of phenomenological research and the adaptability of its methods to ever widening arcs of in/uiry is one of its greatest strengths5 (-ar<a' (%%$' p.!!=&. The emergence of phenomenological research was led by -iorgi and the Au/uesne Bircle in the 1 $%1s (Cert<' (%%9&. -iorgi1s pro)ect was to develop a rigorous descriptive empirical phenomenology inspired by Husserlian ideas aiming to study 2essential structures1 or 2essences of phenomena as they appear in consciousness1(-iorgi' 1 =9> -iorgi' 1 8> -iorgi and -iorgi' (%%!&. ;n Husserlian terms' the intuition of essence (also called the eidectic reduction& descriptively mar4s out the invariant characteristics of a phenomenon and its meanings. The phenomenologist starts with a concrete e*ample of the phenomenon under investigation and imaginatively varies it in different ways in order to distinguish essential features from those that are particular' accidental or incidental. ,ariations of this phenomenological method have since evolved. For e*ample' different versions or schools have emerged which focus more e*plicitly on the lifeworld (0shworth' (%%!> Aahlberg et al' (%%=& and lived e*perience ( van 6anen' 1 1&. Hermeneutic variants highlight the researcher1s role and hori<ons of interpretation such as in the Geflective Lifeworld 0pproach (Aalhlberg et al ((%%=&' ;nterpretative Phenomenological 0nalysis (;P0& (Dmith and Hsborne' (%%!&' .mbodied .n/uiry (Todres' (%%$&' Britical Iarrative 0nalysis (BI0&(Langdridge' (%%$& and in the Aallas1 approach to phenomenological research (-ar<a' (%%$&. Cith the heuristic approach adopted by 6ousta4as (1 %&' the researcher1s role in self7 reflection towards producing a creative synthesis to e*plicate lived e*perience is

brought to the fore. ;n relational research approaches (Finlay and .vans' (%% Forthcoming&' attention is paid to the researcher1s )ourney and the research process focusing on how data emerges out of embodied dialogical encounters between researchers and co7researchers. Hne variant of such relational research is the dialogal research approach (described by Halling and Leifer' 1 1 and Gowe et al 1 = & where groups of phenomenologists investigate a phenomenon' dwelling in and negotiating layered meanings together. The information indented below illustrates something of the variations in approach by showing how research /uestions' focus and methods vary subtly. For e*ample' if si* phenomenologists' each utilising a different method' were researching the e*perience of 2feeling lost1' they might phrase their research /uestion along the following lines+
0 descriptive empirical phenomenologist might well as4+ 2Chat is the lived e*perience of feeling lostE1 They might compare the protocols (written descriptions& offered by participants about one instance of feeling lost and attempt to identify the essential or general structures underlying the phenomenon of feeling lost. The heuristic researcher could well focus more intensely on the /uestion+ 2Chat is my e*perience of feeling lostE1 Chile they might draw on a range of data from stories' poems' artwor4' literature' )ournals' they would also loo4 inward' attending to their own feelings#e*periences by using a reflective diary. They would aim to produce a composite description and creative synthesis of the e*perience. 0 lifeworld researcher would as4 2Chat is the lifeworld of one who feels lostE1 Bollecting and analysing interview data' they would focus on e*istential themes such as the person1s sense of self7identity and embodied relations with others when e*periencing a feeling of being lost. The IPA researcher would focus on 2Chat is the individual e*perience of feeling lostE1 They would aim to capture individual variations between co7researchers. Thematic analysis would involve some e*plicit interpretation on the part of both co7researcher and researcher. The Critical Narrative Approach researcher would as4 2Chat story or stories does a person tell of their e*perience of feeling lostE1 having interviewed perhaps )ust one person. The analysis would be focused on the narrative produced and how it was co7created in the research conte*t. The Relational researcher might similarly interview )ust one person as4ing as4 2Chat is it li4e to feel lostE1. They might focus on the co7researchers1 self7identity and 2creative ad)ustment1 (their sense of self' their being7in7the7world and the defensive way they1ve learned to cope&. The research data would be seen to be co7created in the dialogical research encounter and the relational dynamics between researcher and co7researchers would be refle*ively e*plored.

0ll the variants of phenomenology above share a similar focus on describing lived e*perience and recognising the significance of our embodied' intersub)ective lifeworld. -iorgi (1 = & indicates certain core characteristics hold across the variations' namely that the research is descriptive' e*plores the intentional relationship between persons and situations' uses phenomenological reductions and provides 4nowledge of psychological essences or structures of meanings immanent in
1

The reductions being referred to here include the epoche and the phenomenological psychological reduction (two processes of brac4eting& and the eidetic reduction.

human e*perience through imaginative variation (Cert<' (%%9&. Hther phenomenologists argue that the pro)ect to identify essences and to use phenomenological reductions may be less central. Dome methodologies' for e*ample the e*plicitly hermeneutic and idiographic approach of ;P0' downplays (or even re)ects& these features.

Gathering and analysing phenomenological data

The researcher is engaged in a process of trying to see the world differently 7 freshly 7 and to attend more actively to the participant1s views (Finlay' (%%= Forthcoming&. The researcher is prepared to be surprised' awed and generally open to whatever may be revealed. Aahlberg et al ((%%1' p. $& describe this open stance+ 3Hpenness is the mar4 of a true willingness to listen' see' and understand. ;t involves respect' and certain humility toward the phenomenon' as well as sensitivity and fle*ibility.5 The aim is to allow the phenomenon to present itself to us instead of us imposing preconceived ideas on it. This openness needs to be maintained throughout the entire research process' not )ust at the start. Hf the many methods of gathering /ualitative data available' some are more suited to phenomenology than others 7 there are natural affinities. The most common methods used include the use of+ narratives in interviews' diaries and protocols> participant observation> and reflective diaries or researcher1s own introspective accounts. Dupplementary techni/ues such as repertory grids' artwor4 or use of e*ternal literary or documentary sources may also be used to e*plore meanings further. The 4ey /uality in the data sought by phenomenologists is concreteness (Cert<' (%%9&. Aetails of the person1s lived situation rather than their abstract views or interpretations are wanted in an effort to access the person1s lived e*perience (which goes beyond what they have consciously thought about it&. Phenomenologists doing interviews' for e*ample' will tend to as4 participants to describe their e*perience concretely by posing such /uestions as+ 2Bould you describe a typical dayE1 or 2Ban you describe that particular incident in more detailE1. This way of opening a dialogue is valued over and above as4ing more general abstract /uestions such as 2what is your roleE1 or 2Chat is depressionE1. The researcher1s aim is to empathise with the participant1s situation and offer further prompts geared to e*ploring e*istential dimensions of that situation. For instance' researchers as4ing 2how is this person e*periencing their dayE1 They might then see4 to apply such notions as 2felt space1 and 2felt time1. For e*ample' what is the participant1s e*perience in terms of felt7 spaceE Ao they feel safe' free' trapped' e*posed' smallJE ;n terms of felt7time' does the participant seem to be e*periencing this as pressured' slow' discontinuousJE Chen it comes to analysis' phenomenological researchers engage in active and sustained reflection as they 2dwell1 with the data and interrogate it' for e*ample as4ing+ 2;f a person has said this' what does this suggest of their e*perience of the worldE1. Beyond this reflection process' different methodological variants privilege either the use of systematic procedures or the spontaneous emergence of creative

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intuition. For instance' using the analytical method suggested by Cert< (1 =!& and -iorgi (1 =9&' systematic readings of the transcript are underta4en by first dwelling on the phenomenon (through empathetic immersion and reflection&' then describing emergent psychological structures (i.e.' constituents and recurrent themes&. ;n contrast' with dialogal analysis (Gowe et al' 1 = &' researchers prefer to use open' spontaneous' fluid dialogue in a group conte*t rather than adhering to any e*plicit procedures. Chichever the approach' researchers are involved in 3an e*treme form of care that savors the situations described in a slow' meditative way and attends to' even magnifies' all the details5 Cert< ((%%9' p.1$(&. 3Phenomenological understanding is distinctly e*istential' emotive' enactive' embodied' situational' and nontheoretic> a powerful phenomenological te*t thrives on a certain irrevocable tension between what is uni/ue and what is shared' between particular and transcendent meaning' and between the reflective and the prereflective spheres of the lifeworld.5 (van 6anen' 1 $' p.!89&. To manage these tensions researchers may engage in refle*ive analysis (Finlay' (%%!' (%%9& moving bac4 and forth in a 4ind of dialectic between e*perience and awareness> between studying the parts and the whole. 0s Hert< (1 $& puts it' KTo be refle*ive is to have an ongoing conversation about the e*perience while simultaneously living in the momentK (p. viii&. 0s researchers' we need to strive' e*plicitly' to understand some of the connections by which sub)ect and ob)ect influence and co7constitute each other. Ce need to ac4nowledge both our e*perience and our e*periencing as researchers as well as be focused on the Hther and their e*perience and e*periencing. The precise form an analysis of research findings ta4es varies considerably. Hften researchers will aim to identify significant themes or narratives emerging from the data. .ach type of analysis and way of presenting the data simultaneously reveals and conceals. Aifferent analyses highlight particular nuances and indicate various immanent possibilities of meaning as figural against a ground of other possible meanings. However rich and comprehensive' any one analysis is' inevitably' incomplete' partial' tentative' emergent' open and uncertain. The analytical process invariably involves a process of reflective writing and rewriting. This process aims to create depth+ multiple layers of meaning are crafted to lay bare certain truths while retaining the ambiguity of e*perience. To write phenomenologically is to write poetically' says van 6anen. ;t is the 3untiring effort to author a sensitive grasp of being itself.5 (van 6anen' 1 %' p.1!(&. Chatever method of writing up is used' the 4ey is to try to capture the comple*ity and ambiguity of the lived world being described. ,edder ((%%(' pp.(%"7(%$&' drawing on -adamer1s hermeneutics' describes of how metaphors can create meaning and so have the capacity to represent being+ 3;n metaphor it is thus not about describing what is on hand in an empirical reality' but rather about ma4ing visible in a being something that was not previously seenJThe poem produces the imageJa coming to be of an e*pression and a coming to be of being.5

Evaluating the quality of phenomenological research

Chen presenting phenomenological research' its value is established by honouring concrete individual instances and demonstrating some fidelity to the phenomenon (2to the things themselves1& (Cert<' (%%9&. Gesearch reports may' for e*ample' contain raw data such as participants1 /uotations providing an opportunity for readers to )udge the soundness of the researcher1s analysis. The /uality of any phenomenological study can be )udged in its relative power to draw the reader into the researcher1s discoveries allowing the reader to see the worlds of others in new and deeper ways. Pol4inghorne (1 =!& offers four /ualities to help the reader evaluate the power and trustworthiness of phenomenological accounts+ vividness' accuracy' richness and elegance. ;s the research vivid in the sense that it generates a sense of reality and draws the reader inE 0re readers able to recognise the phenomenon from their own e*perience or from imagining the situation vicariouslyE ;n terms of richness' can readers enter the account emotionallyE Finally' has the phenomenon been described in a graceful' clear' poignant wayE Hther researchers offer different criteria. The 4ey is to recognise how choices of criteria are lin4ed to epistemological assumptions such as whether the researcher is adopting a more realist or relativist position. For instance' many /ualitative researchers embrace the use of participant validation as a way to 2prove1 the validity of their research. Chen the participant agrees with the researcher1s assessment' it is seen as strengthening the researcher1s argument. Duch confidence' however' would be contested by researchers supporting a more relativist position which recognises how findings have emerged in a specific conte*t. 0nother researcher' or a study underta4en at another time' they would argue' would unfold a different story. ;n his critical e*ploration of participant validation' 0shworth (1 !& supports it on moral7 political grounds but warns against ta4ing participants1 evaluations too seriously+ it may be in their interest to protect their 2socially presented selves1. 0s he notes' 3Participant validation is flawed nevertheless' since the 2atmosphere of safety1 that would allow the individual to lower his or her defences' cease 2presentation1' and act in open candour (if this is possible&' is hardly li4ely to be achieved in the research encounter5 (0shworth' 1 !' p.19&. Beyond the use of particular procedures to ensure /uality' it is worth emphasising that the best phenomenology highlights the comple*ity' ambiguity and ambivalence of participants1 e*periences. 0s Aahlberg et al ((%%=' p. 8& warn' researchers need to be 3careful not to ma4e definite what is indefinite5. Lifeworld research is characterised by its capacity to present the parado*es and integrate opposites demonstrating holism (Aahlberg et al, (%%=&. Cert< ((%%9' p.1$9& offers an elegant summary of the phenomenological pro)ect+ 3Phenomenology is a low7hovering' in7dwelling' meditative philosophy that glories in the concreteness of person7world relations and accords lived e*perience' with all its indeterminacy and ambiguity' primacy over the 4nown.5

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Linda Finlay' 6arch' (%%=