Casting Process and Pattern Making Basics

UNIT I PART A
1. Write the basic steps in casting process. Melting the metal Pouring it into a previously made mould which confirms to the shape of desired component. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould. !a"#2$$%&
2. Write the requirements of a good pattern.
Secure the desired shape and size of the casting Simple in design, for ease of manufacture Cheap and readily available Light in mass and convenient to handle ave high strength
'. (ist the common pattern materia)s. !ood Common metals such as "rass, cast #ron, Aluminium and white metal etc. Plastic $ypsum !a%
*. +tate the different t"pes of pattern a))o,ances. Shrin&age allowance Machining allowance 'raft allowance Sha&e allowance 'istortion allowance
-. What are the different t"pes of sands used in mou)ds. $reen sand, 'ry sand, Loam sand, synthetic sand, core sand, parting sand, facing sand, bac&ing sand. /. Name the essentia) constituents of mo)ding sand. Silica sand, "inder, Additives and water.
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%. What is core 7enting. !hile pouring the mould with molten metal, mould walls and cores heat up rapidly and give off a large volume of gases. )hese gases must be vented out through core prints in order to prevent casting defects such as * "low holes *. 8. What is core ba9ing. )o impart proper strength to the cores, these are ba&ed or cured in gas, oil or electric ovens. )he curing operation drives off the moisture and hardens core binders. :. Write on the t,o designs of induction furnaces. (. Core less or high fre+uency induction furnace. ,. Core or channel furnace or low fre+uency induction furnace. 1$. +tate the different t"pes of mou)ding machines. -olt machine S+ueezer machine -olt.s+ueezer machine Sand slinger etc
11. 2)assif" the 7arious methods of inspection and testing of castings. /isual #nspection 'imensional #nspection Metallurgical Control Pressure )esting 0adio.graphical testing Magnetic testing Magnetic particle testing 1ddy current #nspection 2ltrasonic testing
12. 4efine manufacturing. Manufacturing means the ma&ing of goods and articles by hand and or by machinery. 1'. 4efine manufacturing 1ngineering. Manufacturing 1ngineering can be defined as the study of the various processes re+uired to reproduce 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
parts and assemble these into machines and mechanism. 1*. 2)assif" the manufacturing processes. Casting processes 'eformation processes Machining processes Powder metallurgy -oining processes eat treatment and surface treatment process
1-. What is meant b" )ost#,a; method. )his method involves the use of e%pandable pattern surrounded with a shell of refractory material to form the casting mould. Casting is formed by pouring the molten metal in the mould cavities created by melting out the pattern. Since the pattern made of wa% is melted out and gets destroyed, that is why the name lost.wa% method.
1/. Write the ad7antages and disad7antages of )ost#,a; method. Ad7antages < #ntricate shapes can be easily cast. )he surface is very smooth and hence there is no parting line. More than one casting can be made at a time.
4isad7antages < Process is involved and thus e%pensive Parts are limited in size to few 3g.
1%. Write the t"pica) 7a)ues of +hrin9age a))o,ances for fo))o,ing meta)s. i. ii. iii. i7. 7. =rass +tee) ?inc 2ast Iron A)uminum 1.2- > 1.1 > 2 > 1> 1.- >
18. 4iscuss the ad7antages and disad7antages of she)) mou)ding. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
Ad7antages < Comple% parts can be made by this method. igh accuracy of castings with tolerances of 5 6.66, to 6.667 mm 8 mm is possible. Smooth surface finish and reduced machining allowance is possible.
4isad7antages <

Size of casting is limited Carbon pic& up in case of steels
1:. 4iscuss the app)ications of 2o2 process. 2sed for ma&ing larger core in -obbing, 9oundries for heavy castings. Suitable for thic& walled steel castings. 2$. +uggest a furnace to me)t gre" cast iron. Cupola furnace 21. What is meant b" pressure die casting. 2nli&e gravity die casting, in pressure die casting molten metal is forced into permanent mould cavity under pressure. Pressure varies from :6 to 7666 &g 8 cm,. Pressure is obtained by compressed air ;or< hydraulically.
22. Write the ad7antages of p)astics as pattern materia). 9acilitates the production processes. Ma&es it more economical in cost and labour. =o Moisture absorption Smooth surface of patterns
2'. +uggest a pattern ,hich is suitab)e for casting ,ater pipes@ turbines casings etc. S&eleton pattern. 2*. Write the chemica) reaction in7o)7ed in 2o2 process. )he chemical reaction involved in Co, process is 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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=a,Sio4 ?Co, =a,Co4 ? Sio, ;Sodium ;Silicagel < Silicate< 2-. Write the product app)ications of true centrifuga) casting. "earings for electrical motors and industrial machinery. Cast #ron Pipes, alloy steel pipes and tubings. Liners for #.C 1ngines.
2/. 4efine pattern. A pattern is an element used for ma&ing cavities in the mould, into which molten metal is poured to produce a casting. 2%. What is the difference bet,een green sand mou)d and dr" sand mou)d. Areen sand mou)d < A green sand mould is composed of mi%ture of sand, clay and water. 4r" sand mou)d < 'ry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with ( to ,@ cereal flour and ( to ,@ pitch.
28. What are the casting defects caused b" patterns and mo)ding bo; equipment. Mismatch 9ins, Strain and 9lash Crush
2:. What are the casting defects due to improper mo)ding and core ma9ing materia)s.
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"low holes 'rop Scab Pinholes
'$. What are the casting defects caused b" mo)ding@ core#ma9ing@ gating etc. ot tears - Shifts - 9ins and 9lash '1. What are the )imitations of die casting processes. 9errous alloys are not cast
Ma%imum size of the casting made by this process is restricted )his process re+uires special s&ills on maintenance part
'2. What is core. A core is body made of refractory material, which is set into the prepared mould before closing and pouring it for forming through holes, recesses and internal cavities. ''. What are the factors shou)d be considered for se)ecting core materia).
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)ype and size of core =ature of metal to be cast Core properties desired 'egree of core surface finish is re+uired
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1. 1;p)ain the 7arious t"pes of mou)ds. According to the material used in their construction, the moulds are of following typesA 1. Areen +and !ou)ds. A green sand mould is composed of a mi%ture of sand ;silica sand, SiB ,<, clay ;which acts as binder and water. )he word *greenC is associated with the condition of wetness or freshness and because the mould is left in the damp condition, hence the name *green sand mouldC. )his type of mould is the cheapest and has the advantage that used sand is readily reclaimed. "ut, the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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mould being in the damp conditions, is wea& and cannot be stored for a longer period. ence, such moulds are used for small and medium sized castings. 4r" +and !ou)ds. 'ry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with two essential differencesA the sand used for dry sand moulds contains ( to ,@ cereal flour and ( to ,@ pitch, whereas the sand mi%ture for green sand moulds may not contain these additives increase the hot strength due to evaporation of water as well as by the o%idation and polymerization of the pitch. So, dry sand moulds can be used for large castings. )hey give better surface finish and also reduce the incidence of the casting defect such as gas holes, blows or porosity that may occur as a result of steam generation in the mould ;when the molten metal is poured into the green sand mould cavity<. owever, due to the greater strength of these moulds, tearing may occur in hot E short materials. +9in dr" +and !ou)ds. ere, after the mould is prepared, instead of entirely drying it out, the mould is partially dried around the cavity ;to a depth of about ,7mm<. )his can be done into waysA ;i< About (,.7 mm around the pattern the proper moulding sand ;as described under dry sand moulds< is used, the remaining mould contains ordinary green sand. ;ii< )he entire mould is made of green sand and then the surface of the cavity is coated with a spray or wash of linseed oil, gelatinized starch or molasses water etc. the advantages and limitations of such moulds are the same as of the dry sand moulds. (oam +and !ou)ds. Loam sand consists of find sand plus finely ground refractories, clay, graphite and fibrous reinforcements. #f differs from ordinary moulding sand in that the percentage of clay in it is very high ; of the order of 76@<. )his sand is used in pit moulding process for ma&ing moulds for very heavy and large parts ;engine bodies, machine tool beds and frames etc.< 2emented bonded !ou)ds. ere, the moulding sand contains (6 to (7@ of cement as the binder. Such a mould is stronger and harder. Such moulds are made in the pit moulding process and develop their strength by air drying and are used for large steel casting. owever, it is very difficult to brea& away the sand from the casting. 2B2 !ou)ds. )he CB, moulding process is a sand moulding process in which sodium silicate ;=a,B.%SiB,<, that is, water glass is used as a binder ;, to D@<, rather than clay. After the mould is made, CB, gas is made to flow through the mould, the sand mi%ture hardens due to the following reaction.
=a,B.%SiB,?n
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B?CB, =a, CB4 ? %.SiB,.n;
B<
Stiff gel.
ere, %F(.D to >, most often ,. )his reaction is very rapid and ta&es about ( minute, which is very much less than the several hours needed to produce a dry sand mould. Such moulds can be used for producing very smooth and intricate castings, because the sand mi% has a very high flow ability to fill up corners and intricate conturs. %. Resin bonded +and !ou)ds. ere, the green sand mi%ture is mi%ed with thermosetting resins ;polymers< or an oil, such as, linseed oil or soyabean oil. 'uring ba&ing of the mould, the resin or oil o%idizes and polymerizes around the sand particles, thus bonding them together. )he Strength of the polymerized resin is greater than that of pitch used in dry sand moulds. So, the moulds produced are stronger. Such a sand mi%ture is commonly used for ma&ing cores. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
"a&ing is usually needed to ma&e strong moulds or cores. Many times, the re+uired strength of moulds is obtained without ban&ing. )hese moulds are &nown as *9uran.no ba&eC moulds, *oil.no. ba&eC moulds etc. 9uran is a generic term denoting the basic structure of a class of chemical compounds. )he resins used in the *no.ba&eC systems are compounds of furfury( alcohols, urea and formaldehyde. A very low water content ;less than (@< is used in the above moulds. )he synthetic li+uid resin is mi%ed with sand and the mi%ture hardens at room temperature. 8. 4r" +and 2ore !ou)ds. !hen the moulding flas&s are too large to fit in an oven ;for ba&ing< or when it costs too much to dry a large mass of sand, moulds are made from assemblies of san cores. A sand core is usually prepared form core sand mi%tures ;discussed later< and is ba&ed at (:7 to ,46 o C for > to ,>h, depending upon sand preparation and mass. 2. 1;p)ain the 7arious t"pes of mou)ding machines ,ith neat s9etch. )he moulding machines are classified asA ;i< S+ueeze Moulding Machine ;ii< -olt Machines ;iii< Sand Slingers ;a< +queeCe !ou)ding !achines. )hese machines are operated by compressed air at a pressure from 7 to : atm. A schematic diagram of a top s+ueeze machine is shown in fig. ;a<. the pattern plate with pattern , is clamped on the wor& table ( and flas& 4 is placed on the plate. )hen the sand frame > is placed on flas&4. )he flas& and frame are filled with moulding sand from a hopper located above the machine. =e%t the table lift mechanism is switched on and the flas& together with the sand frame and pattern is lifted up against platen 7 of the stationary s+ueeze head D. )he platen enters the sand frame and compacts the moulding sand down to the upper edge of the flas& ;shown by a dash line<. After the s+ueeze, the wor& table returns to its initial position. )he principle of a bottom s+ueeze machine is shown in fig. ;b< the pattern plate , with the pattern is clamped on wor& table (. flas& 4 is placed on frame : of the machine and is filled with sand from a hopper. =e%t, the s+ueeze head D is brought against the top of the flas& and the lift mechanism is switched on. )able ( with plate , and the pattern are pushed up to the lower edge of the flas& ;shown by the dash line<. After this the table returns to the initial position.
Dig. +queeCe mou)ding machine a& and b& (imitation of +queeCing< (. Sand density is uniform. #t is ma%imum near the plate and then falls gradually towards the pattern. 'uet to this, this method is used for wor& that can be modulated in shallow flas&s. ,. #f the pattern contains cavities for the formation of green sand cores, s+ueezing does not ma&e sand flow into the cavities effectively and get it pac&ed property. ;b< Eo)t !achine. #n the Holt moulding machine, the pattern and flas& are mounted on a mould plate and the flas& is filled with sand. )he entire assembly is raised a small amount by means of an air cylinder and is then dropped against a fi%ed stop. )he compacting of sand is achieved by the decelerating forces acting on it.
)he wor&ing of a Hot moulding machine is shown in fig. the table ( with moulding sand, is lifted by plunger > to a definite height ;about 7cm< when compressed air is admitted through pipe 7 and channelsD. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
=e%t the table drops since the air is released through hole :. #n falling, the table sri&es the stationary guiding cylinder G and this impact pac&s the moulding sand in the flas&. SpringsI, by cushioning the table blows, reduced noise and prevent destruction of the mechanism and the foundation. About ,6 to 76 drops are needed to compact the sand, and the average machine operates at about ,66 stro&es per minute. )he draw bac& of the method is that the density of the sand in the mould is not uniform. #t is greatest in the layers ne%t to the pattern plate and lowest near the top of the mould, because in the course of impact, every upper layer acts on the lower layer. Also, there is high level of noise produced by the Holt machines in operation and there is considerable load on the foundation. +and +)ingers< #n these machines, the sand is thrown out by centrifugal force from a rapidly rotating single bladed impeller and directed over the pattern in the flas&. )his type of compaction results in mould having a more uniform density throughout, than does the s+ueezing or Holting method. )hese machines can fill flas&s of any size, but are generally used only in the ma&ing of large moulds. )hey can be efficiently employed in both mass and piece production. )hese machines operate with a high outputJ one sand slinger can fill flas&s, pac&ing the sand, at a rate of D6 m4 per hour. )he disadvantage of the machine is that it doe not draw the pattern or handle the mould in any may.
Dig. +and +)inger )he principle of operation of the impeller head on the sand slinger is shown in fig. the head consists of housing in which blade rotates rapidly. Moulding sand is fed by a belt conveyer to opening in the end face of the housing where it is pic&ed up by blade and thrown in separate portions at a high speed through outlet down into the flas& under the head.
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'. 4iscuss the 7arious pattern a))o,ances in detai). 1. +hrin9age A))o,ance. Since metal shrin&s on solidification and contracts further on cooling to room temperature, linear dimensions of patterns are increased in respect of those of the finished casting to be obtained. )his is called the *shrin&age allowanceC. #t is given as mm8m. )ypical value of shrin&age allowance for various metals are given belowA C#, Mallcable iron "rass, Cu, A Steel Kinc, Lead F F F (6mm8m F (7mm8m ,6mm8m ,7mm8m
!hile laying out a pattern, the dimensions are ta&en from a pattern ma&erLs rule, called *Shrin& scaleC, which is longer than a standard scale by the shrin&age value for the appropriate metal. 2. !achining A))o,ance. Machining allowance or finish allowance indicates how much larger the rough casting should be over the finished casting to allow sufficient material to insure that machining will *clean upC the surfaces. )his machining allowance is added to all surfaces that to be machined. )he amount of finish allowance depends on the material of the casting, its size, volume of production, method of moulding, configuration of the casting, the position the wall surface occupies in the mould and during poring. Machining allowance is larger for hand moulding as compared to machine moulding. )he largest allowances are ta&en for the surfaces located in the cope half of the mould, since they are liable to contamination duet to slag. )ypical machining allowances for sand casting are given in )able the allowances are in mm per side. 9or internal surfaces such as bores, the allowance is about 6.G mm greater and is negative. '. Pattern draft or Taper. Pattern draft also termed is *drawnC is the taper placed on the pattern surfaces that are parallel to the direction in which the pattern is withdrawn from the mould ;)hat is perpendicular to the parting plane<. )o allow removal of the pattern without damaging the mould cavity, fig. ;a<. )he draft depends upon the method of moulding, the common draft is ( 6 to 46 After applying the draft, the largest cross. section of the pattern will be at the parting line for e%ternal surfaces and reverse will be for internal surfaces, ;fig. ;b<.
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*. 2orners and Di))ets. )he intersection of surfaces in casting must be smooth and form no sharp angles. 9or this, the e%ternal and internal corners of patterns are suitably rounded. )hey are called rounded corners and fillets respectively. 9illets facilitate the removal of the pattern from the mould, prevent the formation of crac&s and 1 1 shrin& holes in the casting. )he radius of a fillet is given as F to ;arithmetic mean of the thic&ness of the 5 3 two walls that form the angle in the pattern<. -. Rapping or +ha9e A))o,ance. )o ta&e the pattern out of the mould cavity it is slightly rapped to detach it from the mould cavity. 'ue to this, the cavity in the mould increases slightly. So, the pattern is made slightly smaller. /. 4istortion A))o,ance. )his allowance is considered only for castings of irregular shape which are distorted in the process of cooling because of metal shrin&age.
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*. What are the different t"pes of pattern. 1;p)ain an" fi7e ,ith neat s9etch. +p)it or Parted Pattern. )hese patterns are split along the parting plane ;which may be flat or irregular surface< to facilitate the e%traction of the pattern out of the mould before the pouring operation. Moulding with a split pattern has already been e%plained under Art. ,.,.>, 9ig ;a< shows a split pattern for casting a bush. )he two parts of the pattern are Hoined together with the help of dowel pins. 9or a more comple% casting, the pattern may be split in more than two parts. (oose Piece Pattern. !hen a one piece solid pattern has proHection or bac& drafts which lie above or below the parting plane, it is impossible to with draw it from the mould. !ith such patterns, the proHections are made with the help of lose pieces. A loose piece is attached to the main body of the pattern by a pin or with a dovetail slide. !hile moulding, sand is rammed securely around the loose piece. )hen the pins are removed. )he sand is then pac&ed and rammed around the total pattern. !hen the main pattern is drawn, the loose pieces remain in the mould. )hese are then carefully rapped and drawn as shown in fig. ;b<. Bne drawbac& of loose pieces is that their shifting is possible during ramming. 4ra, bac9s. Another techni+ue to ma&e a mould with a one piece solid pattern ;with proHections< is the use of drawbac&s. A draw bac& is a portion of the mould, which can be drawn bac& horizontally in order to allow removal of the pattern. #t may be rammed around a rigid support called an *arborC to facilitate moving it, ;fig. ;c<<.
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Aated Patterns. A gated pattern is simply of or more loose patterns having attached gates and runners. ;fig. ;d<<. Since the gates and runners are not to be cut by hand, gated patterns reduce the moulding time somewhat. "ecause of their higher cost, these patterns are used for producing small castings in mass production systems and on moulding machines. !atch P)ate pattern. A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag portions mounted on opposite sides of a plate ;usually metallic<, called the *match plateC that conforms to the contour of the parting surface. )he gats and runners are also mounted on the match plate, ;fig ;e<<, so that very little hand 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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wor& is re+uired. )his results in higher productivity. )his type of pattern is used for a large number of castings. Several patterns can be mounted on one match plate if the size of the casting is small. )he patterns need not all be for the same casting. !hen match plate patterns are used, the moulding is generally done on a moulding machine. Piston rings of #.C. engines are produced by this process. 2ope and 4rag Pattern. A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag portions each mounted on separate match plats. )hese patterns are used when in the production of large castings, the complete moulds are too heavy and unwidely to be handled by a single wor&er. )he patterns are accurately located on the plates, so that when the two separately made mould halves are assembled together, the mould cavity is properly formed. 9or a higher rate of production, each half of the pattern is mounted on a separate moulding machine, one operator wor&ing on the cope part of the mould and the other on the drag part of the mould. +,eep Patterns. A sweep is a section or board ;wooden< of proper contour that is rotated about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of rotational symmetry, ;9ig. ;f<<. )his type of pattern is used when a casting of large size is to be produced in a short time. A complete pattern is not necessary and would be very e%pensive for a very large casting where the tolerances are large. )he moulds are made manually, either in a pit or on the foundary floor. )hus, this type of moulding is referred to as pit and floor moulding. )he moulding sand used is the *loam sandC. A frame wor& of bric& or wood supports the loam. Bnce the mould is ready, the sweep pattern and the spots about which it rotates, are removed before pouring the mould cavity. Large &ettles of C.#. are made by sweep patterns. %. 1;p)ain the 7arious sand casting defects in neat s9etch their causes and remedies. 1. =)o, 3o)es 9igure ;a< "low holes, gas holes or gas cavities are well rounded cavities having a clean and smooth surface. )hey appear either on the casting surface ;open cavities< or in the body of a casting ;closed cavities<. )hese defects occur when an e%cessive evolved gas is not able to flow through the mould. So, it collects into a bubble at the high points of a mould cavity ad prevents the li+uid metal from filling that space. )his will result in open blows. Closed cavities or gas holes are formed when the evolved gases or the dissolved gases in the molten metal are not able to leave the mass of the molten metal decreases as the temperature decreases. So, the dissolved gases will try to leave the metal as it cools and solidifies. )hese defects are caused byA e%cessive moisture content ;in the case of green sand moulds< or organ c content of the sand, moisture on chills, chaplets or metal inserts, inade+uate gas permeability of the moulding sand ;due to fine grain size of sand, high clay content, hard ramming<, poor venting of mould, insufficient drying of mould and cores, cores not properly vented, high gas content of the molten metal, low pouring temperature and incorrect feeding of the casting etc. As the gas follows the path of least resistance these defects usually occur in the cope portion of the casting. #nternal gas holes are revealed when the casting is machined or cut into sections.
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2. !isrun or +hort run )his defect is incomplete cavity filling, ;figure ;b<<. )he reasons can beA inade+uate metal supply, too low mould or melt temperature, improperly designed gates, or length to thic&ness ratio of the casting is too large. !hen molten metal is flowing form one side in a thin section, it may loose sufficient heated resulting in loss of its fluidity, such that the leading edge of the stream may freeze before it reaches the end of the cavity. )his defect determines the minimum thic&ness that can be cast for a given metal, superheat, and type of mould. '. 2o)d +hut A cold shut figure ;c< is an interface within a casting that is formed when two metal streams meet without complete fusion. )he causes are the same as for misrun. *. !ismatch Mismatch is a shift of the individual parts of a casting with respect to each other. )his may occur due to mould shift or core shift, ;figure ;d<<. )he causes can be an ine%pert assembling of the two halves of the mould, from wear of pin bushes and pins and dimensional discrepancy between the core prints of the pattern and the core prints of the core. -. D)ashes 9lashes or 9ins commonly appear along the mould Hoint at the places where the mould halves do not fit together properly because of much wear or warping of flas& halves or improper fastening of the cope to the drag. /. !eta) Penetration or burnt on sand is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting which results from insufficient refractoriness of moulding materials, a large content of impurities, inade+uate mould pac&ing and poor +uality of mould washes. !hen the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, at those places when the sand pac&ing is inade+uate, some metal will flow between the sand particles for a distance into the mould wall and get solidified. !hen the casting is removed, this lump of metal remains attached to the casting. Bf course, it can be removed afterwards by chipping or grinding.
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Digure< 2asting 4efects %. 4rop 'rop or crush in a mould is an irregularly shaped proHections on the cope surface of a casting ;figure ;e<<. )his defect is caused by the brea& away of a part of mould sand as a result of wea& pac&ing of the mould, low strength of the moulding sand, malfunctioning of moulding e+uipment, strong Holts and stri&es at the flas& when assembling the mould. )he loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either on the top or bottom surface of the casting depending upon the relative densities of the sand and the li+uid. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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8. Run out 0un out is the defect of metal lea&ing out of the mould during pouring. )his defect occurs due to faulty moulding and faulty flas& e+uipment. :. 2ut or Wash A cut or wash is a low proHection on the drag face of a casting that e%tends along the surface, decreasing in height as it e%tends from one side of the casting to the other end. #t usually occurs with bottom gating castings in which the moulding sand has insufficient hot strength, and when too much metal is made to flow through one gate into the mould cavity, figures ;f<. 1$. +cars and =)isters A scare is a shallow blow. #t generally occurs on a flat surface, whereas a blow occurs on a conve% casting surface. A blister is a shallow blow li&e a scar with a thin layer of metal covering it, figure ;g.h<. 11. 3ard +pots )his defect occurs only with certain metals such as gray C.#. with insufficient silicon. Such metals may become hardened by the chilling effect of moulding sand. ard spots will cause difficulty if the castings are to be machined. 12. Pinho)e Porosit" Pin holes are small gas holes either at the surface or Hust below the surface. !hen these are present, they occur in large numbers and are fairly uniformly dispersed over the surface. )his defect occurs due to gas dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not properly degassed. 1'. +hrin9age 2a7ities A shrin&age cavity is a depression or an internal void in a casting that results from the volume contraction that occurs during solidification. #ts causes and remedies have already been discussed. 1*. 3ot Tears ot tears ;figure ;i<<. Are hot crac&s which appear in the form of irregular crevices with a dar& o%idized fracture surface. )hey arise when the solidifying metal does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces produced during solidification. )hey occur chiefly from an e%cessively high temperature of casting metal, increased metal contraction, incorrect design of the gating system and casting on the whole ;causing portions of the casting to be restrained from shrin&ing freely during cooling which in turn causes e%cessive high internal resistance stresses<, poor deformability of the cores, and non.uniform cooling which 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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gives rise to internal stresses. )his defect can be avoided by improving the design of the casting and by have in a mould of low hot deformation. 1-. +ponginess Sponginess or honeycombing ;figure ;H< is an e%ternal defect, consisting of a number of small cavities in close pro%imity, which usually come through and are apparent on the surface. #t is caused by MdirtL or MinclusionsL held mechanically in suspension in molten metal and is due to imperfect s&imming of slag in the ladle and incorrect gating design. )he impurities being lighter than the metal rise to the upper part of the cavity, often accompanied by bubbles of gas if the venting is not proper. 1/. +cab )his defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or brea&s down and the recess thus made is filled by metal ;figure ;&<. !hen the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be disengaged with such violence as to brea& up the sand ;sand up heaving<, which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled with metal. )he reasons can beA. too fine a sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand, and uneven mould ramming. 1%. +,e)) A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found on vertical faces of castings resulting from li+uid metal pressure figure ;l<. #t may be due to low strength of mould because of too high a water content or when the mould is not rammed sufficiently.
8. 1;p)ain the fo))o,ing in detai)s the ,or9ing Princip)es. 1. True 2entrifuge 2asting. 2. +emi# 2entrifuge 2asting. True#2entrifuga) 2asting< )rue centrifugal castings are produced by pouring molten metal into the cavity of a rapidly rotating metal mould to whose walls the metal is thrown by centrifugal force and where it solidifies in the form of a hollow casting. )hus the distinguishing feature of true.centrifugal casting is the production of hollow casting by the centrifugal force alone and without the aid of a central core. )he centrifugal casting machines used to spin the mould may have either a horizontal or a vertical a%is of rotation. 9or short castings, that is, when diameter to length ratio is rather large ;bronze bushings, worm wheels and piston ring blan&s<, the rotational a%is is vertical. Long parts, that is, castings with relatively long length in relation to their diameters ;C.#. water supply and sewerage pipes, steel gun barrels etc.< are made in horizontal a%is machines.
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)he principle of the vertical a%is machine is shown in 9igure ;a<. As is clear, the central hole will not be completely cylindrical, but will be slightly paraboloidal, which will need machining after the casting is made. owever, nearly cylindrical holes can be made by employing higher spinning speeds. )he moulds may be permanent moulds made of metal or graphite or may be sand lined. )here are two types of horizontal a%is centrifugal casting machines which differ in the way the metal is distributed along the length of the mould during pouringA #n one, the pouring trough ;ladle or spout< travels horizontally, while the spinning mould is stationary. #n the other type, the ladle is stationary and the mould travels. )he mould or flas& is made of steel or graphite. )he metal mould can be used as it is or its inner surface may be lined with green sand or dry sand. )he choice depends upon the geometrical dimensions of a casting, its material and the production volume. Metal moulds are preferred for the production of a large number of single.type parts which show no retarded shrin&age and have an outer shape allowing easy e%traction of the casting from the mould. Sand.lined moulds are preferred for castings in which retarded shrin&age moulds. Such moulds are used to advantage for the production of a small lot of cast iron pipes without chilling. )hese pipes will not re+uire annealing heat treatment, as will be needed for similar pipes made in metal moulds, since the cooling rate will be slow because of sand lining. )he sand lining also protects the metal mould from the intense heat of the molten metal and, increases its durability. )he method of casting pipes in which the ladle is stationary and the mould travels is called as *)he deLavaud ProcessC. )his is e%plained with the help of the following steps, ;see 9igure ;b<<,A (. )he machine consists of an accurately machined metal mould surrounded by water. 'ry heat.insulating coats ;refractory mould wash of materials such as +uartz sand and phosphate flour< are applied to the inner surface of the mould to secure stable thermal conditions, increase its durability and produce iron castings free of chill. )he machine is mounted on wheel so that it can be moved lengthwise on a trac&.
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Digure a < True 2entrifuga) 2asting. ,. )he metal mould is heated to (76 . ,66 C before pouring. After pouring, the mould is cooled to by circulating water through the surrounding shell. 4. )he long pouring spout is inserted to the far e%tremity of the mould. >. As pouring proceeds, the rotating mould, that is, the machine is moved slowly on the trac&, leftwards. 7. At the end of the process, the machine will be at the lower end of its trac&, with the mould spinning continuously till the pipe has solidified. D. )he cast pipe is then e%tracted from the mould by inserting a piper puller. )he use of the sand head core is to form the inside contour of the bell end of the pipe. #f desired, the outer contour of the casting can be varied, while the inside remains cylindrical. )he spinning speed of the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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mould will depend upon the diameter of the pipe, the composition of the pouring metal and a number of other factors. Ad7antages< (. ,. Castings ac+uire high density and are distinguished for their fine.grained structure and high mechanical strength. #nclusions and impurities such as o%ide, slag and gas etc., being lighter than the molten metal, will segregate toward the centre and cling to the inside surface of the casting where they may be removed by subse+uent machining operations.
So, the castings will be of mainly clean metal. 4. >. 7. D. $ates and risers are not needed, which results in saving in material and increasing the yield. igh output. 9ormation of hollow interiors without cores. )he castings are less subHect to directional variations than static castings.
4isad7antages< (. Contaminations of inner surface of the casting with segregates and non.metallic inclusions, which ma&e it necessary to increase finishing allowance for subse+uent machining of inner surfaces. ,. An inaccurate diameter of the inner surface of a casting. 4. =ot all the alloys can be cast by this method due to the increased segregations of alloy constituents during pouring under centrifugal forces. Product app)ications< Parts with rotational symmetryA C.#. water supply and sewerage pipes, steel gun barrels, pump components, rolls, liners, hollow shaftings, bearings, sleeves, hydraulic Hac& cylinders and air cylinders, large propeller shaft sleeves and stern tubes, chemical reactor vessels, heat e%changer bodies, refinery and petrochemical applicationsJ pressure vessel bodies, reactor tubes and pressure piping for nuclear power plants J paper mill rolls, te%tile rolls, steel mill rolls and machinery drive rolls etc.
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Digure< +emi#centrifuga) 2asting. +emi#centrifuga) 2asting< !hen the moulds prepared by any of the techni+ues under e%pendable or permanent moulds are rotated about the central vertical a%is and the casting is symmetrical about the a%is of rotating ;that is the a%is of the casting coincides with the a%is of rotation<, the process is called as *semiconductor.centrifugal castingC. )he centrifugal force aids the flow of the molten metal from a central feeding sprue and can thereby produce a somewhat more dense structure as compared to conventional sand casting, ;9igure<. Casting shapes can be more complicated than true centrifugal casting. Cores are used if central hole is needed, the spinning speed being considerably less than that for true centrifugal casting. An advantage of the process is that stac& moulding can be used to cast many parts at the same time. Product app)ications< 'is& shaped partsA !heels, rings, rollers, sheaves, pulleys, flywheels, gear blan&s, )urbo.Supercharger diaphragm dis&s and steel railroad wheels etc. :. 1;p)ain the (ost ,a; method and the steps in7o)7ed in it. (ost#,a; method< )he lost.wa% method, sometimes, also called simply as Mprecision.investment castingL has been used for many years by Hewelers and dentists. Since world.war.##, the method has been adapted to the production of small and precise industrial castings. "asically, the method involves the use of e%pendable ;heat disposable< pattern surrounded with a shell of refractory material to form the casting mould. Castings are formed by pouring molten metal in the mould cavities created by melting out the pattern. Since the pattern made of wa% is melted out and gets destroyed, that is, why the name *lost.wa% methodC. )he steps involved in this method are e%plained belowA !a9ing a master pattern of the part to be cast. )he pattern is usually made of a metal that can be easily machined, such as, brass, aluminium alloy or steel, or a fusible alloy ;alloy of tin, lead and bismuth<. #t is made oversize to compensate for wa% and metal shrin&age. 2. !a9ing a composite die to the master pattern ;by casting< for casting the wa%8plastic patterns. )he die.material is a low melting.point alloy li&e bismuth alloys or even aluminium and C.#. )he master dies can be directly made from die.bloc&s of steel by machining the cavities.
1.
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!a9ing of ,a; F p)astic patterns 9or this, the two halves of the master die are clamped together and molten wa%8plastic is inHected into the die cavity under pressure, 9igure ;a<<. )he molten wa% is slightly above its melting point and the inHection pressure is about > bars with the dies preheated to about D7oC. 9or plastic materials ;polystyrene, polythenes etc.<, the inHection pressure is of the order of 47 bars with higher temperature. 4. Assemb)ing the ,a; patterns to a ,a; gating s"stem. Several small wa% patterns are assembled together to a wa% gating system connected to a central sprue, by wa% welding with the aid of heated tools. #n this manner, a cluster or *treeC of wa% patterns is formed, ;9igure ;b<<. 5. In7esting the ,a; patterns. )he wa% patterns are invested in two stages. 9irstly, a thin coating ;about ( mm< of primary investment slurry is made around the wa% patterns by dipping these in the slurry. )his slurry is made by mi%ing e%tremely fine silica sand with a water8ethyl silicate or gypsum solution. )his slurry coating being in direct contact with the surfaces of the wa% patterns, will determine the surface +uality of the castings. After this primary coating has dried sufficiently, the final investment layer consists of coarser and less e%pensive slurry. )he final investment moulds may be either solid type or shell type. A solid type mould is formed by placing a metal container type flas& over the cluster of patterns and then pouring a hard.setting moulding materials into the flas&, ;9igure ;c<. Shell type investment moulds are made by dipping the cluster of patterns in a ceramic slurry and the procedure is repeated until the re+uired thic&ness of the mould or shell ;about D.7 mm< is obtained. )he common refractory used for investment material is silica. )he binder is gypsum or water.based sodium silicate.
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Digure< (ost ,a; !ethod. !e)ting out the ,a; patterns and ba9ing the mou)d. )he finished mould is dried in air for , to 4 hours and then ba&ed in an oven for , hours to melt out the wa%. At a temperature of (66 to (,6 oC the wa% melts and the moulds are inverted so that all or most of the wa% will run out of the sprue. 7. !e)ting the meta) and pouring the mou)d. )he mould or flas& is transferred to a drying furnace where it is first held at (76oC and then gradually heated to G66 to I66 oC. )his will vaporize any remaining wa% in the mould. )he preheated mould also ensures that the molten metal will completely fill the mould cavity. )he preheated mould is poured with molten metal which fills the cavity and is allowed to cool and solidify. Another way to fill the cavity is to place the mould on a vacuum table and drawing a vacuum though the slurry which will help suc& the metal right into the mould or by placing the mould in a centrifugal casting machine and pouring the metal in this manner. 8. +ha9ing out the castings@ remo7ing gates and feeders. After cooling, the fragile mould material is bro&en away freeing the castings. )he gates and runners are removed in the normal way. 9. 2)eaning and inspecting the casting.
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Ad7antages of (ost ,a; method< ;i< #ntricate details can be cast. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;ii< ;iii< ;iv< ;v< ;vi<
2ndercuts and other shapes, which would not allow the withdrawal of a normal pattern, are easily obtained. )he surface is very smooth ;(.7 to ,.,7 m 0a< and there is no parting line. igh accuracy can be obtained ;tolerances of the order of 6.664 mm8mm can be obtained< so that much of complicated and costly machining can be eliminated. 2nmachinable alloys ;heat resisting steels or nimonic alloys< can be cast. More than one casting can be made at a time.
(imitations< ;i< ;ii< ;iii< )he process is involved and thus e%pensive. )he process has the limitations in use of and location of holes. )he parts are limited in size to a few &g.
1$. 1;p)ain the 7arious steps in7o)7ed in she)) mou)ding process.
+he)) !ou)ding< )he process involves the use of match plate patterns similar to cope and drag patterns which are used for green sand casting. )he process is based on the capability of a thermosetting resin and sand mi%ture to assume the shape of a preheated metal pattern and to form a dense, +uic&ly hardened shell mould. )he two matching shell halves ;made from cope and drag parts of the pattern< are clamped or glued 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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together to form the mould cavity. Castings are obtained by pouring molten metal into this mould cavity. )he shell thic&ness varies from 7 to G mm. As in sand casting process, the mould is e%pendable and must be bro&en away to facilitate the removal of the solidified casting. Shell moulding process involves the following stepsA 1. Preparation of the meta) match p)ate cope and drag t"pe patterns< )he patterns are machined from copper alloys, C.#., Al or Steel depending upon the life of the pattern. )hey are given the usual shrin&age and draft allowances, are polished and then attached to the metal match plates. 2. !i; the in7estment materia)< )he investment material consists of dry, fine and thoroughly washed silica and 7 to (6@ of thermosetting phenolic resin ;phenol formaldehyde< which acts as a binder. )he two are thoroughly mi%ed together. '. 3eat the pattern< )he pattern plate is heated to about ,66 to 466oC for investing it. )o prevent8minimize the mould adhesion of the investment material and to ma&e the removal of the shell convenient, a release agent containing a silicone is ne%t sprayed over the hot pattern plate surface. *. In7est the pattern< 9or this, the investing material is placed in a container called *dump bo%C ;about one. third full< and the heated pattern plate is clamped to it, with the pattern surface inwards. )he dump bo% is then +uic&ly inverted on its trunnions. )he investing material falls over the surface of the heated pattern. )he heat penetrates the mi%ture, softens the binder ma&ing it effective. )his will result in the formation of a uniform shell around the pattern surface after the binder thermosets. )he shell thic&ness will depend upon the time of contact of the mi%ture with the heated pattern. #n about 46 to >7 s, we can get a normal shell thic&ness of 7 to G mm. )he dump bo% is then rotated bac& to its normal position. )he loose and unaffected investing mi%ture will fall down, leaving the shell adhering closely to the pattern. -. 2uring the +he))< 9or this, that is, to cure or harden the shell, the pattern plate is removed from the dump bo% and transferred to an oven and cured for about ( to 4 minutes at a temperature of about ,76 to >76oC. /. Remo7e the +he))< )he shell is then stripped from the pattern plate with the help of a number of eHector pins which pass through the plate. !hen these eHector pins are pressed simultaneously, the tops of these pins at the pattern plate surface, more upward and strip the shell from the pattern plate. %. 0epeat the steps , to D for the other half of the metal match plate pattern to produce the other half of the shell. 8. Assemb)e the +he))s< )he two halves of the cured shells are securely assembled by clamping or bonding them together at the parting line with a +uic&.acting thermosetting resin adhesive such as phenol. formaldehyde. :. Pour the !ou)d< #t is done in the same manner as for Lost.wa% method that is static pouring or vacuum pouring or centrifugal pouring.
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1$. Remo7e the 2asting< After cooling and solidification, the shells are bro&en or sha&en away from the castings in the usual way. )he steps are clear in 9igure Ad7antages< (. A high precision8accuracy of castings with tolerances of 6.66, to 6.667 mm8mm, is possible. ,. Smooth surface finish and reduced machining allowances possible. Many shell mould castings re+uire almost no subse+uent machining. )he common value of surface roughness is in the range of about 4., m 0a. 4. Comple% parts can be made by this method, even of difficult to machine metals and alloys. >. )he moulds can be stored until re+uired, because the used resins are not hygroscopic. 7. Less sand is used as compared to sand casting. D. Permeability of the thin shell moulds is higher compared with other types of moulds, so the gases escape easily through the walls. Also, thin shell does not have as great a chilling effect as a sand mould. :. )he process enables foundary automation to be introduced. G. Cleaning is considerably reduced and in some cases eliminated. I. Saving of metal through use of smaller gates, sprues and risers, resulting in increased yield. 4isad7antages< (. 'ue to the higher cost of match plate patterns and the cost of binder, the process is economical for mass8batch production. ,. Size of the casting is limited E (6 to (4.7 &g. 4. Serious dust and fume problems during and resin mi%ing. >. Carbon pic& up in the case of steels.
11. 4iscuss the 7arious Inspection methods to defects in castings. )he various inspection and testing procedures may be classed as followsA 1. 0isua) Inspection /isual inspection of castings can reveal many of the common surface defects such as misrun, crac&s and warping etc. )his method is very common and is applicable both in piece and mass production of castings. )he inspection is carried out in two stepsA prior to cleaning and annealing and then after the final finishing operation. 2. 4imensiona) Inspection 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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$eometric dimensions of castings are chec&ed by means of measuring tools such as plug and snap gauges, template gauges, mar&ed out plates and special alliances, to establish whether the dimensions of the casting conform to the drawing or not and to ma&e certain that the pattern and core bo%es are correct. )he deviations of dimensions should not e%ceed the permissible limits. '. !eta))urgica) 2ontro) 2nder this the chemical composition and the mechanical and other properties are determined in a laboratory. )he chemical composition of castings is chec&ed by the methods of chemical and spectral analysis. 9or this, the test pieces are commonly cast on test bars, that is, cast integral with the casting, or separately cast test specimens prepared for chec&ing strength properties. )he strength or mechanical tests include test inA bending, tension, hardness, compression shear and creep. *. Pressure Testing )his test is carried out on those castings to be used for conveying li+uids or gases. )he castings are chec&ed for pressure tightness or impermeability and lea&age. )he tests includeA water or air pressure tests. #n water pressure test, the casting is held under a certain pressure of water, the test pressure depends on the conditions under which the casting has to function. )he outer surface of the casting must be dry, otherwise it will not be possible to detect the traces of lea&age, if any. #n the air pressure test, a soap solution is applied to the surface of the casting. !hen the casting is subHected to air pressure testing, bubbles will appear on the surface showing the place of lea&age, if any. -. Radio graphica) Testing #nternal defects in a casting such as crac&s, voids, cavities and porosity etc., as well as surface crac&s can be revealed by radiographic inspection using %.rays and .rays.
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#n %.ray testing ;figure< short wave length rays from an %.ray tube are passed through a casting and recorded on a special film held against the opposite face of the casting. #f the casting has an internal defect, the density of the material at that spot will be less as compared to the surrounding material. )his area will allow more penetration of the rays, that is, the sections of the casting with crac&s cavities will absorb a smaller amount of %.rays as compared to fully dense material. )his will result in the appearance of a dar& shadow on the %.ray tube is a high voltage sourceA ,66 &/ for casting thic&ness upto 76 mm and ( million volts for thic&ness form 76 to (G6 mm. .ray testing is used for chec&ing heavy walled casings since these rays are more penetrating and less scattering as compared to %.rays. .ray radiate from 0adium or its salts contained in a capsule. Another source can be radio active element CoD6. /. !agnetic Testing #n this method, the casting to be tested is magnetized and then place between the poles of an electromagnet or in the magnetic field of a solenoid coil. )he energized coil is now moved along the casing. #f the coil comes across a defect on its way, the magnetic flu% changes its direction and induces an emf in the coil turns, the value of which shows up on the galvanometer. )he method can detect defects ;crac&s< on the surface or slightly below the surface of a casting. )hus, it supplements the radiographical methods which ordinarily can not detect small crac&s. owever, the method can be applied to castings made from ferromagnetic metals. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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%. !agnetic Partic)e testing )his method of inspection is a procedure used to determine the presence of defects at or near the surface of ferromagnetic castings. )he method is based on the principle that, if an obHect is magnetized, surface crac&s and voids in the material, which are at an angle to the magnetic lines of force, interrupts the magnetic field which gets distorted. )hat is, there is an abrupt change in the path of a magnetic flu% lea&age field and hence interference with the magnetic lines of force. )he magnetic lines spread out in order to detour around the interruptions, figure. )his interference is detected and hence the shape and size of the crac& or void is revealed, by the application of a fine powder of magnetic material, which tends to pile up around and bridge over the discontinuities. A surface crac& is indicated by a line of the fine particles following the outline of the crac&. )he magnetic powder may consist of fine iron filings, but 9e , B4 is preferred which is ground to pass a (66.mesh sieve. A variation of the method is that the magnetic particles are prepared with a fluorescent coating. #nspection will be carried out under 2./. light to intensify the effect. 1very crac& will be mar&ed by a glowing indication. !hen the plain magnetic powder is used, the trade name of the method is *Magna.flu%C, but when magnetic particles with a fluorescent coating are used, the method is called *MagnaflowC or *MagnagloC. )he powder may be applied dry or wet. 9or the dry method, the powder is applied in the form of a cloud or spray. #n the wet method, the powder is suspended in a low viscosity, non.corrosive fluid such as &erosene oil ;(66 g of magnetic powder in about 7( of 3.oil<. )his li+uid ;supraflu% paste is sprayed over the surface to be tested, by hydraulically operated machine or the casting is immersed in the li+uid. )hen the casting is allowed to dry. =ow, when the casting is magnetised, the magnetic particles will gather around the crac& and in the *MagnagloC method, they will also glow. )he magnetic fields can be generated either with '.C, or A.C., using yo&es, bars or coils. 'ry powder method is better for locating near defects and is also less messy than the wet method. )he wet method is superior for detecting fine surface defects. Another big advantage of wet methods is that all surfaces of the casting can be reached, including vertical surfaces and the underside of the horizontal surfaces, by housing or by immersion in li+uid. 9rom the above discussion, it is apparent that crac&s that are in a direction parallel to the magnetic field would not be detected. )he crac&s which are perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field are the easiest to detect. 8. 1dd" current Inspection #n this method, the material of the casting need not be ferromagnetic. )he test includes a probe 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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which is supplied with a high fre+uency current. #t induces an electric field in the casting. )he field changes in the presence of surface or near surface defects. )hese changes show up on instruments.
:. (iquid penetrant Inspection )his method can reveal surface defects only but can be used for any material. )he surface of the casting is thoroughly cleaned and dried. )hen the li+uid penetrants are applied as sprays or by immersion. )he penetrant li+uid contains either a material which will fluoresce under blac& light or a dye that can be visually detected. )he li+uid penetrant will be readily drawn into e%tremely small surface crac&s. )he surface is cleaned and dried. )hen, a powder material called a *developerC is sprayed on the surface. )he penetrant trapped in defects bleeds out due to blotting action and delineate defects during development. )he penetrant e%tent of the discontinuity in the casting surface will be proportional to the amount of penetrant bleeding out. #f a fluorescent penetrant is used, defects show up as glowing yellow green dots or lines against a dar& bac& ground. #n dye penetrants, defects are revealed as red dots or lines against a white bac&ground. 1-. 1;p)ain the different t"pes of pattern materia)s and their ad7antages and disad7antages. a& Wood. )he wood used for pattern ma&ing should be properly dried and seasoned. #t should not contain more than (6@ moisture to avoid warping and distortion during subse+uent drying. #t should be straight grained and free form &nots. Ad7antages (. ,. 4. >. Light in weight. Comparatively ine%pensive. $ood wor&ability Lends itself to gluing and Hoining. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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7. olds well varnishes and paints. D. Can be repaired easily. (imitations (. ,. 4. >. #nherently non. uniform in structure. Posses poor wear and abrasion resistance. Cannot withstand rough handling. Absorbs and gives off moisture, so that it varies in volume, warps and thus changes its mechanical properties. )hese drawbac&s, however, can be remedied by drying and seasoning it and then giving coats of water proof varnishes and paints.
)he following types of wood are commonly used for pattern ma&ingA ;i< ;ii< ;iii< White Pine. #t is the most widely used wood, because of its straight grain and light weight and because it is soft, easy to wor& and unli&ely to wrap. !ahogan". #t is harder and more durable than white pins. Can be wor&ed easily if straight grained. #t is less li&ely to warp than some of other woods. !ap)e@ =irch and 2herr". )hese woods are harder and heavier than white pine. )hey tend to warp in large sections, so should be used for small patterns only. )hey should be carefully treated, because, they pic& up moisture readily.
)he outer common wood materials areA )ea&, Shisham, 3ail and 'eodar. ;b< !eta). A metal pattern can be either cast from a master wooden pattern or may be machined by the usual methods of machining. Metal patterns are usually used in machine moulding. Ad7antages. (. More durable and accurate in size than wooden patterns ,. ave a smooth surface. 4. 'o not deform in storage. >. Are resistant to wear, abrasion. Corrosion and swelling. 7. Can withstand rough handling. (imitations. (. 1%pensive as compared to wood. ,. =ot easily repaired. 4. eavier than wooden patterns. >. 9errous patterns can get rusted. )he common metals used for pattern ma&ing areA
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;i<
2.I. !ith fine grain can be used as a pattern material. #t has low corrosion resistance unless protected eavier and difficult to wor& owever, it is cheaper and more durable than other metals. ;ii< =rass. May be easily wor&ed and built up by soldering or brazing. #t has a smooth, closed pore structure. #t is e%pensive, therefore, generally used for small cast parts. ;iii< A)uminium. #t is the best pattern material, because it is easily wor&ed, light in weight and is corrosion resistant. #t is however, subHect to shrin&age and wears by abrasive action. ;iv< White !eta). #t has low shrin&age, can be cast easily, has low melting point, is light in weight and may be built up by soldering. owever, it is subHect to wear by abrasive action of sand. ;C< P)astics. )he use of plastics for pattern material results in following advantagesA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. 9acilitates the production process. Ma&es it more economical in cost and labour Plastic patterns are highly resistance to corrosion, lighter and stronger than wood patterns. Moulding sand stic&s less to plastics than to wood =o moisture absorption Smooth surface of patterns. Strong and dimensionally stable.
/arious plastic ma&e good materials for the production of patterns. )hese are the compositions based on epo%y, phenol formaldehyde and polyester resinsJ polyacrylates, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, and others. #n most wide use are cold. curing plastics based on epo%y resins and acrylates. Plastics patterns are made by one of the following methodsA ;i< ;ii< ;iii< "y inHecting a plastic material into a die. 2tilizing laminated construction by building up successive layers of resin and glass fibre. "y Pouring a plastic material into a plaster mould.
1/. 1;p)ain the sequence of operations performed in ma9ing of a sand mou)d. )he se+uence of operations performed in the ma&ing of a sand mould is outlined below. 9or this, a green sand mould and a split pattern have been chosen. )he appropriate split pattern is made which is split into two e+ual parts at the parting plane and Hoined together with dowel pins. !e will use a two flas& system, fig. A. 3and !ou)ding Process. (. )he drag half of the pattern, that is, the half with dowel holes rather than dowel pins, is placed with the flat parting plane on a flat board called *Moulding boardC. ,. )he drag is placed over the moulding board with the alignment or locating pins downwards.
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4. A parting material is dusted over the pattern and the moulding board to facilitate both the removal of the pattern from the mould and the separation of the two mould halves. >. )he drag is filled with moulding sand and it is pac&ed and rammed around the pattern. )he ramming is done manually with hands and with hand rammers ;wooden or iron<. )he sand should be properly rammed, that is, neither too hard nor too soft. $ases produced on pouring will not be able to leave it. Pneumatic ramming or mechanical ramming can be used for large moulds.
7. After the ramming, the e%cess sand is scrapped off with a straight bar called a *stri&e rodC. D. /ent holes are pierced in the sand ;within (7 to ,6mm of the pattern surface< with *vent wiresC, for the gases to escape through. :. A second moulding board is placed on the moulded drag half and clamped if the mould is too heavy to be turned over conveniently by hand. )he mould is then turned over (G6 o and the original moulding board is removed. G. )he cope is mounted onto the drag and the two halves are properly aligned with the help of alignment pins. I. )he cope half of the pattern is properly positioned over the drag half of the pattern with help of dowel pins and dowel holes. (6. 9or ma&ing the sprue and riser, the sprue pin and riser pin are placed appro%imately ,7 mm on either side of the pattern ;usually along the parting line passing through the alignment pins<. ((. Steps 4 to D are repeated. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(,. A pouring basin is cut adHacent to the sprue and then the sprue and riser pins are with drawn. (4. )he cope is carefully lifted off the temporally separated from the drag and placed on one side. (>. )o ta&e out the split pattern from the drag, *draw spi&esC are drawn into the pattern and the pattern is loosened from the send by rapping them lightly in all directions with a wooden hammer called a *malletC. )hen the pattern is lifted off with the help of draw spi&e. "efore with drawing the pattern, the sand around it is moistened with a *SwabC so that the edges of the mould remain firm when the pattern is withdrawn. (7. )he gate and runner are cut in the drag or both cope and drag, connecting the mould cavity and the sprue opening. Sometimes, the gate and runner are automatically made with the help of e%tensions on the pattern. #f needed, all the cavity edges are repaired. 'irt remaining in the mould cavity is blown off with a stream of air. #f cores are to be used, they are properly placed in position in the drag. (D. )he mould is now assembled, the cope being carefully placed over the drag so that the locating pins fit into the holes. (:. #f the lifting force on the cope due to the hydraulic pressure of the molten metal is greater than the weight of the cope, the cope must either be clamped to the drag or else weights must be placed on the top of the cope. (G. )he mould is now ready for pouring. 1%. 1;p)ain an" t,o t"pes of mo)ten meta) inGection mechanism for die casting machines.
Digure< +ubmerged P)unger !achine 1. +ubmerged P)unger !achine 9igure shows the submerged plunger type hot chamber machine. )he ram or plunger is submerged below the surface of the molten metal, and operates with in a cylinder. )he wor&ing medium can be pneumatic or hydraulic. )he casting cycle consists of the steps already e%plained. )he dies are loc&ed 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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together. !hen the ram is raised, it uncovers a part in the chamber wall, through which molten metal enters and fills the chamber. #n operation, the plunger is forced downward closing the port, and then forcing the confined metal up through an inlet channel and nozzle into the die cavity. After a present time interval, the ram ;plunger< is again raised, allowing the molten metal in the channel and nozzle to drop pac& into the metal pot. )hen, the die is opened and the solidified casting is eHected by eHected by eHector pins. Metal inHection speeds and pressures can be controlled to suit different metals and castings. 2. Air b)o,n !achine #n this machine, also &nown as the *direct air inHection machineC, there is a closed pot or chamber often called a *goosenec&C, figure. )his container is supported above a larger metal pot from which the container is filled by dipping below the metal lever ;by lowering the container with the help of operating lin&s<. )he container is then raised above and its nozzle is loc&ed against the die. Air under pressure ;usually , to > MPa< is admitted through a valve and forces metal through the nozzle ;spout< into the die. =e%t, the die is closed, air above the metal is released and e%hausted, and the goosenec& is lowered to be refilled, brea&ing away at the end of the sprue where the spout is &ept hot by a flame. After the casing formed in the die solidifies, the die is unloc&ed and opened and the casting is eHected. After, reloc&ing the die, the cycle is repeated.
Dig. Air =)o,n !achine )he metal enters the die in a spray of finely divided particles. "ecause of this spraying action, air is entrapped in the cavity resulting in porosity in the casting. Metals which have a dissolving effect on iron and steel ;material of goosenec&< should not be used. )he machine is rather slow and e%pensive to operate. 'ue to the above factors, the machine is rather slow and e%pensive to operate. 'ue to the above factors, the machine has been gradually replaced by the cold chamber die casing machine. 18. What is core. What are the essentia) qua)ities of core.
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4efinition. A core is a body made of refractory material ;sand or metal, metal cores being less fre+uently used<, which is set into the prepared mould before closing and pouring it, for forming through holes, recesses, proHections, undercuts and internal cavities. 1ssentia) qua)ities of a core. the cores are subHect to much more several thermal and mechanical effects than the mould, because, they are surrounded on all sides ;e%cept for the ends< by molten metal. Conse+uently, core sands should meet more stringent re+uirements. )he dry strength and surface strength of a core must be higher than that of a mould. Core sand must have high refractoriness, good permeability and sufficient collapsibility. )he strength of a core will depend on the &ind of sand an binding material used. )heir bond strength must be greater to allow handling. Also, because they generally are subHected to bending forces produced by the hydrostatic pressure of the li+uid trying to lift the core, the bond strength can be increased by using sand with sharper grains which bond together better. As already discussed, permeability will depend on grain size and distribution of grains in the core sand mi%. #t will also depend upon the type and content of the binder. 0efractoriness or thermal stability of core can be increased by giving a thin coating of graphite or similar material to the surface of core. A core should be capable of collapsing shortly after the molten metal has solidified around it. A lac& of this ability to decrease in volume may lead to the formation of crac&s in the casting as the metal cools. Collapsibility is enhanced by using oil binding materials. 1:. 1;p)ain the different t"pes of core ,ith neat s9etch. )he cores can be classified in many waysA a< According to state of Core i< $reen sand core ii< 'ry sand core A green sand core is formed by the pattern itself when it is being rammed Nfigure ;a<O. )he core is made of the sand as the moulding sand. Such cores are wea& and can be used only for light castings.
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Digure< T"pes of 2ores. 'ry sand cores are made separately ;as e%plained above< and then positioned in the mould, after the pattern is ta&en out and before the mould is closed. )hese are the cores most commonly used. b& According to the position of the 2ore in the !ou)d i& 3oriConta) 2ore )his core is placed horizontally in the mould and is very common in foundaries. #t is usually positioned along the parting line of the mould. ii& 0ertica) 2ore )hese cores are positioned vertically in the mould, Nsee figure ;b<O. )he two ends of the core rest on core seats in cope and drag. )he ma%imum portion of the core is supported in the drag. iii& =a)anced core N9igure ;c<O )hese cores are used when blind holes along a horizontal a%is are to be produced. Since the core is supported only ate one end, the core seat should be of sufficient length to prevent its falling into the mould.
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i7& 3anging 2ore N9igure ;d<O )hese cores are used when a cored casting is to be completely moulded in the drag, with the help of a single piece solid pattern. )he core is supported above and hangs into the mould. A hole in the upper part of the core is provided for the metal to reach the mould cavity. 7& 4rop core N9igure ;e<O )his core is used when a hole which is not in line with the parting surface is to be produced at a lower level. 2$. 1;p)ain the fo))o,ing< 1. facing sand 2. =ac9ing sand '. +"stem sand *. Parting sand. 1. Dacing sand. )his sand is used directly ne%t to the surface of the pattern and comes into contact with the molten mela when the mould is poured. As a result, it is subHected to the severest conditions and must posses, therefore, high strength and refractoriness. )his sand also provides a smoother casting surface and should be of fine te%ture. #t is made of silica sand and clay, and some additives without the additions of used sand. )he layer of facing sand in a mould usually ranges from ,7 to 76mm. 2. =ac9ing +and. )his is the sand which is used to bac& up the facing sand and to fill the whole volume of the flas&. Bld, repeatedly used moulding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. '. +"stem +and. #n mechanized foundries, where machine moulding is employed a so called *system sandC is sued to fill the whole flas&. Since the whole mould is made up of this system sand, the strength, the permeability and refractoriness of the sand must be higher than that of bac&ing sand. 9acing sand is always used to ma&e dry sand molds while system sand is fre+uently used for green sand moulding. *. Parting +and. )his sand is used to prevent adhering of two halves of mould surfaces in each moulding bo% when they are separated. )hus, to ensure good parting, the mould surface ;at contact of cope and 'rag< should be treated with parting sand or some other parting material. #t is also sprin&led or applied on the pattern surface ;before the moulding sand is put over it< to avoid its stic&ing and permit its easy withdrawal from the mould. )he parting sand is fine dry sand. )here are other parting materials also sued in foundary. 21. 1;p)ain< core@ core prints@ pouring basin@ sprue@ sprue base@ runner@ gates@ and risers. 2ore. #t is made of core sand ;or of some other suitable material and even of metal< and is used to ma&e holes in the casting. ;b< 2ore Prints. Core prints are the proHections on a pattern and are used to ma&e recesses ;core seats< in the mould to locate the core. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;C< Pouring =asin. #t is a reservoir at the top of the sprue ;in cope< that receives the stream of molten metal poured from the ladle. ;d< +prue. A sprue or down gate is a vertical channel that connects the pouring basin with runners and gates. #t is made somewhat tapered downward for case of moulding and more importantly to have a decreasing cross.sectional area corresponding to the increase in velocity of the molten metal as it flows down the sprue hole. )his prevents turbulents flow and hence the drawing in or air along with the li+uid into the mould cavity. ;e< +prue base or ,e)). #t is a reservoir at the bottom end of the sprue. #t prevents e%cessive sand erosion when the molten metal stri&es the runner at the sprue base. Also, there is considerable loss of velocity in the well. ;f< Runner. )he runner is generally a horizontal channel whose functions are to trap slag and connect the sprue base with the gates ;ingates<, thus allowing the molten metal to enter the mould cavity. ;g< Aates. )he gates ;ingates< are the channels through which the incoming metal directly enter the mould cavity. ;h< Risters. )he risers or feed heads are a part of the feeding system. )hese are reservoirs of molten metal that feed the metal in the casting proper as it solidifies, to prevent shrin&age cavities in the casting. 22. 1;p)ain the 7arious t"pes of materia)s used in foundries for the manufacture of casting mou)ds and cores. /arious types of materials are used in foundaries for the manufacture of casting moulds and cores. )hese materials are divided into two groupsA "asic and Au%iliary. "asic moulding materials includeA silica sands, which from the base and the various binders. )he au%iliary group includes various additives which impact desired properties to the moulding and core sands. )he essential constituents of a moulding sand areA Silica sand, "inder, Additives and water. Silica sand as the widely used moulding material has the following advantagesA (. #t is cheap, plentiful and easily available ,. #t is characterized by a high softening temperature and thermal stability, that is, highly refractory. 4. 1asily moulded, reusable and capable of giving good details. Silica sand forms the bul& of the moulding sand. "inder ;most common is clay< may be present in natural sand or added to silica sand separately. #n 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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combination with water, it is the bonding agent in green sand. Although moist sand particles do adhere to one another slightly, but coating with moist clay, the strength ;tensile and shear< of the sand mi% is increased about three.fold. Clay imparts cohesiveness and plasticity to the moulding sand in the most state and increases its strength after drying. !hen the moulding sand has the proper amount of water added to it to give a high strength with sufficient plasticity, the sand is said to be *at temperC or *temperedC. Additives impart to the moulding sand special properties ;strength, thermal stability, permeability, refractoriness, thermal e%pansion etc.< +and. According to the amount of clayey matter they contain, the moulding sands are classified asA (. Silica SandA 2pto ,@ clay. ,. Lean or wea& sandA , to (6@ clay 4. Moderately strong sandA (6 to ,6@clay >. Strong sandA 2pto 46@ clay 7. 1%tra Strong sand ;Loam sand<A upto 76@ clay. )here are three types of sand used for ma&ing mouldsA natural, synthetic and chemically coated. 1. Natura) +and. A natural sand is the one which is available from natural deposits. Bnly additives and water need be added to it to ma&e it satisfactory for moulding. )he clay content of most natural sands is slightly higher than desired so that new sand can be continuously added to the used sand to replenish that which is lost. 2. +"nthetic +and. A synthetic sand is prepared by mi%ing a relatively clay free sand having a specified type of sand grain, with a specified type of clay binder as well as water and other additives. All are mi%ed in the foundary. )his sand has the advantage that sand grains of specified composition and properties can be prepared on the basis of the metal being cast. '. 2hemica))" coated sand. Clean silica grains are sometimes coated with a non E thermosetting hydrocarbon resin, which acts as a binder. An additional binder in the form of clay can also be used. )he advantage of this sand is that the carbon in the resin which is an e%cellent refractory surrounds the sand grains and does not allow the molten metal to reach the sand grains. )his produces casting with clean surfaces as the sand does not get fused in them. )he moisture content in this sand is &ept to above 4@. Moulding sands e%hibit ma%imum strength at a moisture content of >@ for lean sands and of D to :@ for loam sands.
A typical green moulding sand for gray iron moulding are given belowA
>,
Silica sand Clay !ater Additives F
F DG to GD@ F (6 to ,6@ F 4 to D@ (to D@
=inders. "inders used in a foundary areA #norganic and organic binders. Brganic binders are mainly used for core ma&ing and will be discussed later. Clay binders are the most common inorganic binders. Clays are formed by the weathering and decomposition of roc&s. )he common types of clay used in moulding sand areA 9ireclay, &aolinite, little and "entonite. 3aolinite and "entonite clays are most popular, because, they have high thermochemical stability. 1. Dire#c)a". 9ire clay is a refractory clay usually found in the coal measures. 2. Hao)inite. #ts general composition is A#,B4.,SiB,., ,B. #t is one of the decomposition products of the slow weathering of the granite and basalt ; a &ind of blac& roc&<. #t is the main constituent of China fire clay. #ts melting point is (:76 to (:G:oC. '. )itt)e. )his clay has the appro%imate compositionA 3,B. A#,B4. SiB,. ,B. #t is formed from the weathering of mica roc&s. #ts particle size is about the same as the &aolinite clay and has similar moulding properties. *. =entonite. #ts general composition is MgB. A# ,B4.SiB,. ,B. #t is formed from the weathering of volcanic or igneous roc&s. #t is creamy white powder. #ts melting point is (,76.(466oC. )he basic constituent which gives refractoriness to a clay is alumina, A# ,B4. Bf all clays, bentonite is the most commonly used clay. #t needs smaller amount of water to obtain a given degree of plasticity. )his will result in less steam generation when the molten metal is poured into the mould, permitting a lower permeability in the moulding sand. Bther binders can beA Portland cement and Sodium silicate. )he percentage of binder in the moulding sand is of great importance. )he bond must be strong enough to with stand the pressure of sand erosion by the melt, yet it must be sufficiently wea&ened by the heat of metal to allow shrin&age of the casting and finally removal of the sand without damage to the solid casting. owever, bond must not destroy the permeability of the sand so that gases present in the melt or produced by the eat of the melt in the binder itself can escape.
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UNIT II W1(4INA AN4 +311T !1TA( DBR!INA PART A

1. 4efine ,e)ding.
Welding
!elding is defined as an localised coalescene of metals, where in coalescence is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
Fusion Welding
Brazing & Soldering
2. 2)assif" the different ,e)ding processes.

Chemical Electrical Electrical
Solid State Welding
Chemical
Resistance $ %fuel gas &hermit 'rc Resistance Electrical Beam (aser Beam T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R
Diffusion E !osion
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Cold Friction #ltrasonic
"echanical
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'. 4efine gas ,e)ding. $as welding is a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by heating with a flame or flames with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material. *. 4ifferentiate bet,een Autogeneous@ 3omogeneous an 3etro#geneous ,e)ding process. Auto Aeneous ,e)ding processes < =o filler metal is added to the Hoint interface. 1g. 1lectric resistance welding. 3omo Aeneous ,e)ding processes < 9iller metal is added and is of the same type as the parent metal. 1g. welding of plan low E C steel with a low E c welding rod 3eterogeneous ,e)ding processes < 9iller metal is used but is of a different type from the parent metal. 1g. "razing and soldering. -. +9etch the 7arious t"pes of ,e)d used in ma9ing a Goint.
"ead !eld
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spot weld
$roove weld
Di))et ,e)d /. +9etch the 7arious ,e)ded Eoints. a."utt -oint b.Lap -oint
C. )-oint
d. Corner -oint
%. +9etch the three t"pes of f)ame used in o;" acet")ene ,e)ding processes.
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8. Wh" the c)eaning of a Eoint is necessar" before ,e)ding. )he weld area must be free of oil, dirt, grease paint ;or< moisture etc. )hese will interfere with the proper fusion on the metal and result in a wea& -oint. :. What is the function of f)u; in ,e)ding. 2$$/& )he flu% is used in welding to prevent o%idation and to removes impurities. #t is also added in welding to control the detrimental effects. 1$. What is (ame))ar Tearing. 2$$/&. #n the welding of such components, lamellar tears may develop, because of shrin&age of the restrained components in the structure during cooling. Such tears can be avoided by providing for shrin&age of the members to ma&e the weld bead penetrate the wea&er component more deeply.
11. What is Thermit ,e)ding. )hermit welding is a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by heating with super heated li+uid metal and slag resulting from a chemical reaction between a metal o%ide and aluminium with or without the application of pressure. )hermit is a mi%ture of powered aluminium ;( part< and iron o%ide in the form of roll scale ;4 parts<. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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12. 4efine e)ectric arc ,e)ding. An arc is an electric discharge between two electrodes which ta&es place through an electrically conductive hot ionized gas &nown as plasma. An electric arc used for welding is called electric are welding. 1'. +9etch and compare the t,o ,e)ding techniques used in BAW processes. Dor,ard ,e)ding& (eft,ard Technique<
#n left ward welding techni+ue, the torch flame progresses from right to left. )he method allows preheating of the plate edges immediately ahead of the molten pool and this is the method more commonly used. Right,ard Technique< =ac9 ,ard Technique&
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#n the right ward )echni+ue, welding commences at the left hand side of the plates and proceed towards the right. #n this techni+ue weld puddle is &ept for a longer time and a narrow and deeper weld results. 1*. +9etch the t,o po)arities of 42 supp)" for ,e)ding process. 4irect 2urrent straight po)arit"<
4irect current re7erse po)arit"<
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1-. Write on the different t"pes of e)ectrodes used in arc ,e)ding. 1lectrodes used for arc welding are of two typesA =on consumable electrodes Consumable electrodes.
2onsumab)e e)ectrodes are of three 9inds< "are electrodes. 9lu%ed electrodes Coated electrodes.
1/. What is the purpose of coating on e)ectrodes. Provides a Protective gaseous atmosphere to prevent 6, , and =, pic& up by the molten metal. #mproves arc stability have providing certain chemicals which have this ability, by ionizing the path of arc. - Provides a slag over hot metal. - 0educes spatter of weld metal E when coating burns off slower than one. 1%. Name the shie)ding gases used in inert gas arc ,e)ding. elium, Argon, elium, . Argon, Co,. -
18. 4efine Resistance ,e)ding process. IEune 2$$%J. 0esistance welding is a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the wor& to electric current in a circuit of which the wor& is a part, and by the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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application of pressure and without the use of filler metal. 1:. Name si; t"pes of Resistance ,e)ding processes. (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. 0esistance spot welding. 0esistance seam welding. ProHection welding. 9lash welding 2pset welding Percussion welding.
2$. 4efine ,e)dabi)it". !eldability relates to ease with which a metal can be welded and to the properties of the Hoint compared with those of parent metal. 1ase of welding depends upon the melting temperature, thermal conductivity, thermal e%pansion and surface condition of wor&. 21. What meta)s ma" be spot ,e)ded. 2an dissimi)ar meta)s be spot ,e)ded. Spot welding is primarily restricted to thin metals, namely steels, stainless steel, aluminium, nic&el, nic&el alloys. Some dissimilar metals can be spot welded but with difficulty. 22. Write the 7arious spot ,e)ding machines. (. Standard Machines. i< 0oc&er arm type ii< Press type spot welders. ,. 0oc&er arm type Machine i< ii< iii< 9oot type Air operated M8c Press type m8c
4. Special Multiple electrode Machines, >. Portable welders. 2'. Write the specia) features of Resistance ProGection ,e)ding. Pieces of 2ne+ual thic&ness can be welded Suitable for welding copper, Aluminium, "rass.
2*. Write the app)ications of D)ash butt ,e)ding.
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2sed for Hoining thin walled tubies, rails, chain lin&s, and tools. 'issimilar metals such as refractory metals, including tungsten, tantalum and molybdenum can be welded. -oining of rims of wheels for automobiles.
2-. 4efine Driction ,e)ding. 9riction welding is defined as a solid state welding process where in coalescence is produced by heat obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. Parts are held together under pressure.
2/. Write the specia) features of Driction ,e)ding. Low initial capital cost Low E cost power re+uirements. Annealing of weld zone is not necessary.
28. 4efine 4iffusion ,e)ding. A solid state welding process, where in coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the application of pressure and elevated temperatures. Process does not involve macroscopic deformation of parts. 2:. 4efine =raCing. Process to Hoin two metal pieces heated to suitable temperatures by using a filler metal having li+uid us above >,:.c and below the solid us of base filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the -oint by capillary attraction. '$. Write the 7arious f)u;es used in braCing processes. Composition of borates, 9luorides, chlorides, bora% and boric acid
'1. Write the different braCing methods. )orch brazing, 9urnace brazing, #nduction brazing, 'ip brazing and 0esistance brazing.
'2. 4efine so)dering. #n soldering, two parts are Hoined by the use of molten filler metal whose melting point is below the solidus and in all cases below >,:oC. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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''. What are the t"pes of f)u;es used in so)dering. (. Corrosive type Kinc chloride, mi%tures of zinc chloride and Ammonium chloride. ,. =on corrosive type. 0osin and 0osin plus alcohol. '*. What are the 7arious steps in braCing. Surfaces to be Hoined are cleaned and fitted closely together. 9lu% is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to flow -oint is heated to the proper brazing temperature. Solid filler metal may be pre placed on the metal pieces and thus melted as the metal pieces are heated. Small amount of filler metal is needed to fill the Hoint completely.
'-. What are the requirements of good f)u;. Low viscosity so that it is replaced by molten filler metal. May react with surfaces to facilitate wetting. Shields the Hoints while the filler is still li+uid.
'/. What are the 7arious ,e)ding defects. Porosity, under cut, crac&s, #nclusions, Lac& of fusion, "urning, #nternal crac&s.
'%. 4efine soft so)der. Most widely used solders are alloy of tin and lead. Small Puantities of some other metals may also be added. )hese filler metals used in soldering are called soft solder. '8. What is sheet meta) ,or9. )he wor&ing of metal thic&ness from 4mm to 7mm with hand tools an simple machines into various forms is &nown as sheet metal wor&. ':. (ist the 7arious sheet meta)s that can be formed in press ,or9ing. 9unnels, bends, bo%es, pipes covers, etc. *$. Ai7e an" ten too)s used in sheet meta) hand operations. (. 'ivider ,. )rammel points 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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4. Punches >. Chisel 7. ammers D. Snips or shears :. Pliers G. Sta&es I. $roovers (6. 0ivet set and *1. What are the 7arious measuring too)s used in sheet meta) operations. Steel rule, folding rule, circumference rule, vernier caliper, micrometer, thic&ness gauge and sheet metal gauge. *2. Write do,n an" four sheet meta) characteristics. (. ,. 4. >. 'rawing Stamping 0ubber formingA Spinning
*'. (ist the 7arious maGor shearing operations in sheet meta). (. ,. 4. >. Shearing "ending 'rawing and S+ueezing
**. What is meant b" c)earance. Clearance is the intentional space between the punch cutting edge and the die cutting edge. 'epends on the type of cutting operation, the space between punch and die is provided &nown as clearance. *-. The meta) is stressed KKKKKKKK in bending operations. "eyond the elastic limit. */. !ention the effect of insufficient c)earance. #t does not allow a clean brea& but partial brea& occurs. #t is also called as secondary shear. *%. What is meant b" seaming. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he process of providing loc& between the two edges of the different wor& metal is called as seaming. *8. +tate the ad7antages of press ,or9ing operations. Material economy, 0eduction of weight and considerable cost reduction of fabricated parts, igh productivity, 2se of uns&illed labour, igh degree of precision, 2niformity of parts,
*:. 3o, deep dra,ing operations differ from sha))o, dra,ing operations. )he length of the part to be drawn is deeper than its width. -$. What is stretching. Stretching is the process of stressing the wor& blan& beyond its elastic limit by moving a form towards the blan& or sheet metal. -1. 4efine the term Lspring bac9M. Spring bac& is defined as the movement of the metal to resume its original position causing a decrease in bend angle after the applied force is withdrawn. -2. +tate the methods of stretch forming process. (. 9orm.bloc& method ,. Mating.die method -'. 3o, force e;erted on the form b)oc9 is ca)cu)ated. !hen the form.bloc& moves towards the blan&, the hydraulic fluid inside cylinder gets compressed and delivered through the outlet valve. )he movement of the form always depends the hydraulic fluid pressure inside cylinder. )he fluid is entered the cylinder when the form.bloc& moves away from the blan& after completing stretching process. #n one stretching process, we can get no need of stages in stretching. 9orce e%erted on the piston is calculated as
F=
, d p >
!here, d F 'iameter of the piston 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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p F ydraulic fluid pressure -*. What are the ad7antages of stretch forming operations. (. "lan&s can be stretched in a single operation. ,. =o need of any heat.treatments before and after the stretching process. 4. Spring bac& is reduced or eliminated when compared to other forming methods. >. 'irect bending is not introduced. --. (ist out the app)ications of stretch forming operations. (. Production of aircraft wing and fuselage parts. ,. Production of contoured panels for truc& trailer and bus bodies in automobile industry. -/. !ention the 7arious materia)s used for ma9ing dies and form b)oc9s in stretch forming process. !ood, Masonite, Kinc alloys and Cast iron.
-%. +tate the )a, of process of fracturing in formabi)it". )he ductility of the same material is lower if the section size is larger. -8. +tate the )a, of geometrica) simi)itude. (. "lan&s are geometrically similar in all aspects with respect to another blan& such as dimension, thic&ness, width, length etc. )hese geometrically similar blan&s should ne fabricated by using similar tools. ,. 2nit strains at corresponding locations are identical for geometrically similar blan&s. 4. )he forces re+uired to form any re+uired shape on geometrically similar blan&s are directly proportional to the s+uare of the thic&ness. >. )he consumption of wor& for forming the re+uired shape is also proportional to the cube of its thic&ness for geometrically similar blan&s. -:. What are the formabi)it" test methods. (. ,. 4. >. 9ormability tests for bul& deformation. 9ormability test for elastic.plastic deformation and Simulative tests for forming operation. 9ull scale forming tests. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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/$. 3o, ,or9#hardening is predicted in terms of stress#strain in formabi)it". 2sually, the strain distribution in assessed from the surface, but, the magnitude of strain is determined by impregnating the sheet metal with a grid pattern or concentric circles followed by presenting. 'uring pressing of sheet metal, concentric circles are stretched into elliptic during pressing the sheet metal. )he maHor and minor a%es of ellipse give the directions of principal strains. /1. !ention the 7arious t"pes of simu)ati7e tests carried out for 7arious cup forming process. (. 1richson test ,. Blsen test 4. Surift test >. 9u&ui test. /2. Dro accessing the stretchabi)it" of the sheet meta)@ ########## test are carried out. (. 1richson test ,. Blsen test /'. (4R refers to ########## Limiting 'rawing 0atio /*. Dur9ui test is carried out for accessing both dra,abi)it" and stretchabi)it". +a" true or fa)se. )rue. /-. What are the app)ications of forming )imit diagram. (. ,. 4. )he new set of tools in easy, hard or impossible to wor& can be easily determined. $ood materials used in forming operations are identified. Location of source of trouble is also easy from a reference pressing by the designer.
//. 3o, specia) forming process is defined. #n the case of mating die method, sheet metal is placed over the lower die and its ends are fi%ed on movable grippers. )hen, the upper die is moved towards the blan&. #f the female or upper die is actuated by any other means e%cept hydraulic fluid contained in the cylinder in forming process called special forming process. /%. What are the t"pes of specia) forming process. (. ydroforming ,. 0ubber pad forming 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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4. Metal spinning >. 1%plosive forming 7. Magnetic pulse forming D. Peen forming :. Super plastic forming /8. What are the ad7antages of h"droforming process. (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. )hinning of metal, spot stresses and spring bac& are drastically reduced or completely eliminated. #t is used for mass production because wor& performed per operation is high. )ool changing can be done rapidly. Complicated contours can also be made. Sharp corners are also possible. All type of sheet metals can be handled.
/:. Rubber pad forming process is a)so 9no,n as ########## 0ubber pad forming process is also called as marform process. %$. 3o, upper die is pressed against the sheet meta) surface in rubber pad forming process. 9irst, the blan& is placed over the punch called male die. )hen, the upper platen called female part is moved to Hust touch the top surface of the wor&. After this, the force is applied and gradually increased on the blan& through the rubber pad. %1. +tate the )imitations and app)ications of rubber pad forming processQ (imitations< (. ,. 0ubber pads will wear out rapidly. Sharp corners cannot be made accurately.
App)ications< (. Production of flanged cylindrical and rectangular cups. ,. Production of spherical domes. 4. Production of parallel R tapered wall shells. >. Production of unsymmetrical shape components. %2. 3o, rubber h"dro forming process is carried out. #n this process, the forced applied on the blan& through a pressurized li+uid behind the rubber pad. )his force is used to form the sheet metal into the re+uired shape. ere, the rubber pad acts as a seal 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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between pressure forming chamber and blan&. 'ue to application of hydrostatic pressure over the blan& is formed into re+uired shape. %'. What is meta) spinning process. )he process of forming seamless metal parts from a circular sheet metal or from a tube length on a lathe is called as spinning process. %*. +tate the 7arious methods of meta) spinning process. (. Manual spinning. ,. Power spinning. %-. 4escribe brief)" po,er spinning process. #n power spinning process, the action of form tool is controlled either by any tracer mechanism or by =umerical Controls ;=C<. =ow.a.days, computer controlled numerical machines are used to change the shape of contour whenever we want from the e%isting program. %/. !ention the ad7antages of po,er spinning process. (. ,. 4. >. )ime ta&en to spin the sheet metal is greatly reduced. )hic&ness more ( mm can be handled easily. "oth accuracy and +uality can be maintained. #t is suitable for high volume production.
%%. Name the 7arious processes can be performed b" e;p)osi7e process. "lan&ing, cutting e%panding, coining, embossing, flanging, powder compacting, drawing and sizing operations, etc. %8. Ai7e the 7arious forms of e;p)osi7es. 0od, sheet granules, li+uid, stic& etc. %:. +tate the ad7antages and app)ications of e;p)osi7e forming process. Ad7antages< (. Less capital investment. ,. Presses are not re+uired. 4. Bnly one die is enough to form the sheet metal. >. 0e+uired shapes of components are formed in one stro&e. 7. 2ltimate and yield strength of sheet metals are improved. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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D. Large and comple% shapes can also be handled. App)ications< )his process is mainly used for producing aerospace components. 8$. 3o, magnetic pu)se is created. )he basic principle is that discharging of a capacitor through a coil over a period of microseconds, on the blan& to obtain the re+uired shape. 'uring this, the magnetic flu% densities of the order of hundreds of &ilogauss can be produced. 81. What is peen forming process. Peen forming is a process of well.established surface cleaning. #n this process, a stream of metal shots is blasted against the surface of the blan& to be made into re+uired shape. 82. What are the ad7antages and disad7antages of peen forming process. Ad7antages< (. Comple% contours can be produced easily. ,. Peening is also used as salvage operations for correcting bent or distorted parts. 4. )his process does not re+uire any die and punch. 4isad7antages< (. #t re+uires longer time for forming the re+uired shape. ,. #t re+uires additional devices for forcing out metal shots. 8'. What is super p)asticit" of meta)s. Super plasticity in metals is defined by very high tensile elongations, ranging from two hundred to several thousand percent. Super plasticity is the ability of certain materials to undergo e%treme elongation at the proper temperature and strain rate. 8*. (ist the 7arious materia)s de7e)oped for super p)astic forming process. (. ,. 4. >. 7. "ismuth.tin ;,66@ elongation< Kinc.aluminum )itanium ;)i.DA(./< Aluminum ;,66>, ,>(I, :>:7< Aluminum.lithium alloys ;,6I6, ,6I(, G6I6<
8-. !ention ad7antages of super p)astic forming process. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. #t is a one step process. ,. )he process can be used to form comple% components in shapes that are very near the final dimension. 4. igher material elongations. >. 1limination of unnecessary Hoints are rivets. 7. 0eduction of subse+uent machining. D. Minimizes the amount of scrap produced. 8/. What are the app)ications of super p)astic forming process. (. #n automotive body panels. ,. #n forming of aircraft frames and s&ins. 4. 'iaphragm forming of plastics. >. Comple% shape parts E window frames, seat structures. 8%. 3o, the finished product is re)eased in super p)astic forming process. At the end of the forming cycle, the part perfectly conforms to the die, even in its smallest details.
PART # =
1. 1;p)ain the different t"pes of D)ames that occur in gas ,e)ding ,ith neat s9etch and their app)ications.
1. Neutra) D)ame< A neutral flame is obtained when e+ual amounts of B, and C,
are mi%ed and burnt in
D(
a torch. )he flame is recognized by two sharply defined zones, the inner white cone flame and the outer blue flame envelope, ;9igure ;a<<. )he reaction at the inner cone for the neutral flame where e+ual volumes of cylinder o%ygen and acetylene are used is, C,
,
? B,
, CB ?
)his provides the most concentrated heat with the highest temperature for welding at a distance of 4 to 7 mm from the end of the inner cone. #t is also apparent that the environment within the outer envelope consists of carbon mono%ide and hydrogen and is relatively inert to materials that o%idize readily. )he reactions at the outer envelope areA , CB ? B,
,
, CB,
,
1 B, )
B ;vapour<
9or these reactions, the o%ygen is supplied from the surrounding air. 'uring actual welding, the outer envelope spreads over the surface of the wor& material and serves as a protective shield from the ordinary atmosphere. Also, since the heat developed is not as concentrated, this outer envelope of flame contributes only to preheat the wor& material for welding. 2. 2arburising D)ame< A carburizing or reducing flame is obtained when an e%cess of acetylene is supplied than which is theoretically re+uired ;B, A C, , F 6.G7 to 6.I7<. A reducing flame is recognized by three distinct sectionsA the inner cone ;which is not sharply defined< and an outer envelope as for the neutral flame. )he third zone surrounds the inner cone and e%tends into the outer enveloping zone. #t is whitish in colour and is called *e%cess acetylene featherC. #ts length is an indication of the amount of e%cess acetylene. ;9igure ;b<<. )o obtain a neutral flame, first the reducing flame is obtained. )hen the supply of o%ygen is gradually increased until the intermediate feather disappears. )he resulting flame will be a neutral flame. '. B;idising D)ame< )his flame has an e%cess of o%ygen over that re+uired for a neutral flame, the flame is first set to the neutral condition. )hen the acetylene valve is turned down gradually to reduce the amount of acetylene, giving an e%cess of o%ygen. )he flame resembles the neutral flame e%cept that it ac+uires a light blue tint and the inner cone is slightly shorter and more pointed than in a neutral flame ;9igure ;c<<. An o%idising flame burns with a harsh sound and the outer envelope is short and narrow. App)ications of three#t"pes of f)ames<
D,
a& Neutra) D)ame< #n most welding situations, it is theoretically desirable to use a neutral flame, but in practice it is very difficult to discern whether the flame is neutral or B%idising, either a slightly reducing o%idising flame is used. #f possible, most welding should be done with a neutral flame, since such a flame has a minimum chemical effect upon most heated metals. )he flame is widely used for the welding of steel, stainless steel, cast iron, Copper and Aluminium. b& Reducing D)ame< )he acetylene being e%cess in this flame, the available carbon is not completely consumed. !ith iron and steel, it will form iron carbide ;hard and brittle<. )herefore, metals that tend to absorb carbon should not be welded with a reducing flame. )his flame is used steels, low c.steels and for welding those metals ;for e%ample, non.ferrous< that do not tend to absorb carbon. Such flames are also used for welding Monel metal and =ic&el and in hard surfacing with high speed steel and cemented carbides. c& B;idising D)ame< )his flame has limited use because the e%cess o%ygen tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength o%ides. Also, e%cess of o%ygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a s&ummy or dirty appearance. So, this flame is not used for welding steel. #t is mainly used when welding materials which are not o%idized readily and which have a high solubility of hydrogen in the molten state and low solubility in the solid state, for e%ample, brasses, bronzes and gold. 9or these metals the o%idising atmosphere creates a base metal o%ide that protects the base metal. 9or e%ample, in welding brass, Kinc has tendency to separate and fume away. )he formation of a covering copper o%ide prevents Kinc from dissipating. 2. 1;p)ain gas meta) arc ,e)ding ,ith neat s9etch their ad7antages and disad7antages.
(i)
Aas !eta) Arc We)ding@ A!AW&. )he method is also &nown by the acronym, M#$ ;metal inert gas<. )he method differs from )#$ in that a consumable electrode in wire form is fed into the arc, ;9igure<. )he same shielding gases are used. )he wire is automatically fed from the reel by a variable speed motor at a preset rate that is determined by the arc voltage. )he wire feed increases with an increase in arc voltage caused by an increase in arc length. )his process has a greater efficiency than )#$ and is more rapid. #n semiconductor.automatic welding, the welder guides the gun and adHusts process parametersJ in automatic welding all functions are ta&en care of by the welding machine or robot. elium, Argon and CB , or their mi%tures. )he
+hie)ding Aases< )he shielding gases commonly used are A gases must be pure, clean and free of moisture.
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Digure !IA. 3e)ium< #t yields better penetration than argon. #t has high specific heat co.efficient. So, the temperature of the weld is reduced, minimizing distortion as well as facilitating penetration. "ut it is costlier than argon. Also it is much lighter than argon, so more gas flow is re+uired for a given performance as compared to argon. Argon< #t has better electrical properties than helium, for e%ample, ionization voltage is lower which helps in producing more stable arc conditions when using a.c. #t is cheaper than helium. #t gives a superior o%ide cleaning action with a.c. on Aluminium, Magnesium, Copper and "eryllium. #t gives a softer arc and less penetration, so it is generally more suitable for thinner metals. 2arbon 4io;ide< #t is considerably cheaper than helium or argon. "ut it produces more spatter and poorer bead shape when used alone. So it is usually used in conHunction with argon ;G6@ argon, ,6@ carbon dio%ide<. Ad7antages of Inert Aas +hie)ded Arc processes< #n both Hob.shop and mass production wor&, inert gas shielded arc processes are being increasingly employed in place of SMA!, due to the following reasonsA (. Much greater penetration and higher welding speeds are possible, because of the higher currents which can be used. ,. )here is no slag to clean off after welding, because no flu% is used.L 4. Produce very high +uality and clean welds on almost any material in any welding position. >. )he weld zone is visible. 7. =o possibility of crac&s. D. )here is no weld patter. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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#t is fast and economical, because there are no fre+uent changes of electrodes. #t can be readily automated. )he process does not re+uire high degree of operator s&ill.
4ra,bac9s< (. )he surfaces to be welded must be clean and fee of oil, grease, paint or rust, because the inert gas does not provide any cleaning or flu%ing action. ,. Bn site welding can be difficult because drafts blow the shielding gas away from the weld zone. 4. 'ifficult to weld in small corners. >. !elding e+uipment costly, more comple% and less portable. '. 1;p)ain the Princip)e of submerged arc ,e)ding@ ,ith their )imitations. +ubmerged Arc We)ding@ +AW&< #n this, coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a bare wire electrode and the wor&. )he weld zone is shielded by a blan&et of fusible granular flu% material supplied directly on the weld seam ahead of the electrode to shield the arc. Pressure is not used and molten filler metal is obtained for the electrode. )he flu% also acts as a deo%idizer and scavenger and may contain powder metal alloying elements. )he method can be used in fully automatic e+uipment where the feeds of both the electrode and granular flu% are controlled, 9igure. )he method is also adaptable for semiautomatic e+uipment where the feed of the electrode and granular flu% are controlled manually.
Digure< +ubmerged Arc We)ding. )his method is characterized by good appearing welds, high welding speeds and high welding currents upto several thousand amperes. "ecause of the large diameter electrodes which can be used, rather large welds can be made in one single pass in plates over ,7 mm thic&. 'eep penetration is also obtained. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Since the granular flu% must cover the Hoint to be welded, this method is restricted to ma&ing straight welds in the flat position. )hus it is suitable for steel line pipes, boiler pressure vessels, railroad tan& cars, structural shapes and cylinders etc. and also for circular welds if the wor& piece is rotated under the welding head. 'ouble submerged arc welding ;with one weld from the inside, the other from the outside< is used in ma&ing spiral. welded pipelines. #t can also be used with welding robots, with the wor&piece manipulated into appropriate positions. Submerged arc welding can be used to weld low C.steels, high strength low alloy steels, chromium steels, and austenitic chromium.nic&el steels. !ith special methods, it is also possible to weld high.alloy air hardening steels. Ad7antages< (. ,. 4. >. -oints can be prepared with a shallow /.groove, resulting in lesser electrode consumption. !ire electrodes are ine%pensive. !eld spatters are eliminated. =early (66@ deposition efficiency is achieved.
(imitations< (. #t can not be used for plates less than 7 mm thic&. ,. #t can not cut C.#. because of high heat input. 4. Slag has to be removed continuously after it has melted in order to avoid entrapment between passes. *. 1;p)ain the 1)ectro s)ag ,e)ding processes. 1)ectro#+)ag We)ding@ 1+W&< #n this process, electrode wire ;consumable< is fed into a molten slag pool. An arc is drawn initially, but is then snuffed out by the slag, and the heat of fusion is provided by resistance heating in the slag. )he components to be welded are set in a vertical position with a distance of from (7 to 46 mm between the butted edges depending upon their thic&ness. )he welding wire and the flu% are fed automatically into the clearance, ;9igure<. Several electrode wires can be fed simultaneously if the parts to be welded are +uite thic&. !ater cooled copper shoes or slides ;dams< travel upwards along the Hoint. )hey close off the space between the parts to be welded to prevent the slag and molten metal from spilling out of the pool. )hey also cool the pool of metal and form the weld.
DD
Digure< 1)ectro#+)ag We)ding. An arc is established between the steel bac&ing plate and the electrode wire only at the very beginning of operation before a pool of molten metal and flu% of sufficient volume has accumulated. 9urther melting of the electrode and base metal is due to the current flow between the electrode, pool and slag. )he molten base metal and the filler metal ;from the electrode< sin& to the bottom of the slag pool, cool and form a weld in the Hoint between the components. )he chief advantage of 1S! is that very thic& components ;up to >66 mm thic&< can be welded together in a single pass without beveling the edges. )his is due to the fact that several electrode wires are brought simultaneously into the welding zone. A very clean weld is obtained, without any slag inclusions. )he method is highly productive and pre.dominantly applied in heavy engineering in the manufacture of bed and frames for heavy machinery, drums, boilers etc. /. 1;p)ain the princip)e in7o)7ed in p)asma arc ,e)ding ,ith neat s9etch. P)asma Arc We)ding@ PAW&< )he term MplasmaL refers to a gas which is sufficiently ionized ;by raising it to a high temperature< to conduct current freely. A conventional welding arc is an e%ample of a plasma. A plasma Het is created when the arc is passed through a constrictive nozzle. As a result of this constriction, the plasma Het will ta&e on a narrow, columnar shape with uni+ue properties that ma&e it ideal for welding. Plasma Het welding is an electric.arc welding process which employs a high temperature constricted arc or plasma Het to obtain the melting and coalescence of metal. Shielding is obtained from the hot, ionized gas issuing from the nozzle, coalescence of metal. shielding is obtained from the hot, ionized gas issuing from the nozzle, which may be supplemented by an au%iliary source of shielding gas. Pressure is not applied and filler may or may not be supplied. )he basic circuitry of a plasma arc welding torch is shown is 9igure. )he plasma torch is constructed with an electrode ;tungsten< centrally within a metal cup that guides an inert streaming gas past ht electrode. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he discharge end of the cup is smaller in diameter than the upper diameter so that a discharge nozzle is created. #n addition, the inner wall of the nozzle is lined with a ceramic materials. )he torch has passages for supplying gas and water ;to cool it<.
Digure< P)asma arc ,e)ding. )here are two arrangements of the plasma arc weldingA a< )ransferred plasma arc. b< =on.transferred plasma arc. #n the transferred plasma arc, the arc is produced between the electrode ;.ve< and the wor& ;?ve<. #n the non.transferred arc, the arc is produced between the electrode ;.ve< and the nozzle ;?ve<. )he wor& is heated indirectly by radiation. )he heat is carried to the wor&piece by the plasma gas. )he gases used should be inert ;non.o%idising < and with a higher thermal conductivity, so that they can transfer more heat, ma&ing it possible to weld bul&y section more easily. 2sually, the shielding gas is the same as the orifice ;nozzle< gas. Argon, elium and hydrogen or their mi%tures are the gases most fre+uently used. Plasma arc provides an intense source of heat ;Arc temperature of about (>666 3< and ensures greater arc stability. PA! is used for +uality welding and can easily weld (,: mm thic& aluminium sections or stainless steel sections upto (66 mm thic&. )he welded Hoints have no porosity and display a strong resistance to high stresses and impact loading. %. What is Resistance ,e)ding. 1;p)ain Resistance spot ,e)ding process in detai) ,ith heat s9etch. Resistance ,e)ding<
DG
0esistance !elding is *a group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the wor& to electric current in a circuit of which the wor& is a part, and by the application of pressure and without the use of a filler metalC. )he amount of heat generated at the contacting area or the elements to be welded, is determined from -ouleLs law, P F #, 0t, Houles where # F current in amperes 0F resistance of the circuit at the contacting area of the elements in ohms. tF time during which the current flows, in seconds.
)he voltage can be low, typically 6.7 to (6/, but currents are very high ;thousands of amperes<. Materials of high heat conductivity and specific heat ;Al and Cu< call for very high currents to prevent dissipation of heat. 1. Resistance +pot We)ding R+W&< #n resistance spot welding, the overlapping metal parts are held between two bar type metal electrodes which apply pressure, while an electric current is passed through them, 9igure. !hen the current is switched on and applied for a predetermined number of cycles ;in the automotive industry ,6.46 cycles<, the lapped pieces of metal are heated in a restricted area.
Digure< Resistance +pot We)ding. )he generated heat melts the surface layer of the metal in the central, more highly heated, area of 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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contact with the electrodes, and the adHacent layers of metal are softened to a plastic state. )hen the current is switched off and the electrodes are pressed and the pressure is released only after the weld spot ;nugget< has solidified. )he spot weld ;nugget< is appro%imately the same size as the electrode tip, usually between 4 or D mm in diameter. 1lectrode tip diameter F )hic&ness of plate to be welded. 'istance between the nearest edge of the plate and centre of weld F (.7 % electrode tip diameter. )he sheet surface shows a slight depression and decolouration. )he welding cycle to produce one spot can be written asA ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< ;v< Position the wor&pieces and s+ueeze between the electrodes. Apply a low voltage current to the electrodes. old until the proper temperature is attained. 0elease current, continue pressure. 0elease pressure and remove wor&.
)he electrode pressure can be in the range of upto , &= )he electrodes used must possess high electrical and thermal conductivity and retain the re+uired strength at temperatures upto >66C. 1lectrodes are made of cold.rolled electrolytic copper with some Cd, Cr, or "e additions, or copper E tungsten or molybdenum alloys. 1lectrodes are usually of hollow construction and are cooled with water during operation to prevent their overheating. "ecause of the widespread application of sheet metal parts, resistance spot welding finds e%tensive application in the aircraft and automobile industries for manufacturing air frames and bodies ;there are some G666 to (6,666 spot welds per car<, attaching handles of coo&ware, as well as in railway car building and the instrument industry and for ma&ing reinforcement in concrete construction etc. Spot welding is primarily restricted to thin metals ;for e%ample 6.6,7 to 4., mm thic& for steel and magnesium and > mm thic& for aluminium<, namely steels, stainless steels, aluminium, magnesium, nic&el, nic&el alloys, bronze and brass. Some dissimilar metals can be spot welded, but with difficulty. owever, the method is +uite difficult to use for highly conducting materials li&e Al and Mg. ;a< )he diameter of spot welds, d F (., t ? > mm, for t S 4 mm F (.7 t ? 7 mm, for t T 4 mm where t F )hic&ness of parts being welded. ;b< Spacing of spot welds F 4d. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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8. 1;p)ain Resistance +eam We)ding Process in detai) ,ith neat s9etch. Resistance +eam We)ding@ R+1W&< )o obtain a series of spot welds along a line by the 0S! method, an interrupted wor& movement will be necessary. )he same result can be achieved much more conveniently and rapidly in the resistance seam welding where the electrodes are in the form of rotating disc electrodes, with the wor&ing being welded moving continuously by the electrodes, ;figure<.
Digure< Resistance +eam We)ding. Seam welding may be either intermittent ;stitch seam or spaced spots< or continuous seam ;over lapping seam<. #n the former case, a current interrupter is employed. !hen the a.c. is left on, a spot weld is made every time the current reaches its pea&, and the welds are spaced close enough to give a gas and li+uid.tight Hoint. )he rollers are made of the same materials as the electrodes for sport welding. 0ollers may vary in diameter from >6 to 476 mm. !elding currents range from ,666 to 7666 A. while the force applied to the rollers may be as high as 7 to D &=. !elding speeds range is commonly from 6.7 to 4.7 m8min. #n most cases of seam welding, a stream of water is directed over the disc &eep everything cool e%cept the Hoint interface. Seam welding is used in the manufacture of tan&s, tubes and other articles of steel and non ferrous metals which must have airtight Hoints. Seam welding is primarily used for +uantity production but is restricted to Hoining metal gauges that are thinner than those which can be Hoined bu spot welding. )he normal range of thic&ness compatible with seam welding is 6.,7 to 4., mm. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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:. 1;p)ain the 1)ectric Resistance =utt We)ding process in detai). 1)ectric Resistance =utt We)ding< )here are two types of electric resistance butt welding processesA the MupsetL and the MflashL. ;i< Upset We)ding@ UW&< #n this process, the ends of the two parts to be Hoined together are clamped in position in the electrodes. )he movable head is moved towards the fi%ed head until the abutting surfaces of the wor& pieces are in light contact. )hen the proper current is made to flow across the interface for a preset time, while the light pressure between the two parts is maintained. !hen the interface has been heated to the welding temperature ;plastic state<, the current is switch off and the welding pressure is increased to form an *upsetC, ;9igure<. )his results in the lateral flow of the surface o%ide layers, bringing clean metal surfaces in contact. Metal is not melted when upset butt welded and there is no spatter.
Digure< Upset =utt We)ding )he welding voltage may vary from 7 to (7/ while the current densities range from 466 to G66 A8cm ,. "ecause the contact resistance is inversely proportional to the pressure, therefore, the pressure is less at the start and is then increased to whatever is necessary to effect the weld. 9inal pressures range from (: to 77 MPa. 2pset butt welding is e%tensively used in the fabrication of tubular sections, pipe and heavy steel rings. #t is also used for Hoining small ferrous and non.ferrous strips. Areas upto 6.67 m , have been successfully welded, but generally the process is limited to smaller areas ;upto (666 mm ,< because of current limitations. ;ii< D)ash =utt We)ding@ DW&< #n this process, the parts to be welded approach towards each other and come into contact with the current switched on. )he procedure of butt welding is followsA 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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After the parts are properly positioned and correct current, head speed and time are selected, a cycle start button is actuated. )his ma&es the movable head to approach the fi%ed head. As the abutting surfaces come very near to each other, e%tremely rapid heating ta&es place when surface asperities first ma&e contact. Molten metal is violently e%pelled and burns in air with considerable force and *Spar&ingC or *arcingC, thus giving the process its name *flash buttC. As this process continues for a few seconds, a very thin layer at the interface is melted. )he current is then shut off and the two parts are rapidly pressed together causing a small parts are rapidly pressed together causing a small upset, ;9igure<. )his s+ueezes out li+uid metal and o%ides formed on the Hoint surfaces and the solid clean metal faces of the abutted parts are welded together. )his process is used for Hoining thin. walled tubes, rails, chain lin&s, tools ;low carbon steel shan& to .S.S. tool bit<, press manufactured parts. Also, dissimilar metals can readily be welded ;such as steel, . copper, .brassJ aluminium.copper etc.<, including refractory metals such as tungsten, molybdenum and tantalum. )he process is e%tensively used for Hoining the ends of wire and sheet coils to allow the continuous operation of processing lines.
)he other product applications includeA Hoining of rims of wheels for automobiles and cycles, tubular parts such as automobile bra&e cross.shafts, and parts of metal bodies for motor cars, for welding tube coils for refrigeration plant and for welding new end piece on to the locomotive boiler tubes in replacement of the worn ends, welding of .S.S. ends on to C. steel shan&s during the manufacture of twist drills and other small tools. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he current densities range from 466 E G66 A 8 cm, and the welding voltage is from 7 to (7 /. )he welding pressure may range from 476 to (>66 MPa. #n accordance with their capacity and purpose, butt welding machines may be either hand.operated or automatic. )he latter type clamps the parts to be welded and apply pressure for upsetting by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic means, and the process is controlled automatically. #n the mechanical system, the movable head is moved towards the fi%ed head by means of a cam drive. )he upset metal is usually removed by subse+uent rolling or grindling. 1$. What is Driction ,e)ding. 1;p)ain the Princip)e in7o)7ed in it. What are the ad7antages and disad7antages of the process. Driction We)ding DRW&< 9riction welding is defined as *A solid state welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heat obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. )he parts are held together under pressureC. Bne part is rotated at relatively high speeds and under pressure against the second part which is held stationary. )he frictional wor& at the contacting surfaces is transformed into heat. )he contacting surfaces are thus heated to a high temperature below the melding temperature. At this point, the relative motion between the two is stopped. )he weld is then completed ;by upsetting< due to the pressure which still continues or additional pressure may be necessary, ;9igure<, to produce a solid state weld. A%ial pressure, when rotating, may be upto :6 MPa and at the end it may reach (>6 MPa. 0elative motion is stopped byA ;i< ;ii< a bra&ing system to the machine spindle. an arrangement which releases the stationary part to permit the two parts to rotate together.
Digure< Driction ,e)ding !eld time is relatively short ;fraction of a second to a few seconds<. Short weld times and confinement of the heat generated to the weld interface surface results in comparatively narrow heat.affected zones. A wide variety of metals and metal combinations can be welded with this process. 9iller metals, flu%es, or shielding gases are not re+uired, and welds can be made with a minimum of Hoint preparation. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he method is most suitable for circular parts, that is, butt welding of round bars or tubes. Also welding of a round part output a flat part, for e%ample, stud welding. )he heat zone being very thin, therefore, dissimilar metals are easily Hoined, for e%ample, aluminium to steel, copper to steel, copper to aluminium, Aluminium to brass, and mild steel shan&s to high speed steel tools. )he rotational speed is proportional to thermal conductivity of the metal. )he method is limited to smaller components. "esides the advantages of the process given above, it also has the following additional advantagesA (. Low initial capital cost. ,. Low.cost power re+uirements. 4. )he process is clean. >. igh +uality welds. 7. Annealing of weld zone is not necessary. D. /ery little loss of material through e%clusions. :. )he process welds the whole surface of contact, unli&e BA! and arc welding which weld only round the periphery. 9or welding a round bar to a flat plate, the thic&ness of the plate should not e%ceed one +uarter of the bar diameter. )his combination of dimensions provides an e+ual balance of heat. )he high +uality of welds obtained by 90! is due to the following factorsA ;i< As the surfaces rub against each other, all o%ide and adsorbed films and foreign particles are removed into flash, because the metal is deformed in radial directions. Also, no o%ides are formed during welding due to the intimate contact between the rubbing surfaces. )he metal at the Hoint and in the heat.affected area ac+uires a structure having e+ui.a%ial and fine grains.
;ii<
Product app)ications. )he components successfully produced includeA .S.S. )wist drills, flanges upto (7 cm diameter pipes, gas turbine shafts, Aero.engine drive shafts and valves, refrigerator tubes of dissimilar metals, hydraulic tubes, steering columns, welding of sintered products, and sulphur E bearing steels. 11. 4efine 1)ectron =eam We)ding. 1;p)ain the ,or9ing princip)e in7o)7ed in it@ the ad7antages and disad7antages. 1)ectron =eam We)ding 1=W&< 1"! can be defined as *A welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam composed primarily of high velocity electrons impinging upon the Hoint to be welded. )he &inetic energy of the electrons is changed into heat on impact 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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with wor&, giving intense local heatingC.
Digure< 1)ectron =eam We)ding. )he electron beam is produced in a high vacuum environment by an electron gun, usually consisting of a tungsten or tantalum cathode, a grid or forming electrode and an anode. A stream of electrons is given off from a tungsten filament heated to about ,,66 C, ;9igure<. )he electrons are gathered, accelerated to high velocity and shaped into a beam by the potential difference between cathode and anode. )he beam is collimated and focused by passing through the field of an electromagnetic focusing coil or *magnetic lensC. "eams typically are focused to about 6.,7 to ( mm diameter and have a power density of about (6 &! 8 mm,, which is sufficient to melt and vaporize any metal. )he operation is carried out in a vacuum, which enables the beam source to be at a distance of upto about ( m from the wor&. 'eep penetration with a very narrow heat affected zone is achieved by this process. Aluminium can be fused upto a depth of about >6 mm and stainless steel upto about 46 mm, with a width of fusion area of about one.tenth of the penetration. )he e+uipment comprisesA ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< an electron beam gun a vacuum chamber a means of moving the wor& under the beam while welding a microscope for viewing the wor&.
1lectron beam guns are rated at about 46 to (:7 &/ and a beam current of about 76 to (666 mA. )he use of vacuum chamber isA 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;a< to prevent the tungsten filament of gun from o%idising. ;b< it prevents the electrons from colliding with molecules of air and becoming scattered, with a loss of power. ;c< enables the welding to be done in a very pure atmosphere eliminating the need for a shielding gas. Bther ad7antages of 1=W are< ;i< Ability to ma&e welds that are deeper, narrower and less tapered than arc welds with a total heat input much lower than in arc welding. ;ii< Superior control over penetration and other weld dimensions and properties. ;iii< igher welding speeds. ;iv< Clean and sound welds. ;v< 1nergy conversion efficiency is high, about D7@. All the above characteristics ma&e possibleA Minimize distortion and shrin&age in welding, welding of hardened or wor& strengthened metals, no significant deterioration in mechanical properties at the Hoint, welding of parts that have already been finished to final assembly dimensions, welding of refractory and reactive metals and welding of combination of dissimilar metals not usually Hoined by arc welding. 4isad7antages< (. )he e+uipment is e%pensive. ,. igh operating costs. 4. igh cost of precision Hoint preparation and precision tooling. >. Limitations of the vacuum chamber. !or& size is limited by the size of the chamber. 7. Production rate and unit welding cost are adversely affected by the need to pump down the wor& chamber for each load. 'ue to the above limitations, the application of 1"! is confined to the welding of materials difficult by other methods and to wor& where e%ceptionally good results are important. 12. 3o, u)trasonic ,e)ding is carried out. 1;p)ain in detai) ,ith neat s9etch. Write the product app)ications of the process. U)trasonic We)ding U+W&< 2ltrasonic welding is defined as *A solid state welding process wherein coalescence is produced is produced by the local application of high fre+uency vibratory energy as the wor& parts are held together under pressureC. )he two parts to be Hoined are clamped together under a modest static pressure normal to their interface, between a flat lower support ;anvil< and an upper electrode called the sonotrode, which has a large radius to centralize the force, ;9igure<. )he wor& is subHected to oscillating shear stresses of ultrasonic fre+uencies ; ,6 & z< appro%imately parallel to the plane of the interface, for a period of ( second or less. )he vibrations and pressure cause movements of the lowering the surface resistance of the alloys and the two surface diffuse into each other to give a solid state weld. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he method does not involve melting of metals ;of course there is some heating of the wor& due to the internal friction by the vibrations<, nor does it involve the high pressures and large deformations characteristic of deformation welding, and it is accomplished in much shorter times and at lower pressures than are re+uired for diffusion welding. Metal thic&ness is in the range of 6.667 mm to about (.6 mm for steel and 4 mm for aluminium. Most metals can be welded and also dissimilar metals. )he process is suitable for lap welding foils and delicate instrument and electronic components. Seam welds can be produced by replacing the welding tip by a roller.
Digure< U)trasonic We)ding. )he method is also employed for welding parts made of organic glass, P/C plastic, polyethylene, vinyl chloride and polystyrene, with ma%imum thic&ness of welded components being (6 mm. )he method provides high productivity. Bther advantages of the process includeA (. ,. 4. >. !elds are strong and free from foreign inclusions. /ery little preparation is needed for the weldJ usually, it involves degreasing. Post cleaning of welds is usually not necessary. )hin pieces can be welded to thic&er pieces.
Product app)ications< )he range of applications of the process can meet many of the re+uirements of the atomic and electronics sections of industry. )he process is used forA Air E craft construction, for the building of transistors, for fine E wire assemblies, bimetal electrical contacts, light Egauge metal for the production of containers and for the welding of aluminium foil for 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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pac&aging re+uirements. 1'. What is meant b" thermit ,e)ding. 1;p)ain the ,or9ing princip)e in7o)7ed in it. )hermit welding is mainly used for the repair and built up of heavy sections on cran&shafts, steel rolling mills, in marine applications and in Hoining rails and pipes. Large electrical bus bars are similarly welded, using aluminium and Cu,B. )he chemical reaction beingA 4C
,
B ? ,A#
DCu ? Al, B4 ? eat
#t is clear that the thermal reaction ;discussed above< results in temperature such higher than necessary. Again, the end product is iron and not steel, which must be the case when steel parts are to be Hoined by the non.pressure thermit welding process.
9or this, the reaction mi% is added with Carbon, ferro.manganese and ferro.silicon. Carbon is added to convert iron to steel at the end of the reaction. 9erro.manganese and ferro.silicon are added as de.o%idising agents. )hey will help in cooling Eoff the reaction and getting an ade+uate final temperature. )he reaction is started by burning a magnesium ribbon dipped in the reaction mi%.
1*. What is braCing. What are the steps in7o)7ed in braCing. =raCing<
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)he brazing process can be defined as the process to Hoin two metal pieces heated to suitable temperatures by using a filler metal having a li+uidus above >,: C and below the solidus of the base metals. )he filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the Hoint by *capillary attractionC. 'uring brazing, the base metal of the two pieces to be Hoined is not melted. Some diffusion or alloying of the filler metal with the base metal ta&es place even though the base metal does not reach its solidus temperature. )he greater the degree of adhesion and interference.diffusion between the molten filler metal and the base metals, the higher the mechanical strength of the Hoint, the basic re+uirements is that the filler metal must thoroughly wet the base metal surfaces. )herefore, the surfaces must be cleaned and free of contaminants that would prevent adhesion. )hus the scale is removed by mechanical ;with a steel wire brush or emery cloth< or chemical ;pic&ling in acids< means and heavy oily residues ;oil, grease, paint etc.< are removed by degreasing with hot al&aline solutions or organic solvents. Again, when the assembly is heated to melt the filler metal, o%ides may form which will prevent wetting of the surfaces by the molten filler metal. )his can be overcome byA
Digure< =raCing Goints. (. Performing brazing is vacuum or an appropriate ;neutral or reducing< atmosphere. ,. !etting of the surfaces is also ensured by the application of flu%es.
+teps in =raCing< ;i< ;ii< ;iii< )he surface to be Hoined are cleaned ;and subse+uently rinsed and dried< and fitted closely together. A flu% is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to flow. After that, the Hoint is heated to the proper brazing temperature. Solid filler metal may be preplaced on the metal pieces and thus melted pieces and thus melted as the metal pieces are heated, or it may be applied to the metal pieces after the brazing temperature is reached. Bnly a small amount of filler metal is needed to fill the Hoint completely, ;9igure<, which shows the various ways of placing the filler metal at the Hoint.
Some other commonly used Hoints in brazing are shown in figure. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Digure< =raCing Goints. 1-. What are the different t"pes of =raCing. 1;p)ain them in detai). 1. Torch braCing< A Hoining process that may employ acetylene, natural gas, butane or propane in combination with air or o%ygen to supply the heat re+uired to melt the filler rod and diffuse it into the surface of the base metal. )his techni+ue is not e%tensively used for continuous mass production. 9lu% used is the form of paste or powder. 2. Durnace braCingA )his is a high production process where the heat is supplied by gas or electric heating coils. )he furnaces are of bo% type ;batch type< or continuous type. )he latter employs a wire mesh belt to transport the parts to be brazed. #n this process, preformed shapes of filler metal be placed on the parts to be Hoined prior to entering the furnace. )he process is well suited to high production. )he use of flu% can be avoided if an inert atmosphere is maintained in the furnace. )he flu% is applied in paste form. '. Induction braCingA ere also, the filler metal is used in the preformed shape. )he parts are heated by placing within the field of high fre+uency induction coil. )he parts are heated by eddy currents because the parts to be Hoined offer electric.magnetic resistance to the changing induction field. eating is very rapid, and by properly shaping the induction coils, the heat can be applied in the local area of the Hoint to be brazed. )he process can be mechanized. 9lu% is applied in the form of paste. *. 4ip =raCing A dip brazing is of two &indsA i& ii& #n chemical dip brazing, the parts with preformed filler metal are placed into a molten bath of flu%. #n the molten metal bath process, the assembled parts are first preflu%ed and then immersed into a molten bath of filler metal. )he first method is more adaptable for Hoining large parts, whereas the latter method is restricted to 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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small parts. -. Resistance braCing< ere, the same e+uipment is used as for resistance welding, e%cepting that a filler metal is placed in the Hoint, 0apid heating minimizes o%idation and the heat affected zone ; AK< is small. /. (aser braCing and e)ectron beam braCing< )hese high cost techni+ues are Hustified only for precision wor& of high value and relatively high.temperature materials. Bnly the first four brazing methods are of industrial importance. 1/. What is so)dering. What are the common)" used f)u;es and so)der in so)dering. 1;p)ain the different techniques of so)dering. #n soldering, two parts are Hoined by the use of a molten filler metal whose melting point is below the solidus ;melting point of the base metals< and in all cases below >,:C. Soldered Hoints are wea&er than brazed Hoints. "ecause of lower wor&ing temperatures, good wetting is more critical than in brazing. )he soldering process comprises the same steps as the brazing process, that is, ;i< ;ii< Surface preparation which involves fitting the surfaces to each other, cleaning them mechanically and chemically and covering the cleaned surfaces with a flu%. )he clearance in a Hoint is about 6.67 to 6.,6 mm ;for steel<. After this, soldering proper is done.
Commonly used soldering Hoints areA Lap, butt, seam and pipe Hoints. )he flu%es used in soldering areA corrosive type and non corrosive type. )he common corrosive flu%es areA Kinc chloride, mi%tures of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. )he flu% must be washed off after soldering to prevent corrosion. Common non corrosive flu%es are rosin and rosin plus alcohol. )hese are essential for electrical connections where corrosion can create local high resistance and even loss of conduction. )he most widely used solders are alloys of tin and lead in various proportions. Small +uantities of some other metals may be added. )hese filler metals used in soldering are called *Soft soldersL. ;i< D484: )in lead solder has the lowest melting point and solidifies at a constant temperature. #t is most suitable for electrical connections. ;ii< :6846 )in leadA $ood alloy pretinning. ;iii< D68>6 )in leadA $ood electric grade solder. ;iv< 76876 )in leadA $eneral purpose solder. ;v< 4,8DG )in lead A PlumberLs solder. ;vi< )in.lead.silver solderA igh temperature electrical solder for instruments. ;vii< ID.784.7 )in.silver solderA igh temperature electrical instrument solder.
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;viii< ;i%< ;%<
A low ;S 7@< tin content gives higher strength and is suitable for automotive radiators loc& seam cans, and tubes made of tin plate. 478D7 )in leadA #ts wide freezing range ma&es it ideal as a wiping solder for the Hoining of copper tubes. Lead silver solders are used for higher temperature service. AgA (.7 to 4.7@. Certain other metals such as cadmium, bismuth and indium may be added for some specific purposes.
Lead being to%ic has adverse effects on the environment. 'ue to this, lead free solders are being developed and are now in wider use. )hey are being used in connection with supplying drin&ing water and other applications. )ypical e%amples areA (. ,. 4. >. 7. )in.silver ;given above<A for electronics. )in."ismuth ;>,@, 7G@< A for electronics. )in.zinc alloys with I to (66@. Kinc for soldering of aluminium in conHunction with special flu%es. Kinc.aluminiumA for corrosion resistance, soldering of aluminium. Cadmium.silverA for strength at high temperatures.
+o)dering techniques< )he various techni+ues used for brazing can also be employed for soldering ;flame, hot dip, resistance, induction<. 2ltrasonic soldering ;similar to ultrasonic welding< is used for flu%less soldering of aluminium, and some nonferrous metals such as silicon and germanium. #n M0adiant heating ;infrared heating<L, special +uartziodine incandescent tubular lamps are used which can be easily focused to concentrate the heat at the area to be soldered. 0adiant heating can also be used for brazing. #n *wave solderingC fresh, hot solder is lifted to the connections by one or more standing waves of molten solder. )he wave is formed by continuously pumping the solder through a narrow slot, to the surface. All Hoints are formed as the assembly passes over the waves. )he operation is continuous and limited in speed only by time and heat re+uirements. )his method is applicable to such items as the terminals of transformers and the lips of cans. )he method is of great value in assembling printed.circuit boards. "ecause of the lower temperatures involved, a hand.type heated copper of iron.plated copper bit ;soldering iron< is e%tensively used. )he timestamp of the iron is tinned before applying it to the wor&. )he most common iron is of electric type and is used in many fields li&e radio and electronic industries. )o do a soldering Hob, the iron is heated to ,76 .466 C, the tip is dipped into the flu%, tinned with the solder and then applied to the parts prepared for soldering to heat them at the Hoint. At the same time, solder is applied to the Hoint where it is melted by the iron moving along the Hoint and enters the clearance. ere the solder cools and forms the seam. 1%. What are the common ,e)ding defects@ that occurs during. 1;p)ain the causes and remedies. We)ding )he welded Hoint should be free from any defect that would ma&e it unsuitable for its imtended purpose. )he principal defects to be found in welded Hoints are as followsA 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. 2rac9s< 2rac9s that occur in or near a weld act as stress raisers which ma&e the service life of the weldment very unreliable. !elding crac&s are of the following typesA ;a< !icro#crac9sA. )hey are very small and are revealed only under a microscope. ;b< !acro#crac9sA. )hese crac&s can be seen by the unaided eye or by the use of a low power ;7 to (6 U< magnifier. ;c< DissuresA. )hese are wide crac&s which emerge to the surface of the metal. Crac&s may occur at the following locationsA. ;i< ;ii< ;iii< #n the weld ;9use< Metal Kone #n the "ase metal zone Sometimes, the crac&s originate in one Koneand then spreal to the other Kone.
Digure< We)ding ?ones. Crac&s in the base metal usually occur at low temperatures ;around ,66 C< and are &nown as Cold crac&s, Bn the other hand, the crac&s in the weld metal zone occur while the metal is still very hot. Such crac&s are called ot crac&s. Crac&s in the weld may be due to structural stresses in the metal ;for e%ample, the formation of martensite<,heavy shrin&age, e%tra high amount of sulphur, phosphorous or carbon in the metal, e%cessively rigid clamping of the parts being welded or the presence of gases in the weld metal. Cold crac&ing can occur due any to the following several factorsA. improper welding conditions, the presence of gas and other impurities in the weld, wrong choice of filler rod and metallurgical factors such as e%cessive cooling rate resulting in the formation of martensite and formation of brittle phases in the weld when cold or the formation of phases which are brittle at high temperatures NAllotropic transformationsO. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Crac&s is the base metal can occur due to the following reasonsA. Corrosion, "ase metal defects, "ase metal composition variations, hydrogen embrittlement and internal stresses set up due to restrained shrin&ing after welding. )he phenomenon of crac&s can be e%plained as belowA. !ith thic& parts, the weld zone is normally a small spot within a large mass of cooler metal. eat flows of rapidly into the surrounding metal. !hen the welding is completed, what is called a *mass +uenchC results. )his causes hard martensite to form in hardenable steel in part or all of the zone heated above the critical temperature. )he martensite is brittle and does not yield but brea&s when the stresses in the weld becomes high enough. 9ormation of martensite must be avoided. )he more hardenable the steel, the slower must be the rate of cooling. )he parts should also be preheated to retard the cooling rate. eating and cooling cause e%pansion and contraction in the weld. )he metal in the Hoint is hotter and tends to shrin& more on cooling than the bul& of the metal on either side. #f the members being welded are restrained in a fi%ture or by a structure to which they are attached, high stresses are induced across the weld and thus cause crac&ing. 1ven if crac&ing does not occur, residual stresses may impair fatigue strength and cause warpage or distortion when they are unbalanced by later machining. )hese can be prevented byA using as thin material and as little filler metal as possible, preheating to minimize temperature difference between the weld and the base metal, and welding from the inside or confined portion of a structure to the outside or points of most freedom, a minimum number of welds and the ma%imum use of intermittent welds. $ases such as B,, =, and , are readily absorbed by the molten metal cools, its solubility for these gases diminishes and the gases try to escape. #f they are not able to escape and remain within the weld, they will cause porosity and gas poc&ets in the weld. #f they are able to reach Hust under the outer surface and are not able to escape ;if the metal has cooled<, they e%ert pressure and crac& the metal. , is a maHor cause of crac&ing in steel. Crac&ing due to gases can be avoided by preventing the evolution of these gases during welding ;by thoroughly cleaning the Hoint from moisture, oil, grease, paint etc.< and absorbing of these gases from the atmosphere ;by proper shielding<. Slow cooling also eliminates crac&ing as the gases are able to escape. Undercut< An undercut is a groove melted into the base metal adHacent to the toe of the weld, 9igure. )he reasons for this can beA non.uniform feed of the filler rod, improper position of the electrode or torch tip or e%cessive heating. 2ndercutting can sometimes be corrected by adding additional metal to fill the groove. Porosit" or 7oids< "lowholes and gas poc&ets wea&en welds appreciably and act as stress raisers from which crac&s spread. )he causes of these defects and the remedies have already been discussed above under crac&ing defect.
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Digure< Undercut. Inc)usions< #nclusions usually refer to slag but may be scale or dirt entrapped in the weld deposit during welding. )he inclusions are due to the contamination of the base metal and the deposited metal by o%ides, non uniform melting of the electrode coating, high melting point and high viscosity of the slag or insufficient deo%idizing of the metal to its melding point, and high viscosity of the slag or insufficient deo%idizing of the metal in the weld. (ac9 of fusion< #t is the lac& of coalescence between the deposited and the base metal or incomplete penetration of the weld metal into the base metal. )he usual cause is in ability to raise the temperature of the base metal to its melting point, and faulty welding conditions and 8 or techni+ues. =urning< #t is o%idation of the metal in the weld and adHacent base metal. #t is caused by a strong o%idising medium, an arc of e%cessive length or e%cessively high welding current. Interna) residua) stresses and distortion< #nternal residual stresses and distortion or warping have already been discussed under *crac&ingC. 18. 1;p)ain TIA ,e)ding process in detai) ,ith neat s9etch. Aas Tungsten Arc We)ding@ ATAW&< $)A! is also called as )ungsten #nert $as !elding ;)#$<. )he arc is maintained between the wor&piece and a tungsten electrode protected by an inert gas. )he electrode is non consumable since its melting point is about 4>66 C. )he arc temperature may be in the range of (6,666 3. )he mechanism of )#$ is shown in 9igure. )he welding head ;gun or torch< consists of a lightweight handle, with provisions for holding a stationary tungsten electrode. #n the welding head, the shielding gas flows by or along the electrode through a nozzle at the end of the gun into the arc region. )his is done to &eep the electrode cooler and permits higher currents to be used. Most guns are also water cooled. A filler metal may or may not be used. #n the tungsten electrode, ( to , @ thorium and zirconium are added to 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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improve electron emission, arc stability, arc stri&ing and current carrying capacity, and to increase the melting point of tungsten. 1lectrode diameters of 6.G mm to 7 mm are commonly used with welding speeds ranging from about G mm8s to over 76 mm8s . "oth hand and automatic operations are possible. )he process demands considerable s&ill. )he method was originated in (I>6 for welding magnesium which is highly o%idising and whose o%ides have a much higher melting point than the parent metal. =ow the method has developed as a means for welding a wide range of other materialsA aluminium and its alloys, stainless steel, cast iron, silicon bronze, titanium, =ic&el, copper and carbon steels. )he method is especially suitable for welding thinner metals ;below D mm<. 'C0P is rarely used, because it tends to melt tungsten electrode.
Digure< TIA. 'CSP is used when ma%imum penetration is needed or when welding metals that do not need cleaning of o%ide film, li&e copper and Stainless steel etc. !hen welding metals that have an o%ide film on the surfaces ;Aluminium, Magnesuim<. A.C. high fre+uency supply is used to brea& up the surface o%ides. 1:. 1;p)ain D)u; # 2ored Arc We)ding process in detai). D)u; 2ored Arc We)ding@ D2AW&< )he difference between SMA! and 9CA! is that in the latter case, the consumable electrode is in the form of welding wire which can be coiled. )he flu% which provides shielding is supplied from the hollow core within the tubular wire electrode. Since the electrode is in the form of a coil, automatic and continuous welding becomes possible with the electrode continuously fed from a spool. )here are two designs of this method possible with the electrode continuously fed from a spool. )here are two designs of this method.
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Digure< D)u; 2ored Arc We)ding. a& +e)f shie)ding< ere, the shielding is provided as the flu% burns and produces protective gas, ;9igure<. b& 1;terna) shie)ding< Sometimes, additional shielding is provided ;for steel< with a gas ;normally CB , < from an e%ternal source. )he method is suitable for +uantity production. 2$. 1;p)ain the different equipments used in Aas We)ding. Aas We)ding 1quipment< 1+uipment re+uired in gas welding includesA cylinders for compressed gases ;acetylene generator in place of acetylene cylinder in low pressure system<, regulators, blowpipes, =ozzles, ose and ose fittings. )he assembled basic e+uipment re+uired for high pressure system is shown in 9igure. 1. 2")inders for 2ompressed Aases< )he B%ygen cylinder is painted "lac& and is made of steel Acetylene cylinder is painted Maroon and is made of steel. 2. Pressure Regu)ators< A pressure regulator or pressure reducing value, located on the top of both B , and C, , cylinders, serves to reduce the high cylinder pressure of the gas to a suitable wor&ing value at the blow pipe and to maintain a constant pressure. )he pressure is regulated with the help of a spring loaded diaphragm. /ariations of pressure is necessary for different sized nozzles ;inside diameter< and the pressure is controlled by a graduated adHusting screw which serves to vary the compression of the spring.
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Digure< 3igh Pressure Aas We)ding 1quipment. '. Pressure Aauges< 1ach gas cylinder is provided with two pressure gauges. Bne gauge indicates the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder and the other indicates the pressure of the gas supplied to the blow pipe. *. =)o, Pipe< )he blow pipe or welding torch serves to mi% the gases in proper proportion and to deliver the mi%ture to the nozzle or tip where it is burned. )he gases from the cylinders are ta&en to the blow pipe through reducing valves and with the help of rubber tubes ;hoses<. Bn the shan& of the blowpipe, two control values ;needle type< are provided, one for controlling the flow of acetylene and the other of o%ygen, entering a chamber where the two gases are mi%ed in a correct proportion. )he control &nobs of the control valves arc usually coloured, red of acetylene and blue for o%ygen. 'epending upon the system of BA!, there are two designs of blow pipesA #nHector type and igh pressure type. )he inHector type blow pipe is used in the low pressure system. )he low pressure of acetylene is not sufficient to force it through the small passage, into the mi%ing chamber. )o overcome this difficulty, high pressure o%ygen at a very high velocity is led through an inHector nozzle inside the body of the blow pipe. #t produces a vacuum in the acetylene channel, drawing acetylene into the mi%ing chamber, ;9igure ;a<<. 9rom the mi%er, the gas mi%ture flows to the tip. #n the high pressure system, ;9igure ;b<<, both the gases are at high pressure. )he gases flow on their own to the mi%ing chamber and no inHector is needed. 2nder no circumstance, must a high pressure torch be used on a low pressure system, because the absence of inHector 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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ma&es it unsafe. Low pressure blow pipe is e%pensive than the high pressure blow pipe, because the whole head containing both the nozzle ;tip< and inHector is to be replaced with every nozzle change.
Digure < =)o, Pipes. -. NoCC)e or Tip< )he nozzle is a device screwed to the end of the blow pipe. #t is used to permit the flow of o%yacetylene gas mi%ture from the mi%ing chamber of blow pipe to the tip of the nozzle to facilitate burning. #n order to vary the size of flame ;and heat supply< necessary to weld varying thic&ness of metal, a selection of tips is available for the blow pipe. 9or this, the nozzles are interchangeable so that the correct nozzle is fitted at the end of the blow pipe. 1ach nozzle is mar&ed showing its gas consumption in litres8hour and a table supplied with the blowpipe shows which tip should be used to weld any re+uired thic&ness of metal. )he delivery pressure from the regulator must be varied according to the sized of the tip used, and instructions are supplied to obtain the correct conditions. /. 3ose and 3ose fittings< )he hose connects the outlet of the pressure reducing valve and the blow pipe. 0ubber tubing is necessary for fle%ibility but it should be of the highest +uality, specifically manufactured for this purpose. #n accordance with #nternational standards, hose is manufactured to a colour codeA "lue for B%ygen and 0ed for acetylene. ose fittings are provided at the ends of the hoses for attachment to the blow pipe and the outlet of the pressure reducing valves. )o prevent the interchange of fittings, the o%ygen hose connection nut has a right handled thread and the acetylene fuel gas fittings have a left handled thread. )he other e+uipment used during gas welding areA %. Aogg)es< !elding goggles must be worn to protect the eyes from the heat and light radiated from the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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flame and molten metal in the weld pool.. 21. 4escribe the sheet meta) characteristics. )he each and every sheet metal processes are having different characteristics as followsA 1. Ro)) forming Long parts with constant comple% cross sections, good surface finish high production rates high tooling costs are produced. 2. +tretch forming Large parts with shallow contours suitable for low.+uantity production, high labor costs, tooling and e+uipment costs depend on part size are produced. '. 4ra,ing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simply shapes, high production rates, high66 tooling and e+uipment costs are produced. *. +tamping #t includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blan&ing embossing, bending, flanging and coining, simple or comple% shapes formed at high production rates tooling and e+uipment costs can be high, but labour cost is low. -. Rubber forming #t includes drawing and embossing of simple or comple% shapes, sheet surface protected by rubber membranes, fle%ibility of operation, low tooling costs. /. +pinning Small or large a%isymmetric parts, good surface finish, low tooling costs, but labor costs can be high unless operations are automated. +uper p)astic forming Comple% shapes, fine detail and close tolerances, forming times are long. low. So, parts are not suitable for high temperature use. ence production rates are
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%. Peen forming Shallow contours on large sheets, fle%ibility of operation, e+uipment costs can be high, process is also used for straightening parts. 8. 1;p)osi7e forming /ery large sheets with relatively comple% shapes, although usually a%isymmetric, low tooling costs, but high labor cost, suitable for low.+uantity production, long cycle times are produced. :. !agnetic pu)se forming Shallow forming, bulging and embossing operations on relatively low.strength sheets, most suitable for tubular shapes, high production rates, re+uire special tooling. 2. !echanica))" operated po,er press or B=I press An open.bac& inclinable ;B"#< press has an inclinable C.shaped frame. #t allows wor&ing space between the bed and the ram and for the easy disposal of finished parts by gravity. )his open bac& provides easy loading and unloading of stoc& and finished parts. i&. Rectangu)ar bed< #t is a part of the frame having centre open. "ed supports a bolster plate to mount die over it. ii&. =o)ster p)ate< )his is nothing but a thic& flat steel plate over which press tools and accessories are mounted. iii&. Ram< #t is a reciprocating member which slides through its stro&e depending on the design of a press. i7&. Hnoc9 out< 3noc& out eHects wor&pieces or blan&s from a press tool after finishing its wor&. Material economy 0eduction of weight and considerable cost reduction of fabricated parts. igh productivity 2se of uns&illed labour igh degree of precision 2niformity of parts Predictable strength characteristics. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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2se of less labour. Possibility of automation. Wor9ing princip)e of press
Digure< A sing)e side f)" press. 9ly press is manually operated having a cast iron frame. )he screw provided at the top of the frame is moved in a nut. )he arm and the screw are rotated by the handle. )he punch is connected at the bottom of the ram and die is tightly fi%ed at the press plates, called bolster. )he support two cast iron weights act as a energy storage device. An improved and heavier form of fly press, called a double side press. )he main difference in this type is that the arm and weights are replaced by a heavy flywheel. 7& 2ushion< #t is a press accessory which is located beneath for producing an upward motion and force. #t can be 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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operated by air, oil, rubber, springs or a combination of above.
Digure< Inc)inab)e Po,er Press B=I press& 22. What are the t"pes of press and describe the ,or9ing princip)es of it. T6P1+ BD PR1++1+ (. According to the source of power ;a< Manually operated E and, ball or fly presses. ;b< Power presses E Mechanical, hydraulic ,. According to the type and design of frame ;a< ;b< ;c< ;d< ;e< ;f< #nclinable, Straight side, $ap frame, orning, AdHustable bed, Bpen end.
4. According to the position of frame
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;a< #nclinable, ;b< /ertical ;c< orizontal ;d< #nclined >. According to the actions ;a< Single action ;b< 'ouble action ;c< )riple action 7. According to the mechanism used for applying power to ram ;a< ;b< ;c< ;d< ;e< ;f< Cran&, )oggle, 1ccentric, Cam, Screw, 0ac& and pinion,
D. According to the number of drive gears ;a< Single drive, ;b< )win drive, ;c< Puadruple drive. :. According to the number of cran&shafts used ;a< Single cran&, ;b< 'ouble cran&. G. According to the method of transmission of power from motor to cran&shaft ;a< ;b< ;c< ;d< ;e< 'irect, Single geared, 'ouble geared, Multiple geared, =on.geared or flywheel.
2'. What are the basic shearing operation and e;p)ain it. )he broad classification of sheet metal operations are under the following two categoriesA ;i< Cutting operations 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;ii<
9orming operations
1. 2utting operations #n cutting operations, the wor&piece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength and cut.off into two pieces. #n forming operations, the stresses are below the ultimate strength of the metal. )here is no cutting. off metal but only the contour of the wor& piece is changed to get the desired product. )he common cutting operations are discussed below.
a& =)an9ing<
Digure< =)an9ing and piercing or punching "lan&ing is the operation of cutting a flat shape from the sheet metal. )he metal that is punched out 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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is called as Mblan&L and the metal that is left out is called as scrap. b& Punching or Piercing< #t is the operation of producing the hold on any wor&piece by a punch. #n punching, the metal removed is called as scrap, and the metal that is left out called as wor&piece. c& +hearing< #t is the operation through which metal is cut along a single line, usually a straight line. d& Parting< #t is the operation through which the metal is simultaneously along two parallel lines or contours or any other two lines which can balance each other to neutralize side thrust. e& Notching< #t is the operation through which metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet, strip or blan&.
Digure< +hearing f& Trimming<
Digure< Notching
#t is the operation used for removing e%cess metal, irregular outlines and waved edges, etc., from the walls of drawn shells or the surfaces of swaged and cast parts. g& +ha7ing< #t is also similar to trimming operation but here the amount of metal removal is usually about (6@ of the thic&ness of the blan&. h& Perforating<
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#n this operation, multiple holes which are very small and close together are cut in flat wor& material.
i& +)itting< #t is the operation of ma&ing an unfinished cut through a limited length only. G& (aunching< Launching consists of cutting the sheet metal through a small length and bending this small cut portion downwards.
Digure< +)itting and perforating 2. Dorming operations< a& =ending<
Digure< (aunching
"ending is the operation of forming the metal between a suitably shaped punch and a forming bloc&. )he included angle on the tools is usually smaller than that to be produced to allow for the Mspring bac&L of the metal after forming. Spring bac& is a term which denotes the property of sheet metal to partially fall bac& from its bent position when the punch retards after completing the operation. b& 4ra,ing< 'rawing operation consists of a punch forcing a sheet metal blan& to flow plastically into the clearance available between the punch and die surfaces so as the ac+uire top shape, a cylindrical shape or a bo% shape.
c& +equeeCing< #n se+ueezing operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die cavity under the action of 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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compressive force. d& 1mbossing< #t is the process of producing re+uired shapes on sheet metal blan&s by means of punches and dies.
Digure< 4ra,ing e& Nibb)ing
Digure< 1mbossing
=ibbling is an operation of cutting any shape from sheet metal without special tools. #t is done on a nibbling machine. )he re+uired shape of profile is connected in the form of tracer or templates in nibbling machine. )he time ta&en to cut the re+uired shape is less when compared to other cutting processes.
2*. What are the bending operation and e;p)ain it. T6P1+ BD =1N4INA BP1RATIBN+ )here are different types of bending operations as followsA (. Angle bending ,. 0oll bending 4. 0oll forming and >.Seaming 1. Ang)e bending
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#n this case, the metal is bent at an angle to each edge. #t is denoted by ML. #f S I6, on side, it is called as single bending. #f F I6, this is called as vertical or straight bending. #f S I6 but in two places on the same wor&, it is called as double bending.
Digure< 2. Ro)) bending #f the metal is bent in the form of rolled edge of the wor&, it is called as roll bending.
Digure< '. Ro)) forming #f the edges are formed to a desired shape or any impression in the form of bend is made on the sheet metal, it is called as roll forming operations. *. +eaming
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)he process of providing loc& between the two edges of the different wor& metal is called as seaming. )o perform this, the edge of sheet metal to be loc&ed is bent in opposite direction to each other. )hen they are inserted with each other and pressed or tightened to ma&e complete loc&. 2-. What are the stretches forming process and describe it. +TR1T23 DBR!INA BP1RATIBN+ )his method is used for producing large accurately contoured sheets. #t has been developed in Second !orld !ar period itself. Stretching is the process of stressing the wor& blan& beyond its elastic limit by moving a form bloc& towards the blan& or sheet metal. )he form bloc& has proHections of e%act size re+uired on the blan& which is in the form of depressions on the same blan&. Stretching is mainly done for straightening a part to obtain a straight a%is and uniform cross.section. 'uring stretching the blan&, the spring bac& occurs after completing the stretching process. Spring bac& is defined as the movement of the metal to resume its original position causing a decrease in bend angle after the applied force is withdrawn. So, this spring bac& has to be considered to obtain e%act shape and size of the blan& after the stretching process. Spring bac& always bend radius. $enerally large bend radius produces greater spring bac& on the blan&. "ut, this spring bac& can be avoided by ;i< Bver stretching using /.type form bloc&s, and ;ii< "y coming the metal slightly at the corners of the blan& to remove elastic stresses called corner setting. !1T3B4+ BD +TR1T23 DBR!INA Stretch forming can be done in tow methods such as (. 9orm.bloc& method ,. Mating.die method 2/. What is meant b" specia) forming processes and ,hat are the t"pes. +P12IA( DBR!INA PRB21++1+ $enerally, forming process is done by pressing the form tool over the blan& to obtain the re+uired shape. )he form tool is actuated by hydraulic cylinder using hydraulic fluid. #n the case of mating die method, sheet metal is placed over the lower die and its ends are fi%ed on movable grippers. )hen, the upper die is moved towards the blan&. #f the female or upper die is actuated by any other means e%cept hydraulic fluid contained in the cylinder in forming process called special forming process. 1%ampleA 1%plosive metal spinning, hydro forming etc. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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T"pes of specia) forming process< )here are various types special forming process as followsA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. ydroforming 0ubber pad forming Metal spinning 1%plosive forming Magnetic pulse forming Peen forming Super plastic forming
2%. What is 3"dro forming process. 364RB DBR!INA PRB21++ ydro forming is a drawing process. #t is forming process is carried out in two ways. )hey are (. ydro mechanical forming and ,. 1lectro hydraulic forming 1. 3"dro mechanica) forming #n this type of forming process the punch is connected to the lower die called male die. )he re+uired shape of inner configuration is made on the punch. A rubber diaphragm or seal is used for ma&ing perfect sealing between male and female die. )his seal is placed across the bottom of the pressure forming chamber. )he pressure.forming chamber is filled with a hydraulic fluid. )hen, he blan& is correctly positioned over the male die or lower die. =ow, the pressure forming chamber called dome is lowered over the blan& in such a way that the dome is made to Hust contact with the blan&.
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Digure< Too)ing and set#up for the h"droforming process. 28. What is meta) spinning process. !1TA( +PINNINA PRB21++ )he process of forming seamless metal parts from a circular sheet metal or from a tube length on a lathe is called as spinning process. Bnly symmetrical shapes can be produced from metal spinning process. !ethod of spinning process< )here are two methods used to produce sheet metal parts. (. Manual spinning ,. Power spinning
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1. !anua) spinning
Digure< +pinning 9irst, the circular blan& is centered on a lathe which is placed against a form bloc&. )he form bloc& is mounted on the head stoc& of the spinning lathe. )he blan& is tightly held between form bloc& and tail stoc& spindle. )he re+uired contour surface is made on the form bloc&. )he pressure is applied by the roller type forming tool which is placed on the tool post of the spinning lathe. )he re+uired shape is gradually formed by continuous application of pressure by the roller. 'uring spinning process, some stretching and thinning of material ta&es place. Metal spinning can be done both in cold and hot state. eat generation due to friction between spinning tool or roller type forming and blan& can also be used to retain the plastic state of sheet metal. Spinning speed varies with size, design, type of metal and thic&ness of sheet metal. Aluminium copper, brass and stainless steel can also be spun in spinning process. )his process is mainly suitable for producing conical shape parts and suitable for low volume production. Components produced in this process do not re+uire any trimming or beading operations. 9or producing more comple% shapes, segmental chuc&s made from cast aluminium, magnesium alloys or hard wood reinforced with cold rolled steel sheets are used. the lubricants of grease, linseed oil, and bees wa% are used while using bead and tallow between form tool and blan&s during spinning process. Ad7antages 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. Parts not be drawn by drawing operations can be easily spun. ,. eat generated due to friction is sued to retain the sheet metal in the plastic state. 4. )he process is more economical for low volume production. 4isad7antages (. )hinning ta&es place during spinning process. ,. More comple% shapes re+uire segmental chuc&s. 9inally, it leads to increase in cost. 4. Accuracy and +uality of finished products mainly depends on the s&ill of the operator. 2:. What is super#p)astic forming process. +UP1R P(A+TI2 DBR!INA PRB21++ Introduction Manufacturing of comple% lightweight automotive structures that meet cost and product goals is a completive challenge facing industry. Super plastic forming ;SP9< is a valuable tool for the fabrication of comple% parts used in the aircraft and automobile industries. Super plastic forming ;SP9< of sheet metal has been used to produce very comple% shapes and #ntegrated structures that are often lighter and stronger than the assemblies they replace. Superplasticity in metals is defined by very high tensile elongations ranging from two hundred several thousand percent. Superplasticity is the ability of certain materials to undergo e%treme elongation at the proper temperature and strain rate. )he process typically conducted at high temperature and under controlled strain rate, can give a ten. fold increase in elongation compared to conventional room temperature processes. Components are formed by applying gas pressure between one or more sheets and a die surface, causing the sheets to stretch and fill the die cavity. )he evolution of pressures must be closely controlled during the process since the alloys of interest only e%hibits super plastic behaviour for certain temperature dependent range of strain rates. Specific alloys of titanium, stainless steel, and aluminium are commercially available with the fine.grained microstructure and strain rate sensitivity of flow stress that are necessary for Super plastic deformation. Process SP9 can produce parts that are impossible to form using conventional techni+ues. 'uring the SP9 process, the material is heated to the SP9 temperature within a sealed die. #nert gas pressure is then applied, at a controlled rate forcing the material to ta&e the shape of the die pattern. )he flow stress of the material during deformation increases rapidly with increasing strain rate. Super plastic alloys can be stretched at higher temperatures by several times of their initial length without brea&ing. Some of the materials developed for super plastic forming areA
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(. ,. 4. >. 7.
"ismuth.tin ;,66@ elongation< Kinc.aluminium )itanium ;)i.DAl./< Aluminium ;,66>, ,>(I, :>:7< Aluminium.lithium alloys ;,6I6.,6I(, G6I6<
+uper#p)astic Dorming#Process )his method consists in hot forming up to (666 Celsius super plastic alloys by using an inert gas pressured up to 76 bars. Combined with diffusion bonding, this process allows honeycomb structures made of several sheets in a single operation.
(oading<
Digure )he blan& is loaded in the form die. )he hot press heats the die and the blan& to the material super. plastic temperature. Dorming< Bnce the temperature is reached, it is accurately controlled, while the gas pressure slowly inflates the blan&.
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Digure< Dorming< )he gas &eeps inflating the part to fit the die. )he material at the super.plastic temperature can allow up to 766@ elongation.
Digure< Re)ease< At the end of the forming cycle, the part perfectly conforms to the die, even in its smallest details.
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Digure< Ad7antages of +PD Process Super plastic forming technology offers the potential to reduce the weight and cost of automotive structural components for advance vehicle applications. The main ad7antages of this process are< (. #t is a one step process ,. )he process can be used to form comple% components in shapes that are very near the final dimension. 4. igher material elongation >. 1limination of unnecessary Hoints and rivets 7. 0eduction of subse+uent machining D. Minimizes the amount of scrap produced. App)ications )he process is increasing being applied in the aerospace industry as a way of manufacturing very comple% geometries. ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< #n automotive body panel #n forming of aircraft frames and s&ins 'iaphragm forming of plastics Comple% shape parts.window frames, seat structures.
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UNIT III PART A

1. (ist some of operations that can be done on engine )athes. )urning, facing, 0eaming R drilling, "oring, &nurling, milling, grinding, taper turning. 2. 3o, ,i)) "ou c)assif" engine )athes. Bn the basis of their purpose, design, number of tools accommodated, degree of mechanization and other factors, lathe.type machine tools may be classified asA 1. (imited or )o,#production !achines. )he lathes included in this category areA engine lathe ;centre lathe<, bench lathe, tool room lathe and speed lathe. 2. !edium#production !achines. )urret lathes and duplicating ;or tracer controlled< lathes. '. 3igh#production !achines. Semiconductor automatic and automatic lathes. )he construction and principle of lathe.type machine tools will be illustrated by the e%ample of the most common representative of this class.the engine lathe. '. Name four main parts of a )athe. "ed, ead stoc&, tail stoc& R carriage.
*. +9etch the too) post.
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Dig. )he tool post is mounted on the compound rest and slides in a ).slot. Cutting tool8tool holder is firmly held in it. )he tool can be swiveled as well as tilted by means of a roc&er and a concave ring collar. -. What are the ad7antages of geared dri7e. i. ii. iii. #t is more efficient and compact than the cone pulley drive. Possibility of transmitting high power. )he available power on the spindle remains almost constant for the difference speeds.
/. What is the use of shaper. )he main function of shapers, planers and slotters is the machining of flat surfaces by means of straight line reciprocating single point cutting tools similar to those used in lathe operations.
%. 4ra, the b)oc9 diagram of a horiConta) shaper.
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8. Write the ad7antages of a shaper. )he shapers have got the following advantages. (. )he single point cutting tools used in shapers are ine%pensive, these tools can be easily grounded to any desired shape. ,. )he simplicity and ease of holding wor&, its easy adHustment, and the simple tool give the shaper its great fle%ibility. 4. Shaper set up is very +uic& and easy and can be readily changed from one Hob to another. >. )hin or fragile Hobs can be conveniently machined on shapers because of lower cutting forces. :. Write the 7arious Ram dri7e mechanisms of a +)otters. ydraulic 'rive, /ariable Speed 0eversible Motor drive, Slotted disc mechanism.
1$. What are the uses of s)otter. Uses of 0ertica) +haper F +)otter (. #nternal machining of blind holes. ,. !or& re+uiring machining on internal sections such as splines, &eyways, various slots and grooves and teeth. 4. Cutting of teeth on ratchet or gear rings which re+uire primarily rotary feed. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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>. Machining of die, punchet, straight and curved slots. 11. Write the ad7antages of P)aners. (. ,. 4. >. Larger wor& can be handled as compared to shapers and millers. Capable of ta&ing much heavier cuts as compared to shapers and millers. )here are no overhanging parts such as a ram. So there is no wor& or tool deflection or distortion. )he wor& is mounted on a table which is supported throughout its entire movement. So, a ma%imum support is obtained.
12. 4ra, an" t,o ,or9 ho)ding de7ices of a p)aner.
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Dig. Wor9#3o)ding 4e7ices 1'. Write do,n the principa) parts of a p)aner. "ed, )able, ousings, Cross.rail, )ool eads 1*. 4efine 4ri))ing Bperation. 4ri))ing Process )he drilling process is an e%tensively used machining operation by which through or blind holes are cut or originated in a wor&piece. )he drilling tool is called a *drillC which is a multi.point ctting tool. )he hole is produced by a%ially feeding the rotating drill into the wor&piece which is held on the table of the drilling machine. 1-. +9etch 4ri)) press.
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4iagram of a 4ri)) Press 1/. 4ra, up 5 do,n mi))ing operation.
1%. 4ra, the b)oc9 diagram of horiConta) mi))ing machine.
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P)ain 2o)umn and Hnee t"pe !i))ing !achine 18. What are the 7arious methods of 2")indrica) Arinding. )raverse $rinding, Plunge.Cut $rinding, 9ull 'epth $rinding. 1:. What is the princip)e of 14!. #t has long been recognized that a powerful spar&, such as at the terminals of an automobile battery will cause pitting or erosion of the metal at both the anode and cathode. )his principle is utilized in 1lectric 'ischarge Machining ;1'M<, also called spar& erosion. #f anode and cathode are of the same material, it has been found that greater erosion ta&es place at anode ;positive electrode<. )herefore, in 1'M process, wor& is made the anode and the tool is the cathode ;negative electrode<. 2$. Name the common die)ectric used in 14!. Petroleum based hydrocarbon fluids, Paraffin, white spirit, transformer oil, &erosene, mineral oil or mi%ture of these. 21. What are the Product app)ications of 14!. 1'M is widely used for machining buff free intricate shapes, narrow slots and blind cavities etc, for e%ample, sin&ing of dies for moulding, die casting, plastic moulding, wire drawing, compacting, cold heading, forging, e%trusion and press tools. Almost any geometry ;negative of tool geometry< can be generated on a wor&piece if a suitable tool can be fabricated ;the use of punch as a tool to machine its own mating die is commonly employed in 1'M method<. )he method is also employed for blan&ing parts from sheets, cutting off rods of materials, flat or form grinding and sharpening of tools, cutters and broaches. #n 1'M method, small holes, about 6.(4 mm, in diameter and as deep as ,6 diameters can be drilled with 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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virtually no bending or drifting of hole. 'ue to this, 1'M is particularly useful for machining of small holes, orifices or slots in diesel.fuel inHection nozzles, or in aircraft engines, air bra&e valves and so on. 22. What are the Ad7antages of 14!. (. 1'M can be used for machining any material that is electrically conductive, thus including metals, alloys and most carbides. ,. )he melting point, hardness, toughness or brittleness of the material poses no problems. 'ue to this 1'M can be used for machining materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by conventional methods. 4. )he method does not leave any chips ro burns on the wor& piece. >. Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine wor& can be done. 7. )he process dimension repeatability and surface finish obtained in finishing are e%tremely good. D. )he characteristic surface obtained which is made up of craters, helps in better oil retention. )his improves die life. :. )he process once set up does not need constant operatorLs attention.
2'. What are the 4isad7antages of 14!. (. Bnly electrically conductive materials can be machined by 1'M. )hus non.metallics, such as plastics, ceramics, or glass cannot be machined by 1'M. ,. 1lectrode wear and over cut are serious problems. 4. A rehardened, highly stressed zone is produced on the wor& surface by the heat generated during machining. )his brittle layer can cause serious problems when the part is put into service. >. Perfectly s+uare corners cannot be made by 1'M. 2*. What are the ad7antages of 12!. (. 1CM is simple, fast and versatile method. ,. )he metal removal is entirely by metallic ion e%change and so there are no cutting forces and the wor&piece is left in an undisturbed, stress free state. #t is never subHected to high temperatures or stresses. Also, due to the absence of cutting forces very thin selections can be machined. Again, there will be no residual stresses in the wor&piece as a result of the operation. 4. #f proper electrolytes are used, there is no tool wear at all. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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>. )he process character does not depend at all upon the physical properties of the metal ;hardness, toughness etc.< 7. Surface finish can be e%tremely good. D. =o burrs are produced. :. 9airly good tolerances can be obtained. G. )he process can be easily automated. 2-. What are the (imitations of 12!. (. ,. 4. >. 7. Large power consumption, and the related problems. Sharp internal corners cannot be achieved. Post machining cleaning is a must, to reduce the corrosion of the wor&pieces. )ool design is complicated and needs cut and try method to achieve the final shape. Maintenance of higher tolerances re+uires complicated controls.
2/. 4ra, the schematic of 12!.
+chematic Arrangement of 12! 2%. What are the )imitations of 1=!. (. oles produced in materials of thic&ness greater than about 6.(4 mm, are tapered, with a side wall taper of about ( to ,, the minimum diameter being at the e%it of the hole. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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,. )he method is +uite cumbersome and the e+uipment is very costly. 4. )he metal removal rate is very low. >. At the spot where the electron beam stri&es the material, a small amount of recasting and metal spatter can occur. )his has to be removed afterwards by abrasive cleaning.
28. What are the ad7antages of (=!. (. =on.contact process with no wor&piece distortion. ,. Minimum heat affected zone. 4. Precise operation. >. igh production rates. 7. Process can be easily automated. D. #naccessible areas for conventional methods can be processed. :. ardness of the material does not affect the process. G. Multiple holes or welds possible in one e%posure. I. 'issimilar materials can be welded.
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1. 1;p)ain Abrasi7e Eet !achining ,ith necessar" diagram. Abrasi7e Eet !achining AE!& #n abrasive et machining method, the material is removed form the surface or a !or&piece, by impinging a focused Het of fine abrasive particles carried by a compressed gas which imparts &inetic energy to the stream of fine abrasives. )he stream leaves through a nozzle at a velocity of the order of 466 m8s and stri&es the surface of the !or&piece, producing impact loading on it. Severe plastic deformation or micro. crac&s occur is the vicinity of the impact. 'ue to repeated impacts, small chips of material get loosened and fresh surface gets e%posed to the Het. )he carrier gas can be air, nitrogen or carbon dio%ide, but never o%ygen. )he air must be filtered to remove water, oil and other contaminants. =ozzle pressure can range between 6.,6 =8mm , and 6.G7 =8mm, but is usually about 6.7 =8mm, igher pressure results in rapid nozzle wear, low pressure gives slow metal removal rates. )o resists abrasion and wear of nozzles, these are made of hard materials such as tungsten carbide and synthetic sapphire. )he useful life of sapphire nozzles is about (6 times that of tungsten carbide nozzles. )he size of the nozzles are usually. Tungsten 2arbide 0ound 0ectangular S+uare Sapphire nozzles A 6.6(,7 to 6.G6 mm diameter A 6.6:7 mm 6.76 mm to 6.(:7 mm 4.:7 mm A 6.D7 mm s+uare A 6.,6 to 6.D7 mm diameter are made only round
)he various abrasive materials used ion A-M include aluminium o%ide, silicon carbide, glass powder or beads, dolomite ;calcium magnesium carbonate< and specially prepared sodium bicarbonate. !hen sodium bicarbonate is used, it must be &ept dry. )he cutting performance will depend uponA hardness, strength, particle size and particle shape of the abrasive. Al ,B4 is a general purpose abrasive and is used in sizes of (6, ,7 and 76 microns. SiC is used for fastest cutting on e%tremely hard materials. #t is used in ,7 and 76 microns sizes. 'olomite is used in ,66 mesh size for light cleaning and etching. Sodium bicarbonate is used for e%tra fine cleaning and glass beads ;6.D47 to (.,: mm diameter< are used for light polishing and fine deburring. #n general, larger sizes are used for rapid removal rate while smaller sizes are used for good surface finish and precision.
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)he metal removal rate will depend upon the diameter of nozzle, composition of abrasive gas mi%ture, hardness of abrasive particles and that of the wor&.materials, particle size, velocity of Het and distance of !or&piece from the Het. )he typical metal removal rates vary from 6.6(D to 6.6, cm48min. Mas&s defining the machining area are sometimes used to prevent stray cutting. Copper a good all purpose mas&ing material. $lass gives e%cellent definition but has short life. 0ubber has long life but gives poor definition. Application of A-M includeA abrasive, cutting or cleaning ;for e%ample electrical contacts< ad for machining semi.conductors such as silicon, gallium or germanium, for ma&es holes and slots in glass +uartz sapphire, mica and ceramics.
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Bther applications areA cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, scribing, grooving, polishing and radiusing. A dimensional tolerance of 6.67 mm can be obtained. Surface finish obtained is in the range of 6.7 to (., m CLA )ypical power input is 6.,7 &!, the method is used chiefly to cut materials that are sensitive to heat damage and thin section of hard materials that chip easily and to cut indicate holes that would be more difficult to produce by other methods. )he other advantage is its low capital cost. )he disadvantages of the method areA low metal removal rate, possibility of stray cutting, embedding of abrasive particles in soft !or&piece and dust control re+uirements. A schematic diagram of A-M is shown in figure. 'ry and filtered ;in this case air< is raised to a high pressure in the compressor. )he pressurized air flows to the vibrating mi%ing chamber containing abrasive powder. )he mi%ture of pressurized air and abrasive powder than flows to the nozzle. #t then impinges on the !or&piece after shooting out of the nozzle e%it. )he pressure regulator regulates. )he gas flow and its pressure. )he feed rate of abrasive powder is controlled by amplitude or vibrations of the mi%ing chamber. )he movement of the nozzle towards to !or&piece or vice versa is controlled by a cam mechanism or a pantograph mechanism. 2. 1;p)ain U)trasonic !achining. U)trasonic !echining U+!& 2ltrasonic machining is a &ind of grinding method. An abrasive slurry is pumped between tool and wor&, and the tool is given a high fre+uency, low amplitude oscillation which, in turn, transmits a high 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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velocity to fine abrasive particles which are driven against the wor& piece. At each stro&e, minute chips of material are removed by fracture or erosion. )he general arrangement of ultrasonic machining is shown in figure. )he e+uipment consists of a transducer, a tool holder and the tool. )he linear oscillatory motion of the tool is obtained by magnetostrictive transducer which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. )he transducer consists of a stac& of nic&el laminations that are wound with a coil. !hen a high fre+uency current is passed through the coil, changes in the electromagnetic field produce longitudinal strains in the laminations. )hese longitudinal strains are transmitted to the tool through a tool holder. )he tool oscillates linearly with an amplitude of about 6.67 mm at ultrasonic fre+uencies of from (7 to ,7 & z. Power supply isA Potential volts F ,,6, current F (,A. )he tool whose shape is essentially re.produced in the wor&.piece, is also subHected to the impact E facture action and should be made of a soft ductile material that is easilymachined, for e%ample, unhardened steel, copper or brass. )he tool is ordinarily 6.6:7 to 6.(6 mm smaller than the cavity it produces. )he tool is brazed, soldered or fastened mechanically to the transducer through a tool holder.
U)trasonic !achining 9or selecting tool holder material, factors to be considered areA Conductivity, how well the material can be brazed and fatigue properties. )he material for tool holder can beA titanium alloys, Monel, Aluminium, stainless steel etc. #mportant factor in tool fastening is that no relative motion and hence energy loss occurs. So, soldering and brazing have proved more satisfactory than mechanical clamping. )he tool feed rate is about 6.( mm8s, ma%imum. )he abrasive used in 2SM can be aluminium o%ide boron carbide or silicon carbide grains in slurry which also carries away debris. )he slurry can be made in water which also acts as a coolant. )he usual combinations are boron carbide in water and silicon carbide in paraffin. $rain size of abrasive particles ranges from ,66 to (666. )his method involves brittle fracture and obviously wor&s only on relatively brittle materials. So 2SM has been applied very successfully to hard, refractory, difficult to machine materials which are +uite 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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brittle, for e%ample, ceramics, borides, ferrites, carbides, glass, precious stories, hardened steel, cermets and some super alloys, etc. it is used chiefly for drilling holes, engraving, cavity sin&ing ;carbide wire drawing dies<, slicing and broaching etc. ole diameter as small as 6.6( mm can be produced. )olerance and surface finish depend upon grit size. More practical values for tolerance are ? 6.6667 mm8mm can be obtained. 2sual values for surface finish are 6.,7 to 6.76 m 0a. Metal removal is about 4 mm48s. )he difference between conventional grinding and ultrasonic machining also &nown as grinding is that whereas in the former, the motion of the grinding grit is tangential to the surface of wor& piece, in 2SM ;2S$<, the motion of grinding grits is normal to the wor& surface. Advantages of the process areA no thermal stresses, low tooling costs and the use of semis&illed wor&ers for precision wor&. '. 1;p)ain 1)ectrica) discharge machining. 1)ectrica) 4ischarge !achining 14!& #t has long been recognized that a powerful spar&, such as at the terminals of an automobile battery, will cause pitting or erosion of the metal at both the anode and cathode. )his principle is utilized in 1lectric 'ischarge Machining ;1'M<, also called spar& erosion. #f anode and cathode are of the same material, it has been found that greater erosion ta&es place at anode ;positive electrode<. )herefore, in 1'M process, wor& is made the anode and the tool is the cathode ;negative electrode<. 4escription of Process )he mechanical set up and the electrical set up are shown in figure. Power for generating the spar& is fed from an A.C. source to a rectifier. )he '.C. output is then fed to the spar& generating circuit. )he tool and wor& and also the tool slide servo.mechanism, are connected into the circuit. )he tool and wor& are submerged in a fluid having poor electrical conductivity ;dielectric fluid<. )he function of the servo. mechanism is to maintain a very small gap ;appro%imately .6,7 to 6.6:7 mm< between the tool and the wor&. )he spar& is a transient electric discharge across the gap between wor& and tool. !hen the potential difference ;voltage< across the gap becomes sufficiently large, the dielectric fluid becomes ionized and brea&s down to produce an electrically conductive spar& channel and the condensers discharge current across the channel in the form of a spar&. !hen the voltage drops to about (, volts, the spar& discharge e%tinguishes and the di.electric fluid once again becomes deionized. )he condensers start to recharge and the process repeats itself. )he spar& occurs in an interval of from (6 to 46 microseconds and with a current per second density of appro%imately (7 E 766A per mm,.
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+chematic Arrangement of 14! !ethod )hus, thousands of spar&.discharge occur per second across the gap between tool and wor&, which result in a local temperature of appro%imately (,666 C. At each discharge, heat transfer from high temperature spar& ;plasma< to both tool and wor&, melts, partially vaporizes and partially ionizes the metal in a thin surface layer. )he resulting wor& surface is composed of e%tremely small craters. )he time interval between the spar& is so short that the heat is unable to conduct into the tool and wor&. Po,er +upp)ies Many types of electric circuits are available to provide pulsating '.C. across the wor&piece tool gap. )he earliest models of 1' Machines were fitted with 0esistance.Capacitance ;0.C< rela%ation circuit. #n this system, a current flowing through a resistor of C, which may be as high as >66 f ;on heavy machines< is generally &ept variable on most 1'M machines, so that the machining conditions ;rough, medium and finish< can be varied, to get the desired accuracy and surface finish. )his value of 0 is &ept sufficiently high, to prevent continuous arcing after the spar&. )he ratio of the discharge or brea&down voltage and the applied '.C. source voltage lies between 6.: and 6.I. #n this circuit, tool becomes alternately positive and negative terminal. At each reversal of polarity, there is more wear on tool tan on wor&. So, tool wear is greater in this arrangement. Another disadvantage is that the metal removal rate is not high. Rotar" Impu)se Aenerator #n this system, the capacitor is charged through a diode, during the first half cycle. 'uring the second half of the cycle, the sum of the voltage generated by the generator ;which is rotated by a motor< and the charged capacitor, is applied to the wor&piece.tool gap. )he metal removal rate is higher, but the surface finish is not good.
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TransistoriCed Pu)se Aenerator 2ircuit #n the above two systems, there is no provision to stop the current flow in the event of a short circuit. )o overcome this problem, a transistor is used as the switching device for an automatic control in )ransistorized pulse generator circuit. Circuits are also available in which reverse pulse can be eliminated, resulting in lesser tool wear. Potential volts F (66 to 4G6, current amperes F 76. 4ie)ectric D)uid A dielectric fluid is a medium that does not conduct electricity. #n 1'M process, the functions of dielectric fluid areA (. ,. 4. >. #t acts as an insulating medium. #t cools the spar& region and helps in &eeping the tool and wor&piece cool. #t maintains a constant resistance across the gap. #t carries away the eroded metal particles.
)he dielectric fluid is circulated through the tool at a pressure of 6.47 =8mm , or less. )o free it from eroded metal particles, it is circulated through a filter. 'ielectric fluids must not be hazardous to operators or corrosive to e+uipment. )he various mediums which are used a dielectric fluids areA petroleum based hydrocarbon fluids, paraffin, white spirit, transformer oil &erosene, mineral oil or mi%ture of these. Bccasionally, ethylene glycol and water miscible compounds are also used as dielectric fluids. Too) !ateria)s )he prime re+uirements of any tool material areA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. #t should be electrically conductive. #t should have good machinability. #t should have low erosion rate or good wor& to tool wear ratio. #t should have low electrical resistance. #t should have high melting point. #t should have high electron emission. )he usual choices for tool ;electrode< materials areA Copper, brass, alloys of zinc and tin, hardened plain carbon steel, copper tungsten, silver tungsten carbide, copper graphite, and graphite. )he various factors affecting the choice of electrode material areA machining applications, material being machine, availability, cost and the practical limitations inherent in processing the electrodes to the desired shape. Bne maHor drawbac& of 1'M is the wear that occurs on the electrode art each spar&. )ool wear is 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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given in terms of wear ratio which is defined as, Wear ratio = *olume of metal remo+ed ,or*olume of metal remo+ed tool
!ear ratio for brass electrode is (A (. 9or most other metallic electrodes, it is about 4 A ( or > A (. !ith graphite ;with the highest melting point, 4766 C<, the wear ratio may range from 7 A ( upto 76 A (. +er7o !echanism As already mentioned, the gap between the tool and wor& has a critical importance. As the wor&piece is machined, this gap tends to increase. 9or optimum machining efficiency, this gap should be maintained constant. )his is done by servo.mechanism which controls the movement of the electrode. )he servo. mechanisms can either be electro.mechanical or hydraulic. #n the electro.mechanical system, the electrode is moved by a rac& and pinion arrangement which is driven through reduction gearing form a '.C. servo motor. As the gap between the tool and wor&piece increases because of their wear, the voltage across the gap drops. )his voltage drop is automatically measured and feedbac& is given to the servo control which sends a signal to the servo.motor which operates the electrode downward until the gap reaches its critical value again. !eta) remo7a) rate and surface finish Metal removal rate ;volume of metal removed from the wor& per unit time< depends upon current density and it increases with current. "ut high removal rates produce poor finish. )herefore, the usual practice in 1'M is ;as in conventional methods< a roughing cut with a heavy current followed by a finishing cut with less current. Metal removal rates are usually low, appro%imately G6 mm 48s, but this can be increased on machines having more efficient more efficient pulse generators. )olerances of the order of 6.67 to 6.(4 mm are commonly obtainable and with e%tra care, tolerances of 6.664 to 6.6(4 mm are possible. Surface finish of the order of ,m 0a is possible. #n addition to current density or the electric energy e%pended per spar&, the M00 per spar& also depends upon the period over which it is e%pended. )o minimize the structure.damaging hear transfer into the bul& of the wor&piece, a spar& duration of (6 to ,6 micro.seconds appears of be optimum. The !RR ;i< ;ii< increase with discharge time until an optimum value, after which it suddenly drops. increases with forced circulation of dielectric fluid
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;iii< ;iv< ;v< Ad7antages
is ma%imum when the pressure is below atmospheric, that is, cavitation helps in increasing M00 increases with capacitance increases upto optimum wor&.tool gap, after which it drops suddenly.
(. 1'M can be used for machining any material that is electrically conductive, thus including metals, alloys and most carbides. ,. )he melting point, hardness, toughness or brittleness of the material poses no problems. 'ue to this 1'M can be used for machining materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by conventional methods. 4. )he method does not leave any chips or burrs on the wor& piece. >. Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine wor& can be done. 7. )he process dimension repeatability and surface finish obtained in finishing are e%tremely good. D. )he characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of craters, helps in better oil retention. )his improves die life. :. )he process once set up doest not need constant operatorLs attention. 4isad7antages (. Bnly electrically conductive materials can be machined by 1'M. )hus non.metallics, such as plastics, ceramics or glass, cannot be machined by 1'M. ,. 1lectrode wear and overcut are serious problems. 4. A rehardened, highly stressed zone is produced on the wor& surface by the hear generated during machining. )his brittle layer can cause serious problems when the part is put into service. >. Perfectly s+uare corners cannot be made by 1'M. Product App)ication 1'M is widely used for machining burr free intricate shapes, narrow slots and blind cavities etc., for e%ample, sin&ing of dies for moulding, die casting, plastic moulding, wire drawing, compacting, cold heading, forging, e%trusion and press tools. Almost any geometry ;negative of tool geometry< can be generated on a wor&piece if a suitable tool can be fabricated ;the use of punch as a tool to machine its own mating die is commonly employed in 1'M method<. )he method is also employed for blan&ing parts from sheets, cutting off rods of materials, flat or from grinding and sharpening of tools, cutters and broaches. #n 1'M methods, small holes, about 6.(4 mm, in diameter and as deep as ,6 diameters can be drilled with virtually on bending or drifting of hole. 'ue to this 1'M is particularly useful for machining of small holes, orifices or slots in diesel.fuel inHection nozzles, or in aircraft engines, air bra&e valves and so on. *. 1)ectro 2hemica) !achining e;p)ain the process in detai). #n 1CM, the principle of electrolysis is used to remove metal from the wor&piece. )he principle of 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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electrolysis is based on 9aradayLs laws of electrolysis which may be stated asA *)he weight of substance produced during electrolysis is directly proportional to the current which passes, the length of time of the electrolysis process and the e+uivalent weight of the materials which is depositedC. 1CM is Hust the reverse of electroplating ;which also uses the principle electrolysis<. #n electroplating, two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrolyte ;an electrically conductive fluid< and anode losses metal to the cathode. #n 1CM, wor& is made the anode and the tool is the cathode. )herefore, wor& loses metal, but before it can be plated on to the tool, the dissolved metal is carried away in the following electrolyte.
+chematic Arrangement of 12! 4escription of Process Schematic view of 1CM method is shown in figure. #n the '.C. supply circuit, the wor&piece is made the anode and the tool is made the cathode. )he tool is of hollow tabular type, to provide passages for circulating electrolyte between the tool face and the wor&. As the power supply is switched on and the current starts flowing through the circuit electrons are removed from the surface atoms of the wor&piece. )hese ions tend to migrate to the hollow cutting tool. "ut before these can get deposited on the cutting tool face, these are swept away by rapidly flowing electrolyte, out of the gap between the tool and the wor&piece. )he tool is fed towards the wor&piece automatically at constant velocity to control the gap between the electrodes. )ool face has the reverse shape of the desired wor&piece. )he sides of the tool are insulated to concentrate the metal removal action at the bottom face of the tool. Ad7antages Li&e 1'M, the 1CM method has also been developed for machining new hard, and tough materials ;for roc&et and aircraft industry< and also hard refractory materials. 1CM has the following outstanding advantages. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. 1CM is simple, fast and versatile method. ,. )he metal removal is entirely by metallic ion e%change and so there are no cutting forces and the wor&piece is left in an undisturbed, stress free state. #t is never subHected to high temperatures or stresses. Also, due to the absence of cutting forces, very thin sections can be machined. Again, there will be no residual stresses in the wor&piece as a result of the operation. 4. #f proper electrolytes are used, there is no tool wear at all. >. )he process character does not depend at all upon the physical properties fo the emtal ;hardness, toughness, etc.< 7. Surface finish can be e%tremely good. D. =o burrs are produced. :. 9airly good tolerances can be obtained. G. )he process can be easily automated. (imitations of 12! (. ,. 4. >. 7. Large power consumption and the related problems. Sharp internal corners cannot be achieved. Post machining cleaning is a must, to reduce the corrosion of the wor&pieces. )ool design is complicated and needs cut and try method to achieve the final shape. Maintenance of higher tolerances re+uires complicated controls.
Po,er +upp)" )he electrical supply circuit in 1CM is simpler as compared to 1'M, 1CM power supplies are currently available in sizes upto (6,666 amperes ;a few machines are rated upto >6,666 amperes<. )he range of voltage on most machines is from 7 to 46 volts d.c. in 1CM method, a constant voltage has to be maintained. 9or this voltage regulation circuits are available. Cut.off circuits are also available in the power supply units to stop the supply of power to the machining gap. #n 1CM, the current density is usually high. At low current densities, the metal removal rate is low. #n order to have a metal removal of the anode, a sufficient amount of current has to be given. #t has been found that at low current densities ;7A8cm ,<. B, is evolved at anode and all the energy is used for this purpose. #n order to have a high current efficiency, higher current densities, of the order of ,66 A 8 cm, are used. 1)ectro)"te )he electrolyte in 1/M method serves two purposes. (. #t is essential for electrolytic process to wor&, and ,. #t cools the cutting zone which becomes hot due to the flow of high current. )he electrolytes vary from strong salt to strong acid solution, depending on the wor& material. =eutral salts are used as electrolytes in preference to highly corrosive acids and al&alies. )he sodium and the potassium salts are probably the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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most common. A ,6@ common salt ;=aCl< solution is appropriate for many materials. Some electrolytes are naturally corrosive and so 1CM e+uipment is made of stainless steel and plastics. )he electrolyte solution is pumped between the tool8wor&piece gap at about ,.7 =8mm , and 46 m8s. )he electrolyte should never be allowed to boil. 9or this, the temperature of the electrolyte in the tan& is thermostatically controlled ;47 to D7<, by electric heaters together with a heat e%changer or evaporative condenser. 2nli&e 1'M, it is not necessary for the wor& to be submerged in li+uid solution. Too) As mentioned above, there is virtually no tool wear, so, any material that is good conductor of electricity can be used as tool material. Bther re+uirements of good tool material areA (. ,. 4. >. #t should have good thermal conductivity. #t should be strong enough to withstand the high hydrostatic pressures caused by electrolyte flow. #t should be easily machined. As the surface finish of the wor&piece mainly depends upon the condition of the bottom face of the tool, this portion of the tool should be polished.
)he tool may be made from titanium, copper, brass or stainless steel. )he outer surface of tool is insulated by /inyl, )eflon, epo%y, enamels or high temperature varnish. A constant gap about 6.6( mm is maintained between the tool face and wor&. 9or this, the tool is fed towards wor& at constant velocity with feed rate of about 6.7 mm to ,7 mm per minute. )he movement of the tool slide is controlled by a hydraulic cylinder. !achined +urface )he machining rate and surface finish are directly proportional current density. Surface finish values as low as 6.( m 0a are possible with a tolerance of order of 6.667 mm. the metal removal rates are high upto 776 mm48s. !eta) Remo7a) Rate 1ven though, the metal removal rate depends on the current density there is a limit upto which it can be done. 9orcing more and more current per unit area through the electrolyte.surface combination, will saturate the system due to one of a number of effects given below. (. )oo much heating of the electrolyte ;due to (,.0effect< may cause it is boiling. )his will appreciably reduce the electrolytic action. ,. )he metallic ions react with an electrolyte component, to form a reaction product, which will greatly impede the action, unless it is removed from the surface. 4. Polarized ionic layers may build up at either electrode, causing large voltage drops near the surfaces. >. $as evolution ; ,< at the cathode surface may reduce the current flow.
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)he limiting effect of the above factors can be reduced by increasing the flow of clean electrolyte in the anode cathode gap. "ecause this gap is small ;6.6,7 to 6.(,7 mm< the high rate of electrolyte flow will re+uire high fluid pressures. )his will result in large hydrostatic separating forces between the tool and the wor&. 9or most operations, the ma%imum flow rate determined by the practical considerations imposed by the phenomenon of cavitation. 'uring cavitation, vapour bubbles are hydro.dynamically formed in the fluid and produced uneven metal removal. Product App)ication 1CM methods find wide application in roc&et, aircraft and gas turbine industries. 1/M is a standard method for machining gas turbine blades. 1CM is increasingly being used in airframe component fabrication, die sin&ing and the manufacture of general machine parts. )he different operations li&e turning, drilling, milling, shaping and planning etc. can be combined and done +uic&ly by 1CM method. Produce applications of 1CM include producing simple to comple% cavities ;die sin&ing<, embossed surfaces, blind holes, through holes, irregular holes and comple% e%ternal shapesJ cutting test bloc&s and sawing ingots to various desired lengths in steel mills, rough machining of massive forgingsJ honey.combing aircraft panelsJ Het engine blade airfoils and cooling holesJ operations on roc& boring bits, transformer cores, pump impellers, gears, operations on roc& boring bits, transformer cores, pump impellers, gearsJ e%tremely rapid deburring operations and salvage operations on worn machine parts or on dies.
Digure Bne very important advantage of 1CM is that be merely changing electrolyte and current density, we can shift from roughing to polishing. At very high current densities and high electrolytes velocities, a very high polish can be obtained. -. 1;p)ain P)asma arc We)ding. P)asma Arc machining or P)asma Eet !achining PA! or PE!& !e &now that all gases burning at high temperatures are ionized gases. #n plasma arc machining, the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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gases are isonized by placing an arc across the path of gas flow. )he gas molecules get dissociated causing large amounts of thermal energy to be liberated. )his generates temperatures of the order of (D766 C, which are than utilized in removing metal by melting and vapourization. 9igure shows a schematic view of PAM. An arc is struc& between tungsten ;or tungsten alloy< cathode and the water cooled copper ;or copper alloy< anode. An inert gas such as argon is passed through a small chamber in which the arc is maintained. As the gas flows out the nozzle, it is heated and gets ionized by the arc and forms the moving plasma flame. )he cathode is eroded by the high spar& temperature and must be adHustable. Plasma torches have been used for cutting and gouging in hard materials such as stainless steel. As compared to ordinary flame cutting torches, these can cut plain carbon steel four times faster. Power supply A (66 E ,66 /J (66 E 466 A.
+chematic 7ie, of PA! /. 1;p)ain 1)ectron =eam !achining. #n electron beam machining ;1"M<, electrons emitted by a hot surface and accelerated by a voltage of (6 to 76 &/ are focused to a very small areas on the wor&piece. )his stream of high energy electrons possess a very high energy density ;of the order of (6 > &!8mm,< and when this narrow stream stri&es the wor&piece ;by impact<, the &inetic energy of the electrons is converted to powerful heat energy which is 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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+uite sufficient to melt and vapourize any material. 1ven though, the electrons can penetrate metals to a depth of only a few atomic layers the electron beam can melt metal to a depth of ,7 mm or more. )he electron beam which travels at about half to three. fourth the velocity of sound is focused on the wor&piece by electro.static or electro.magnetic lenses. 1"M is done in a high vaccum chamber to eliminate the scattering of the electron beam as it contacts the gas molecules on the wor&piece. 9igure shows schematic view of 1"M. Since a continuous beam loses considerable heat by conduction through the wor&piece, a pulsed beam at a fre+uency of less than (66 cps is used in electron beam machining. )his consists of repeatedly stri&ing the electron beam on the wor&piece for a few milli.seconds and then turning it off for a certain period of time.
+chematic 7ie, of 1=! 0ecent developments have made it possible to machine outside the vaccum chamber. #n this arrangement, the necessary vaccum is maintained within the electron gun proper by removing gases as soon as they enter. )he fully vaccum system is more costly, but it has the advantage that no contaminating gases are present and the electron gun can be located at a considerable distance from the wor&piece. )he most commonly used electron.beam power are ( to ,7 &!, current F 6.66( A. Product App)ications 1lectron beam machining is mainly used for micromachining operations on thin materials. )hese operations includeA drilling, perforating, slotting, scribing the engraving. A micromachining techni+ue called *1lectron.beam lithographyC is being used in the manufacture of field emission cathodes, integrated circuits 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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and computer memories. oles as small as 6.64 mm ;with surface finish of 6.> to 6.D m< can be drilled with ease. 1"M is being used to drill holes for the following products. )housands of holes in turbine blades for transpiration cooling, holes in mi%er plates, combustion chamber rings, metering or flow orifices. 1"M is particularly useful for materials with high melting points and low thermal conductivity. (imitations (. oles produced in materials of thic&ness greater than about 6.(4 mm, are tapered, with a side wall taper of about ( to ,, the minimum diameter being at the e%it of the hole. ,. )he method is +uite cumbersome and the e+uipment is very costly. 4. )he metal removal rate is very low. >. At the spot where the electron beam stri&es the material, a small amount of recasting and material spatter can occur. )his has to be removed afterwards by abrasive cleaning. %. 1;p)ain (aser =eam !achining. A Laser ;Light Amplification by Stimulated 1mission of 0adiation< is a device which produces a beam of light Laser light can be a very powerful source of power. #n L"M, e%ceedingly high electromagnetic energy densities ;of the order of (67 &!8mm,< are focused on the surface of the wor&piece ;in air or vaccum< to remove metal by melting and evaporation. )here are many types of lasers used for different purposes. 1g. Solid state, gas, li+uid and semi. conductor. 9or machining and welding, high power lasers are re+uired and in general, only the solid state lasers can provide the re+uired power loads.
+chematic 0ie, of (=!
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)he most commonly used solid.state laser is the ruby laser ;crystalline aluminium o%ide or sapphire<. )hese lasers are fabricated into rods about (76 mm long and their ends are finished to close optical tolerance. 9igure shows a chematic view of L"M. )he ruby crystal is doped with a small amount of chromium o%ide. )he laser is *pumpedC by a flash of high intensity light ;A %enon.filled flash lamp<. )he %enon lamp is fired by discharging a large capacitor through it ;electric power of ,76 to (666 watts may be needed for this<. )he intense radiation from the lamp e%cites fluorescent impurity atoms ;chromium atoms< to a higher energy level. !hen the atoms fall, bac& to the original energy level through a series of energy levels, an intense beam of visible light is emitted. !hen this light is reflected bac& from the coated rod ends, more atoms are e%cited and stimulated to return to their ground level. )his chain reaction results in a simulated avalanche of light, some of which is transmitted through the reflecting coatings ;about G6@ reflective<. )his light is highly coherent in time and space, that is it has a very narrow fre+uency band, is highly coherent in time and space, and is +uite parallel. !hen this light is focused with ordinary lenses at spot on the wor&piece, high energy density is obtained which will melt and vapourize the metal. #t is clear that L"M is a pulsed operation. After discharge, the capacitor must be recharged. Power supply is A Potential F >.7 &/, current F ,A. )he ruby laser wor&s with ma%imum efficiency when &ept at a very low temperature. 9or this, li+uid nitrogen at (IDC is employed. Bn the other hand, the light flash wor&s best when warm, for this, hot air is circulated over it. )he vacuum chamber between the ruby crystal and the flash lamp acts as an insulator and enables the two temperatures ;discusses above< to be maintained. )he flash lamp operates from ( flash every 4 min to (, flashes per minute. )he laser beam energy is applied to the wor&piece in less than 6.66,s. Ad7antages of (=! (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. G. I. =on.contact process with no wor&piece distortion. Minimum heat affected zone. Precise operation igh production rates Process can be easily automated. #naccessible areas for conventional methods can be processed. ardness of the material does not affect the process. Multiple holes or welds possible in one e%posure. 'issimilar materials can be welded.
Product App)ications L"M is again a *micromachiningC method which can be used for drilling, scribing, cutting and shaping. oles as small as 6.667 m in diameter have been produced. #t has got the following drilling applications holes in rubber baby bottle nipples relief holes in pressure plungsJ holes in nylon buttons, in aerosol spray nozzles in surgical and hypodermic needlesJ flow holes in oil or gas orifices etc. L"M is finding increasing use in industrial and non.industrial fields.
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UNIT I0 PART A
1. Purpose b" 3eat Treatment. Purpose of 3eat Treatment< )he heat treatment is generally employed for one or more of the following purposesA (. )o relieve internal stresses ;which are set up in the metal due to cold wor&ing, welding, casting, forging, etc<. ,. )o improve machinability. 4. )o refine grain size. >. )o soften the metal. 7. )o improve hardness of the metal surface. D. )o improve mechanical properties ;li&e tensile strength, hardness, ductility, shoc& resistance, etc.< :. )o improve magnetic and electrical properties. G. )o increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion. I. )o improve ductility and toughness. (6. )o change the chemical composition. 2. What are the +tage of 3eat Treatment Process. +tage of 3eat Treatment Process< Any heat treatment process usually undergoes the following these stagesA +tage 1< eating a metal 8 alloy beyond the critical temperature. +tage 2< olding at that temperature for a sufficient period of time to allow necessary changes to occur. +tage '< Cooling the metal 8 alloy ;i.e., +uenching< at a rate necessary to obtain the desired properties. )hat 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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is cooling at a rate necessary to obtain the desired change in the nature, form, size and distribution of micro constituents. '. What are !eant b" Annea)ing. )he term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is e%posed to an elevated temperature for an e%tended time period and then slowly cooled. According to American Society of )esting Material ;AS)M<, annealing is defined as a softening process consisting of heating the steel to a temperature at or near the critical point, holding there for a proper time and then allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace itself. )hree stages of annealing process ;or Annealing cycle<A Any annealing process consists of following three stagesA (. eating to desired temperature ,. olding or Msoa&ingL at that temperature. 4. Cooling or M+uenchingL, usually to room temperature. #n practice, annealing is one of the most widely used processes in the heat treatment of iron and steel.
*. What are the t"pes of Annea)ing. )he most common types of annealing processes applied to commercial steels areA (. ,. 4. >. 7. 9ull annealing Process annealing, Stress relief annealing 0ecrystallisation annealing, and Spheroidise annealing.
-. Write c)ean purpose of Annea)ing. Purpose of Annea)ing< $enerally annealing is carried out to achieve one or more of the following purposesA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. )o relieve or remove stresses. )o induce softness )o alter ductility, toughness, electrical, magnetic, or other properties. )o refine grain structure. )o remove gases )o produce a definite microstructure.
/. What is meant b" Norma)ising. =ormalising is similar to full annealing, but cooling is established in still air rather than in the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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furnace. 9ull annealing is an e%pensive and time consuming process. !hen a reasonably soft and ductile material is re+uired and cost savings are desired, then the normalizing process is instead of full annealing.
%. Purpose of Norma)ising. Some of the purposes of normalizing areA (. ,. 4. >. 7. )o refine the grain structure. )o increase the strength of the steel. )o provide a more uniform structure in castings and forgings. )o relieve internal residual stresses due to cold wor&ing. )o achieve certain mechanical and electrical properties.
8. What is mean b" Nuenching. Puenching refers accelerated cooling. )he cooling can be accomplished by contact with a +uenching medium which may be a gas, li+uid, or solid. Most of the times, li+uid +uenching media is widely used to achieve rapid cooling.
:. What is mean b" 3ardening. ardening refers to the heat treatment of steel which increases its hardness by +uenching. ardening normally implies heat E treating operations which produce micro structures which are entirely or predominantly martensitic.
1$. What is mean b" tempering. )he martensite which is formed during hardening process is too brittle and lac&s good ductility and thoughness. ence, it cannot be used for most applications. Also the internal residual stresses that are introduced during hardening have a wea&ening effect. )he ductility and thoughness of martensite can be enhanced and these internal stresses are relieved by a heat treatment process &nown as tempering. )he tempering process usually follows hardening process
11. What are the t"pes of +urface 3eat Treatments. )he surface heat treatments can be broadly classified asA (. 'iffusion methods 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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a. b. c. d.
Carburizing, =itriding, Cyaniding, and Carbonitriding
,. )hermal methods a. 9lame hardening, and b. #nduction hardening =ow we shall discuss the above surface heat treatments one by one in the following sections. 4iffusion +urface 3ardening Treatments< #n this method, the hardness of the surface is improved by diffusing interstitial elements li&e carbon, nitrogen, or both into the surface of steel components. 'epending upon the different elements chosen, diffusion treatment can be classified as a. Carburizing, b. =itriding, c. Cyaniding, and d. Carbonitriding 12. What is !eant b" 2arburising Process. Carburising is the process in which carbon atoms are introduced onto the surface of low carbon steels to produce a hard case of surface, while the interior or core remains soft. Steels for carburizing should have carbon from 6.(6 to 6.,6 @.
1'. What is Nitriding. =itriding is a process of introducing nitrogen atoms, to obtain hard surface of steel components. #t is another process for the surface hardening of steel. 1*. 4efine 2"aniding. Cyaniding, also called )iquid carburiCing@ is a process of introducing both nitrogen and carbon to obtain hard surface of the steel components. Cyaniding is done by immersing the wor& piece in a cyanide bath, an in li+uid carburizing described in section. Metals usually hardened by cyaniding process are plain carbon or alloy steels containing about 6.,6@ carbon.
1-. What is mean b" 2orrosion of a)uminum and a)uminum a))o"s. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Corrosion attac& on aluminum surface is usually +uite obvious, since the products of corrosion are white and generally more voluminous than the original base metal. 1ven in its early stage, aluminum corrosion is evident as general etching, pitting, or roughness of the aluminum surface. 1/. What are the three forms of a noc9 on a)uminum a))o"s. )hree forms of attac& on aluminum alloys are particularly seriousA (. )he penetrating pit E type corrosion through the walls of aluminum tubing, ,. Stress E corrosion crac&ing of meterials under sustained stress, and 4. )he intergranular attac& which is characteristic of certain improperly heat E treated aluminum alloys. #n general, corrosion of aluminum can be more effectively treated in place than corrosion occurring on other structural materials used in aircraft. )reatment includes the mechanical removal of as much of the corrosion products as practicable, and the inhibition of residual materials by chemical means, follow by the restoration of permanent surface coating. 1%. What are the 7arious t"pe of corrosion. 'epending upon the nature of the various ways in which it may occur, corrosion may be classified as followsA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. G. $alvanic corrosion Corrosion due to differential aeration Pitting corrosion 2niform corrosion #ntergranular corrosion Stress corrosion 1rosion corrosion 9retting corrosion
18. What are the point of contro) and pre7ention of corrosion. )he various methods by which corrosion can be controlled and prevented are given belowA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. Protection by design and fabrication procedure Modifying the corrosive environment. Application of inhibitors Cathodic protection Alloying Application of protective coatings.
1:. What are the common corrosi7e agent. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. ,. 4. >. 7.
Corrosion and mechanical factor )reatment of corroded areas Light corrosion Moderate corrosion Sieve corrosion
2$. What are the principa) methods of coatings. )he following are the principal methods of coatingsA (. ot 'ipping ,. $alvanizing 4. )in plating >. Lead coating 7. Metal cladding D. 'iffusion :. Sherardising G. Calorising I. Chrome E diffusion (6. Siliconising ((. Anodizing (,. Par&erising 21. 4efine !eta) +pra"ing. Metal spraying or metalizing literally means to treat with or coat with a metal or metallic compound. Metallizing as a process normally includes the preparation of base material, the spraying on the metal and finally finishing the surface by grinding. 22. What are 3oning operations. oning operations can correct conditions li&e (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. G. I. )aper But E of E round "arrel "ell mouth !aviness "oring mar&s 2ndersize 0eamer chatter 0ainbow or banana shape 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(6. Little misalignment in two holes in same plane 2'. 4efine +uper finishing. Super finishing process is a proprietary name given to a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on parts which is unobtainable by any other method. Super finishing is a fine honing operation. Super finishing ;i< Achieves higher surface finish on components, ;ii< 0emoves chatter mar&s,
2*. 4efine buffing. "uffing is a final operation to improve the polish of a metal and to bring out the ma%imum luster. "uffing is a fre+uent operation prior to plating. #n buffing, the rubbing action is more gentle than the vigorous and aggressive cutting action employed in polishing. "uffing removes negligible amount of metal. )he size of the wor& is changed very little, sometimes, 6.66,7 to 6.66:7 mm. "asically, buffing flows or smears the surface metal. #t ta&es the pea&s and flows them into valleys. )his gives a mirror E li&e polish. "uffing does not maintain flatness or roundness. #t is used only to obtain very smooth reflective surfaces. "uffing is usually confined to the non E ferrous metals, such as aluminum, copper, brass and zinc alloy die castings, stainless steel, chromium and nic&el plate, etc.
PART =
1. 1;p)ain in detai) of honing. 3oning< Introduction< oning was originally used only as a method for finishing and polishing. 0ecent engineering improvements in the basic honing machines, together with refinements in tooling, abrasives and honing techni+ues have combined to greatly increase the utilization of honing as an important production process. Purpose of honing< 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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3oning is emp)o"ed< ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< )o remove metal. 2pto 6.7 mm for primary honing and up to 6.6( mm for secondary or mirror honing. )o generate size. Limit of accuracy on holes up to 76 mm diameter is 6.667 mm and that on holes between 76 mm and (76 mm diameter is 6.6( mm. )o generate roundness and straightness. )o produce any re+uired surface finish. Surface finishes of 6.6:7 m CLA can be achieved.
Princip)e of operation< oning is a wet cutting process which removes metal from the wor& piece by means of revolving honing tool that also reciprocates up and down, usually inside the wor& piece. oning is usually applied to inter cylindrical surfaces but special machines have been developed for honing e%ternal surfaces.
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Digure< Princip)e of operation of honing and boning too). oning is a low E velocity abrading process. Since material removal is accomplished at lower speeds than in grinding, heat and pressure are minimized, resulting in e%cellent size and metallurgical control. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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9or honing operation, the spindle of the honing machine rotates the hone ;at a surface speed of ,6 to 76 meters per minute for steel and D7 to G6 mpm for cast iron wor& pieces< and simultaneously reciprocates it ;at a speed of (6 to ,6 mpm< in the hole of the wor& piece. Contact with the surface being finished is maintained through a positive but variable E pressure mechanism. As the bottom of the hone clears the hole in the wor& piece, the reciprocating movement of the hone is reversed so that now it moves up. )he length of the reciprocating motions should be such that the hone e%tends beyond the wor& surface at the end of each stro&e, and at this stage the abrasive stic&s of the hone are e%panded to apply the feed. )he reciprocating movement of the hone distributes the wear over the whole length of the stic&s and &eeps the bore cylindrical. )he change in direction of reciprocation of hone helps to clear the stic&s of swarf which may tend to load them, and ma&es free cutting continuous. )he cutting fluid used for the honing operation is usually paraffin.
)he success of the process is based upon the large number of cutting points in simultaneous abrading contact. 9or e%ample, in a bore :7 mm diameter ,66 mm long, (76 grit stones have an area of >D.G: s+. cm., or estimated ID,666 cutting points. Although the amount of stoc& removed by each cutting edge is small, the combined action of the numerous cutting edges wor&ing simultaneously provides a relatively fast and accurate means of stoc& removal. )he material thus removed from the hole surface helps smoothing down irregularities, to obtain the re+uired size and finish. 2. 2omparison ,ith 3oning and Arinding. 2omparison ,ith honing and grinding< oning, and grinding use bonded abrasives for finishing operation, whereas lapping process may use either loose or bonded abrasives. !hen bonded abrasives are used, the lapping process resembles conventional grinding e%cept that, Lapping is done at low speeds, and =o spar&ing is produced Lapping with bonded abrasives differs from honing mainly in the type of tooling employed. Also, unli&e honing, lapping is not necessarily a two E motion ;i.e. rotary and reciprocating< process. )he difference becomes too much when lapping uses loose abrasives for finishing purposes. oning never employs loose abrasives. !hereas honing is a stoc& removal process, lapping is not. Standard practice is to provide only 6.6(4 mm of stoc& allowance for lapping and preferably less. Lapping allowance varies with the wor& piece materials. #t is only 6.667 mm for hardened steel and 6., mm for cast iron. 9or other materials, the value is in between 6.667 and 6.,.
(apping !ethods< )he lapping methods areA 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;i< ;ii<
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#ndividual piece lapping, . ;a< and lapping, Matched piece lapping, . ;b< Machine lapping
#n individual piece lapping, loose abrasives held in suspension in a vehicle are rubbed against the wor& piece by means of a special tool called a lap. Laps are made of soft materials, such as non E ferrous metals and alloys, plastics, mirror glass and others. Cast iron is also used for ma&ing laps. Loose abrasives used in lapping ;lapping media< are natural corundum, standard and white aluminum o%ide, chromium o%ide, diamond power and boron carbide.
)he size of the abrasive grains effects the metal removal and surface finish in lapping. 3erosene, petrol and machine oils are used as the vehicle ;sometimes called the lubricant< which is mi%ed with the lapping medium. "y having the lap softer then the wor&, the abrasive particles become embedded in the lap and cause the greatest wear to occur on the hard surface i.e., the wor&. )he lapping operation consists of having the wor& surface in contact with lap, ;with, in between abrasive< the two having motion with one another in such a way that fresh contacts are constantly being made. #n lapping, after the lapping medium is placed between the lap and wor& piece, the two are rubbed together by moving one of these over the other which is stationary. #t is important that the lap and the wor& should have their relative rubbing movement along an ever E changing path. #ndividual piece lapping is most effective on hard metals or materials. #t is used to produce optically flat surfaces, to produce accurate planes from which other planes can be located ;as for gauge bloc&s<, and to finish parallel faces. A few e%amples of hand lapping are those of surface plates and engine valve and valve seat ;matched piece lapping< etc., #n matched piece lapping, two wor& piece surface separated by a layer of abrasive mi%ed with a vehicle are rubbed against each other. 0emember, no separate lap is re+uired. 1ach wor& piece drives the abrasives so that the grit particles act on the opposing surfaces. #rregularities that prevent the surfaces from fitting together precisely are thus eliminated, and surfaces are mated. Matched piece lapping enables mating parts ;such as the heads and bloc&s of #.C. engines< to form li+uid E tight or gas E tight seals without the need of gas&ets. Bther common uses of matched E piece lapping are for fitting tapered valve components and for mating two or more gears in a set.
(ii)
3and (apping<
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and lapping of individual pieces can be done on flat, or on e%ternal or internal cylindrical surfaces. ighly s&illed operators are necessary to obtain consistent and accurate results. and lapping is commonly employed as a tool E room method of finishing carbide die parts and other e%ceptionally hard materials. 9or flat wor&, a serrated lapping bloc& or plate charged with a fine grain loose abrasive compound with a suitable oil E or water base vehicle is used. Silicon carbide, fused alumina or boron carbide are e%cellent abrasives for metal lapping. Most laps are made of soft cast iron or of a material softer than the wor& piece. )he process of hand lapping consists of manually rubbing the wor& with an ever changing motion over the accurately finished surface of the lapping plate. )he rate of stoc& removal and the +uality of the ultimate finish obtained depend primarily upon the pressure e%erted by the operator.
!achine (apping< and lapping as a means of improving the surface finish of wor& such as gauges, has been practiced for many years. 2nli&e hand lapping, machine lapping is preferred for finishing wor& in larger +uantities. "oth cylindrical and flat lapping operations can be performed on lapping machines. Machine lapping of outer cylindrical surfaces is done between ;a< )wo opposed cast iron laps using loose abrasives, ;b< )wo bonded abrasive circular plates or laps. Machine lapping of flat surfaces is done by using ;i< )wo bonded abrasive laps, if both sides of the wor& piece are to be lapped at the same time, ;ii< Single rotating cast iron or bonded E abrasive lap ;plate< if one side of the wor& piece is to be lapped only or at one time.
'. 1;p)ain ,ith detai) super finishing. +uper finishing< Introduction< Super finishing process is a proprietary name given to a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on parts which is unobtainable by any other method. Super finishing is a fine honing operation. Super finishing ;i< Achieves higher surface finish on components. ;ii< 0emoves chatter mar&s. ;iii< 0emoves fragmented or smear metal from the surface of a dimensionally finished part ;formed by a previous operation, notably turning or grinding, but possibly by honing or 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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lapping<, thus leaving a base of solid crystalline metal, ;iv< Super finishing produces the ultimate in the refinement of metal surfaces. Super finished parts are bright and reflective with an undisturbed crystalline structure. Super finishing is an abrading process. #t is essentially a finishing process. Stoc& removal in the super finishing process is of the order of 6.667 to 6.6,7 mm on diameter. Surface finish obtained is of the order of 6.67 to 6., m. Super finishing cannot correct the geometrical shape of surfaces, but can impart a high degree of geometric accuracy to the wor& piece. Super finishing is used for internal as well as e%ternal surfaces. Super finishing is applied to both cylindrical and plane surfaces. Super finishing is also used to produce surfaces having a definite cross hatch pattern to aid in lubrication. Princip)e of operation< 9igure shows the principle of operation of super finishing.
Digure< Princip)e of operation of super finishing An abrasive bloc& shaped to the appropriate form reciprocates across the face of the wor& with a similar amount of over E run at each end of the stro&e. At the same time the wor& piece rotates about its a%is. )hese two motions impart to the wor& E a super finish and a high degree of geometric accuracy. )he area of contact between the abrasive bloc& face and the wor& is greater than in honing, giving more cutting points and even less pressure 8 grit and hence less heat 8 grit. Super finishing employsA ;i< /ery light, controlled pressure ;6.: to ,.:7 &g 8 cm,< on the wor& piece through the abrasive ;ii< 0apid ;over >66 per minute<, short stro&es ;less than D mm in length<. ;iii< Controlled stro&e paths so that a single grit never traverses the same path twice. ;iv< Copious amounts of low viscosity lubricant coolant ;e.g. &erosene mi%ed with heavier cutting oil< flooded over the surface. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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+uper finishing !achines 9igure shows a machine for super finishing cylindrical wor& pieces.
Digure< +uper finishing !achine )he wor& piece is mounted between the centres of head stoc& and tail stoc&>. )he wor& piece receives rotation from dog drive plate ,, as is done in a common lathe. )he abrasive stones or bloc&s or stic&s are clamped in special holders 4, to which an a%ial reciprocating movement is imparted along the wor& piece surface. )his movement is effected by means of a hydraulic drive, which also serves to advance the abrasive bloc& to the wor& piece and press them slightly to the surface being finished. )here is a separate electric motor to provide the abrasive bloc&s with the oscillating movement in special guide ways by means of an eccentric,
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# . 0eciprocation of abrasive bloc& ## E Bscillation of abrasive bloc& ### E 0otation of wor& piece #/ E 0otation of a abrasive bloc& / E Bscillation of wor& piece Digure< !o7ements in super finishing of a& +haft b& Interna) surface c& D)at surface 0otational speed of the wor& piece is , to ,6 m 8 min longitudinal feed rate 6.( to 6.(7 mm per revolution. 9re+uency of oscillation of abrasive bloc&s 766 E (G66 permin. Super finishing is done with abrasive bloc&s accomplishing oscillating and reciprocating movements with a high fre+uency and small amplitude along the surface of the rotating wor& piece, Soft fine E grain loosely bonded abrasive stic&s are pressed in operation to the wor& surface by means of springs or and hydraulic device. A mi%ture of &erosene and oil is used a the cutting fluid. )he machining allowance is not assigned since the process of super finishing consists in removing the micro E irregularities remaining after the previous machining operations when these pea&s of irregularities on the wor& surface and cut a way by the abrasive stic&s ;during super finishing operation<, applied with a controlled pressure, and when a certain degree of smoothness is achieved, the controlled viscosity lubrication establishes a continuous lubricating film between the abrasive stone and the wor& piece and separates them so that on further cutting action occurs and the process of stone removal ceases automatically. )hus with a given pressure lubricant, and the abrasive stone 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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each wor& piece can be finished to the same degree of smoothness. *. 1;p)ain ,ith detai)s =uffing. Introduction< "uffing is a final operation to improve the polish of a metal and to bring out the ma%imum lustre. "uffing is a fre+uent operation prior to plating. #n buffing, the rubbing action is more gentle than the vigorous and aggressive cutting action employed in polishing. "uffing removes negligible amounts of metal. )he size of the wor& is changed very little, sometimes, 6.66,7 to 6.66:7 mm. "asically, buffing flows or smears the surface metal. #t ta&es the pea&s and flows them into valleys. )his gives a mirror E li&e polish. "uffing does not maintain flatness or roundness. #t is used only to obtain very smooth reflective surfaces. "uffing is usually confined to the non E ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper, brass and zinc alloy die castings, stainless steel, chromium and nic&el plate, etc.
Princip)e of operation< )he surface to be buffed may be a die casting or stamping which does not re+uire any preparatory treatment e%cept cleaning. "uffing may be done by holding the wor& piece in hand and bringing it into contact with a revolving buffing wheel. )he operator presses the part against the charged buff with considerable pressure. )his heavy pressure gives fast action and also heat up the wor&. )he temperature may rise from I6 6 to (766 C, which will not usually warp the wor& but does re+uire careful handling. Some operators, while buffing, hold the hot wor& piece with the help of a rag or apron. )his practice is highly dangerous since if the rag or apron is pic&ed up by the revolving machine, the conse+uences could be more serious. #nstead put the Hob down and wait for it to cool. )here is no wor& E rest or guard but a leather receptacle can be fitted below and behind the buffing wheel with advantage. 9or buffing, the wor& should be held firmly against the periphery of the buffing wheel at a point on its front underside.
A buffed surface is produced in two distinct steps ;i< Cutting down. ;ii< Coloring
'uring the initial finishing stage of cutting down, minute surface irregularities are reduced or entirely eliminated.
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-. Write do,n 2omposition and affi)iate of be)o, methods. 4ura)umin@ 6 a))o" @ 3inda)ium@ !agne)ium 4ura)umin< 2omposition< Al F I>@, Cu F >@, Mg, Mn, Si, 9e 6.7@ each. Properties< ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< ;v< ;vi< #t can be cast, forged and stamped #t has high tensile strength. #t possesses high electrical conductance. #t hardens spontaneously when e%posed to room temperature. )he alloy is soft enough for a wor&able period after it has been +uenched. )he temperature employed for the solution heat treatment of the alloy is the lowest that is applicable to any commercial light alloy. ;vii< Specific gravity F ,.G, specific heat F 6.,(>. ;viii< Melting point F D766 C. ;i%< "rinell hardnessA Annealed F D6, age hardened F (66. Uses< (. #t is widely used for sheets, tubes, forgings, rivets, nuts, bolts and similar parts. ,. 2sed in ma&ing cables. 4. #t is also e%tensively used for air planes and other machines where weight is a deciding factor. >. #t is also employed in surgical and orthopaedic wor& and for non E magnetic and other instrument parts. 3eat treatment< Annealing is carried out at 4D6 E >666 C and the metal is cooled in air. #t is then ductile and can be cold wor&ed. =ormalizing is carried out at a temperature of >I6 6 C plus or minus (6 degrees. After normalizing the metal is +uenched in clean cold water. A salt bath is used for heat treatment generally consisting of 76@ silver nitrate, with 76@ silver nitrate, with 76@ potassium nitrate. 9or built up fittings a muffle furnace is sometimes used.
6 a))o"< 2omposition< Al F I,.7@J Cu F >@J =i F ,@J Mg F (.7@ 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Properties< ;i< ;ii< ;iii< #ts strength at ,666 C is better than aluminium. #t retains its high strength and hardness at high temperature. #t can be easily cast and hot wor&ed.
Uses< (. ,. #t is e%tensively used for such components as piston cylinder heads and cran&cases of internal combustion engines. #t is also used for die casting, pump rods and in spar&ing chisel in place of steel.
3eat treatment and age hardening< )he heat treatment range of V E alloy is 76666 C E 7,666 CJ this is higher than for aluminium. #f has been found that muffle furnace is best medium for heat treating V E alloy. )he period of treatment at 766 E 7,66 C re+uired to bring about solution of age E hardening constituents depends on the fineness of grain and distribution of constituents. 9or chilled cast bars, ,.7 cm diameter about D hours are re+uired. 9or coarser grain material a longer period becomes necessary. !hilst for large castings ,> hours or more may be re+uired. #n all cases the period becomes necessary. !hilst for large castings ,> hours or more may be re+uired. #n all cases the period of treatment at 7666 7,66 C ;solution treatment< must be regulated in relation to the micro E structure. )reatment at the temperature 7666 C to 7,66 C is followed by +uenching in boiling in boiling water. After +uenching, age hardening at room temperature, substantially completes in 7 days. Age hardening can be accelerated by retaining the alloy immersed in the water at boiling temperature after +uenching. 2nder these conditions age hardening is substantially complete in from W hour for the wrought to , hours for the cast alloy. "y subHecting normally heat E treated material, cast or wrought, to temperatures between (76 6 C to ,766 C the tensile strength and hardness are substantially increased, but the ductility is diminished.
Above ,766 C permanent softening results. =oteA V E alloy is annealed in the wrought state by heating it to 476 6 C to >666 C and allowing it to cool in the air. 3inda)ium< indalium is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium, manganese, chromium and silicon etc., and is the trade name of the aluminium alloy produced by industan Aluminium Corporation Ltd., 0enu&oot 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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'istt. Mirzapur ;2.P<. #t is manufactured as a rolled product ;(D gauge< mainly for anodized utensile manufacture. 'uring processing special care is ta&en to maintain the necessary mechanical and surface characteristics.
indalium utensils posses the following advantagesA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. Strong and hard Cannot be easily scratched Can ta&e fine finish 'o not absorb much hear and thus save fuel while coo&ing Can be easily cleaned 'o not react with the food acids Low cost ;about one E third of stainless steel<
!agne)ium< #t is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium, copper, nic&el and tin etc. )ypical composition of magnelium isA Al F G7 to I7@ Cu F 6 to ,7@ Mg F ( to 7.7@ =i F 6 to (.,@ "y alloying , parts copper with ( of tin, a very hard, brittle white alloy is produced called M spectrum metalL. !hen highly polished it serves e%cellently for mirrors and reflectors.
1. !odified brones< )he zine bronzes usually contain A Cu F GG@. Sn F G to (6 @ and Kn F > to ,@. )he presence of the zine in the bronzes has the following effectsA #t increases the fluidity of the melted metal and in this way tends to prevent gas flaws in the casting. #t also increases the strength and ductility. )he specific gravity when cast in sand is about G.7GJ the melting point is about IG66 C.
/. 1;p)ain 7arious t"pes of corrosion. 0arious t"pes of corrosion< 'epending upon the nature of the various ways in which it may occur, corrosion may be classified as followsA 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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(. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. G.
$alvanic corrosion Corrosion due to differential aeration Pitting corrosion 2niform corrosion #ntergranular corrosion Stress corrosion 1rosion corrosion 9retting corrosion
Aa)7anic corrosion< Such type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact with each other and are e%posed to an electrolyte. A less noble metal, say zinc, will dissolve iron anode, whereas the more noble metal, say copper will act as the cathode. 'epending on the nature of corrosive environment, the cathode reaction may occur either by hydrogen evolution process or by o%ygen absorption process. )he electronic current flows from the anode ;Kn< through the metal to the cathode ;Cu<, where the electrons are intercepted by positive deposited there. #t is also apparent that corrosion current flows at the e%pense of the anode metal which is corroded whereas the cathode metal is protected from the attac&.
Digure< Aa)7anic corrosion $alvanic corrosion occurs on the unprotected steel of ships hulls. )he steel is anodie to the brass of the screws and therefore, hull is selectively attac&ed. 2. 2orrosion due to differentia) aeration< #f two plates are dipped in a neutral solution and the plates are connected, there will be neither any flow of current nor corrosion of metal. #f, however, one of plates is e%posed to a stream of air, an electric current starts flowing. )he unaerated plate acts as anode, while aerated plate becomes cathode and 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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considerable corrosion of unaerated electrode occurs. #f the aeration of one is stopped and the aeration of the other is started, the flow of current is reversed and the unaerated electrated electrode becomes anode and gets corroded. So it is the unaerated plate which forms anode and gets corroded. !hat happens is that aeration casues the formation of o%ide film on the plate. So the cell becomes metal o%ide or even an o%ygen electrode E metal electrode system. )hus o%ygen not only acts a depolarizer but also ennobles the aerated plate. '. Pitting corrosion< 0efer figure this is one of the most troublesome forms of corrosion and is recognized by the presence of pits or holes. #t has been observed in aluminium alloys, copper alloys, stainless steel and some high E nic&el alloys. )he following characteristics of pitting corrosion are worth notingA (. ,. 4. >. 7. Pits are found randomly on the surface Attac& is continued to very small areas of the metal surface the bul& of which remains unattac&ed. Pits are hemispherical in shape with an electropolished inner surface. )here are no preferential pits sites. )he electropolishing in the pit &eeps the current density constant and independent of potential.
Digure< Pitting corrosion Pitting is usually caused by the brea&down or crac&ing of the protective film on a metal at specific points. )his gives rise to the formation of small anodic and large cathodic areasJ in the right environment this creates the corrosion current. "rea& down of the film may be caused by various mechanical factors such as ;i< surface roughness or non E uniform finish ;ii< scratches or cut edges ;iii< local straining, of metal. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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"rea&down of the film can also be caused by a particular type of chemical attac&. B%ygen concentration cells differential aeration may initiate pitting in almost any metal or alloy under loosely pac&ed porous materials which shield underlying metal from free contact with a solution especially if the main body of the solution is in motion. Platting out the more noble from a salt solution may give rise to the formation of local galvanic couples and results in pitting. Pitting e%ercises considerable effect on fatigue properties but no effect on mechanical properties. *. Uniform corrosion< ere volume of metal decreases uniformly and soluble corrosion products are formed. #n practice such an ideal case is rate. Action of acids on some metals such as aluminium, zinc and lead on strong al&alies is an e%ample of this type of corrosion. !hen the surface or environments are not uniform, the attac& does not remain uniform but becomes concentrated at places causing pitting. -. Intergranu)ar corrosion< 0efer figure the intergranular attac& is belived to be due to the fact that grain boundaries contain material which shows a solution potential more anodic than that of grain centre in the particular corroding medium. )he growth of intergranular crac&s is favoured by establishment of o%ygen concentration cells and the relatively small anode area. #t has been observed in some &inds of chromium E nic&el stainless steels, particularly following improper welding or heat treating practices. #t has also been found in some copper E base alloys, such as brasses. /. +tress corrosion<
Digure< Intergranu)ar corrosion
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Digure< +tress corrosion )he term stress corrosion ;or stress corrosion crac&ing< describes the combined effect of mechanical stresses and the corrosive environment on a metal. Corrosion results in the appearance of crac&s. )hese crac&s have the following characteristicsA ;i< )hey can ta&e different forms as shown in figure. ;ii< they appear on the surface of metal subHected to simultaneous action of corrosive environment and stress ;iii< they are propagated in a direction, perpendicular to the acting stress regardless of the mature of applied or residual stress ;iv< they propagate relatively at low speeds ;few mm8hr< ;v< they are narrow during carly stages of crac&ing and widen during the later stages of crac&ing ;vi< initially, the rate of crac& movement is more or less constant, but the rate of crac& movement increases with crac& depth. %. 3o, to contro) and pre7ention of corrosion. 2BNTRB( AN4 PR101NTIBN BD 2BRRB+IBN< )he various methods by which corrosion can be controlled and prevented are given belowA (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. Protection by design and fabrication procedure. Modifying the corrosive environment. Application of inhibitors. Cathodic protection Alloying Application of protective coatings.
1. Protection b" design and fabrication procedure< Corrosion rate can be reduced by proper design and fabrication. )he design, in general, should be such that uniform conditions are maintained throughout. 9ir better corrosion resistance the following points are worth noting. )he fundamental re+uirement for stress corrosion crac&ing is the conHoint action of mechanical stress 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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and environment. #t may be noted that every type of stress cannot cause corrosion. Stress must satisfy the following conditionsA (. Stresses should be tensile. ,. )hey ;stresses< should be static. 4. )hey should be of sufficient magnitudes. )he magnitude of the stress depends on temperature, alloy composition and environment composition. 2sually high stresses approaching the yield stress of material are re+uired, but there are many cases in which much smaller stresses than the yield stress will produce failure. 1vidence indicates that most commercial alloys are susceptible to stress corrosion when subHect to high tensile stresses and when they are e%posed to certain specific corrosive environments. Pure metals are relatively immune to stress corrosion. )he e%amples of stress corrosion failures are the season crac&ing of brass and the caustic embrittlement of boilers. %. 1rosion corrosionA )his type of corrosion is a combination of one of the basic mechanisms with mechanical corrosion. )he cause of erosion is the turbulent flow of li+uidsA turbulence is produced by high velocities of flow ;by changes in pipe diameter, by elbows and by fittings<. )he turbulent flow is closely associated with the effect of cavitations, Cavitations is the formation of cavities in metal by li+uid rapidly moving over the metal surface. Cavitations corrosion ;a special form of erosion corrosion< is caused by the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles or cavities on or near the metal surface. Some e%ample of cavitation damage are given belowA (. Ship propellers. ,. ydraulic turbines.
4. Pump impellers. >. 'iesel engine cylinder. 1rosion is also produced by solids suspended in fluids. )he e%ample being grit and dirt or sales which precipitate from cooling saturated solutions. G. Dretting corrosionA 9retting corrosion occurs at contact areas between the two surfaces of any materials under load subHected to slightest relative movement of small amplitude. Bther names given to this type of corrosion are 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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friction o%idation, and false brandling. #t appears in the form of pits or grooves in the metal surrounded by corrosion product. )he fundamental re+uirement for the fretting corrosion to occur areJ ;i< Surface in contact must be under loadJ ;ii< )here must be relative motion between the two surfaces, little relative motion ; to the tune (6 .G cm< is sufficientJ ;iii< )he load and the interface must be sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces. )he e%ample of fretting corrosion failure in service areA (. "olted and riveted Hoints. ,. ubs process E fitted on to shafts.
4. "all races. >. Machine slides. )he various factors which influence fretting corrosion are its ;i< amount of relative motion.;ii< temperature. ;iii< environment ;iv< metallurgical factors. )he fretting corrosion increases with increase in slip. 'amage due to fretting corrosion decreases with the decrease in temperature. 9retting corrosion is greatest in dry conditions and decreases with the increase in humidity. )he damage due to fretting corrosion is more in soft materials than in hard materials. 8. 1;p)ain ,ith detai) treatment of titanium of a))o"s. Treatment of titanium and titanium a))o"s. Attac& on titanium surfaces is generally difficult to detect. )itanium is by nature, highly corrosion resistant, but it may show deterioration from the presence of salt deposits and metal impurities, particularly at high temperatures. )herefore, the use steel wool, iron scrapers, or steel brushes for cleaning or for the removal of corrosion from titanium parts is prohibited. #f titanium surfaces re+uire cleaning, hand polishing with aluminium polish or a mild abrasive is permissible, if fiber brushes only are used and if the surface is treated following cleaning with a suitable solution of sodium dichromate. !ipe the treated surface with dry cloths to remove e%cess solution, do use a water rinse. T"pe of corrosion )here are two general classifications of corrosion which cover most of the specific forms. )hese areA 'irect chemical attac& and 1lectrochemical attac&. #n both types of corrosion the metal is converted into a metallic compound such as an o%ide, hydro%ide or sulfate. )he corrosion process always involves two simultaneous. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Dorms of corrosion 2hanges< )he metal that is attached or o%idized suffers what may be called anodic change, and may be considered as undergoing cathodic change. 'irect Chemical Attac&. 'irect chemical attac&, or pure chemical corrosion, is an attac& resulting from a direct e%posure of a bare surface to caustic li+uid or gaseous agents. 2nli&e electrochemical attac& where the anodic and cathodic changes may be ta&ing place a measurable distance apart, the changes in direct chemical attac& are occurring simultaneously at the same point. )he most common agents causing direct chemical attac& on aircraft areA Spilled battery acid or fumes from batteries, residual flu% deposits resulting from inade+uately cleaned, welded, brazed, or soldered Hoints and entrapped caustic cleaning solutions. Spilled battery acid is becoming less of a problem with the advent of aircraft using nic&el.cadmium batteries which are usually closed units. )he used of these closed units lessens the hazards of acid spillage and battery fumes. Many type of flu%es used in brazing, soldering, and welding are corrosive and they chemically attac& the metals or alloys with which they are used. )herefore, it is important that residual flu% be removed from the metal surface immediately after the Hoining operation. 9lu% residues are hygroscopic in nature, that is, they are capable of absorbing moisture, and unless carefully removed, tend to cause severe pitting. Caustic cleaning solution is concentrated form should removed, tend to cause severe pitting. Caustic cleaning solutions in concentrated form should be &ept tightly capped and as far from aircraft as possible. Some cleaning solutions used in corrosion removal are, in themselves, potentially corrosive agents, and particular attention should be directed toward their complete removal after use on aircraft. !here entrapment of the cleaning solution is li&ely to occur, a noncorrosive cleaning agent should be used even though it is less efficient. 1lectrochemical Attac&A An electrochemical attac& may be li&ened chemically to the electrolytic reaction which ta&es place in electroplating, anodizing or in a dry cell battery. )he reaction in this corrosive attac& re+uires a medium, usually water, which is capable of conducting a tiny current of electricity. !hen a metal comes in contact with a corrosive agent and is also connected by a li+uid or gaseous path through which electron may flow, corrosion begins as the metal decays be o%idation. 'uring this attac&, the +uantity of corrosive agent is reduced and, if not renewed or removed, may completely react with the metal ;become neutralized<. 'ifferent areas of the same metal surface have verying levels of electrical potential and if connected by a conductor, such as salt water, will set up a series of corrosion cells and corrosion will commence. All metals and alloys are electrically active and have a specific electrical potential in a given chemical environment. )he constituents in an alloy also have specific electric potentials which are generally different from its other. 1%posure of the alloy surface to a conductive, corrosive medium causes the more active metal to become anodic and the less active metal to become cathodic, thereby establishing condition for corrosion. )hese are called local cells. )he greater the different in electrical potential between the two metals, the medium is removed and the minute electrical circuit eliminated, corrosion cannot occur this is the basis for effective corrosion control. )he electrochemical attac& is responsible for most forms of corrosion to aircraft structure and component parts. :. 4escription of app)icab)e corrosion contro) 5 corrosion protection methods )here are four basic methods for corrosion control R corrosion protection.
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1. 2. '. >.
!ateria)s resistant to corrosion Protecti7e coatings 2athodic protection 2orrosion Inhibitors E Modify the operating environment
#n most cases, effective corrosion control is obtained by combining two or more of these methods. Corrosion control should be considered at the design stage of a given facility or system. )he methods selected must be appropriate for the materials used, for the configurations, and for the types and forms of corrosion which must be controlled. !AT1RIA(+ R1+I+TANT TB 2BRRB+IBN )here are no materials that are immune to corrosion in al environments. Materials must be matched to the environments that they will encounter in service. Corrosion 0esistance 'ata are used to assess the suitability of a material in an environment. PRBT12TI01 2BATINA+ Protective coatings are the most widely used corrosion control techni+ue. 1ssentially, protective coatings are a means for separating the surfaces that are susceptible to corrosion from the factors in the environment which cause corrosion occur. 0emember, however, that protective coatings can never provide (66 percent protection of (66 percent of the surface. #f localized corrosion at a coating defect is li&ely to cause rapid catastrophic failure, additional corrosion control measures must be ta&en. Coatings are particularly useful when used in combination with other methods of corrosion control such as cathodic protection. 2AT3B4I2 PRBT12TIBN 2athodic protection interferes with the natural action of the electrochemical cells that are responsible for corrosion. Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to control corrosion of surfaces that are immersed in water or e%posed to soil. Cathodic protection in its classical form cannot be used to protect surfaces e%posed to the atmosphere. )he use of anodic metallic coatings such as zinc on steel ;galvanizing; is, however, a form of cathodic protection, which is effective in the atmosphere. )here are two basic methods of supplying the electrical currents re+uired to interfere with the electrochemical cell action. )he first method, cathodic protection with galvanic anodes, uses the corrosion of an active metal, such as magnesium or zinc, to provide the re+uired electrical current. #n this method, called sacrificial or galvanic anode cathodic protection, the active metal is consumed in the process of protecting the surfaces where corrosion is controlled and the anodes must be periodically replaced. #n the second method, impressed current cathodic protection, an alternative source of direct electric current, usually a rectifier that converts alternating to direct current, is used to provide the re+uired electrical current. #n this system, the electrical circuit is completed through an inert anode material that is not consumed in the process.
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2orrosion Testing 'ata from corrosion tests are usually very +uantitative in nature but often does not address many of the factors anticipated in a given application. Most marine corrosion data are obtained from the e%posure of small samples of isolated materials. #nformation on galvanic corrosion interactions and the effects of crevices is more limited and is often semi.+uantitative or +ualitative. Care must be ta&en to verify that the +uantitative data presented are appropriate to the form of nonuniform corrosion attac&. Corrosion resistance data are usually more usually more useful in comparing the performance of materials with similar performance than in comparing the performance of materials with widely different corrosion behavior. #n many cases, data from corrosion testing are difficult to use in the +uantitative prediction of long term system performance of comple% systems. 4esign considerations and practices for 2orrosion Pre7ention (. )he interrelation of various materials within a materialal system that can influence the corrosion process. ,. )he configuration of the materialal system as it affects the presence and conditions of a corrodent. 4. )he functioning of the operating system as it influences the generation and distribution of stress, erosion and wears. >. Action corrosion prevention systems that can only be incorporated into the system design. 1$. 1;p)ain 3eat Treatment of Titanium Titanium is heat treated for the following purposesA (< 0elief of stresses set up during cold forming or machining. ,< Annealing after hot wor&ing or cold wor&ing, or to provide ma%imum ductility for subse+uent cold wor&ing. 4< )hermal hardening to improve strength +tress Re)ie7ing Stress relieving is generally used to remove stress concentrations resulting from forming of titanium sheet. #t is performed at temperatures ranging from D76X9. to (666X9. )he time at temperatures varies from a few minutes for a very thin sheet to an hour or more for heavier section. A typical stress.relieving treatment is I66X9, for 46 minutes, followed by an air cool. )he discoloration or scale which forms on the surface of the metal during stress relieving is easily removed by pic&ling in acid solutions. )he recommended solution contains (6 to ,6 percent hydrofluoric acid. )he solution should be at room temperature or slightly above. Du)) Annea)ing )he annealing of titanium and titanium alloys provides toughness, ductility at room temperature, dimensional and structural stability at elevated temperature and improved machinability. )he full anneal is usually called for as preparation for further wor&ing. #t is performed at (,66X9 to (D76X9. )he time at 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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temperature varies from (D minutes to several hours, depending on the thic&ness of the material and the amount of cold wor& to be performed. )he usual treatment for the commonly used alloys is (466X9, for ( hour, followed by an air cool. A full anneal generally results in sufficient scale formation to re+uire the use of caustic descaling, such as sodium hydride salt bath. Therma) 3ardening 2nalloyed titanium cannot be heat treated, but the alloys commonly used in aircraft contraction can be strengthened by thermal treatment, usually at some sacrifice in ductility. 9or best results, a water +uench from (>76X9, followed by re.heating to I66X9 for G hours is recommended. 2asehardening )he chemical activity of titanium and its rapid absorption of o%ygen, nitrogen, and carbon at relatively low temperatures casehardening advantageous for special applications. =itriding, carburizing, or carbonitriding can be used to procedure a wear.resistant case of 6,666( to 6,666, inch depth. Aluminium alloy rivets are furnished in the following compositionA Alloys ((66, 767D, ,((:, ,6(:, and ,64>. Alloy ((66 rivets are used in the *as fabricatedC condition for riveting aluminium alloy sheets where a low.strength rivet is suitable. Alloy 767D rivets are used in the *as fabricatedC condition for riveting magnesium alloy sheets. Alloy ,((: rivets have moderately high strength and are suitable for riveting aluminium alloy sheets. )hese rivets receive only one heat treatment, which is performed by the manufacturer and are anodized after being heat treated. )hey re+uire no further heat treatment before they are used. Alloy ,((: rivets retain their characteristics indefinitely after heat treatment and can be driven anytime. 0ivets made of this alloy are the most widely used in aircraft construction. Alloy ,6(: and ,6,> rivets are high.strength rivets suitable for use with aluminium alloy structures. )hey are purchased from the manufacturer in the heat. treated condition. Since the aging characteristics of these alloys at room temperatures are such that the rivets are unfit for driving, they must be re.heat treated Hust before they are to be used. Alloy ,6(: rivets become too hard for driving in appro%imately ( hour after +uenching. Alloy ,6,> rivets become hardened in (6 minutes after +uenching. "oth of these alloys may be re.heat treated as often as re+uired, however, they must be anodized before the first re.heat treatment to prevent intergranular o%idation of the material. #f these rivets are stored in a refrigerator at a temperature lower than 4,X9, immediately after +uenching, they will remain soft enough to be usable for several days. 0ivets re+uiring heat treatment are heated either in tubular containers in a salt bath, or in small screen.wire bas&ets in an air furnace. )he heat treatment of alloy ,6(: rivets consists of subHecting the rivets to a temperature between I46X9, to I76X9, for appro%imately 46 minutes, and immediately +uenching in cold water. )hese rivets reach ma%imum strength in about I days after being driven. Alloy ,6,> rivets should be heated to a temperature of I(6X9 to I46X9, and immediately +uenched in cold water. )hese rivets develop a greater shear strength than ,6(: rivets and are used in locations where e%tra strength is re+uired. Alloy ,6,> rivets develop their ma%imum shear strength in ( day after being driven. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)he ,6(: rivet should be driven within appro%imately ( hour and the ,6,> rivet within (6 to ,6 minutes after heat treating or removal from refrigeration. #f not used within these times, the rivets should be re.heat treated before being refrigerated.
11. 1;p)ain Aenera) +afet" Ru)es 1very organization or group of people re+uires a set of rules for the proper regulation, safety and protection of the individual who ma&e up the group. #n formulation of general safety rules and in evaluating the need for and the effectiveness of the e%isting rules, the following points should be considered. )he initial points to be though about are thanA ;i< ;ii< ;iii< ;iv< ;v< !hether there is a real need for safety rules. 'oes the employee appreciate its purpose, or he thin&s that he rules were Hust imposed on him without ade+uate consideration of his personal feelingsQ )he safety rules &eep pace with changing conditions. )he safety rules should be such which do not cause inconvenience or annoy the employees. )he human nature should not be defied. )here should not be too many safety rules. )he safety rules should not be so broad or general in nature than they have no real meaning to employees.
Bnce the above points are given due consideration in the formation of safety rules and realizing that the safety rules have a substantial impact on the safety of an individual or the entire wor& force and that a single violation might place the safety of many employees in Heopardy, the necessary disciplinary action should be ta&en against those who brea& these rules. Some of the general safety rules are listed below which have been formulated not as restrictive measures but as guides to wor&ers and supervisors in their cooperative efforts to prevent accidents. ;i< ;ii< Smo&ing should be strictly prohibited. Acts li&e running, tripping others intentionally, throwing things, directing compressed air at others, or such acts which may startle or distract other employees should not be tolerated.
;iii< Personal protective e+uipment such as safety glasses and respirators, provided on certain Hobs because of an indicated need, must be worn.
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;iv< Many times red and yellow safety tags are placed on electric switches, valves and other controls to protect personnel and e+uipment. 2nauthorized removal of such tags, or operation of a control that has a tag attached should be considered as a serious offence. ;v< Safety devices and guards should be used. 1mployees, for their personal reasons should not be permitted to ma&e a safety device or a guard inoperative.
Bther important points not to be treated as offence but very essential to promote safety areA ;i< Maintain good house&eeping, i.e., employees should &eep their machines or benches and area surrounding it clean at all times, rubbish placed in containers meant for waste disposal. 1mployees should realize that is safer to wor& in an orderly plant. Any oil or coolant spills on the floor should be wiped up immediately to avoid slipping and falling. ;ii< Chips should be swept up with brush or broom and thrown in chip or trash containers.
;iii< Chips should never be handled with bare hands. Air hose should never used to clean a machine as flying chips can be dangerous. 'irty and oily rags should be &ept in closed containers and never allowed to accumulate on floor. ;iv< Prompt first Eaid affection should be obtained for any inHury, no matter how slight, in order to prevent the infection from developing. ;v< 'ress worn should not be loose.fitting, finger rings avoided, safety shoes worn, long hair protected from becoming tangled in moving parts by wearing suitable head coverings. )he feet should be protected with shoes that prevent chip from cutting through the sole, and prevent serious foot inHurious from falling obHects. $loves should not be worn while operating e+uipment because of the danger of being caught by machine.
;vi< "ecause of hazards involved, employees should never be allowed to run in plant even in case of fireJ they should e%ercise good common sense and instead of running, wal& to the nearest e%it. ;vii< 1mployees should never operate any e+uipment, unless authorized. 12. 1;p)ain ,ith detai) of an" fue) of princip)e method of coatings. )he following are the principles of coatingsQ (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. :. G. ot 'ipping $alvanising )in plating Lead coating Metal cladding 'iffusion Sherardising Calorising 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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I. Chrome.diffusion (6. Siliconising ((. Anodizing (,. Par&erising 1. 3ot 4ipping< ot dipping coatings can be used for coating signaling point metals such as iron and steel, zinc, tin, lead and an alloy of lead and tin called terne.
)he coating metal should be of such a composition that it forms an alloy at the interface between the base metal and the coating. #f the coating does not form an alloy, pre.coating with a metal which alloys both with a base and the principal coating can be used. 2. Aa)7anising. #t is the name given to the coating of zinc by hot dipping. )he +uality of the coating is directly related to its thic&ness which is measured in gms.8m , of surface for all products e%cept sheet where it is measured in gms.8m, of sheets (2 sides).
Heavy coatings of zinc are most easily applied by hot dipping than electrolytically. The purity of zinc affects its bonding property and the appearance of the coating, and besides that it has no effect. So here bonding does not matter, lo grades of zinc be used. !t is mainly used in roofing, ire fencing for gardens, etc., buc"ets an ater cans, steel pipes and for struggle purposes e#posed to atmosphere. '. Tin P)ating. Tin plating has a pleasing appearance, good corrosion in resistance and it solders ell. $opper ire is very often tin%plated to increase its suitability for soldering. This coating is usually applied by hot dipping before the ire has been dra n do n to final diameter and the subse&uent operations dra do n the copper and tin coating together.
The various applications of tin plating include tin cans for food, biscuit%tins, "itchen utensils, copper ire, copper tube used in refrigerator. *. (ead 2oating< The lead coatings for hot dipping process contain 2 '(2 ) tin and 2) of antimony, the presence of hich strengthens the coatings considerably. The coatings used generally are thic"er than terms but thinner than zinc. To compensate for the dra bac" of poor adhesion of coatings lead has decided advantage because it does not alloy ith steel. The steel is not embrittled and can be used for deep dra ing etc. !t ta"es paints and solders ell. To obtain the best possible adhesion, the steel must be perfectly cleaned before coating.
*ead coating is cheaper substitutes for terne and it can be used for spinning deep dra ing operation. -. !eta)#c)adding< $ladding is usually performed by attaching plates of relatively thic" metals together such as by elding and then rolling them do n together. The centre core and plating metal retain 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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their proportion as the cross%section is reduced. The use of +,luminium clad sheet- has already been mentioned in connection ith aluminium alloys here the superior corrosion resistance of aluminium is added to the strength of duralumin. !t is much used in air%craft construction. !n a li"e manner steel may be clad ith copper, cupro%nic"el, and rolled gold is made by rolling a gold alloy into a brass or curpo nic"el%base. This method in general allo s the protection of a material hich combines the strength of a core ith the corrosion%resistance of the plated material. .nli"e electroplating, there is no danger of porosity. 4iffusion< !t resembles the process of cementation for ma"ing steel and case hardening. The article being treated is heated in contact ith the metal being diffused hich penetrates into the surface thereby producing an alloy. )he concentration of diffused metal in the article is highest at the surface and falls off rapidly within less than (.,7 mm. Steel is treated chiefly with four metals which form useful diffusion alloys at the surface, namely zinc, aluminium, chromium and silicon. ardly any dimensional change occurs in the treated articles. +herardising< So called after the name of its originator is the name given to zinc diffusion process which has been used e%tensively. )he parts to be treated and trembled in a barrel to 476 C with powdered zinc or a powder of zinc and zinc and o%ide &nown as blue powder. )he period of heating depends upon coating re+uired varying from 4 to (, hours for a coating of ;6.6,7 to 6.6:7mm< thic&ness. owever, there is a drawbac& of brittleness in this process and so its use is restricted to treatment or small nuts and bolts e%posed to atmosphere, and small castings etc. 2a)orising< #t is a diffusion process of aluminium powder mi%ed with roughly e+ual proportion of aluminium chloride. )his is carried out at a much higher temperature ;about I66 C<, i.e., well above the melting point of aluminium. )he time of process is > to D hours, but this may be followed by retaining for such a longer period at I76C out of contact with aluminium in order to homogenize the layer and to increase its depth. Calorised parts are resistant to both corrosion and at elevated temperatures are protected by the impervious alumina films which is the characteristics of aluminium. #t is used principally as a protection against corrosion and heat which occur in furnace and e%haust pipes. 2hrome#diffusion. #t produces a surface layer similar to stainless steel. #t is carried out by heating the steel articles in a mi%ture of 77@ of chromium powder or powdered ferro.chrome ad >7@ of alumina in the presence of hydrogen atmosphere. )he temperature used is above (666 C at which one hour is sufficient to produce coating of about 6.( mm thic&ness and containing (6.,6@ of chromium. )hese coatings are used where the corrosion or wear is severe, but this application does not merit considerably because of its higher cost. Also it is not a good substitute as compared to stainless steel because coating produced by diffusion tends to as brittle. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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+i)iconising< #t is carried out for two hours at above (666 C in a mi%ture of silicon.carbide and ferro.silicon in an atmosphere of chlorine. )he parts siliconised are very hard and process is carried out for wear corrosion or heat resistance. A typical application is in valves, valve seats, and guides of internal combustion engines. AnodiCing< !t is an o#idizing process used for aluminium and magnesium articles. The article to be anodized is made anode and sulphuric, o#alic and chromic acids are used as electrolyte. The coating is produced entirely by the o#idizing process and not by plating. The coating so produced is hard but at the same time it is porous enough and hence advantage from decorative point of vie . Such o#ide coatings enable organic coating and dyes to be successfully used on aluminium articles surface. /odern aluminium articles surfaces. /odern aluminium glasses and pitchers are the e#amples of this class. Parkerizing. !t is a process used for ma"ing thin phosphate coatings on steel to act as a base or primer for enamels and paints. !n this process steel articles are dipped in a heated solution of magnesium dihydrogen phosphate at temperature of 00$ for about 12 minutes. 3uring the dipping period, the phosphate from magnesium dihydrogen phosphate decomposes and phosphate separates out and forms a thin coating on the steel articles.
UNIT 0 PART A
1. 4efine too)s@ Gigs and fi;tures in brief. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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0eproductibility and interchangeability of parts or products, a must for modern industry, is possible only with accurate tooling. )ools, Higs and fi%tures are used to accurately reproduce items under production condition. A Hig is device for locating, supporting, and holding a wor&piece and for accurately guiding the tool to the wor&pieceJ whereas a fi%ture is device for supporting locating and holding a wor&piece in a fi%ed orientation with respect to the tool. A tool is a device used to remove material from a wor&piece under controlled or stable conditions. 2. What do "ou understand as princip)e of )east poins and princip)e of e;treme position. According to principle of least points, no more points than necessary should be used to secure location in any one plane ;more points can be used only for finished surfaces. #n such a case the e%tra support should not interefere with location and should, therefore, be made adHustable. According to the principle of e%treme positions, the locating points should be chosen as far apart as possible on any surface. )his principle would ensure minimum misalignment for a certain displacement of any point with respect to another , if the distance between the points increased. '. What is mean b" '#2#1 princip)e of )ocation. 4.,.( principle of location states that to locate a piece fully, it has to be placed and held against three points in a base plane, two points in a vertical plane, and one point in a plane s+uare with the first two. #t is important that the above planes be s+uare with each other and the points should be spaced as far apart as possible. *. What do "ou understand b" foo)#proofing in connection ,ith )ocating princip)es for Gigs and fi;tures. "y using the principle of fool.proofing , the tool designer insures that the part will fit into the tool only in its correct position. 9or e%ample the part in figure. must be machined on the tapered end, so the tool designer includes a pin to prevent the part from being loaded incorrectly. )his pin fool.proofs the tool.
Digure< Doo) proofing. -. What are the disad7antage of )ocating a piece against an inc)ined compared to perpendicu)ar p)ane. 0eferring to figure. #t will be noted that any particle of thic&ness ;i< between the locating button and the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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wor&piece will result in error and this horizontal erro ;e< will &eep on increasing as the slope of locating plane increases and will a minimum F t itself, if the locating plane is vertical. Secondly, the inclined locating plane results in a wedging action which has tendency to lift the piece.
Digure< /. What are the ad7antages and disad7antages of four )ocating points in a p)ane. More than three locating points in a plane do not improve the location in any way, they only result in instability and improper location if the surface is not perfectly flat. owever, if the surface is flat, then out points promote stability and give e%tra support. Another advantages of suing four locating points for location purposes ;which can be used only with perfectly flat surfaces< is that any stray chip on one locating button will be immediately noticed as it will cause the piece to roc& on the four button support, whereas no warning of its presence will be given in case of three button support. A big disadvantages of four locating buttons in one plane is that if one the locating buttons is worn out or is not constructed properly then the piece will not lie in the plane determined by the other these locating button and the piece may warp, if clamped firmly, or shift under cut if not secured firmly. %. What is the best methods to )ocate a rough surface. !hen locating a rough surface, it is best to use relieved locators which offers means of getting close to the average plane of the rough surface and olds the piece in stable position. 8. (ist human factor in7o)7ed in design of Eigs and fi;tures. Since operators, setup personnel, and inspectors will be involved with the use of Hig and fi%tures, the human capabilities must not be lost sight of during designing. 9ollowing points should not be forgotten when planning a tool designJ Bperation of tool must be smooth and rhythmicA such movements which fatigue be muscles should be minimum, use of foot can be made to lessen hand and arm fatigueJ all clamps shuld be located within easy reach of the operatorJ controls and clamps should be convenient for the cooperator to use handles 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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should be large enough to reduce hand and finger fatigueJ the tool should be completely sage to operate. :. What are the safet" factors re)ated to design of Gigs and fi;tures. #f the tool is not safe to operate, it is useless. Safety must be planned into every design detail. 9ollowing points should be borne in mind in regard to safety. )ool be clear of the cutters during the loading and unloading operations. All clamps and controls be so located that the operator does not have to reach over the toolJ no operator movements should be re+uired close to a moving or revolving toolJ if possible chip guards be provided to protect the operator, al sharp edges on the tool should be chamferedJ attach accessories ;pins , feelers gauges, wrenches, etc< should be far away to prevent tangling in the tool, the entire operation should be visible from the operatorLs position, it should not be possible to pull the part from the tool, tool body should be rigid enough to resist all cutting forces, clamping devices should under no circumstances loosen during the machining cycle. 1$. Write the name of Ri7ets ,ith s9etch. T"pes of Ri7ets 9or steel plates the rivets are normally made in low carbon steel. 9or Hoins in boiler material +uality is very important. #S# standards for rivet material describe the composition of steel for boiler and structural wor&s. #n such cases where resistance against corrosion or light weight are essential rivets of copper and aluminium alloys may also be used.
Digure< Several types of shapes can be given to rivets. "utton head as shown in figure is most common and 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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largely used for structural and pressure vessel riveting. Counter sun& rivets shown in figure heads are obHectionable. Pan heads and conical heads. 9igure ;d< and ;e< are less fre+uently used and are difficult to form. )ubular rivets figure ;f< and ;g< are special deviation from solid rivet shan&. )hese rivets are used in air crafts. 11. Name the common)" used materia)s for ri7ets. Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium alloys are some of the metals commonly used for rivets. 12. 3o, are ri7eted Goints made air#tight. )he edges of the plates to be Hointed ;in case Hoints only< are first beveled. )he plates ae then rolled to the re+uired curvature of the shell. olding the plates together, holes are then drilled and riveting is followed. 1'. Name the different t"pes of ri7et heads as recommended b" =I+<+P#*/ < 1:88. igh button head, Pan head, Cone head, 9lat head )russ head. 9lush countersun& head, 0ound top and countersun& head. 1*. 4ifferentiate bet,een )ap Goint and butt Goint #n a lap Hoint, the plates to be riveted, overlap each other. )he plates to be Hointed are first beveled at the edges, to an angle of about G6. #n a butt Hoint, the butting edges of the plates to be Hoined are s+uare and the outer edges of the cover plates are bevelled. "utt Hoints are genrally used for Hoining thic& plates, and are much stronger than lap Hoints. 1-. What is the function of a co7er p)ate in ri7eted Goints. #n a butt Hoin, the plates to be Hointed, butt against each other, with cover plate or strap, either on one or both sides of the plates. )hese plates provide connection between the two butted plates. 1/. Wh" are ,ashers used in bo)ted Goints. #t is used to give a perfect seating for the nut and to distribute the tightening force uniformly to the parts under the Hoint. #t also prevents the nut from damaging the metal surface under the Hoint. 1%. What is a T#bo)t and ,here it is used. ). bolt is having a swuare nec& provided below the head which prevents the rotation of the bolt. )his type of bolt is used for fi%ing vices, wor& pieces, etc., to the machine table having ).slots
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18. What is an e"e#bo)t and for ,hat purpose is it used. #n order to facilitate lifting of heavy machinery, li&e electric generators, motors , turbines, etc., eye bolts are screwed on to their top surfaces. 9or fitting an eye bolt, a taped hold is provided above the centre of gravity of the machine. 1:. What is a stud bo)t and ,here is it used. A cylindrical shan& with threads cut on both the ends, a stud driver in the form of the thic& he%agonal nut with a blind threaded hole is used. #t is used where there is no place for accommodating the bolt had or when one of the parts to be Hoined is too thic& to use an ordinary bolt. 2$. What is a set scre,. What is its function. A set screw is screwed into the pulley hub so that its end.point bears firmly against the shaft, used to prevent relative motion between two rotating parts such as the movement of pulley on shaft. )he fastening action is by friction between the screw and the shaft and is used only for transmitting very light loads. 21. 4efine )apping. *apping is a surface finishing process used force producing geometrically accurate flat, cylindrical and spherical surface. 22. What is meant b" super finishing. Super finishing is suitable for obtaining a surface of the highest class of finish of any material or or"piece. 2'. 4efine the carburiCing and nitriding. 2arburiCing< !t is a heat treatment process in hich iron(steel is heated to liberate carbon in pressure of other material. Nitriding< !t is a heat treatment method that allo s nitrogen to decompose on the surface to harden the material. 24. What are the measurements of surface roughnesss or finish? )he measurement of surface roughness or finish are . Cutting speed F (6 to >6 m8min Allowance range F 6.66, to 6.6, mm !or&ing pressure F ( to > &g8cm, 4scillating fre&uency 5 266 to 2666 cycle(min 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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25. What are the differences between surface hardening by diffusion method and thermal method? The difference bet een surface hardening by diffusion method and thermal method are as follo s "y diffusion method "y thermal method Surface is hardened R finished by Surface of any material is finished and means of non heat treatment. hardened by means of heat treatment. 2/. 4efine too) design@ Gig and fi;tures. Too) 4esign< Tool design is the process of designing and developing the tools, methods 7 techni&ues necessary to improve manufacturing efficiency 7 productivity. Eigs< 8igs and fi#tures are production or"holding devices used to manufacture duplicate parts accurately. Di;tures< , 9ig is special device that holds, supports or is placed on a part to be machined. 2%. What is the genera) function of )ocator pins. :in type locators are used for smaller holes 7 for aligning members of the tool hen the pins are used for alignment, special bushings should also be used so that they can be replaced hen they ear. 28. Notes on the c)amp 5 c)amping. The main purpose of a or" holder, or clamping device is to securely hold the position of the part against the locators throughout the machining cycle. The clamp used must meet the follo ing conditions. The clamp must be strong enough to hold the part and to resist movement. The clamp must not damage or deform the part. The clamp should be fact ; acting 7 allo rapid loading.
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PART =
1. What are the important princip)e of Gigs and fi;tures. )he following are the rule for design of Higs and fi%turesA ;i< "efore laying out the Hig and fi%tures, the locating points and the outline of clamping arrangement must be decided. ;ii< All clamping and binding devices should be as +uic& acting as possible. ;iii< #n selection of locating points, it must be ensured that two component parts of a machine can be located from corresponding points and surfaces. ;iv< -ig should be made fool proof i.e. , the wor& canLt be inserted e%cept in the correct way. ;v< 9or rough casting, some locating points must be made adHustable. ;vi< Clamps must be located such that they will be in the best position to resist the pressure of the cutting tool. ;vii< #f possible, all clamps must be made integral parts of the Hig or fi%ture. ;viii< Complicated clamping arrangement must be avoided which are liable to wear or get out of order. ;i%< All clamps should be placed as nearly as possible opposite some bearing point of the wor& , to avoid springing. ;%< )he design should be such as to ma&e the Hig and possible, consistent with rigidity and stiffness. ;%i< All corners should be rounded. ;%ii< andles may be provided for easy handling of Higs. ;%iii< 9eet should be provided opposite to all surfaces containing guide bushings in drilling and boring Higs. ;%iv< All bushing should be placed inside of geometrical figure formed by connecting the points of location of the feet. ;%v< Abundant clearance should be provided for chip clearance particularly for rough castings. ;%vi< All locations points should be made visible to the operator when placing the wor& in position. #f possible, holes may be drilled in Hig body to facilitate operator to watch proper location. ;%vii< oles may be provided for e%it of coolant and chips. ;%viii< Clamping lugs should be located so as to prevent springing of the fi%ture. ;%i%< Small drilling Higs are not clamped to the table, but boring Higs and milling and planning fi%tures, invariably must be firmly secured to the machine on which they are used. ;%%< 9or accurate wor&, the bushing should support the cutting tool within one diameter of the tool from the wor&.
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;%%i<
"ushing should not be located close to the wor& with the obHect of carrying the chips up through the bushing. ;%%ii< A length e+ual to two diameter of the cutting tool is considered to be ade+uate for a bearing surface in the bushing. #f length re+uired is more, then the remainder of length of the hold in the bushing may be counter bored or relieved from the side which is farthest from the wo&. ;%%iii< 9or accurate wor&, threaded bushing should be avoided. 2. What are the essentia) characteristics in the proper design of Gigs and fi;tures. )he essential characteristics in proper design of Higs and fi%tures are A ;i< 'imensional accuracy, ;ii< ruggedness ,;iii< adaptability, ;iv< economy, ;v< salvageability, ;vi< attractive appearance, ;vii< accessibility, ;vii< simple design, safe and fool.proof, ;i%< case of handling, and ;%< easy to construct. #n addition there are a number of other factors which are essential for efficient functioning of Higs and fi%tures. )hese areA ;i< 2hip contro)< )he idea is to minimize the adverse effects of chip and buff formation on the functioning of the Hig of fi%tures. #t is influenced by the tape of operation being performed, the form of chip clearance in the design of Higs and fi%turesJ providing relief at corners, poc&ets, or contact areas, providing chip slides. )he presence of chips may cause misalignment and also deform the surface finish. Chip clearance should be provided between the bottom of the bushing and top of the wor&piece and also at the bottom of the wor&piece. A good design of a drill Hig is shown in the figure. )he chip clearance at the top of the wor&piece &eeps the chips from pac&ing up in the drill flutes and marring the surface of the hole drilled. )he chip clearance at the bottom reduces the hazard of misalignment of the part as a result of chip remaining in Hig after cleaning. Doo) proof operation. +ometimes the wor&piece is li&ely to be placed ;inserted< in different positions and as far as possible safeguards should be provided in the design of Higs and fi%tures. 1.g., the pin shown on the underside of the Hig hinged cover plate acts against upside down insertion of wor&piece, as otherwise it will not be possible to close the hinged cover plate. Ade+uate location and clamping to overcome mechanical forces on wor&piece during cutting operation. 1ase of operation, i.e., minimum re+uirement of time, effort, de%terity. #t is influenced by the positioning methods employed, clamping device selected, size and shape, and location of manual components. $ood results can be achieved by using +uic& acting clamps or pneumatic devices, placing all levers within easy reach of operator and providing +uic& locating techni+ues. +afet"< #t can be ta&en case of ensuring no sharp or protruding edges, providing ample clearance for &nuc&les and fingers, and designing Hig and fi%tures such that hands are not re+uired to operate Hig or fi%ture while close to cutting tool. (o, cost. )he initial investment to design and build a Hig or fi%ture is influenced by the number of parts to be made, size and shape of parts, tolerance desired, and materials 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;iii< ;iv<
;v< ;vi<
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specified. #t can be reduced by using all components as simple as possible, using standards parts, using replaceable parts subHect to wear.
Dig< 1;amp)e of good dri)) Gig design '. 1;p)ain brief)" ho, ,or9 pieces are )ocated. Locating elements help in placing the wor&piece in essentially, the same position every time again and again. )hese provide a reference point from which all sizing or spacing can be accomplished. )hese establish desired relationship between wor&piece and Hig and fi%ture. )he purpose of the locators is to restrict the three degrees of freedom of translation and the three degrees of freedom of rotation in order to provide points of reference. )he surface condition of the wor&piece to be located e%erts a great a great influence on the form of the locator, e.g. finished surfaces can be located on a plane but a rough surface is located on a few points of contact as deemed necessary for ability of the part. owever, a plane is generally not used even though a highly finished and true surface is available as a reference surface because of the danger of misalignment due to minute chip particle or dust, 2sually parts are located on three points which form a plane, the introduction of more points though offers greater stability , but may introduce the ris& of unevenness with the lane formed by three points. )he type of locator selected for a particular application is largely a function of the shape of the wor&piece and more particularly the shape of the reference surface. )he various type sof locators are described below. ;i< 1dge )ocators< )hese must be so designed that provision for clearance of burrs and chips is ta&en care of, sometimes wor&piece may be spoiled because of misalignment due to non.provision of 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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;ii< ;iii<
clearance for chip and burrs which may be present in Hig or fi%ture as a result of previous cutting operations. Pin )ocators< )hese are fre+uently used in applications where holes are used as reference points. #t is important that the wor&piece be placed over the locating pin, 0# )ocator< #t provides the most desirable means of locating for applications where references surface is the outside diameter of a cylindrical part. )he I6 angle between faces on the / gives the beast by the tool bisects the including angle of the /.locator, which ensure positive seating. )wo e%amples of good and bad design of location are shown in figure.
Digure< *. 4efine 2)amps and 2)amping. A clamp ;i< holds the wor&piece firmly against the locators, and ;ii< resists fall forces introduced by the operation. A good design provides clamping in an area that is directly opposite to the locators. A poorly placed clamp can cause warping of the wor&piece or introduce a turning moment that would tend to unseat the wor&piece. #f a single clamp is used to secure the wor&piece then its line to action must be within the e%treme points of contact. As far as possible only only one clamp must be used as its is not only the most economical one but also insures positive contact on all locators if located properly. !hen two clamps are used then it may so happen that the tightened securely then the second may never sear the wor& piece against he opposing locators. Clamping is influenced by ;i< ratio of cost of clamp to cost of operation, ;ii< fre+uency of set up, ;iii< clamping force re+uired, ;iv< size and condition of wor&, ;v< convenience of operation. )he wor&piece, to a 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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large e%tent, determines the form , placement and magnitude of the clamping force employed. #f the entire top surface is to be machined then a side clamp must be used which e%erts both the horizontal and vertical forces in order to assure a firm holding action. !or&pieces of fragile nature limit the magnitude of the clamping force. 0ough surfaces permit the either hold.down pins that dig into the wor& or serrated.faced clamps that gives more positive holding action. )he various type os clamps commonly used areA ;i< Sliding clamps, ;ii< inge clamps, ;iii< Cam.actuated clamps, ;iv<Pneumatic clamps, ;v< /isc ;vi< )humb screw. -. What do "ou understand b" )ocation of a piece and ,hat are the important princip)es of )ocation and the t"pe of )ocations common)" used. Location of piece means to place it in definite position for further operations so that effect produced on all pieces will be same. )o achieve it, the obHect must be confined completely, for which motion along and rotation about three co.ordinate a%es must be liminated. )he points of location are selected by the condition of the wor&piece surfaces, the shape of the wor&piece and the nature of the surfaces to which registration is re+uired. i.e., the part should be located in an operation from areas most directly connected to the surface or surfaces treated as reference in the operation. #n other words, the location surface should be that reference surface from which the dimensions and tolerance are specified and not any other because that will also have some tolerance in locating itself relative to the reference surface. )he various types of locators are A /.locators, cylindrical locators, conical locators, radial locators ;dual pin locators, diamond pin locators<, mean locators ;centralizers< gear tooth locators etc. /. What are the cause of errors in the design and operation of Gig and fi;ture. #n operations with Higs and fi%tures, variations in sizes may result from erros resulting from following usesA ;i< 0ariations in rough ,or9pieces )heir correct location is generally a problem and proper locating devices have to be selected when rough wor&pieces have to be handled. As the stoc& to be removed varies, it results in fluctuations in the forces e%perienced by cutting tools, the allowance for which should be suitably made. 0ariations in materia)s )hese result in variations in forces and power re+uirements and also results in variation of thermal e%pansion, wear and deflection. )o the e%tent possible, allowance for these must be made. 4efects in too)s and machines All tool dimensions have tolerances and these will affect size of wor&. 'epending on accuracy desired suitable compromise is necessary to get desired wor& at the lowest possible cost. 9or critical dimensions, it is customary to allow (6@ tolerances of wor&piece on Higs, fi%tures and gauges. 'etails of fi%tures , Higs dies that re+uire accurate locations should beheld by dowel, splines, &eys in addition to screws. #t is 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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important that screws should not be used to perform double function of locating and holding. !here several pieces are to be placed in a fi%ture or Hig, they should be located independently and not against the other. Wear #t further adds to variations. As far as possible, wear.resistant materials should be used for parts subHect to wear on fi%tures Hig, etc. #n the design , wearing surfaces should be &ept as small as possible without sacrificing too much durability. !ear consideration demands bigger locating surfaces but locating surfaces should have small area which results in advantages of less time for cleaning, reduced change of lodgment of chips or dirt, providing more realistic approach to the mean plane of a rough surface, saving in material and labour . Sliding over the locators during clamping should be avoided. As far as possible, provisions must be made to overcome variations due to wear. )he wear allowance is made on gauges also. 4ef)ection. /ariations in materials, speeds and feeds bring about changes in deflection which results in varaiation of wor&pieces. 'eflection cannot be eliminated but it can be reduced to minor proportions to obtain wor&piece dimension within tolerance. 9orces causing deflection may come from handling, clamping or cutting action. Positive measure must be ta&en to protect against deflection. 9or this purpose, claps should rever be applied on an overchanging section of the wor&piece and should bear directly over fi%ed locating resets or stops. Btherwise the clamping forces should be opposed by adHustable supports. )he devices employed as reinforcements against deflection themselves should not introduce additional supports. )he device employed provide ade+uate provisions to limit operator from applying e%cessive force in applying the support. Supports should be designed to directly oppose the forces. Ade+uate holding devices should be arranged so that deflection including forces are transmitted to rigid basic members. All clamping strain should be ta&en care of within a fi%ture and not transmitted to the table of the machine. Therma) e;pansion. #t can affect variations and occurs due to heat generated during cutting operation. #t effect is more pronounced when two dissimilar metals are involved. )he temperature differential should be minimized by adopting sharp tools of proper shape, including provisions for heat dissipitation from tools and machine and employing and employing controlled room temperature. 4irt@ chips and burrs. )hese directly interfere with wor&piece location, positioning and gauging. 9or this, sharp corners should be avoided between locating surface as they catch dust and are hard to clean. Locating surface should be free for cleaning purpose. 3uman deficiencies. Many devices have been developed to multigate the effects of human deficiencies. -igs and fi%tures should be designed to provide means of achieving desired accuracy with least s&ill and effort on part of operator.
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a& What is purpose of c)amping. b&What factors go7ern the choice of a c)amping de7ices to achie7e the purpose of c)amping discuss them in detai).
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;a< )he purpose of clamping is to press the wor&piece against the locators and to maintain location in opposition to all disturbing forces li&e cutting forces etc, which have tendency to upset the fi%ation. ;b< 9our factors governing the choice of clamping devices areA ;i< 9actors affecting the sizes of clamping forces needed for a particular application, where they must and can be applied, and the direction in which these should acts are governed by ;i< type of locator and position of the locating surfaces, ;ii< ruggedness or fratility of wor&piece.;iii< surface available for contact, ;iv< condition of surface on which forces are to be imposed, ;v< directions are sizes of the cutting forces to be opposed. #t is important to note that locations should be decided first for best positioning of the wor& and then proper clamping device decided for it, and not vice versa. Secondly, the clamping effort must be directed so as to provide stability to the location and not upset the location. 9or e%ample, if a wor&piece is located of three locators then clamping force should be vertical only and not inclined, and further, it should act within the area formed by Hoining these locators in order to avoid tipping. !here a clamping force cannot be brought to bear directly on top of the wor&piece, it must be so arranged as to act with a downward component. Bther components of the forces in other directions should act between the locators and not act so as to set up a moment away from the other locators. Strength of wor&piece should always be borne in mind as the clamping force acting within the locating area should not be able to deform the wor&piece. As far as possible, clamping forces should act only on heavy sections directly supported by fi%ed locators. Many times, adHustable supports are used under overchanging sections in order to resist deformation from cutting forces. Availability of clamping surfaces is another point re+uiring due consideration. Many times it so happens that the surface to be machined are not accessible for clamping and in such cases clamping has to be confined properly to sides only. Condition of clamping surfaces also affects the choice of clamping devices. 9or e%ample, when whole of top surface is to be machined and if sides of wor&piece are rough, then clamps have be arranged such that they dig into the surface and tend to pull the wor&piece down;figure<. #f the sides of wor&piece are finished then firction from the pressure between clamps and locators must be relied upon to retain the wor&. Analysis of cutting forces deserves great attention because a clamp, in addition to brining a wor&piece into proper location, has to hold it securely in that position against the action of cutting forces also. #n most of cutting operations, tangential , radial and a%ial components of cutting forces can be e%pected. #t is, therefore, essential to determined the magnitude, and directions of the cutting forces and their components with respect to the locations. #n addition moments that may be produced should also be analyzed as these have also to be resisted.
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Digure< A clamp has to serve to counteract cutting forces by ;a< holding a wor&piece against fi%ed locators to enable them to receive the maHor thrust, leaving minor forces for the clamp to resist, ;b< ta&ing a Ethirst directly, ;c< pressing a wor&piece against a surface to set up a frictional force, ;d< digging into a wor&piece an punching a wor&piece against a sharp locator. Clamps must be of succificent strength to meet the forces not opposed. 9inally the clamp must impress on a wor&piece an initial force greater than any reaction it may receive in order to avoid any movement of wor&piece during operation. 9or light pieces, it is possible to arrange for one clamp to serve for more than one direction of location advantages of combined clamping action of centralizers, e+ualizers etc., should be ta&en. Centralisers li&e / have the advantage of being able to deliver forces in tow direction from a single application, in addition to acting as clamp. 1+ualisers are the clamping devices that serve to distribute one clamping effort over two or more surfaces. )hese, then also can clamp several parts by one motion. !hile the purpose of centralizer is to provide specialized location, e+ualizers act as clamping devices. According centralizers are mounted in a specifc manner with respect to other locators, but e+ualizers may have somewhat variable positon with respect to locators. ;4< Sources and sizes of clamp.acting forces E Most of the clamps are usually hand.operated. A manually operated clamp must be arranged to hold tightly with reasonably effort and also be rugged enough to withstand abus. )o supplant manual effort, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders are often used to actuate clamping devices. Sometimes force is applied directly from the piston rod clamping, but it is considered desirable to transmit the force through a magnifying lin&age having self loc&ing feature so that obHect would remain properly clamped in the even of air8hydraulic pressure failure. #n order to avoid li&elihood of stic&ing clamps, force for release should be greater than that for clamping. ;>< Proportions of clamping devices E A clamp must impose a minimum force in a definite direction and maintain it as long as re+uired . Sometimes clamp is subHected to restriction of space accessibility and maneouverability , when the proven devices and proper analysis pays. Mechanical advantage is usually gained by levers because of its simplicity , though sometimes devices li&e wedge, screw and can etc cam also be used. A clamp must also have sufficient strength to resist defection and even destruction from the 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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forces and reaction acting upon it and between its own members. )he proportions of clamp to meet a specific situation are wor&ed out from the principles of mechanics and is the subHect of machine design. 8. What are Nomenc)ature of Ri7eted Eoints. T"pes of Ri7eted Eoints )he classification of riveted Hoints is based on following. (. According to purpose ,. According to position of plates connected 4. According to arrangement of rivets According to purpose the riveted Hoints are classified as (. +trong Eoints. #n these Hoints strength is the only criterion -oints in engineering structure such as beams, trusses and machine frames are strong Hoints. ,. Tight Eoints. )hese Hoint provide strength as well as are oa& proof against low pressures . -oints in reservoirs containers and tan&s fall under this group. 4. +trong tight Goints. )hese are the Hoints applied in boilers and pressure vessels and ensure both strength and lea& proofnes. )he classification has no sound basis and is arbitrary. owever, it helps understand the basis of design and manufacturing . the hot wor&ing of rivets is one ways of ma&ing initimate contact between plates in the area of Hoint. 9urther the holes are drilled and reamed to re+uired tolerances and hurrs removed fro good contact before rivets are placed in the holes. )he edge of the plate is upset by means of a hammer and caul&ing tool so tht edge is strongly pressed against the plate surface. ;see figure<
Digure< 2au)9ing of ri7erted points According to position of plates Hointed the riverted point are classified as (. Lap Hoint ,. "utt -oint
#n a lap Hoint two plates are simply laid every each of the and riverted figure. shows a lab Hoint. !hen these plates are pulled by ending stress in the rivet and plates. !hen plates are placed end to end and Hointed through cover place, they form a butt Hoint as shown in figure. #f cover plates are provided only one side, the Hoint is termed single cover hutt Hoint but bending of rivet instill possible figure. 9igureY shows a 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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double cover but Hoint in which there is no possibility of bending of plate and very little possibilities of bending of rivet.
T"pes of ri7eted Goints and nomerc)ature According to a arrangement of rivets, the Hoints are called single riveted. 9igure ;a< ;b< and ;c<. #t may be noted that in a single riveted lap Hoint there is only one row of rivets passings through both plates while in a single riveted but Hoint either of single cover or plates. Similarly, as shown in figure ;d< and ;c< when we rows of rivets pass through both pates of lap Hoint it is called double riveted lap Hoint and two rows of rivets pass through each of butting places the Hoint is a double riveted single cover butt Hoint. A double riveted double cover butt Hoint is shown in figure. )he arrangement of rivets in figure can be described that in the both the rows the rivets are opposite to each other while in figure;i.e.< the rivets in the adHacent rows are staggered. )he Hoint in figure ;d< is said 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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to be chain riveted while that in figure ;e< is zig Ezag riveted Hoint. #n zig.zag riveting the rivet in one row is placed at the middle level of the two rivets in the adHacent row. Nomenc)ature Several dimensions become obviously important in a reveted Hoint and a design will consist in calculating many of them. )hese dimension and their notations as to be used in this te%t are described below. 1. Pitch. As seen from figure ;a< , ;b< and ;c<, pitch, denoted p, is the centre distance between two adHacent rivet holes in a row. 2. =ac9 pitch. )he centre distance between two adHacent rows of rivets is defined as bac& pitch. #t is denoted by P(, and is shown in figure ;d< and ;e<. '. 4iagona) pitch. )he smallest distance between centres of two rivet holes in adHacent rows of a zig. zag riverted Hoint is called diagonal pitch. 'enoted by pd, the diagonal pitch is shown in figure. *. !argin. #t is the distance between centre of a rivet hole and nearest edge of the plae. #t is denoted by m as shown in figure ;b< ,;c< and ;d<. )he plates to be Hointed are often of the same thic&ness and their thic&ness is denoted by t. owever, if the thic&nesses re different, the lower one will be denoted by t (. )he thic&ness of the cover plate ;also &nown as strap< in a butt Hoint will be denoted as t(,Z. )he plates to be Hointed are often of the same thic&ness and their thic&ness is denoted byt. owever if the thic&nesses are different , the lower one will be denoted by t (. )he thic&ness of the cover plate ;also &nown as strap< in a butt Hoint will be denoted as tZ )he rivet hold diameter is denoted by d. )he diameter is normally larger than the diameter of the rivet shan& which is denoted by d(. A problem of designing of a riverted Hoint involves determination of p,pd , m t, te and d, depending upon type of the Hoint. :. Write in detai) about the 7arious forms of the bo)ts. e%agonal headed bolt A he%agonal shape is preferred to the s+uare one, as it is easy to tighten even in a limited space. )his is because, with only one.si%th of a turn, a spanner can be reintroduced in the same position.
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Digure< =o)ted Goint +quare headed bo)t ,ith square nec9< #t is provided with a s+uare nec&, which fits into a corresponding s+uare hold in the adHacent part, preventing the rotation of the bolt. So, s+uare shaped are used when fre+uency loosening and tightening is re+uired, for e%ample on Hob holding devices li&e vices , tools posts in machines , etc.
Digure< 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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)his bolt passes through a hole in one part only, while the other part is gripped by the hoo& shaped bolt head. #t is used where there is no space for ma&ing a bolt hole in one of the parts. )he s+uare nec& prevents the rotation of the bolt.;9igure< 1"e bo)ts< #n order to facilitate lifting of heavy machinery, li&e electric generators, motors, turbines, etc., eye bolts are screwed on to their top surfaces. 9or fitting an eye bolt, a tapped hole is provided, above the centre of gravity of the machine ;figure<
Digure< 1"e#bo)t +tud" Goint< #t consists of cylindrical shan& with threads cut on both the ends ;figure<. #t is used where there is no place for accommodating the bolt head or when one of the parts to be Hoined is too thic& to use an ordinary bolt. )he stud is first screwed into one of the two parts to be Hoined, usually the thic&er one. A stud driver, in the form of a thic& he%agonal nut with a blind threaded hole is used for the purpose. After placing the second part over the stud, a nut is screwed.on over the nut end. #t is usual usual to provide in the second part, a hold which is slightly larger than the stud nominal diameter. 9igure shows a stud Hoint.
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Digure< a& +tud
b& +tudGoint
1$. 4escribe the different arrangement used to )oc9 the nuts. )he bolted Hoints, though removable in nature, are re+uired to stay firm without becoming loose of their own accord. owever, the Hoints used in the moving pars of a machinery, may be subHected to vibrations. )his may slac&en the Hoint, leading to serious brea&down. )o eliminate the slac&ening tendency, different arrangement, as discussed further, are used to loc& the nuts. (oc9 nut < )his is the most commonly used loc&ing device. #n this arrangement, a second nut, &nown as loc& nut is used in combination with a standard nut ;figure<. )he thic&ness of a loc& nut is usually two. thirds ', where ' is the maHor diameter of the bolt. )he loc& nut is usually placed below the standard nut. )o ma&e the Hoint, the loc& nut is first screwed tightly and then the standard nut is tightened till it touches the loc& nut. Afterwards, the loc&nut is then screwed bac& on the standard out which is held b a spanner. )he threads of the two nuts become.
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Digure< (oc9 nut !hen the loc& nut is first screwed into it position, the top flan&s of it press against the bottom flan&s of the bolt ;figure< figure shows the condition between the flan&s of the nuts and the bolt, when the second nut is located in position. #t may be observed that in this position, the top flan&s of the top nut, pres against the bottom flan&s of the bolt, whereas the bottom flan&s of the loc& nut press against eh top flan&s of the bolts. (oc9ing b" +pit pin< A split pin, made of steel wire a semi.circular cross.section is used for loc&ing the nut. #= this arrangement, the split pin inserted through a hole in the body and touching Hust eh top surface of the nut. )hen, the ends of the pin are split open to prevent it from coming out while in use ;figure<. (oc9ing b" 2ast)e nut< A castle nut is he%agonal nut with a cylindrical collar turned on one end. )hreads are cut in the nut portion only and si% rectangular slots are cut through the collar. A split pin is inserted through a hole in the bolt body after adHusting the nut such that the hold in the bolt body comes in.line with slots. )his arrangement is used in automobile wor& ;figure<
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Digure< (oc9ing b" sp)it pin
Digure< cast)e nut
Wi)eOs )oc9 nut< #t is a he%agonal nut with a slot, cut half.way across it. After tightening the nut in the usual manner, a set screw is used from the top of the nut, compressing the two parts. 9or this purpose, the upper portion of the nut should have a clearance hole and the lower portion tapped ;figure<. (oc9ing b" set scre,< #n this arrangement, after the nut is tightened, a set screw in fitted in the part, adHoining the nut, so that it touches one of the flat faces of the nut. )he arrangement prevents the loosening tendency of the nut. ;figure<
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Digure< Wi)eOs )oc9 nut
Digure< (oc9ing b" act scre,
11. 1;p)ain in detai) ri7eting. 3o, the ri7eting process ma9es a ri7et air tight. A)so ,rite on ri7et heads. 0iveted Hoints are permanent fastenings and riveting is one of the commonly used method of producing rigid and permanent Hoints. Manufacture of boilers, storage tan&s, etc., involve Hoining of steel sheets, by means of riveted Hoints. )hese Hoints are also used to fasten rolled steel sections in structural wor&s, such as bridge and roof trusses. A rivet is a round rod of circular cross.section. #t consists of two parts , viz, head and shan& ;figure< ;a< Mild steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium alloys are some of the metals commonly used for rivets. )he choice of a particular metal will depend upon the place of application.
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Digure a& Ri7et b& Ri7eting 0iverting is the process of forming a riveted Hoint. 9or this, a rivet is first placed in the hold drilled through the two parts to be Hointed. )hen the shan& end is made into a rivet head by applying pressure, when it is either in cold or hot condition. Pressure may be applied to form the second rivet head, either by direct hammering or through hydraulic or pneumatic means. !hile forming the rivet head, the shan& will bulge uniformly. ence, a certain amount of clearance between the hole and shan& must be provided before riveting ;figure<. 2au)9ing and Du))ering< 0iverted Hoints must be made air tight in applications such as boilers and other pressure vessels. Caul&ing or fullering is done to ma&e the riveted Hoints air tight. 2au)9ing< )he outer edges of the plates usd in boiler and other pressure vessels are beveled. )o produce air tight riveted Hoints, these beveled edges of the plates re caul&ed. Caul&ing is an operation in which the outer beveled edges of the plates are hammered and driven.in by caul&ing tool. )he caul&ing tool is in the form of a blunt edged chisel.;figure<
Du))ering< Similar to caul&ing fullering is also used to produce air tight Hoints. 2nli&e the caul&ingtool, the width of the filtering tool is e+ual in the width of the beveled edges of the plates;figure< Caul&ing and fullering operations are carred out effectively by applying pneumatic pressure.
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Digure< a& 2au)9ing b& Du))ening Ri7er 3eads. /arious forms of rivet heads, used in general engineering wor&s and boiler construction and as recommended by "ureau of #ndian Standards are shown in figure. )he standard proportions are also indicate in the figure.
Digure< T"pes of ri7et heads 12. 1;p)ain in detai) Ri7eted Goints ma" be broad)" c)assified. 0iveted Hoints may be broadly classified intoA Structural Hoints and pressure vessel Hoints Structural steel frames are made by using rolled steel plates and sections of standard shapes, as shown in figure. figure shows an angle Hoint used to connect the plates, by a single row of rivets. 9igure also shows the position of the rivets and other proportions of the Hoint. 9igure shows rolled steel sections, a column and a beam connected to each other through riveted Hoints. 9igure illustrates one design of a built.up girder, also made of rolled steel sections. #n both the figues proportions of the Hoints are also indicated. owever, it should be noted that the length of the Hoint is decided by the load to be resisted by the Hoint. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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Digure< +tructura) ro))ed stee) sections
Digure< Ang)e Goint =oi)er Eoints< )hese Hoints are used mainly for Hoining metal sheets used in the construction of boilers, water tan&s and pressure vessels. Bbviously , these Hoints must be made air.tight , as the above vessels are re+uired to retain fluids and withstand internal fluid pressure as well. 9or manufacturing boilers, water tan&s and pressure vessels, the edges of the plates to be Hoined;in case of lap Hoints only< are first beveled. )he plates are then rolled to the re+uired curvature of the shell. olding the plates together, holes are then drilled and riveting is followed. "oiler Hoints are classified as Alap Hoints , butt Hoints and combination of lap and butt Hoints. (ap Goint< #n a lap Hoint, the plates to be riveted, overlap each other. )he plates to be Hoined are first beveled at the edges, to an angle of about G6 ;figure<. 'epending upon the number of rows of rivets used in the Hoint, lap Hoints are further classified as single riveted lap Hoint, double riveted lap Hoint and so on.
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Digure< +ing)e ri7eted )ap Goint =utt Goint< #n a butt Hoint, the plates to be Hoined butt against each other, with a cover plate or strap, either on one or both sides of the platesJ the latter one being preferred. #n this Hoint, the butting edges of the plates to be Hoined are s+uare and the outer edges of the cover plates ;s< is are beveled. )hese Hoints are generally used for Hoining thic& plates, and are much stronger than lap Hoints. #n a single strap butt Hoint, the thic&ness of the strap ;cover plate< is given by, t( F (.(,7t #f two straps are used, the thic&ness of each cover plates is given by , t6 F 6.:7t
Digure < 4oub)e ri7eted doub)e strap chain butt Goint
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1'. What are the t"pes of grinding machine. 1;p)ain an" one of them. )ypes of grinding machine (. ,. 4. >. 7. D. ;i< Surface grinding Cylindrical grinding #nternal grinding Centerless grinding Creep feed grinding Cryogenic grinding +urface grinding< Surface grinding involves grinding flat surfaces and is one of the most common grinding operation. The or"piece is secured on a magnetic chuc" attached to the or"table of a surface grinder. 2")indrica) grinding< !n cylindrical grinding also called centre type grinding, the e#ternal cylindrical surface and shoulders are ground. Interna) grinding< !n internal grinding, a small part, such as bushing and bearing races. or"pieces
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heel is used to grind the inside diameters of a
2entre)ess grinding< $enterless grinding is a high production process for continuously grinding cylindrical surface in hich the or"piece is supported not by centers or chuc", but a blade. 2reep feed grinding< <rinding has traditionally been associated ith small rates of material removal and fine finishing operations, ho ever, grinding can also be used for large scale metal removal operation.
+urface grinding< Surface grinding involves grinding flat surface and is one of the most common grinding operation. )he wor&piece is secured on a magnetic chuc& attached to the wor&table of a surface grinder. =on magnetic materials generally are held by vises, special fi%tures, vacuum chuc& or double sided adhesive tapes. A straight wheel is mounted on the horizontal spindle of grinder. )raverse grinding is done as the table reciprocates longitudinally and feeds laterally after each stro&e.
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Digure< 1*. What are the methods of grinding and po)ishing. 1;p)ain center#)ess grinding. !ethods of grinding and po)ishing< $rinding is basically a chip removal process in which the cutting tool is an individual abrasive grain. (< )he individual grain has an irregular geometry and is spaced randomly along the periphery of the wheel. ,< )he average ra&e angle of the grains is highly negative . D6 or even lo er conse&uently the shear angles are very lo . 4< The radial position of the grains in a grinding heel vary. >< The cutting speed of grinding heels are very high typically =6m(s.
2enter#)ess grinding< Centerless grinding is a high production process for continuously grinding cylindrical surface in which the wor&piece is supported not by centers or chuc&s, but by a blade. )ypical parts made by centerless grinding include roller bearings, piston pins, engine valves, camshafts, and similar components. )his 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
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continuous production process re+uires little operator s&ill. Parts with diameters as small as 6.( mm can be ground using this process centerless grinders are now capable of wheel surface speeds on the order of (6,666 m8min, using cubic.carbon.nitride abrasive wheels.
Digure< 1-. What are the essentia) characteristics in the proper design of Gig 5 fi;ture. The clamp used must meet the follo ing condition>

The clamp must be strong enough to hold the part to resist movement. The clamp must not damage or deform the part. The clamp should be fast%acting and allo rapid loading 7 unloading of parts.
T"pes of Gig< ;(< ;,< ;(< ;,< ;4< ;>< Bpen Hig Closed Hig Bpen Gig< 4pen 9ig are for simple operations here or" is done on only one side of the part. 2)ose Gig< $losed or bo# 9ig are used for parts that must be machined on more than one side. Temp)ate Gig< Template 9ig are normally used for accuracy rather the speed. Plate HigA #t is similar to templates. )he only difference is that plate Hig have built in clamps to hold the wor&. )his Hig is also made with or without bushing depending on the number of parts to be made. ;7< +and,ich Gigs< Sand ich 9ig are a form of plate 9ig ith a bac" plate. This type of 9ig is ideal for thin or soft parts that could bend or arp in another style of 9ig. ;D< Ang)e p)ate Gig< Angle plate Hig are used to hold parts that are machined at right angle to their mounting locators. 01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6
(II
T"pes of fi;tures< ;(< P)ate fi;tures< This is the simplest form of fi#ture. The basic fi#tures is made from a flat plate that has a variety of clamps and locators to hold and locate the part. The simplicity of this fi#ture ma"es it useful for most machining operation. ;,< Ang)e p)ate#fi;ture< The angle plate fi#ture is a variation of the plate fi#ture ith this tool, the part is normally machined at a right angle to its locator. ;4< Inde;ing fi;ture< !nde#ing fi#ture are very similar to inde#ing 9igs. These fi#tures are used for machining parts that must have machined details evenly spaced. ;>< !u)ti#station fi;tures< /ulti%station fi#tures are used primarily for high speeds, high volume production runs here the machining cycle must be continuous. ;7< 4up)e; fi;tures< 3uple# fi#tures are the simplest form of multi%station fi#ture, using only t o stations. This form allo s the loading and unloading operations to be performed hile the machining operation is in progress. ;D< Profi)ing fi;tures< :rofiling fi#tures are used to guide tools for machining contours that the machine cannot normally follo .
1/. What do "our understand b" princip)e of to)erance 5 foo) proofing. To)erance< !hen designing a tool, the designer must &eep the part tolerance in mind. As a general rule, the tool tolerance should be between ,6 R 76 percentage of the part tolerance. )his is necessary to maintain the re+uired precision. Specifying tool tolerance closer than ,6 percent serves only to increase the cost of the tool R adds little to the +uality of the part. $enerally tolerances greater than 76 percent do not guarantee the desired precision. *ocator must be designed to fit the part at any size ithin the part limits. Fool Proofing Fool proofing is a means by hich the tool designer ensures that the part ill fit into the tool only in its correct position. The pin fool proofs the tool. The part in a hold that must be drilled ith reference to the holes in the flange. , simple pin placed in one of these holes ma"es it impossible to load the tool incorrectly.
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Casting Process and Pattern Making Basics

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Casting Process and Pattern Making Basics

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UNIT I PART A

2. Write the requirements of a good pattern.

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Size of casting is limited Carbon pic& up in case of steels

"low holes 'rop Scab Pinholes

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B?CB, =a, CB4 ? %.SiB,.n;

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

;ii< ;iii< ;iv< ;v< ;vi<

1$. 1;p)ain the 7arious steps in7o)7ed in she)) mou)ding process.

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01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

Silica sand Clay !ater Additives F

F DG to GD@ F (6 to ,6@ F 4 to D@ (to D@

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UNIT II W1(4INA AN4 +311T !1TA( DBR!INA PART A

2. 2)assif" the different ,e)ding processes.

Solid State Welding

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01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

4irect current re7erse po)arit"<

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2*. Write the app)ications of D)ash butt ,e)ding.

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1. Neutra) D)ame< A neutral flame is obtained when e+ual amounts of B, and C,

are mi%ed and burnt in

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01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

with wor&, giving intense local heatingC.

DCu ? Al, B4 ? eat

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

;viii< ;i%< ;%<

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6

2se of less labour. Possibility of automation. Wor9ing princip)e of press

operated by air, oil, rubber, springs or a combination of above.

4. According to the position of frame

01( T123 4r. RR 5 4r. +R T123NI2A( UNI01R+IT6