IB chemistry SL revision

1. Pharmaceutical products
What are the effects of medicines and drugs on the functioning of the body? What are the stages involved in the research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products?

Option D

alter the physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination alters incoming sensory sensations alter mood or emotions 1. Identify disease, a target molecule . Identify target e.g. gene or en!yme which is necessary for disease to progress. ". Identify lead molecule that can act on gene#en!yme in the disease organism or host and isolate or manufacture it. $. Preclinical trials% in vitro and in vivo% &. 'linical trials % on people#placebo effect (. )ubmission of reports on the drug and its trials to international or national regulatory bodies. *. +onitoring of the drug after it has been launched, molecule might need further structural changes. -ral% ta.en in by the mouth e.g. tablets, syrups, capsules. Parenteral / by in0ection% o intravenous% into a vein of the blood stream 1 used for immediate impacts as its fastest method, drug is immediately pumped around the body by the blood. o intramuscular i.e. into the muscles, e.g. many vaccines, local anaesthetics, usually used when a large dose needs to be administered. o subcutaneous% in the layer of the s.in directly below the cutis 2dermis and epidermis3 e.g. dental in0ections, morphine, insulin. )low. Inhalation% e.g. medication for respiratory conditions such as asthma. 4ectal% inserted into the rectum e.g. treatment for digestive illnesses, drug absorbed into the blood stream. ).in patches% e.g. hormone treatments. 5he therapeutic window is the range in concentration over which a drug can be safely administered to a typical population. 5he lowest level of concentration is the called the effective level 2therapeutic level3 or 67&8, below this level the drug loses its therapeutic effect 5he highest level is the to9ic or :7&8 level 2; the dose needed to .ill &8 < of 2animal3 population3 above which adverse side/effects can occur 5olerance refers to the bodys reduced response to a drug i.e. its therapeutic effect is less than what it is intended, usually as a result of ta.ing the drug over a long period of time. =s a result more of the drug needs to be ta.en to achieve the same initial physiological effect )ide/effects are physiological effects which are not intended and therefore undesired 2intended ; therapeutic effects3. )ome side effects can be beneficial e.g. aspirin also protects against heart disease. 'an be benign e.g. cause drowsiness or adverse, e.g. cause damage to organs. 5he placebo effect occurs when a person e9periences a positive therapeutic 2in particular with pain .illers3 effect because they believe

What are the different methods of administering drugs?

What is the therapeutic window of a drug?

What does tolerance mean?

What are side/effects of a drug?

What is the placebo effect?

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they have been given a medicine although the substance given is not a medicine, instead a placebo has been administered, the human body is fooled into healing itself naturally. Placebo is used as a control to measure the real effectiveness of the drug which is the difference between the effects e9perienced by the patients who too. the drug and those patients who did not. Patients and administrators do not .now which patients have ta.en the placebo. What are advantage and disadvantages of oral administration? When are in0ections the best method of administration? 6asy to ta.e, no special e?uipment needed. )low to have effect, stomach can decompose#change medicines, can cause stomach bleeding. When an immediate effect is needed 6ffect might be needed for the whole body 7irect delivery to the area the medicine is needed +edicine will be bro.en down by stomach

. =ntacids
@ow can e9cess acidity in the stomach be reduced by the use of different bases? Why are alginates added to antacids? Why is an anti/foaming agent added to antacids that have carbonate in them? >y adding antacids such as aluminium hydro9ide, magnesium hydro9ide and sodium hydrogencarbonate. 5hese chemicals can neutrali!e the acid as they have -@/ or @'-"/ ions which can react with @A from acid to form water and salt. =lginates produce a neutrali!ing layer on top of stomach contents and this prevents acid in the stomach from rising into the oesophagus and causing heartburn. =nti/ foaming agents such as dimethicone reduce the bloating of the stomach as a result of the carbon dio9ide production.

". =nalgesics
@ow do mild analgesics prevent pain? @ow do strong analgesics prevent pain? by interfering with the production of substances, such as prostaglandins, that are produced by in0ured tissues and that cause pain, swelling or fever. by temporarily bonding to receptor sites to pain impulses in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system such as the spinal cord. 5his prevents the transmission of pain impulses i.e. bloc.ing the signal without depressing the central nervous system. aspirin, paracetamol codeine, morphine, heroine reduces fever more effectively 1 antipyretic 2;drug which reduces fever3 also useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attac.s and stro.es and also thins the blood 2beneficial side/effects3 and reduces blood clotting also anti/inflammatory 1 reduces inflammation or swelling ulceration

Bame e9amples of mild analgesics. Bame s9amples of strong analgesics. What are the advantages of using aspirin?

What are disadvantages of

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using aspirin?

stomach bleeding due to its acidic properties allergic reactions 4eyes syndrome in children 2a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder3 so not suitable for children

What are the advantages of using paracetamol?

What are disadvantages of using paracetamol?

What do the structures of morphine, codeine and heroine have in common? @ow are the structures of morphine, codeine and heroine different? What are the advantages of using morphine and its derivatives?

reduces fever / antipyretic very safe in the correct dose as it does not upset the stomach or cause bleeding suitable for children can, in rare cases, cause blood disorders and .idney damage. easier to overdose and overdosage can lead to serious liver damage, brain damage and even death. not a good anti/inflammatory =ll three have the aromatic ben!ene ring, a tertiary amine, a double bond and an ether group. >oth morphine and codeine also have a hydro9yl group. @eroine has ester groups. strong analgesics and therefore can relieve e9treme pain wide therapeutic window relieves an9iety induces rela9ation can be administered intravenously which results in faster distribution of drug euphoria, lac. of self/control even dangerous behaviour .idney failure. addiction or physical dependence which leads to withdrawal symptoms when drug is not ta.en e.g. restlessness, sweating, fever, cramping, C tolerance can become an issue with this type of drug as more of the drug needs to be ta.en to achieve the same effect, in order to achieve the desired effect heroin users may ta.e doses which e9ceed the lethal dose )ocial% o heroin users are more li.ely to commit crimes to pay for gradually increasing doses of the drug o diversion of energy and money, loss of 0ob o when administered intravenously can lead to transmission of dangerous infections e.g. =I7).

What are the disadvantages of using morphine and its derivatives?

$. 7epressants
What are effects of a low dose of depressant? What are effects of a moderate dose of depressant? What are effects of a high dose of depressant? What are effects of a very high of depressant?
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may have little or no effect. may induce sedation, soothing, reduction of an9iety, impaired 0udgement may induce sleep, unconsciousness, slurred speech, altered perception may cause organ failure, coma or death

What are the social effects of alcohol use and abuse?

What are the short term physiological effects of alcohol use#abuse? What are the long term physiological effects of alcohol use#abuse?

What is the synergetic effect of using alcohol with other drugs? @ow is potassium dichromate used to detect alcohol? @ow does an into9imeter detect alcohol?

increased ris. when driving or operating machinery involvement in violence or crime relationship problems ta.ing time off wor. as a result of sic.ness or death associated with alcohol abuse loss of income hospital costs lower economical production reduces tension, an9iety and inhibitions impairs function of central nervous system dehydration high dose can cause vomiting, unconsciousness liver damage#cancer cirrhosis 1 liver disease increased blood pressure heart disease or stro.e miscarriage and fetal abnormalities tolerance and physical dependence the effect of the other drugs is often enhanced in the presence of alcohol which can be dangerous e.g. with aspirin it can increase damage to stomach and cause bleeding. In the case of sleeping tablets and other sedatives it can cause coma or death. Dsed in a breathaly!er, in a positive result 2i.e. presence of alcohol in the breath3 the potassium dichromate changes form orange to green when ethanol is present as the potassium dichromate is reduced and the ethanol o9idi!ed to ethanoic acid. Infrared radiation is passed through breath, blood or urine sample. 5he '1@ bond in ethanol causes radiation to be absorbed at a specific wavenumber which is E&8 cm/1. 5he into9imeter measures the amount of absorption which depends upon the amount of ethanol in the breath i.e. the more ethanol there is present the more I4 is absorbed. 5he amount or pea. is compared against a standard 2e.g. allowed amount3 6thanol is separated from the blood or urine using gas/li?uid chromatography, area under ethanol pea. on chromatogram indicated amount of ethanol in blood or urine pro!ac, valium, mogadon aromatic ben!ene, ether, fluorine, amine, chloride ion amide, aromatic ben!ene secondary amine, chlorine, amide,aromatic ben!ene, secondary amine, B-

@ow does chromatography help to detect alcohol? What are other common depressants? 7escribe the structure of Pro!ac. 7escribe the structure of Falium. 7escribe the structure of +ogadon

&. )timulants
What are the short term physiological effects of stimulants?
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increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate dilation of pupils

What are the long term physiological effects of stimulants?

What are amphetamines? What do amphetamines and epinephrine have in common? What are amphetamines and epinephrine different? What are the short term effects of nicotine?

constriction of arteries sweating increased alertness and concentration decreased appetite stimulating effects. increased ris. of heart disease increased blood pressure coronary thrombosis stomach ulcers. tolerance% which leads to increased use as increased amounts needed to produce same effect, increasing amounts cause damage#death#overdose#lethal dose amphetamines mimic the effects of epinephrine or adrenaline which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and they are therefore .nown as sympathomimetic drugs. an aromatic ben!ene ring and an al.yl chain amphetamines have a primary amine whilst epinephrine has " hydro9yl groups and a secondary amine increased heart rate increased blood pressure reduced urine output increased concentration increased ris. of cancer or stro.e heart disease # thrombosis stomach ulcers emphysema bronchitis shortage of breath coughing bad breath yellowing of teeth or fingers adverse effect on pregnancy addiction to tobacco reduction in capacity of blood to carry o9ygen, withdrawal symptoms # weight gain 2on ?uitting3, caffeine is a stimulant. When consumed in large amounts it can cause an9iety, irritability and sleeplessness. It is a wea. diuretic both have aromatic ben!ene and tertiary amine group, in fact caffeine has three tertiary amine groups. 'affeine also has two carbonyl groups.

What are the long term effects of nicotine?

What are the effects of caffeine? 'ompare the structure of caffeine and nicotine.

(. =ntibacterials
What contribution did =le9ander Gleming ma.e to the development of penicillin? What contribution did Glorey and 'hain ma.e to the development of penicillin? discovered that penicillin inhibited growth or .illed bacteria overcame the problems associated with isolating and concentrating penicillin as Penicillin H showed that penicillin is harmless and effective on mice, first to use penicillin on a human,

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@ow does penicillin wor.?

What are the advantages of modifying the side/chain of penicilins?

What is patient compliance? Why is important patient compliance important? What are the effects of overprescription of penicillins or antibacterials?

grew penicillin in large amounts, Penicillins wor. by interfering with the chemicals that a bacteria needs to form a cell wall. 5his prevents the formation of cross/lin.s within the cell wall. =s a result the bacterial cell absorbs too much water and bursts as the result of increased osmotic pressure. resistant to penicillinase en!yme which is an en!yme which can brea. down penicillin H and which is found in some bacteria, stops bacteria from destroying penicillin and becoming resistant to them resistance to brea.down by stomach acid 2so can be ta.en orally3. Patients ta.ing antibacterials as prescribed i.e. ta.e all tablets and in the correct dose. If patients not being compliant allows bacteria to become resistant. leads to resistance by the bacteria to penicillin which ma.es penicillin less effective, bacteria produced penicillinase, an en!yme which destroys penicillin resistant bacteria reproduce and pass on their resistance to succeeding generations useful bacteria may be .illed

*. =ntivirals
@ow are viruses different from bacteria? viruses are not self/reproducing as they need a host cell to multiply, viruses insert 7B= into host cells viruses lac. any metabolic functions so they do not grow, feed or e9crete viruses consist only of genetic material and protective coating viruses are smaller than bacteria viruses mutate#multiply 2much3 faster than bacteria altering the host cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply preventing the viruses from multiplying by bloc.ing en!yme activity within the host cell. preventing viruses from entering host cell and binding to cellular receptors targeted by the viruses preventing the release of viruses from the cell @IF viruses can mutate rapidly @IF viruses have similar metabolism to the metabolism of the host cell so any drug could also damage host cell high price of antiretroviral drugs socioeconomic cultural issues,

What are the different ways in which antivirals wor.?

What difficulties are associated with solving the =I7) problem?

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