Department of Materials Engineering

ENG1050/MCD4220 Engineering Materials

Lecture 4: Measuring material properties

www.monash.edu.au

Objectives
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Appreciate the influence of atomic structure, bonding and nano/microstructures have on some physical properties; Have an understanding of different materials responses to forces and stresses Have an understanding of the basic mechanical properties, principally elastic modulus and yield stress, and be able to use these as design criteria Be familiar with processes occurring during plastic deformation and to draw upon these concepts in order to know how to strengthen the material Know how to tailor the mechanical properties of a polymeric material using control over crystallinity and the glass transition, Understand the role of composite materials in engineering, and their responses to applied stresses Understand the processes involved during fracture and have a broad understanding of how fracture can be avoided by appropriate selection of materials and design Have a basic understanding of the thermal, electrical and magnetic properties of materials in terms of the atomic and electronic characteristics of materials and to use these criteria for material selection Understand the processes of corrosion and degradation in the environment and to draw upon these to increase the lifetime through appropriate protection and material selection

10. Be able to select an appropriate material for a given application based on the above points 11. Appreciate the socio-political and sustainability issues influencing material selection, commonly experienced as a professional engineer

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Typical assessment
On completion you should be able to Calculate elastic modulus, yield strength, proof stress, tensile strength and ductility Define work hardening Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the stress-strain behaviour of a metal (including work hardening) Define onset of necking and estimate the necking strain Define uniform elongation

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Stress - strain graph (nominal/engineering)

Nominal Stress (N/mm2 or MPa)

The stress - strain graph is independent of dimensions The yield stress is the stress beyond which the original dimensions of the material are not recovered on unloading.
Units: Stress - 1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2) 1 MPa = 1 x 106 Pa = 1 x 106 N/m2 = 1 N /10-6 m2 = 1 N/mm2
Strain has no units (dimensionless quantity)

Plastic region

Yield stress

Elastic region
Nominal Strain

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What properties are we interested in?

Nominal stress (n)
Slope =Youngs modulus (E) = /

= E - Hookes Law (valid for the linear Elastic region) E (= /) Youngs Modulus (Elastic Modulus)

Higher Elastic Modulus

YS

Lower Elastic Modulus

YS Yield Stress (Yield Strength)

R G
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Nominal strain (n)

Context Detail Application Examples

What properties are we interested in?

Nominal stress (n)

TS YS

Fracture point

= E - Hookes Law (valid for the linear Elastic region) E (= /) Youngs Modulus (Elastic Modulus)

YS Yield Stress (Yield Strength)

TS Tensile strength (also called Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS)
Plastic strain after fracture (Ductility)

Nominal strain (n)

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Elastic strain recovered

Detail Application Examples

What properties are we interested in?

Nominal stress (n)

= E - Hookes Law (valid for the linear Elastic region) E (= /) Youngs Modulus (Elastic Modulus)

TS PS YS

YS Yield Stress (Yield Strength)

TS Tensile strength (also called Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS)
Nominal strain (n)
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0.2% strain (0.002)

PS Proof Stress (also called offset yield strength) (0.2 for 0.2% strain)
Examples

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What properties are we interested in?

Nominal stress
Slope represents the work hardening rate (d/d, units MPa)

TS YS

Uniform elongation Uniform strain

Nominal strain
Fracture strain
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Yield strength (elastic limit) of various materials

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Elongation at fracture of various materials

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Example question
300

250
2 or MPa) Stress (MPa) Stress (N/mm

200

Calculate the 0.2% proof stress, and ultimate tensile strength for this alloy.

150

100

50

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 Strain 0.2 0.25 0.3

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Example question
300

250
2 or MPa) Stress (MPa) Stress (N/mm

240MPa

200

150

140MPa

Calculate the 0.2% proof stress, and ultimate tensile strength for this alloy.

100

Proof stress = 140MPa

0.002 (0.2%)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 Strain 0.2 0.25 0.3

50

UTS = 240MPa

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How does the stress-strain curve relate to can manufacture?

Recall that for the body we require a metal that is strong but will deform sufficiently in order to shape the can, for the end we want a metal that is strong, but will open on demand How do we translate these requirements into material properties?

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Can manufacture
When we talk about a strong can body, which property are we referring to?
Yield/Proof Stress

When we talk about deforming sufficiently, what feature of the stress-strain curve are we referring to?
Uniform elongation

When we talk about opening on demand, what features of the stress-strain curve is this related to?
Ductility

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Stress-strain curve (True versus Engineering)

Since volume is constant, L0A0 = LA A = (L0A0/L) True stress, t = F/A = F/(L0A0/L) = FL/L0A0 = (F/A0)(L/L0) = n ((L0 + L)/L0) t = n (1 + n) > n Earlier we found that t = ln(1+n) < n Actual (true) stress keeps increasing until final failure

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Work hardening
True Stress - True Strain The true stress true strain curve can be characterised by the relation

t = A(t)n

d t d t

The constant, n, which is characteristic of the material, is called the work hardening exponent

Work hardening may be described as increase in yield stress (Y) due to plastic deformation it is a measure of storage of plastic energy (higher work hardening exponent, n, means greater ability to store plastic energy)

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Work hardening

y2 y1 y0

t1

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Work hardening experiment

Bend a coat hanger back and fore Imagine and sketch the stress / strain curve for the experiment

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Ductile vs brittle materials

Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area.

Toughness may be defined as the amount of work done (per unit volume) in breaking the material. Area under the stress-strain curve is a measure of toughness.
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Necking
Concentration of deformation in a small region, leading to the formation of a neck Occurs when the load-carrying ability of the metal is no longer able to support the stress increase due to the reduction in cross-sectional area Deformation Concentrated Uniform at the n M neck Fracture occurs where the neck is formed

To understand the phenomenon we must think in terms of true stress

n
Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a necked region.

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Neck formation
Macroscopic phenomenon Specimen has constant volume As length increases, crosssectional area decreases As area decreases, stress increases
Microscopic phenomenon As strain increases, material work hardens As work hardening proceeds the material is able to support a higher stress

There is a feedback loop between the micro and the macro phenomena

When the increase in stress overtakes the increase in strength, plastic instability and necking occurs

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Onset of necking (Mathematically...)

At the onset of necking (highest point on Stress-strain curve) dF = 0 From the definition of stress F = t A ..Eqn 1

dF = t dA + A dt = 0
- (dA/A) = (dt/t) AdL + LdA = 0 - (dA/A) = (dL/L) = dt (d t / t ) = d t (dt/dt) = t ..Eqn 5 ..Eqn 2

Volume does not change. Therefore AL = constant

..Eqn 3 ..Eqn 4

From Eqn 2 and Eqn 4,

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Onset of necking (Graphically)

On the nominal stress-strain curve necking commences at the highest point:
Gradient of the true stress - strain curve

Nominal stress

TS

True stress - strain curve

Nominal strain

On the true stress-true strain curve, necking occurs when:

Note that the units of the two curves are the same.

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Estimate of necking strain

We know that the plastic part of the curve can be described by:

t =

n A(t)

n = (t)n/(t)n-1 =t
At necking

Consequently

=nA(t)n-1

We also know that at necking:

Therefore

nA(t)n-1 = A(t)n
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Definitions
Elastic modulus; Youngs modulus:
The slope of the elastic (linear) region of the stress-strain curve.

Proof stress (offfset yield strength), PS or 0.2 (units MPa):

The stress measured at the intersection of the engineering stress-strain curve and a line drawn parallel to the elastic portion of the curve, offset by a strain of 0.2% (or 0.002)

Tensile strength; ultimate tensile strength (units MPa):

The maximum stress measured on the engineering stress strain curve

Work hardening rate (d/d, units MPa)

The rate of change of stress with strain in the plastic region of the stress strain curve. Strictly speaking, measured only on the true stress-strain curve.

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Definitions
Ductility
The permanent (plastic) strain after fracture, measured by reassembling the fractured specimen or by construction on the stress-strain curve of a line from the point of fracture parallel to the elastic region until it intersects with the strain axis (zero stress).

Fracture strain
The sum of elastic and plastic strain at the instant before fracture Always greater than ductility (compare the definitions).

Uniform elongation
The strain that can be achieved before necking (ie, with uniform thinning of a sample). On an engineering stress-strain curve this is coincident with the strain at which the ultimate tensile strength is found.

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Summary
Measuring mechanical properties Definitions of mechanical properties Onset of plastic instability form a mathematical point of view - why does this happen? Uniform elongation Work hardening Use of mechanical properties to sort material suitability for purpose

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Reading and study questions

Read Callister excerpts (pdf document online): Chapter 7 (pages 186 211), including example problems 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 http://aluminium.matter.org.uk

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Determine the mechanical properties of this material

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Relevant properties
Elastic modulus 0.2% Proof stress (yield strength) Tensile strength Uniform elongation Work hardening exponent
Hint: work hardening exponent is equal to true strain at the onset of necking

Ductility

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Two copper specimens with the same original dimensions have been plastically deformed under different tensile stresses. The figures below show their new dimensions after stretching. If these two specimens are tested under tensile stresses again, which one is expected to yield at a lower stress? Briefly explain your reason.

Rapid feedback
What aspect of the unit so far do you understand? What aspect do you need assistance with?