Abortion law Ethics and abortion law By Dr Janet Radcliffe-Richards This addition to the site is based on a presentation given

at the conference 'Abortion, Ethics and the Law' held at ent !niversity, "ove#ber $%%&' (ow do yo) find a #orally good abortion law* The #ost obvio)s way is to start by wor+ing o)t the #oral principles that will for# the basis of the law, and then seeing what their i#plications are for practice' Ethicists s)ch as John (arris wor+ this way ro)nd' (is arg)#ents abo)t the attit)de we sho)ld ta+e to the fet)s lead to the concl)sion that there sho)ld be no restrictions on the availability of abortion' ,ther people start fro# the #oral clai# that f)ll h)#an rights sho)ld begin at conception- and their position has the i#plication that abortion is #)rder and sho)ld be forbidden' To settle a disagree#ent of this +ind, yo) need to arg)e abo)t which of the #oral pre#ises is right-which #eans going deep into #oral philosophy' B)t yo) can also wor+ the other way ro)nd' .o) can start with so#e possible or act)al law, and then test it by wor+ing bac+wards to see what #oral principle co)ld provide a /)stification for it' The first test here is to see whether there is a coherent #oral )nderpinning at all, and then, if so, whether it is acceptable' Ta+ing the #atter this way ro)nd is partic)larly interesting in the case of societies li+e o)rs, where the abortion law is neither totally per#issive nor totally prohibitive' 0t is widely accepted that abortions sho)ld not be allowed on de#and, b)t are per#issible )nder certain specified conditions' B)t what #oral principle can e1plain why the specified ones are per#issible while others are not* This is #)ch #ore diffic)lt than it #ight appear' Abortion laws that are restrictive b)t not prohibitive differ in their details, b)t there are vario)s rec)rring the#es' Ti#e )s)ally acts as a constraint2 abortions

#ay be freely or relatively easily available in the early stages, and diffic)lt or i#possible later' B)t #y #ain concern here is with the +inds of circ)#stance widely regarded as essential to /)stify any abortion at all' ,f these the #ost fa#iliar are the cases of rape, of abnor#ality or possible abnor#ality of the fet)s, and of danger to the health of the #other' All of these are to be fo)nd as /)stifications for abortion in the laws of different co)ntries' B)t what +ind of #oral principle #ight /)stify allowing abortions in these cases, b)t not in general* 3$4 5irst, consider rape' 6ost people wo)ld agree that a wo#an who has been raped sho)ld not have to go thro)gh with her pregnancy' B)t what #a+es it acceptable for a wo#an who has been raped to have an abortion, while one who has not can't* 7hat is the relevant difference between the two cases* 0t can't be the stat)s of the fet)s, since that is identical in both' That #eans the difference #)st be to do with the #others' 7hat is the relevant difference between the#* That #ay see# obvio)s' 0f a wo#an is pregnant thro)gh rape it is not her fa)lt, b)t if she hasn't been raped it is- if she didn't want the ris+ of an )nwanted child she sho)ldn't have had se1' B)t even if that is accepted, it's only the beginning of an answer' 7e now need a principle that e1plains why this difference i#plies that the first wo#an can have an abortion, and the second can't' That probably see#s obvio)s too' 0f so#ething isn't yo)r fa)lt yo) don't deserve to s)ffer, and yo) sho)ld be helped to avoid it' B)t even if that see#s right, we still have to e1plain why the wo#an who has not been raped sho)ld be forced to have her child' 0t's no )se saying that her )nborn child has f)ll h)#an rights and therefore can't be +illed, since this wo)ld apply /)st as #)ch to the wo#an who has been raped' .o) can't +ill an innocent h)#an being /)st to save another fro# )ndeserved har#' 0f the fet)s can be +illed in the case of rape, it is not being regarded as a f)ll h)#an being- and this #eans that this can't be the reason for its being forbidden in other cases' Try, then, going bac+ to the idea of responsibility'

7e do have a general principle that we sho)ld sy#pathi8e with and help the victi#s of #isfort)neli+e the wo#an who has been raped-while not r)shing to the resc)e of people who have only the#selves to bla#e for their predica#ent' B)t even if that principle so)nds acceptable in itself, it still can't /)stify allowing abortion in case of rape b)t not otherwise' 0f o)r concern were to help the )nfort)nate while not digging the fec+less o)t of holes of their own #a+ing, we #ight say we wo)ld provide and pay for abortions for wo#en who had been raped, while not giving any help to the others' B)t that isn't the distinction that needs e1plaining' 7e need to e1plain, not why the )nraped wo#an isn't helped to get an abortion, b)t why she is forbidden to get one, even by her own efforts' !nder what circ)#stances do we tell people who have got into tro)ble, not /)st that we won't help the#, b)t that we will act)ally prevent the# fro# e1tricating the#selves by their own efforts* The only conte1t see#s to be when we want to p)nish the#' 5orbidding abortion to #a+e the child an instr)#ent of p)nish#ent is a long way fro# regarding its life as sacrosanct, b)t it is hard to find anything else that fits the sit)ation here' B)t in that case, a p)nish#ent for what* 0t cannot be for being pregnant, since nobody thin+s that is wrong in itself' 9o)ld it be her having chosen to ind)lge in se1 witho)t wanting to be pregnant* This also so)nds abs)rd- b)t it is diffic)lt to find anything else that fits' "ow this arg)#ent is, 0 #)st e#phasi8e, abo)t the logic of the #atter, not abo)t people's #otives' 0'# not s)ggesting that s)ch #otives #)st always )nderlie the feeling that raped wo#en sho)ld be allowed abortions and )nraped ones not2 #any ideas of this +ind are probably /)st conf)sed' :eople probably have so#e feeling that a child sho)ld not be sacrificed lightly, and so#e feelings abo)t desert and carelessness, and don't see the diffic)lties of fitting the# into a coherent whole' 0 have been as+ing what principle co)ld possibly )nderpin the idea that yo)

co)ld have an abortion if yo) were raped, b)t not otherwise, and this is the only coherent way 0 can find to acco)nt for laws that ta+e this for#' 0t a#o)nts to a challenge' Anyone who wants to defend a law of this for# can try to find a less prepostero)s /)stification' (owever, this is not at all easy' And in the #eanti#e, there is ;)ite a lot of evidence to s)ggest that ideas of p)nish#ent really are l)r+ing, )nac+nowledged, in the bac+gro)nd' 5or instance, wo#en who did #anage to get abortions were often denied anaesthetics- apparently if they were to escape having an )nwanted child, they were to be #ade to s)ffer in other ways' 0'd be interested to +now how #any people who oppose abortion are also opposed to recreational se1' The ne1t topic-the case of an abnor#al or possibly abnor#al fet)s-is even #ore co#plicated' ,nce again the challenge is to find a principle that draws the line between a wo#an who is pregnant with a nor#al child and does not want it, and one whose child is, or #ay be, abnor#al in so#e way' "ow here it does so)nd as tho)gh the distinction is concerned with differences between the )nborn children, rather than the #others' B)t if so, what is this difference* 0t see#s that one fet)s is being regarded as having entitle#ents that the other has not2 perhaps that the nor#al fet)s, b)t not the abnor#al, has a right to life' 0s this the idea* 0f so, it is strongly o)t of line with what we thin+ abo)t the rights of children and ad)lts' 7e do not thin+ disabled people can be +illed at will' <o if we are to say that a disabled person has f)ll h)#an rights, while an abnor#al fet)s has not, we shall have to say those rights don't co#e into e1istence )ntil birth' B)t if so, why can't the wo#an with the nor#al fet)s have an abortion* Are we going to say that nor#al fet)ses have f)ll h)#an rights all the way along, b)t abnor#al ones only after birth* 0f so, on what basis* The idea so)nds ;)ite arbitrary' 7e #ight try to arg)e that allowing abortion for

abnor#ality was abo)t preventing s)ffering2 that we sho)ld not place on the abnor#al the b)rden of life not worth living' B)t that doesn't wor+ either' 5or instance, one of the co##onest gro)nds for abortion is Down's syndro#e- and a person with Down's need not s)ffer at all' And #ost physically disabled people regard life as well worth living' 0f )nend)rable s)ffering is the iss)e, it wo)ld be better to have abortion only if it loo+ed as tho)gh the child's life wo)ld be worse than nothing- and, f)rther#ore, to allow infanticide and the assisted s)icide of ad)lts for the sa#e reason' 0t can't provide a /)stification for a law that #a+es a general distinction between abortion for nor#al and abnor#al fet)ses' And the proble# is co#plicated f)rther if abortion is tho)ght acceptable in the case of a possibly abnor#al fet)s' Even if yo) can so#ehow e1plain how the nor#al fet)s has f)ll h)#an rights while the abnor#al one does not, that still leaves the proble# of e1plaining why the possibly abnor#al can be +illed' .o) can't +ill so#ething that #ay have f)ll h)#an rights on the gro)nds that it #ay possibly be so#ething else witho)t f)ll h)#an rights' At the very least, it wo)ld be #ore consistent to wait )ntil it was born, and then +ill it if it is abnor#al' <o is it possible to find any coherent e1planation at all of a law that allows abortion for abnor#al fet)ses, b)t not otherwise* "ot, 0 thin+, if yo) try to base the arg)#ent on the rights of the )nborn child' B)t if we go bac+ to the #others again, there is a possible e1planation along the lines of the one 0 gave in the case of rape' The idea #a+es sense-#ore or less-if yo) thin+ that we sho)ldn't allow abortions to wo#en who have only the#selves to bla#e for )nwanted pregnancies, b)t sho)ld allow an escape to respectable wo#en who have had se1 for the right reasons, and then, thro)gh no fa)lt of their own, fo)nd the#selves carrying the wrong sort of child' Again, this #ay so)nd prepostero)s, b)t what else fits* The final iss)e is abortion for the health and wellbeing of the #other' This so)nds a better /)stification2 it i#plies that altho)gh the fet)s does

not have f)ll rights to life, it is i#portant eno)gh not to be sacrificed frivolo)sly, and can be aborted only for good eno)gh reasons' B)t if that is the reason, there sho)ld be a caref)l specification of what co)nts as a good eno)gh reason, and ob/ective-perhaps legal-processes to decide whether so#e candidate reason #eets the criterion' At the #o#ent, in Britain at least, everything depends on individ)al doctors' entirely s)b/ective interpretations of da#age to health' 0f a wo#an goes to a doctor who is in favo)r of abortion she will get one witho)t diffic)lty- if she goes to one who is against it, she #ay find it diffic)lt or i#possible' 0n theory the law see#s concerned with preventing frivolo)s abortions- in practice, it does nothing at all to chec+ the level of /)stifications' All it does is #a+e s)re wo#en have to /)#p thro)gh hoops rather than deciding for the#selves-with the o)tco#e, of co)rse, that rich or ed)cated wo#en can get abortions on de#and, while the others have to ta+e their chance' 0 )sed to thin+ that abortion was not a fe#inist iss)eand, indeed, the #ost f)nda#ental abortion ;)estion is not' The first ;)estion is abo)t whether the fet)s sho)ld be regarded as having f)ll h)#an rights, and that #)st be decided independently of the interests of the #other' .o) can't arg)e against so#eone who says that a fet)s has f)ll h)#an rights by saying that this is bad for the #other- i#agine )sing that to arg)e that wo#en sho)ld be allowed to dispose of their tro)bleso#e five-year-olds' B)t 0 thin+ liberal abortion laws do t)rn the #atter into a clearly fe#inist iss)e' 7hat these arg)#ents see# to show is that once yo) have crossed the threshold to allowing any abortions, yo) have shown that yo) do not regard the )nborn child as having f)ll h)#an rights- and after that, the +inds of restriction co##only accepted can be e1plained not in ter#s of the val)e of )nborn children, b)t only in ter#s of ;)ite )nacceptable attit)des to wo#en and se1' <o, given the evidence that the law does not regard the )nborn child as a f)ll person, and is not even trying to #a+e a serio)s distinction between good and frivolo)s reasons for allowing abortion, fe#inists are entitled to say that #ost c)rrent abortion laws

har# wo#en witho)t /)stification' This doesn't answer the people who say that life is sacred fro# conception- b)t it does provide a co#plete answer to the liberal legislat)res who have already conceded that it is not' The present state of the abortion law shows that there can be no legiti#ate ob/ection to, for instance, abortion on de#and at least in the early stages of pregnancy2 to co#pletely free access to #orningafter pills, #enstr)al e1traction and other preca)tionary #eas)res, and, after pregnancy is confir#ed, to ;)ic+ and safe abortifacients' And the sa#e applies to related #atters concerned with ed)cation and access to contraception' Anyone who thin+s that people sho)ld not be conceiving children they do not want, witho)t at the sa#e ti#e thin+ing that wo#en sho)ld avoid se1 )nless they want children, sho)ld also be in favo)r of absol)tely co#p)lsory se1 ed)cation and contraceptive provision, which no school sho)ld be allowed to avoid, and fro# which no parents sho)ld be allowed to withdraw their children' :olitically spea+ing, fe#inists in co)ntries with liberal abortion laws have no need to go into the depths of #oral philosophy and the e1tent of h)#an rights to #a+e their case' They can do it by challenging the s)pporters of the present laws to find a coherent and acceptable /)stification for not going f)rther, into the f)lly liberal sche#e #ost fe#inists want' <o far, there has been no sign of anyone's doing so' = Janet Radcliffe Richards $ An earlier and f)ller version of these arg)#ents is given in 9h & of #y boo+ The <ceptical 5e#inist2 a philosophical en;)iry, Ro)tledge $%&>- :eng)in $%&? and $%%@ '

Abortion for fetal abnormality: ethical issues By Ann 5)redi

This addition to the site is based on a presentation given at the conference 'Abortion, Ethics and the Law' held at ent !niversity in $%%&' 0n it, Ann 5)redi, director of co##)nications for B:A<, disc)sses the iss)e of abortion for fetal abnor#ality' This iss)e has beco#e perhaps the #ost contentio)s of those raised in debates abo)t abortion in recent ti#es' Arowing s)pport for the rights of disabled people has generated a disc)ssion abo)t the ethics of the e1e#ption of abortion for abnor#ality fro# the legal ti#e li#it that applies to abortion on other gro)nds' The arg)#ent now co##only #ade is that in allowing abortion witho)t a ti#e li#it where there is possible abnor#ality in the fet)s, b)t i#posing a ti#e li#it of ?@ wee+s where there is not, the law perhaps reflects and reinforces discri#ination against disabled people' 0n her co##ents, 5)redi provides an acco)nt of e)genics as a for# of social policy, and e1plains why it is illegiti#ate to see the provision of abortion for abnor#ality today in these ter#s' 0n Britain, abortions are )nlawf)l after the ?@th wee+ of gestation e1cept in a few e1ceptional circ)#stances defined in law' ,ne of these is when there a ris+ of fetal abnor#ality' This is c)rrently a so)rce of so#e controversy' 0 do not intend to #a+e an arg)#ent in s)pport of the c)rrent syste# of ti#e li#its, beca)se 0 do not believe that gestational ti#e li#its are an appropriate #eans to reg)late abortion' 0 believe that if a wo#an wishes to end her pregnancy, and a doctor is prepared to carry o)t the necessary proced)res, it is not the b)siness of the law to intervene' 7o#en sho)ld not be re;)ired to /)stify their need for abortion' 0t is s)fficient that a wo#an does not want to contin)e the pregnancy' (owever, there are those who arg)e that the e1isting law is, in respect of abortion on gro)nds of fetal abnor#ality, e)genic' 7o#en's re;)est for antenatal screening to detect s)ch abnor#alities has been presented as ethically proble#atic and the f)nding of s)ch services by the "(< has been conde#ned as illegiti#ate' 0t has been s)ggested that s)ch services enco)rage discri#ination against disabled people and that in accepting s)ch services society deval)es disabled people' This is an arg)#ent that has been pro#oted, rather disingen)o)sly, by those who oppose abortion in all circ)#stances' The anti-choice organisation L05E prod)ces a leaflet called ':reBirth <creening2 <o#ething 7rong 7ith Baby*' This arg)es that ''''to destroy a child beca)se he or she is not perfect is especially )n/)st and elitist' ,f co)rse it is not always easy to cope, b)t e)genic abortion recreates and legiti#ises pri#itive phobias against #ental and physical illness /)st when society see#s to be #a+ing real progress in o)tgrowing the#'' The leaflet as+s ''''are we not really sending a #essage to the disabled2 yo) are inferior, yo) sho)ld never have been born*' The <ociety for the :rotection of !nborn 9hildren #a+es the point that ''''abortion of the handicapped is both a re#inder of the inh)#anity of abortion, attac+ing the #ost v)lnerable, those #ost in need of help, and an offence to the disabled, sending the# the #essage that they are inferior and of less val)e than the able bodied'' 0n response, 0 want to briefly address three iss)es2 what do we #ean by e)genics, and is abortion on the gro)nds of fetal abnor#ality e)genic* Does abortion for abnor#ality enco)rage discri#ination against disabled people* 7hat do we #ean by e)genics* This ter# is )sed very loosely and often wrongly in disc)ssion today' 0 certainly thin+ that the two organisations 0 referred to earlier )se it wrongly' Defined

properly, e)genics is the view that society can be i#proved thro)gh the #anip)lation of genetic inheritance, and that social proble#s can be resolved biologically, largely thro)gh the control and shaping of h)#an reprod)ction' 0t is arg)able that the abortion law in Britain, when first introd)ced was #otivated to so#e degree by a e)genic o)tloo+' This was not the case in partic)lar with regard to the cla)se in the law abo)t abortion for fetal abnor#ality, which was largely a response to the thalido#ide tragedyBa response to wo#en who feared they were to give birth to a severely disabled child and were )nable to prevent it' 0t co)ld be arg)ed however that the cla)ses in the 'social' cla)ses in the Abortion Act were #otivated by a desire to tac+le the social proble#s ca)sed by poverty deprivation and hardship by shaping people's reprod)ctive patterns 3i'e' #a+ing easier for the# to li#it fa#ily si8e4 rather than to #a+ing greater social reso)rces available to the#' This co)ld be seen as a e)genic approach, in that rather than addressing proble#s of poverty and bad ho)sing which #eant #others were )nable to cope with the n)#bers of children they were having, policy #a+ers concentrated on li#iting the n)#ber of children people #ight have' The )nderlying idea is that people were poor not beca)se society did not give the# the reso)rces they needed, b)t beca)se they had too #any children' :arlia#entary disc)ssion of the Abortion Act e1plicitly disc)ssed its )se in preventing )nfit #others fro# having )ns)itable fa#ilies' 9onte#porary #edical /o)rnals disc)ssed the validity of legal abortion alongside the need for a birth control plan for Britain to li#it the n)#bers of the poor' Regardless of the #otivation of so#e of those who s)pported the legalisation of abortion in $%CD, today it is very definitely the case that abortion is not seen by doctors, policy #a+ers, or wo#en the#selves, as within that tradition of social engineering' The conte1t for abortion today is one where its provision #eets the re;)est of a wo#an who no longer wants to be pregnant' That is the case when we are tal+ing abo)t the ending of )nwanted pregnancies that have been conceived )nintentionally, and is so where abortion for abnor#ality is at iss)e' Abortion when there is evidence of fetal abnor#ality is not part of a social strategy to red)ce or li#it the n)#ber of disabled people in society' 7o#en are not forced to have an abortion when there is ris+ of fetal abnor#ality- rather doctors #eet the wo#en's re;)est where she feels she wants to end that pregnancy' The ")ffield 9o)ncil Report on the ethics on genetic screening provides a )sef)l distinction between e)genic decisions and decisions that are ta+en for the benefit of individ)al wo#en' 0t describes the difference between legiti#ate choices and )nacceptably e)genic decisions as ''''the point at which the decisions of individ)als are s)b/)gated to the ai#s considered to be of benefit to the pop)lation or the <tate'' Th)s the iss)e is whether abortion for abnor#ality is being carried o)t for the benefit of the pop)lation or the <tate, or for the benefit of the wo#en with those pregnancies' 0n today's conte1t, abortion for abnor#ality is carried o)t for those individ)al wo#en who re;)est the#' There are those who #ight arg)e that it is of benefit to society if a wo#an chooses to ter#inate an abnor#al pregnancy beca)se the state is saved the costs of caring for s)ch a child are saved' B)t that is incidental' Antenatal screening is provided at the re;)est of the wo#an, and for her benefit' The decision to proceed with or end the pregnancy is )lti#ately hersBnot her doctor's, nor a policy #a+er's' 0t is so#eti#es arg)ed that wo#en are enco)raged to abort abnor#al pregnancies by a #edical

profession that val)es the lives of nor#al children above the lives of those with disability and it is the case that so#e #e#bers of the #edical profession see abortion on gro)nds of fetal abnor#ality in the conte1t of preventing an illness' There is often an ass)#ption that it wo)ld be in the interests of p)blic health for there to be fewer babies born with conditions s)ch spina bifida or Down's syndro#e' <o#e people find this ob/ectionable, b)t it co)ld be arg)ed that s)ch ob/ections are irrational' 0n general, we can agree that it is better for babies to be healthy than ill, witho)t i#plying that wo#en sho)ld be forced to abort )nhealthy fet)ses or s)ggesting that the lives of )nhealthy babies are of less val)e than their healthy brothers and sisters' 0t is not diffic)lt to )nderstand why wo#en choose to abort abnor#al pregnancies' 6any wo#en find that they feel differently abo)t their condition when they find their baby wo)ld be born disabled' The discovery that the child is 'not nor#al' #ay challenge a wo#an's hopes and e1pectations abo)t what her f)t)re fa#ily life will be' A wo#an whose attit)de to her pregnancy changes when she finds it is affected by an abnor#ality is not #a+ing a social or political state#ent abo)t the abnor#ality, or abo)t born people with that disability' <he is #a+ing a state#ent abo)t herself- what she feels she can cope with and what she wants' <ociety sho)ld accept wo#en's a)tono#y in decision #a+ing' <ince wo#en have to live with the conse;)ences of those decisions they #)st be able to #a+e the decisions they perceive to be #oral' Abortion on gro)nds of fetal abnor#ality is not a #atter of e)genics, it is a #eans to e1tend wo#en's control over their lives and f)t)res' Does abortion for abnor#ality enco)rage discri#ination against disabled people* "o it does not, since it is possible to #a+e a /)dge#ent or e1press an attit)de towards a partic)lar condition, witho)t in any way i#p)ting an attit)de towards the val)e of people who s)ffer fro# that condition' 6ost people wo)ld say they tho)ght #alaria was a bad thing, and that it wo)ld be better if people did not s)ffer fro# it' This does not #ean they ta+e a negative attit)de towards people who s)ffer fro# that illness' The sa#e applies with abortion for fetal abnor#ality' There is no reason to ass)#e that a wo#an's choice not to bear a child which s)ffers fro# spina bifida or Down's syndro#e i#plies she believes s)ch people sho)ld not be born, or be s)pported' 0t si#ply i#plies that she does not wish to be a #other to one' 7hy sho)ld this be seen as ob/ectionable* A growing n)#ber of wo#en are choosing not to be a #other to any child, b)t there is no s)ggestion that in choosing to re#ain childless they are g)ilty of perpetrating negative attit)des to the children of others' 0ss)es relating to disability rights and those relating to abortion are co#pletely different' At the #o#ent however, the disc)ssion abo)t abortion for abnor#ality is infor#ed by so#e of the debates that preocc)py the disability rights lobby' ,f partic)lar concern is a view that re/ects an )nderstanding of disability as a for# of illness' 0nstead, disability is seen as an e1pression of identity' An e1tre#e e1a#ple of this is the growth of a #ove#ent called the Deaf #ove#ent in the !<, which perceives Deafness 3always with a capital D4 not as an illness to be c)red, b)t as an identity a+in to gender identity or ethnicity' Atte#pts to c)re deafness in children are seen to be an affront to that identity and are therefore to be opposed' There are ele#ents of this thin+ing seeping into the abortion debate, and resit)ating abortion for abnor#ality not in the conte1t of illness, b)t instead in the conte1t of identity' 0t is this logic that allows a person with spina bifida to arg)e that to allow abortion on the gro)nds of spina bifida deval)es her life, and is an attac+ on her identity' 0 believe this is an illegiti#ate iss)e to bring to the abortion disc)ssion' Even if

one accepts the pre#ise of the socialEidentity definitions of disability 3which 0 do not4 to accept it sho)ld infl)ence the abortion disco)rse is to privilege the views of those who e1perience a condition over wo#en who carry fet)ses affected by it' 7hy sho)ld the e1perience of, say, spina bifida entitle so#eone to a voice in the #ost personal decision a wo#an has to #a+e' The idea that abortion for abnor#ality represents discri#ination against the disabled also elides the difference between fetal life, and o)r respect for persons' As the ethicist John (arris has arg)ed, it does not #a+e sense to s)ggest that we sho)ld ta+e sa#e approach to the destr)ction of a fet)s or e#bryo and living people who have self-awareness' The #oral iss)es are entirely different' 0 wo)ld s)pport the decision a wo#an ta+es to abort any fet)s, regardless of the gestation, b)t that does not necessarily #ean 0 thin+ that wo#en sho)ld have the right to +ill )nwanted children or, for that #atter, )nwanted h)sbands' 6y approach to the fet)s in the wo#b and to born persons is different' Abortion in any instance sho)ld be based on a right wo#en have to #a+e decisions abo)t their own lives' This is i#portant beca)se it i#plies a respect for wo#en's #oral worth and their #oral a)tono#y' The principle that we sho)ld be allowed to #a+e decisions on the basis of o)r conscience and act on the# is an i#portant one, to deny this to wo#en in pregnancy is to deny the# an integral e1pression of their h)#anity' Basic physical a)tono#y #)st be respected' 7e do not generally oblige people to co#pro#ise their own physical integrity for the benefit of another person' 0t is illegiti#ate to co#pro#ise that principle with respect to the fet)s in-)tero' 0t is very dist)rbing that an arg)#ent can be #ade for placing an i#perative on a pregnant wo#an to re#ain pregnant against her will' This gives to the fet)s a higher #oral standing than that of born children' 0f #y three-year-old son was s)ffering fro# a potentially fatal condition and his c)red relied on #y willingness to donate an organ, there is no law that co)ld co#pel #e to )ndergo a #edical proced)re in order to +eep hi# alive' .et in the disc)ssion of abortion, it is ass)#ed that a wo#an sho)ld )ndergo certain #edical proced)res on the gro)nds that the fet)s sho)ld be bro)ght to ter# and s)rvive' There are two principles we need to retain with respect of abortion, whether it is an abortion of a pregnancy that is )nwanted beca)se it is conceived at the wrong ti#e or with the wrong partner, or whether it is )nwanted beca)se the wo#an has discovered so#ething abo)t the ;)ality of the pregnancy that #a+es it )nwanted' 0n any case, we have to )phold the principles of decisional a)tono#y, and of personal privacy' 5or these reasons 0 believe abortion sho)ld be re#oved fro# the cri#inal law' 0n concl)sion, abortion for fetal abnor#ality is not e)genic, )nethical or i##oral' 0t is si#ply one for# of abortion' 0f we respect wo#en's a)tono#y and their right to #a+e decisions according to their conscience then we can arg)e that the abortion law sho)ld be a#ended to allow wo#en to end pregnancies at whatever stage they see fit, witho)t having to provide a reason for doing so' At no stage sho)ld we tolerate any co#pro#ise on the li#ited access to abortion that is presently legal, and we sho)ld re/ect any atte#pt to red)ce wo#en's access to abortion for abnor#ality'

Abortion, ethics and the law: issues for the new millennium 0n this briefing, prod)ced by F:ro-9hoice 5or)#, yo) will find +ey points and s)##aries of papers abo)t abortion and the law given at a recent conference hosted by !niversity of 7est#inster <chool of Law' At the conference, the papers provo+ed a wide ranging and )sef)l disc)ssion abo)t the reality of abortion as an accepted part of life in Britain today- abo)t the disparity between c)rrent thin+ing in law and #edical ethics regarding the pri#acy of patient a)tono#y and British abortion law- and abo)t whether the ()#an Rights Act is li+ely to lead to cases which in any way )nder#ine the legal provision of abortion in Britain' Aiven the interest the papers generated at the conference, it see#ed i#portant to #a+e the# available to a wider a)dience, partic)larly those with an interest in ethics and abortion law - hence this briefing' The f)ll versions of the papers can be fo)nd at the addresses given at the end of each of the following sections' 0f yo) wo)ld li+e to receive a paper version of the following te1t, please send a self addressed envelope to2 :ro-9hoice 5or)#, D Diner#an 9o)rt, G&-@? Bo)ndary Road, London "7& ,(:' Than+s to <i#on :op)lation Tr)st for providing financial s)pport for this p)blication' F:ro-9hoice 5or)# is a research and ed)cation gro)p, established in $%%D' 0ts ai#s are2 3i4 to increase +nowledge abo)t the ca)ses of )nwanted pregnancy 3ii4 to increase +nowledge abo)t the social, legal and ethical iss)es s)rro)nding abortion, and the #anage#ent of )nwanted pregnancy 0n order the achieve these ai#s, :ro-9hoice 5or)# organises lect)res, debates and conferencesp)blishes pa#phlets and leaflets- and p)blicises research abo)t abortion and related iss)es on this site and elsewhere' Key points: ,n the place of abortion in British society today''''

0f society e1pects individ)als to plan their fa#ilies, abortion is an essential bac+ )p to contraception' Abortion is not in itself a proble#' Rather it can be a sol)tion to the proble# of )nwanted pregnancy' :olicy #a+ers sho)ld not )se the abortion rate as an indicator of a proble#' A relatively high abortion rate #ay show that wo#en wish to co#bine a se1 life with a#bition' 0t #ay indicate that wo#en are )nprepared to accept an )nplanned pregnancy and shape their lives aro)nd it'

,n British abortion law''''

The Abortion Act $%CD #a+es a wo#an's access to abortion dependent )pon her establishing, to the satisfaction of two doctors, that an abortion is necessary to protect her health, or that of her children, or to prevent the birth of a child who wo)ld be born serio)sly handicapped' The wording of the stat)te reflects the fra#ing of abortion as a p)blic health iss)e, which #ay have been a sensible political strategy in $%CD, b)t which #ay now be inconsistent with the overriding priority given in other areas of #edical law to a patient's right to #a+e their own decisions according to their own val)es and beliefs'

,n abortion and the ()#an Rights Act''''

British law does not recognise fet)ses as legal persons entitled to the protection of the E)ropean 9onvention on ()#an Rights' B)t so#e lawyers are +een to introd)ce fetal rights, )sing the new ()#an Rights Act $%%&' 7ill they s)cceed* The arg)#ents in favo)r of 'fetal rights' are not co#pelling' (owever, in a partic)larly e#otive case, a /)dge #ay r)le that fet)ses are covered by the new Act' 0f this happens, it co)ld have serio)s i#plications for wo#en's a)tono#y and ! abortion law'

Summaries Abortion is not a proble# Ann 5)redi, Director of 9o##)nications, British :regnancy Advisory <ervice 0t is ti#e to face )p to the fact that abortion has a place in fertility reg)lation' 0t is a #ethod of fa#ily planning - if by that we #ean that abortion is )sed by wo#en to control whether or when they have children' 7o#en #ay not intend to rely on abortion as a #eans of fa#ily planning, b)t in reality that is often the way it wor+s o)t' 7o#en today expect to have control over their fertility and are expected to control their fertility' The need for 'fa#ily planning' is al#ost )niversally accepted even a#ong the #ost conservative thin+ers' B)t the evidence shows that wo#en cannot #anage their fertility by #eans of contraception alone' 9ontraception fails, and co)ples so#eti#es fail to )se it effectively' A recent s)rvey of #ore than ?,>>> wo#en re;)esting abortion at clinics r)n by B:A<, Britain's largest abortion provider, fo)nd that al#ost C> per cent clai#ed to have been )sing contraception at the ti#e they beca#e pregnant, nearly ?> per cent said they were on the pill' ,ther st)dies have shown si#ilar res)lts'

The n)#ber of wo#en who clai# they e1perienced a split or slipped condo#, or #issed /)st a co)ple of pills, is )ndo)btedly inflated' !nprotected se1 is stig#atised and so#e wo#en re;)esting abortion #ay falsely clai# to have )sed contraception believing that they will be treated #ore sy#pathetically if the pregnancy is 'not their fa)lt'' B)t even so, it is clear that contraceptives let co)ples down' All #ethods have a recognised fail)re rate' 7hether the pregnancy occ)rred beca)se the condo# split or beca)se the co)ple failed to get it o)t of the pac+et is not very i#portant' The si#ple tr)th is that the tens of tho)sands of wo#en who see+ abortion each year are not ignorant of contraception - #ost have tried to )se it and, indeed, #ay have )sed it and beco#e pregnant regardless 7o#en's need for abortion is i#plicitly )nderstood by policy #a+ers and legislators - this is why abortion is provided at "(< hospitals thro)gho)t the co)ntry' Attit)des to abortion e1ist as part of a web of other ideas that interface with social val)es on other iss)es s)ch as poverty, perceptions of wo#en's role in society, the val)e of parenting and even global iss)es s)ch as the environ#ent and 'over-pop)lation'' 6ost de#ocratic societies hold that wo#en sho)ld e1pect, and be e1pected, to #a+e a broader contrib)tion to society than bearing and caring for the ne1t generation' 6otherhood is still regarded as 'nat)ral' at so#e ti#e in a wo#an's life, b)t #ost people ass)#e that #otherhood will be an interval sandwiched on both sides by an inco#e-generating '/ob' if not a 'career'' Airls fro# appropriate 3#iddle class4 bac+gro)nds are e1pected to progress to a )niversity ed)cation' <ociety c)rrently places a high pre#i)# on 'planned parenthood'' The belief prevails that children sho)ld be wanted, that parents sho)ld be able to s)pport the#, and be willing to #a+e sacrifices for the#' Arowing social concern abo)t ')nfit' or 'proble#' parents does not easily coe1ist with a disposition to force people to bear children they do not want and by their own ad#ission cannot care for' This ethos creates a fra#ewor+ whereby abortion can in so#e circ)#stances be perceived as a 'responsible choice' even by social conservatives who wo)ld disapprove of abortion in principle' 0n al#ost all developed co)ntries, the laws that reg)late abortion allow wo#en to end )nwanted pregnancies in the early wee+s, )s)ally restricting the criteria after ten or twelve wee+s' 0n the !<A, a wo#an's right to decide whether to ter#inate her pregnancy in the first tri#ester is dee#ed to be a part of her constit)tional right to privacy' 9o)ntries as diverse as T)r+ey, 5rance, "orway and A)stria allow abortion on re;)est in early pregnancy' Altho)gh the ! law does not allow abortion on re;)est at any ti#e in pregnancy it is considered acceptable and appropriate for doctor's to refer wo#en on the gro)nds that it wo)ld be da#aging to their #ental health if they were denied abortion' <)rveys of p)blic opinion s)ggest widespread tolerance of legal abortion' A national opinion poll carried o)t three years ago by the ! 's #ain polling agency 6,R0 fo)nd that C@ per cent of those as+ed agreed that2 abortion sho)ld be legally available to all who want it' ?H per cent disagreed' The re#ainder neither agreed nor disagreed or said they did not +now' The proportion of those who agreed had increased by $> per cent since $%&>' Birth 9ontrol Tr)st, for who# the poll was co##issioned, s)ggested that this de#onstrated a growing acceptance of legal abortion and a widespread belief that belief that the law sho)ld not be )sed to prevent wo#en ending pregnancies'

7o#en today are at partic)lar ris+ of )nplanned pregnancy' <e1 is an accepted part of an ad)lt relationship for which we do not e1pect to s)ffer )nwanted conse;)ences' :regnancy is seen by an increasing n)#ber of wo#en as an )nwanted conse;)ence that they are not prepared to adapt to' The fact that #ore wo#en are delaying starting a fa#ily )ntil they are in their thirties, that #any are deciding to opt o)t of parenthood altogether, s)ggests increased n)#bers of se1)ally active wo#en who do not want a child' 0s it any wonder then that the n)#ber of abortions re#ains high* A relatively high abortion rate is not necessarily a sign of the fail)re of se1 ed)cation and fa#ily planning progra##es2 it #ay be a sy#pto# of a society where wo#en wish to co#bine a se1 life with a#bition' 0t #ay be that an increasing n)#ber of wo#en are )nprepared to accept an )nplanned pregnancy and shape their lives aro)nd it' :olicy #a+ers sho)ld stop )sing the abortion rate as an indicator of a proble#' ,f co)rse it is preferable for )nwanted pregnancies to be prevented rather than ended' Abortion is safe, b)t contraception is safer and #ore convenient' B)t it #ay be ti#e to )nderstand that, for wo#en, abortion is an essential #ethod of fa#ily planning and accept it as s)ch' 5or f)rther co##ent on this iss)e by Ann 5)redi, go to www'prochoicefor)#'org')+Eco##H$'php www'prochoicefor)#'org')+Eco##?&'php Ethics and British Abortion Law Emily Jackson, Lecturer in Law, London School of Economics Aiven how co##on abortion is 3it is esti#ated that at so#e point in their lives, one ;)arter of British wo#en will have one4, it was perhaps predictable that o)tright opposition to all abortion wo)ld beco#e a #inority view' 6ost conde#nation of abortion now crystallises aro)nd certain sorts of abortion, which are regarded as #ore proble#atic than nor#al' 5or e1a#ple, as the ()#an Aeno#e :ro/ect is co#pleted, the #oral legiti#acy of abortion following the prenatal detection of increasing n)#bers of genetic #ar+ers is the s)b/ect of fierce debate' British law to so#e e1tent enco)rages the idea that so#e abortions are #orally worse than others' !nder the Abortion Act $%CD, two doctors #)st be satisfied that an abortion is necessary in order to protect the health of a pregnant wo#an, or that of her e1isting fa#ily, or to prevent the birth of a child who wo)ld be born serio)sly handicapped' Access to abortion is then contingent )pon two doctors' approval of the wo#an's reasons for wanting to end her pregnancy' This approach to abortion is largely the res)lt of the conte1t in which the $%CD Act was passed, where the chief strategy of the refor#ers was to arg)e that abortion needed to be available where the birth of a child wo)ld /eopardise the health and well-being of a wo#an and her fa#ily' The res)lting law converted this arg)#ent in favo)r of legalisation into a condition, so that a wo#an is not entitled to ter#inate a pregnancy unless she can establish that her health or that of her children wo)ld be in/)red' 0 intend to consider whether a law which depends on two doctors /)dging a wo#an's reasons for wanting to ter#inate a pregnancy #ay be inconsistent with the priority given in other areas of the law to the co##on law principle of self-deter#ination'

0n recent years, the pri#acy of patient a)tono#y has beco#e an over-arching the#e in #edical law, and in the conte1t of the ref)sal of #edical treat#ent, it is now absol)tely )ncontroversial that a #edical practitioner has to co#ply with the instr)ctions given by a co#petent ad)lt, whether those instr)ctions are rational or irrational' And one essential feat)re of this respect for the patient's right of self-deter#ination is that it e1tends to decisions of d)bio)s #oral ;)ality' 5or e1a#ple, in St. George's Healthcare N.H.S. Trust v S I$%%&J G 7'L'R' %GC, the 9o)rt of Appeal fo)nd that a co#petent ad)lt wo#an was entitled to ref)se a caesarean section even if her decision wo)ld lead to the death of a GC wee+ old fet)s' J)dge L'J' said2 'The a)tono#y of each individ)al re;)ires contin)ing protection, partic)larly when the #otive for interfering is as readily )nderstandable, and indeed to #any wo)ld appear co##endable'' And he was clear that ':regnancy does not di#inish a wo#an's entitle#ent to decide whether or not to )ndergo #edical treat#ent' (er right is not red)ced or di#inished #erely beca)se her decision to e1ercise her right #ay appear #orally rep)gnant'' <i#ilarly a state#ent fro# a $%%% Depart#ent of (ealth 9irc)lar is )ne;)ivocal that a co#petent wo#an is entitled to #a+e a decision which will lead to the death or serio)s handicap of a fet)s, even if that choice 'is so o)trageo)s in its defiance of logic or accepted #oral standards that no sensible person who had applied his #ind to the ;)estion to be decided co)ld have arrived at it'' These state#ents see# to confir# that a rob)st concept of patient a)tono#y applies to pregnant wo#en' They indicate that the death of a fet)s is less i#portant than protecting patient a)tono#y' 0f the law has established that a wo#an's decision sho)ld be respected, even if it will ca)se the death of a GC wee+ old fet)s, is there so#e inconsistency with the Abortion Act's re;)ire#ent that a wo#an's reasons for ter#inating a pregnancy of #)ch shorter gestation #)st be /)dged acceptable by two #edical practitioners* 0n the longer version of this paper, 0 consider several possible ob/ections to this analogy between abortion law and the co##on law principle of a)tono#y' 6y arg)#ent is that forcing a wo#an to carry, deliver, and bear responsibility for a child she does not want co)ld perhaps be characterised as a potentially har#f)l interference with her interest in #a+ing significant choices abo)t her life according to her own val)es' The fact that co#pelling a wo#an to carry an )nwanted pregnancy to ter# is not regarded as a derogation fro# her right to #a+e decisions abo)t her #edical treat#ent #ay reveal a networ+ of ass)#ptions abo)t the nat)ralness of #aternity, rather than an ob/ective assess#ent of its relative intr)siveness' :regnancy, especially in its later stages, is a )ni;)ely invasive e1perience, and for #any wo#en labo)r is e1ceptionally gr)elling and painf)l' !nless the baby is i##ediately given )p for adoption, carrying a pregnancy to ter# will also res)lt in the e1tre#ely onero)s and long-lasting obligations of parenthood' <o insofar as a non-consens)al operation is illegiti#ate beca)se it interferes with a person's right to #a+e significant decisions abo)t their life, re;)iring a wo#an to carry an )nwanted pregnancy to ter# co)ld be si#ilarly disr)ptive' 5or f)rther co##ent on this iss)e by E#ily Jac+son, go to www'prochoicefor)#'org')+Eal%'php

The uman !i"hts Act #$$% and &fetal ri"hts& ' a new threat to women&s autonomy( Barbara (ewson, Barrister, Litt#an 9ha#bers, $? Aray's 0nn <;)are 0 recently attended a training se#inar on #edical law and the ()#an Rights Act, pro#oted by J!<T09E, the all-party law refor# gro)p, and a set of barristers' cha#bers well-+nown for clinical negligence wor+' There was ;)ite a lengthy disc)ssion abo)t fetal rights and how the Act co)ld be deployed to develop the idea of fetal rights' ,ne presenter predicted that there wo)ld be an application for a co)rt ordered caesarean section, before the end of ?>>>, )sing the arg)#ent that the fet)s is protected by the ()#an Rights Act' 0t wo)ld be #ore diffic)lt for 'fetal rights' proponents to attac+ the Abortion Act directly, beca)se )nder the new ()#an Rights Act, /)dges do not have power to stri+e down e1isting legislation' This is why #oves to pro#ote rights for the fet)s will probably not foc)s directly on abortion, b)t on wo#en who are pregnant and near ter#' 7hat provisions of the E)ropean 9onvention on ()#an Rights, which the Act introd)ces into law, #ight be involved* The obvio)s one is Article ?, the right to life' Another is Article &, the right to respect for private life' Article ? as drafted does not appear to incl)de fetal life' 0t says that the state can only ta+e away life in certain clearly defined circ)#stances, incl)ding self-defence, conviction for an offence for which the lawf)l penalty is death, or if the police shoot so#eone who# they are trying to arrest' The 9o##ission on ()#an Rights in <trasbo)rg has s)ggested that if fet)ses have a right to life, it co)ld not be an absol)te right, beca)se that wo)ld #a+e access to abortion i#possible' Article & g)arantees the right to respect for a person's fa#ily and private life' The state can infringe this right, if it can show a co#pelling state interest' Restrictions #)st be necessary in a de#ocratic society, in the interests of 3e'g'4 p)blic safety, prevention of cri#e, protection of health and #orals, protection of the rights and freedo#s of others' B)t is the fet)s an 'other'* 0f it were, it wo)ld be diffic)lt to /)stify abortion )nder Article &- we do not +ill 'others' to #aintain a person's right to privacy' E#otive cases #ay be )sed to shoc+ the co)rts into r)ling that a late ter# or viable fet)s is a person, or has legal standing' 9irc)lar reasoning #ay be e#ployed e'g' :arlia#ent #)st have intended the Act to protect fet)ses beca)se the <tate #)st have the power to protect children' An e1a#ple is a wo#an in labo)r ref)sing a caesarean- or a pregnant dr)g addict who will not give )p dr)gs' 0f s)ch a r)ling occ)rs, then fetal rights s)pporters co)ld wor+ bac+wards to earlier points in gestation' A potential proble# is that, if a /)dge r)les that a fet)s is a 'person', it wo)ld be virt)ally i#possible to /)stify any abortion' And 3as in <o)th 9arolina4, pregnant wo#en co)ld be prosec)ted )nder child ab)se laws for s#o+ing or drin+ing' Those who favo)r recognition of fetal rights )se a 'contract)al' arg)#ent, that when a wo#an chooses to proceed with a pregnancy, she agrees to give )p her a)tono#y, in the interests of her fet)s' This is bog)s' 7hat contract*' (ow does the fact that a wo#an carries a pregnancy to ter# #ean that she waives her f)nda#ental rights* This arg)#ent is fo)nded on an anachronistic view of wo#en' Another arg)#ent is e#otional, that 'so#eone #)st spea+ for those who cannot spea+

for the#selves'' The clai# is also #ade that even if a pregnant wo#an is loc+ed )p, or forced to have a caesarean section for the sa+e of her fet)s, this does not infringe her a)tono#y' That is ridic)lo)s' 6ore i#portantly, even if fet)ses were persons, does that #ean that a wo#an #)st forfeit her freedo# for the fet)s' health needs* This is an arg)#ent that lawyers favo)ring fetal rights typically ref)se to address' 0n the <t Aeorge's case in $%%& the 9o)rt of Appeal decided that if pregnant wo#en co)ld be loc+ed )p and operated on, for the sa+e of the fet)s, then logically ad)lts co)ld be forcibly operated on to save the child of a stranger' (owever, bitter e1perience tells )s that once 'helping a child' beco#es the deter#ining principle, e#otion ta+es over and 3as with recent hysteria over paedophiles4 there is no li#it to the invasions of personal freedo# proposed' 5or f)rther co##ent on this iss)e by Barbara (ewson, go to www'prochoicefor)#'org')+Eal$>'php

http2EEen'wi+ipedia'orgEwi+iEEthicalKaspectsKofKabortionLEthicalKdebate Ethics refers to M#oral philosophyM, or the st)dy of val)es and the analysis of right and wrong' The ethical debate over abortion )s)ally s)rro)nds the iss)es of whether a fet)s has rights, in partic)lar a right to life, and whether the pregnant wo#an's rights over her own body /)stify abortion even if the fet)s has a right to life' 5or #any, there is a strong association between religion and abortion ethics' Ethical ;)estion regarding abortion )s)ally incl)de2

Are e#bryos, 8ygotes and fet)ses MpersonsM worthy of legal protections* <ho)ld the potential to be a person give e#bryos, 8ygotes and fet)ses a right to life* Does a fet)s gain rights as it gets closer to birth* Does a wo#an have an absol)te right to deter#ine what happens in and to her body* 0s abortion acceptable in cases of rape, incest, or contraception fail)re* 0s abortion acceptable in cases where the fet)s is defor#ed* 0s abortion acceptable in cases where if the pregnancy were to contin)e, it wo)ld pose a direct threat to the life of the #other*IG@JIGHJ

)uestion of personhood
Establishing the point in ti#e when a 8ygoteEe#bryoEfet)s beco#es a MpersonM is open to debate since the definition of personhood is not )niversally agreed )pon'

:hilosophers have traditionally declared that so#e characteristic of reason o)ght to be incl)ded in the definition of person, and the ter# MpersonM is not defined in standard science te1ts' :eter <inger arg)ed that so#ething can only be a person if it is self-aware and has te#poral awareness' Therefore, abortion is #orally acceptable, beca)se a fet)s does not #eet this definition of personhood' <inger also concl)ded that infanticide wo)ld be per#issible )ntil the Grd #onth after birth, beca)se, at that point, self-awareness has still not been ac;)ired'IGCJ Additionally, the ter# MpersonM has #any different definitions in law, specifically with children being defined in #any ways' 5or instance, children are not considered persons )ntil they reach the age of #a/ority and are able to enter into legally binding contracts and s)e or be s)ed' 5or the p)rposes of ,ffenses against the person law, however, they are considered to be persons' According to Bo)vier's Law DictionaryIGDJ in $&G%, wo#en, children, and slaves were considered persons, b)t with vario)s li#itations' Today, only children have li#ited personhood )nder the law' 0f the fet)s is a person in so#e sense, it is nonetheless living inside the body of so#eone who is a f)ll person at law'

*ebates within the abortion debate

6any of the views in favor of and against the right to abortion are fra#ed in the conte1t of other debates whose arg)#ents and i#plications relate directly to the topic of abortion' +etal pain debate 6ain article2 "eonatal perception This section is outdated' :lease )pdate this article to reflect recent events or newly available infor#ation' (December 2 !!" 5etal pain, its e1istence, and its i#plications are part of a larger debate abo)t abortion' A ?>>H #)ltidisciplinary syste#atic review in #$%$ in the area of fetal develop#ent fo)nd that a fet)s is )nli+ely to feel pain )ntil after the si1th #onth of pregnancy'IG&JIG%J Develop#ental ne)robiologists s)spect that the establish#ent of thala#ocortical connections 3at abo)t ?C wee+s4 #ay be critical to fetal perception of pain'I@>J (owever, legislation was proposed by antiabortion advocates that wo)ld re;)ire abortion providers to tell a wo#an that the fet)s #ay feel pain d)ring an abortion proced)re'I@$J The ?>>H JA6A review concl)ded that data fro# do8ens of #edical reports and st)dies indicate that fet)ses are )nli+ely to feel pain )ntil the third tri#ester of pregnancy'IG&J (owever a n)#ber of #edical critics have since disp)ted these concl)sions'IG%JI@?J ,ther researchers s)ch as Anand and 5is+ have challenged the idea that pain cannot be felt before ?C wee+s, positing instead that pain can be felt at aro)nd ?> wee+s'I@GJ Anand's s)ggestion is disp)ted in a 6arch ?>$> report on 5etal Awareness p)blished by a wor+ing party of the Royal 9ollege of ,bstetricians and Aynaecologists, citing a lac+ of evidence or rationale' :age ?> of the report definitively states that the fet)s cannot feel pain prior to wee+ ?@' Beca)se pain can involve sensory, e#otional and cognitive factors, leaving it Mi#possible to +nowM when painf)l e1periences are perceived, even if it is +nown when thala#ocortical connections are established'I@@J

7endy <avage :ress officer, Doctors for a 7o#anNs 9hoice on Abortion, considers the ;)estion to be irrelevant' 0n a $%%D letter to the &ritish %edical #ournal, April $%%D, she noted that the #a/ority of s)rgical abortions in Britain were perfor#ed )nder general anesthesia which affects the fet)s, and considers the disc)ssion Mto be )nhelpf)l to wo#en and to the scientific debate'M ,thers ca)tion against )nnecessary )se of fetal anesthetic d)ring abortion, as it poses potential health ris+s to the pregnant wo#an'IG&J David 6ellor and colleag)es have noted that the fetal brain is already awash in nat)rally occ)rring che#icals that +eep it sedated and anestheti8ed )ntil birth'I@HJ At least one anesthesia researcher has s)ggested the fetal pain legislation #ay #a+e abortions harder to obtain beca)se abortion clinics lac+ the e;)ip#ent and e1pertise to s)pply fetal anesthesia' Anesthesia is ad#inistered directly to fet)ses only while they are )ndergoing s)rgery'I@GJ +etal personhood debate 6ain article2 Beginning of h)#an personhood Altho)gh the two #ain sides of the abortion debate tend to agree that fet)ses are biologically and genetically h)#an 3that is, of the h)#an species4, they often differ in their view on whether or not a fet)s is, in any of vario)s ways, a person' :ro-life s)pporters arg)e that abortion is #orally wrong on the basis that a fet)s is an innocent h)#an personI@CJ or beca)se a fet)s is a potential life that will, in #ost cases, develop into a f)lly f)nctional h)#an being'I@DJ ,thers re/ect this position by drawing a distinction between human being and human person, arg)ing that while the fet)s is innocent and biologicall' human, it is not a person with a right to life'I@&J 0n s)pport of this distinction, so#e propose a list of criteria as #ar+ers of personhood' 5or e1a#ple, 6ary Ann 7arren s)ggests conscio)sness 3at least the capacity to feel pain4, reasoning, self-#otivation, the ability to co##)nicate, and self-awareness'I@%J According to 7arren, a being need not e1hibit all of these criteria to ;)alify as a person with a right to life, b)t if a being e1hibits none of the# 3or perhaps only one4, then it is certainly not a person' 7arren concl)des that as the fet)s satisfies only one criterion, conscio)sness 3and this only after it beco#es s)sceptible to pain4,IH>J the fet)s is not a person and abortion is therefore #orally per#issible' ,ther philosophers apply si#ilar criteria, concl)ding that a fet)s lac+s a right to life beca)se it lac+s brain waves or higher brain f)nction,IH$J self-conscio)sness,IH?J rationality,IHGJ and a)tono#y'IH@J These lists diverge over precisely (hich feat)res confer a right to life,IHHJ b)t tend to propose vario)s developed psychological or physiological feat)res not fo)nd in fet)ses' 9ritics of this typically arg)e that so#e of the proposed criteria for personhood wo)ld dis;)alify two classes of born h)#an beings O reversibly co#atose patients, and h)#an infants O fro# having a right to life, since they, li+e fet)ses, are not self-conscio)s, do not co##)nicate, and so on'IHCJ Defenders of the proposed criteria #ay respond that the reversibly co#atose do satisfy the relevant criteria beca)se they Mretain all their unconscious #ental statesM'IHDJ or at least so#e higher brain f)nction 3brain waves4' 7arren concedes that infants are not MpersonsM by her proposed criteria,IH&J and on that basis she and others concede that infanticide co)ld be #orally acceptable )nder so#e circ)#stances 3for e1a#ple if the infant is severely disabledIH%J or in order to save the lives of several other infantsIC>J4' 9ritics #ay see s)ch concessions as an indication that the right to life cannot be ade;)ately defined by reference to developed psychological feat)res'

An alternative approach is to base personhood or the right to life on a being's natural or inherent capacities' ,n this approach, a being essentially has a right to life if it has a natural capacit' to develop the relevant psychological feat)res- and, since h)#an beings do have this nat)ral capacity, they essentially have a right to life beginning at conception 3or whenever they co#e into e1istence4'IC$J 9ritics of this position arg)e that #ere genetic potential is not a pla)sible basis for respect 3or for the right to life4, and that basing a right to life on nat)ral capacities wo)ld lead to the co)nterint)itive position that anencephalic infants, irreversibly co#atose patients, and brain-dead patients +ept alive on a #edical ventilator, are all persons with a right to life'IC?J Respondents to this criticis# arg)e that the noted h)#an cases in fact wo)ld not be classified as persons as they do not have a nat)ral capacity to develop any psychological feat)res'ICGJIC@JICHJ Also, in a view that favors benefiting even )nconceived b)t potential f)t)re persons, it has been arg)ed as /)stified to abort an )nintended pregnancy in favor for conceiving a new child later in better conditions'ICCJ

6e#bers of Bo)nd@L05E in 7ashington, D'9' sy#bolically cover their #o)ths with red tape' :hilosophers s)ch as A;)inas )se the concept of individ)ation' They arg)e that abortion is not per#issible fro# the point at which individ)al h)#an identity is realised' Anthony enny arg)es that this can be derived fro# everyday beliefs and lang)age and one can legiti#ately say Mif #y #other had had an abortion si1 #onths into her pregnancy, she wo)ld have +illed #eM then one can reasonably infer that at si1 #onths the M#eM in ;)estion wo)ld have been an e1isting person with a valid clai# to life' <ince division of the 8ygote into twins thro)gh the process of #ono8ygotic twinning can occ)r )ntil the fo)rteenth day of pregnancy, enny arg)es that individ)al identity is obtained at this point and th)s abortion is not per#issible after two wee+s'
ICDJ

Ar"uments in fa,or of the ri"ht to abortion

Bodily ri"hts An arg)#ent first presented by J)dith Jarvis Tho#son states that even if the fet)s has a right to life, abortion is #orally per#issible beca)se a wo#an has a right to control her own body' Tho#son's variant of this arg)#ent draws an analogy between forcing a wo#an to contin)e an )nwanted pregnancy and forcing a person's body to be )sed as a dialysis #achine for another person s)ffering fro# +idney fail)re' 0t is arg)ed that /)st as it wo)ld be per#issible to M)npl)gM and thereby ca)se the death of the person who is )sing one's +idneys, so it is per#issible to abort the fet)s 3who si#ilarly, it is said, has no right to )se one's body against one's will4'

9ritics of this arg)#ent generally arg)e that there are #orally relevant disanalogies between abortion and the +idney fail)re scenario' 5or e1a#ple, it is arg)ed that the fet)s is the wo#an's child as opposed to a #ere stranger-IC&J that abortion )ills the fet)s rather than #erely letting it die-IC%J and that in the case of pregnancy arising fro# vol)ntary interco)rse, the wo#an has either tacitly consented to the fet)s )sing her body,ID>J or has a d)ty to allow it to )se her body since she herself is responsible for its need to )se her body'ID$J <o#e writers defend the analogy against these ob/ections, arg)ing that the disanalogies are #orally irrelevant or do not apply to abortion in the way critics have clai#ed'ID?J Alternative scenarios have been p)t forth as #ore acc)rate and realistic representations of the #oral iss)es present in abortion' John "oonan proposes the scenario of a fa#ily who was fo)nd to be liable for frostbite finger loss s)ffered by a dinner g)est who# they ref)sed to allow to stay overnight, altho)gh it was very cold o)tside and the g)est showed signs of being sic+' 0t is arg)ed that /)st as it wo)ld not be per#issible to ref)se te#porary acco##odation for the g)est to protect hi# fro# physical har#, it wo)ld not be per#issible to ref)se te#porary acco##odation of a fet)s'IDGJ ,ther critics clai# that there is a difference between artificial and e1traordinary #eans of preservation, s)ch as #edical treat#ent, +idney dialysis, and blood transf)sions, and nor#al and nat)ral #eans of preservation, s)ch as gestation, childbirth, and breastfeeding' They arg)e that if a baby was born into an environ#ent in which there was no replace#ent available for her #other's breast #il+, and the baby wo)ld either breastfeed or starve, the #other wo)ld have to allow the baby to breastfeed' B)t the #other wo)ld never have to give the baby a blood transf)sion, no #atter what the circ)#stances were' The difference between breastfeeding in that scenario and blood transf)sions is the difference between )sing yo)r body as a +idney dialysis #achine, and gestation and childbirth'ID@JIDHJIDCJIDDJID&JID%J Se-ual emancipation and e.uality 6argaret <anger wrote2 M"o wo#an can call herself free )ntil she can choose conscio)sly whether she will or will not be a #other'MI&>J Denying the right to abortion can be constr)ed fro# this perspective as a for# of fe#ale oppression )nder a patriarchal syste#, perpet)ating ine;)ality between the se1es' A#ong pro-choice advocates, se1)al-e;)ality disc)ssion often involves the additional debate regarding to what degree the potential father sho)ld have a choice in deciding whether or not to abort the developing child'Icitation neededJ

Ar"uments a"ainst the ri"ht to abortion

*iscrimination The boo+ $bortion and the *onscience of the Nation presents the arg)#ent that abortion involves )n/)st discri#ination against the )nborn' According to this arg)#ent, those who deny that fet)ses have a right to life do not val)e all h)#an life, b)t instead select arbitrary characteristics 3s)ch as partic)lar levels of physical or psychological develop#ent4 as giving so#e h)#an beings #ore val)e or rights than others'I&$J

0n contrast, philosophers who define the right to life by reference to partic)lar levels of physical or psychological develop#ent typically #aintain that s)ch characteristics are #orally relevant,I&?J and re/ect the ass)#ption that all h)#an life necessarily has val)e 3or that #e#bership in the species Homo sapiens is in itself #orally relevant4'I&GJ *epri,ation 5)rther infor#ation2 :hilosophical aspects of the abortion debate The arg)#ent of deprivation states that abortion is #orally wrong beca)se it deprives the fet)s of a val)able f)t)re'I&@J ,n this acco)nt, +illing an adult h)#an being is wrong beca)se it deprives the victi# of a future li)e oursBa f)t)re containing highly val)able or desirable e1periences, activities, pro/ects, and en/oy#ents'I&HJ 0f a being has s)ch a f)t)re, then 3according to the arg)#ent4 +illing that being wo)ld serio)sly har# it and hence wo)ld be serio)sly wrong'I&CJ B)t since a fet)s does have s)ch a f)t)re, the Moverwhel#ing #a/orityM of deliberate abortions are placed in the Msa#e #oral categoryM as +illing an innocent ad)lt h)#an being'I&DJ "ot all abortions are )n/)stified according to this arg)#ent2 abortion wo)ld be /)stified if the sa#e /)stification co)ld be applied to +illing an ad)lt h)#an' 9riticis# of this line of reasoning follows several threads' <o#e re/ect the arg)#ent on gro)nds relating to personal identity, holding that the fet)s is not the same entit' as the ad)lt into which it will develop, and th)s that the fet)s does not have a Mf)t)re li+e o)rsM in the re;)ired sense'I&&J ,thers grant that the fet)s has a f)t)re li+e o)rs, b)t arg)e that being deprived of this f)t)re is not a significant har# or a significant wrong to the fet)s, beca)se there are relatively few ps'chological connections 3contin)ations of #e#ory, belief, desire and the li+e4 between the fet)s as it is now and the ad)lt into which it will develop'I&%J Another criticis# is that the arg)#ent creates ine;)alities in the wrongness of +illing2I%>J as the f)t)res of so#e people appear to be far #ore val)able or desirable than the f)t)res of other people, the arg)#ent appears to entail that so#e +illings are far #ore (rong than others, or that so#e people have a far stronger right to life than othersBa concl)sion that is ta+en to be co)nterint)itive or )nacceptable'

The ?>>@ 6arch for 7o#en's Lives near the 7ashington 6on)#ent' Ar"ument from uncertainty <o#e pro-life s)pporters arg)e that if there is )ncertainty as to whether the fet)s has a right to life, then having an abortion is e;)ivalent to conscio)sly ta+ing the ris+ of +illing another'

According to this arg)#ent, if it is not +nown for certain whether so#ething 3s)ch as the fet)s4 has a right to life, then it is rec+less, and #orally wrong, to treat that thing as if it lac)s a right to life 3for e1a#ple by +illing it4'I%$J This wo)ld place abortion in the sa#e #oral category as #ansla)ghter 3if it t)rns o)t that the fet)s has a right to life4 or certain for#s of cri#inal negligence 3if it t)rns o)t that the fet)s does not have a right to life4'I%?J David Boonin replies that if this +ind of arg)#ent were correct, then the +illing of nonh)#an ani#als and plants wo)ld also be #orally wrong, beca)se 3Boonin contends4 it is not +nown for certain that s)ch beings lac+ a right to life'I%GJ Boonin also arg)es that arg)#ents fro# )ncertainty fail beca)se the #ere fact that one #ight be #ista+en in finding certain arg)#ents pers)asive 3for e1a#ple, arg)#ents for the clai# that the fet)s lac+s a right to life4 does not #ean that one sho)ld act contrary to those arg)#ents or ass)#e the# to be #ista+en'I%@J !eli"ious beliefs 6ain article2 Religion and abortion Each religion has #any varying views on the #oral i#plications of abortion' These views can often be in direct opposition to each other'I%HJ :ro-life 9hristians s)pport their views with <cript)re references s)ch as that of L)+e $2$H- Jere#iah $2@OH- Aenesis ?H2?$O?G- 6atthew $2$&- and :sal# $G%2$GO$C' The Ro#an 9atholic 9h)rch believes that h)#an life begins at conception as does the right to life- th)s, abortion is considered i##oral'I%CJ The 9h)rch of England also considers abortion to be #orally wrong, tho)gh their position ad#its abortion when Mthe contin)ance of a pregnancy threatens the life of the #otherM'I%DJ

/ther factors
0e-ico 1ity 2olicy 6ain article2 6e1ico 9ity :olicy The 6e1ico 9ity policy, also +nown as the MAlobal Aag R)leM re;)ired any non-govern#ental organi8ation receiving !'<' govern#ent f)nding to refrain fro# perfor#ing or pro#oting abortion services in other co)ntries' This had a significant effect on the health policies of #any nations across the globe' The 6e1ico 9ity :olicy was instit)ted )nder :resident Reagan, s)spended )nder :resident 9linton, reinstated by :resident Aeorge 7' B)sh,I%&J and s)spended again by :resident Barac+ ,ba#a on Jan)ary ?@, ?>>%'I%%J 2ublic opinion 6ain article2 <ocietal attit)des towards abortion A n)#ber of opinion polls aro)nd the world have e1plored p)blic opinion regarding the iss)e of abortion' Res)lts have varied fro# poll to poll, co)ntry to co)ntry, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the iss)e'

A 6ay ?>>H s)rvey e1a#ined attit)des toward abortion in $> E)ropean co)ntries, as+ing respondents whether they agreed with the state#ent, M0f a wo#an doesn't want children, she sho)ld be allowed to have an abortionM' The highest level of approval was &$P 3in the 98ech Rep)blic4- the lowest was @DP 3in :oland4'I$>>J 0n "orth A#erica, a Dece#ber ?>>$ poll s)rveyed 9anadian opinion on abortion, as+ing in what circ)#stances they believe abortion sho)ld be per#itted- G?P responded that they believe abortion sho)ld be legal in all circ)#stances, H?P that it sho)ld be legal in certain circ)#stances, and $@P that it sho)ld be legal in no circ)#stances' A si#ilar poll in April ?>>% s)rveyed people in the !nited <tates abo)t !'<' opinion on abortion- $&P said that abortion sho)ld be Mlegal in all casesM, ?&P said that abortion sho)ld be Mlegal in #ost casesM, ?&P said abortion sho)ld be Millegal in #ost casesM and $CP said abortion sho)ld be Millegal in all casesM' I$>$J A "ove#ber ?>>H poll in 6e1ico fo)nd that DG'@P thin+ abortion sho)ld not be legali8ed while $$'?P thin+ it sho)ld'I$>?J ,f attit)des in <o)th A#erica, a Dece#ber ?>>G s)rvey fo)nd that G>P of Argentines tho)ght that abortion in Argentina sho)ld be allowed Mregardless of sit)ationM, @DP that it sho)ld be allowed M)nder so#e circ)#stancesM, and ?GP that it sho)ld not be allowed Mregardless of sit)ationM'I$>GJ A #ore recent poll now s)ggest that @HP of Argentineans are in favor of abortion for any reason in the first twelve wee+s' This sa#e poll cond)cted in <epte#ber ?>$$ also s)ggests that #ost Argentineans favor abortion being legal when a wo#anNs health or life is at ris+ 3&$P4, when the pregnancy is a res)lt of rape 3&>P4 or the fet)s has severe abnor#alities 3C&P4'I$>@J A 6arch ?>>D poll regarding the abortion law in Bra8il fo)nd that CHP of Bra8ilians believe that it Msho)ld not be #odifiedM, $CP that it sho)ld be e1panded Mto allow abortion in other casesM, $>P that abortion sho)ld be Mdecri#inali8edM, and HP were Mnot s)reM'I$>HJ A J)ly ?>>H poll in 9olo#bia fo)nd that CH'CP said they tho)ght that abortion sho)ld re#ain illegal, ?C'%P that it sho)ld be #ade legal, and D'HP that they were )ns)re'I$>CJ Effect upon crime rate 6ain article2 Legali8ed abortion and cri#e effect A theory atte#pts to draw a correlation between the !nited <tates' )nprecedented nationwide decline of the overall cri#e rate d)ring the $%%>s and the decri#inali8ation of abortion ?> years prior' The s)ggestion was bro)ght to widespread attention by a $%%% acade#ic paper, The +mpact of ,egali-ed $bortion on *rime, a)thored by the econo#ists <teven D' Levitt and John Donoh)e' They attrib)ted the drop in cri#e to a red)ction in individ)als said to have a higher statistical probability of co##itting cri#es2 )nwanted children, especially those born to #others who are African A#erican, i#poverished, adolescent, )ned)cated, and single' The change coincided with what wo)ld have been the adolescence, or pea+ years of potential cri#inality, of those who had not been born as a res)lt of .oe v. /ade and si#ilar cases' Donoh)e and Levitt's st)dy also noted that states which legali8ed abortion before the rest of the nation e1perienced the lowering cri#e rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had #ore prono)nced red)ctions'
I$>DJ

5ellow econo#ists 9hristopher 5oote and 9hristopher Aoet8 critici8ed the #ethodology in the Donoh)e-Levitt st)dy, noting a lac+ of acco##odation for statewide yearly variations s)ch as cocaine )se, and recalc)lating based on incidence of cri#e per capita- they fo)nd no statistically significant res)lts'I$>&J Levitt and Donoh)e responded to this by presenting an ad/)sted data set which too+ into acco)nt these concerns and reported that the data #aintained the statistical significance of their initial paper'I$>%J <)ch research has been critici8ed by so#e as being )tilitarian, discri#inatory as to race and socioecono#ic class, and as pro#oting e)genics as a sol)tion to cri#e'I$$>JI$$$J Levitt states in his boo+ 0rea)onomics that they are neither pro#oting nor negating any co)rse of actionB#erely reporting data as econo#ists' Breast cancer hypothesis 6ain article2 Abortion O breast cancer hypothesis The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis posits that ind)ced abortion increases the ris+ of developing breast cancer'I$$?J This position contrasts with the scientific consens)s that abortion does not ca)se breast cancer'I$$GJI$$@JI$$HJI$$CJ 0n early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation' The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interr)pted by an abortion O before f)ll #at)rity in the third tri#ester O then #ore relatively v)lnerable i##at)re cells co)ld be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, res)lting in a greater potential ris+ of breast cancer' The hypothesis #echanis# was first proposed and e1plored in rat st)dies cond)cted in the $%&>s'I$$DJ
I$$&JI$$%J

E-ceptions in abortion law

This section re;)ires e1pansion' ($ugust 2 ! " There are a few co##on e1ceptions so#eti#es fo)nd in legal do#ains where abortion is generally forbidden' Legal do#ains which do not have abortion on de#and will often allow it when the health of the #other is at sta+e' M(ealth of the #otherM #ay #ean so#ething different in different areas2 for e1a#ple, the Rep)blic of 0reland allows abortion only to save the life of the #other, whereas pro-lifers in the !nited <tates arg)e health e1ceptions are )sed so broadly as to render a ban essentially #eaningless'I$?>J Laws allowing abortion in cases of rape or incest often go together' 5or e1a#ple, before Roe v' 7ade, $G !< states allowed abortion in the case of either rape or incest, b)t only $ allowed for it /)st for rape 36ississippi4, and none for /)st incest'I$?$J Also, #any co)ntries allow for abortion only thro)gh the first or second tri#ester, and so#e #ay allow abortion in cases of fetal defects, e'g', Down syndro#e'

The law and ethics of abortion BMA Views November

2007 bma.org.uk/.../Ethics/lawethicsabortionnov07.pdf
2. Ethical Considerations 2.1 Moral arguments eo!le generall" ta#e one of three main stances on abortion$ !ro%abortion& anti%abortion and the middle ground that abortion is acce!table in some circumstances. The main arguments for each of these !ositions is set out below. 2.1.1 Arguments used in su!!ort of abortion Those who su!!ort the wide availabilit" of abortion consider that abortion is not wrong in itself and need not involve undesirable conse'uences. These arguments tend not to recognise fetal rights or to ac#nowledge the fetus to be a !erson. According to some& abortion is a matter of a woman(s right to e)ercise control over her own bod". Moralists who *udge actions b" their conse'uences alone could argue that abortion is e'uivalent to a deliberate failure to conceive a child and since contrace!tion is widel" available& abortion should be too. +ome thin# that even if the fetus is a !erson& its rights are ver" limited and do not weigh significantl" against the interests of !eo!le who have alread" been born& such as !arents or e)isting children of the famil". Most !eo!le who su!!ort this !osition do so on the basis that the overriding !rinci!le is the woman(s right to choose what ha!!ens to her bod". This use of the language of ,choice- conve"s a!!roval regardless of the t"!e of !ressures the individual faces and an" constraints on her freedom to ma#e a genuine choice. 2.1.2 Arguments used against abortion +ome !eo!le consider that abortion is wrong in an" circumstances because it fails to recognise the rights of the fetus or because it challenges the notion of the sanctit" of all human life. +ome argue that !ermitting abortion diminishes the res!ect societ" feels for other vulnerable humans& !ossibl" leading to their involuntar" euthanasia. Those who consider that an embr"o& from the moment of conce!tion& is a human being with full moral status& see abortion as #illing in the same sense as the murder of an" other !erson. Those who ta#e this view cannot acce!t that women should be allowed to obtain abortion without legal re!ercussions& however difficult the lives of those women or their e)isting families are made as a result. +uch views ma" be based on religious or moral convictions that each human life has unassailable intrinsic value& which is not diminished b" an" im!airment or suffering that ma" be involved for the individual living that life. .t is also argued that abortion treats humans merel" as a means to an end in that abortion can be seen as a discarding of a fetus in which the !regnant woman no longer has an" interest. Man" worr" that the availabilit" of abortion on grounds of fetal abnormalit" encourages !re*udice towards an" !erson with a handica! and insidiousl" creates the im!ression that the onl" valuable !eo!le are those who conform to some ill% defined stereot"!e of ,normalit"-. +ome !eo!le who o!!ose abortion in general& concede that it ma" be *ustifiable in ver" e)ce!tional cases such as where it is the result of ra!e or the conse'uence of e)!loitation of a "oung girl or a mentall" incom!etent woman. /is# to the mother(s life ma" be another *ustifiable e)ce!tion but onl" where abortion is the onl" o!tion. .t would thus not be seen as *ustifiable to abort a fetus if the life of both fetus and mother could be saved b" an" other solution. 2.1.0 Arguments used to su!!ort abortion in some circumstances Man" !eo!le argue that abortion ma" be *ustified in a greater number of circumstances than those conceded b" anti% abortionists but that it would be undesirable to allow abortion on demand. To do so might incur undesirable effects& such as encouraging irres!onsible attitudes to contrace!tion. .t could also lead to a devaluation of the lives of viable fetuses and trivialise the !otential !s"chological effects of abortion on women and on health !rofessionals. These t"!es of argument are based on the !remise that the embr"o starts off without rights& although having a s!ecial status from conce!tion in view of its !otential for develo!ment& and that it ac'uires rights and status throughout its develo!ment. The notion of develo!ing fetal rights and !ractical factors& such as the !ossible distress to the !regnant woman& nurses& doctors or other children in the famil"& gives rise to the view that earl" abortion is more acce!table than late abortion. +ome !eo!le su!!ort this !osition on !ragmatic grounds& believing that abortions will alwa"s be sought b" women who are des!erate and that it is better for societ" to !rovide abortion services which are safe and which can be monitored and regulated& rather than to allow ,bac#%street- !ractices. 2.1.1 The BMA2s view on abortion .n the 1370s and 1340s the BMA a!!roved !olic" statements su!!orting the 1357 Abortion Act as ,a !ractical and humane !iece of legislation- and calling for its e)!ansion to Northern .reland. The BMA does not consider that abortion is unethical but as with an" act having !rofound moral im!lications& the *ustifications must be commensurate with the conse'uences. atients are entitled to receive ob*ective medical advice regardless of their doctor(s !ersonal views for or against abortion. 6urthermore& a doctor could be sued for damages if& because of a failure to refer& a dela" is caused which results in the woman being unable to obtain a termination. At the BMA2s Annual /e!resentatives Meeting 7A/M8 in 2009& a detailed briefing !a!er on abortion time limits was !re!ared that considered the !eer%reviewed !ublished data on survival rates and the longer%term health of babies

born at earl" gestation in the :;.19 <octors re!resenting the membershi! debated the issue& voted& and concluded that there should be no reduction in the current 21%wee# limit under the Abortion Act 1357. At the 2007 A/M the issue of first trimester abortion 7u! to around 10 wee#s of !regnanc"8 was debated. As a result of this debate the BMA has !olic" that the Abortion Act 1357 should be amended so that first trimester abortion is available on the same basis as an" other medical treatment = on the basis of informed consent. Therefore& first trimester abortions should not need the signature of two doctors2 and women see#ing such abortions should not need to meet s!ecified medical criteria. The !olic" is based !artl" on the fact that& from a clinical !ers!ective& abortion is safer carried out earl" in !regnanc". >iven the relative ris#s of earl" abortion com!ared with !regnanc" and childbirth& virtuall" all women see#ing an abortion in the first trimester will meet the current medical criteria for abortion. .f enacted& the !ro!osed amendment would hel! to ensure that women see#ing abortions are not e)!osed to unnecessar" dela"s& and conse'uentl"& to later& more costl" and higher ris# !rocedures. BMA !olic" is clear that an" changes in relation to first trimester abortion should not adversel" im!act u!on the availabilit" of later abortions. 2.1.9 6etal !ain ?hether& and at what stage& a fetus feels !ain has been a matter of much debate and !ast !ractice has been !artl" influenced b" <e!artment of @ealth advice. .nter!retation of the evidence on fetal !ain is conflicting with some arguing that the fetus has the !otential to feel !ain at ten wee#s2 gestation15& others arguing that it is unli#el" to feel !ain before 25 wee#s gestation17 and still others arguing for some uns!ecified gestational !eriod in between.14 There is clearl" a need for further research to !rovide more conclusive evidence about the e)!eriences and sensations of the fetus in utero. .n the meantime the BMA recommends that& when carr"ing out an" surgical !rocedures 7whether an abortion or a thera!eutic intervention8 on the fetus in utero& due consideration must be given to a!!ro!riate measures for minimising the ris# of !ain. This should include an assessment of the most recent evidence available. Aven if there is no incontrovertible evidence that fetuses feel !ain the use of !ain relief& when carr"ing out invasive !rocedures& ma" hel! to relieve the an)iet" of the !arents and of health !rofessionals. 2.2 Bonsent 2.2.1 The com!etent adult ?ith consent to termination of !regnanc" as with consent for other medical !rocedures& there are certain criteria which must be met in order for the consent to be valid. The woman must have sufficient com!etence to understand the !rocedure and its alternatives in broad terms and to ma#e a decision& the consent must be voluntar" and the decision must be made on the basis of sufficient& accurate information. .n Angland and ?ales the Mental Ba!acit" Act 2009 outlines a four%stage test of ca!acit". .n order to be able to ma#e a com!etent decision& an individual must be able to$ 11. To understand the information relevant to the decisionC 22. to retain the information relevant to the decisionC 00. to use or weigh the informationC and 11. to communicate the decision 7b" an" means8. ?here an individual fails one or more !arts of this test& then the" do not have the relevant ca!acit" and the entire test is failed. This formulation is a good wor#ing test for assessing ca!acit" to consent to or refuse medical treatment both in relation to adults and children. 2.2.2 Adults who lac# ca!acit" <ecision%ma#ing in relation to adults who lac# the ca!acit" to consent on their own behalf is governed in Angland and ?ales b" the Mental Ba!acit" Act 2009& and in +cotland b" the Adults ?ith .nca!acit" 7+cotland8 Act 2000C in Northern .reland& decisions are covered b" the common law. A decision relating to a termination of !regnanc" for an inca!acitated adult would need to com!l" with the relevant legislation. The BMA has se!arate guidance on both !ieces of legislation& however the relevant !oints with regard to abortion are outlined below. 13 The central tenet of the Anglish and ?elsh legislation is the !rinci!le of ,best interests- and in +cotland ,benefit-. Although the Adults with .nca!acit" 7+cotland8 Act uses the term ,benefit-& in the BMA(s view it is li#el" that this term can be inter!reted in a similar wa" to ,best interests-. .f& however& health !rofessionals wor#ing in +cotland were recommending an intervention in the inca!acitated !erson(s best interests that was unli#el" to !rovide clinical benefit& the" should consider ta#ing legal advice. @ealth !rofessionals !resented with a !regnant woman lac#ing the ca!acit" to give a valid consent must use their !rofessional *udgment to assess her best interests. .t is im!ortant to remember that an individual2s best interests e)tend be"ond medical best interests alone. The inca!acitated !ersons2 !ast and !resent wishes and feelings& beliefs and values should be ta#en into consideration. An essential !art of the assessment of best interests will also involve a discussion with those close to the !atient& including famil"& friends& carers& or a !ro)" decision ma#er& where !ractical and a!!ro!riateC and also bearing in mind the !atients right to confidentialit" 7see below8. There is no mandator" re'uirement to see# court a!!roval to !erform an abortion on an adult who lac#s ca!acit"C 20 although in cases of doubt& it would be advisable to see# a second o!inion. .n the following circumstances& however& cases decisions should be referred to the court$ 1D where there is a dis!ute about ca!acit"C

2D where the !atient ma" regain ca!acit" during or shortl" after !regnanc"C 0D where the decision of the medical team is not unanimousC 1D where the !atient& the !otential father& or the !atient2s close famil" disagree with the decisionC 9D where the !rocedures under section 1 of the Abortion Act have not been followedC or 5D where there are other e)ce!tional circumstances& for e)am!le the !regnanc" is the !atient2s last chance to conceive.21 The need for an abortion to be considered in res!ect of a women who lac#s ca!acit" ma" raise 'uestions about that !atient2s abilit" to consent to se)ual intercourse and is li#el" to re'uire investigation as to whether a criminal offence has occurred. The BMA and Eaw +ociet" have *ointl" issued guidance on the law relating to mental ca!acit" and se)ual relationshi!s 7cha!ter 10 of Assessment of Mental Capacity228. This recognises the right of mentall" disordered !eo!le to enter voluntaril" into se)ual relationshi!s but also focuses on the obligation to !rotect vulnerable adults from abusive relationshi!s. .f there are grounds to believe that the !regnanc" has resulted from unlawful se)ual intercourse 7ra!e of an unwilling woman or one who is unable to consent8& immediate ste!s must be ta#en to !rotect the woman 7and others who ma" be at serious ris#8 from further !ossible abuse. 2.2.0 Bom!etent minors An" com!etent "oung !erson& regardless of age& can inde!endentl" see# medical advice and give valid consent to medical treatment. This legal !osition was established in the 1349 @ouse of Eords2 ruling in the Gillick case.20 Thus !eo!le under 15 are legall" able to consent on their own behalf to an" surgical& medical or dental !rocedure or treatment if& in the doctor(s o!inion& the" are ca!able of understanding the nature and !ossible conse'uences of the !rocedure. .t is clearl" desirable for "oung !eo!le to have their !arents2 su!!ort for im!ortant and !otentiall" life% changing decisions. +ometimes& however& 3. Summary The Abortion Act re'uires doctors to ma#e an assessment in the conte)t of each case. The" must assess the !otential im!act of the !regnanc" and birth on the woman(s !h"sical and mental health and the well%being of e)isting siblings. Blan#et rules cannot be a!!lied to such sensitive and difficult decisions& which re'uire an understanding of the woman2s individual needs. A decision to terminate a !regnanc" is never an eas" one. .n ma#ing these decisions& !atients and doctors should ensure that the decision is su!!orted b" a!!ro!riate information and counselling about the o!tions and im!lications.

htt!$FFwww.*ohnstonsarchive.netF!olic"FabortionFromaniaFab%romaniac.html htt!$FFwww.*ohnstonsarchive.netF!olic"FabortionFromaniaFab%romaniac2.html

The .m!act of an Abortion Ban on +ocio% Aconomic Gutcomes of Bhildren$ Avidence from /omania
www.columbia.edu/~cp2124/papers/unwanted_latest.pdf

Cristian Pop-Eleches. Columbia University October 2005

Abstract This study examines educational and labor outcomes o children a ected by a ban on abortions. ! use evidence rom "omania# $here in %&'' dictator (icolae Ceausescu declared abortion and amily plannin) ille)al. *irth rates doubled in %&'+ because ormerly abortion had been the primary method o birth control. Children born a ter the abortion ban attained more years o schoolin) and )reater labor mar,et success. This is because urban# educated $omen $ere more li,ely to

have abortions prior to the policy chan)e# and the relative number o children born to this type o $oman increased a ter the ban. -o$ever# controllin) or composition usin) observable bac,)round variables# children born a ter the ban on abortions had $orse educational and labor mar,et achievements as adults. .dditionally# ! provide evidence o cro$din) in the schoolin) system and some su))estive evidence that cohorts born a ter the introduction o the abortion ban had hi)her in ant mortality and increased criminal behavior later in li e. /hile in the short-run the abortion ban di erentially increased ertility o more educated $omen# in the lon)-run the ban di erentially increased ertility amon) less educated $omen. This su))ests that educated $omen chan)ed their behavior more drastically as a result o the ban.
!

am especially )rate ul to my dissertation advisors 0ichael 1remer# 2arry 1at3# Caroline -oxby and .ndrei 4hlei er or their )uidance and support. ! received help ul comments rom t$o editors# t$o anonymous re erees# 0erriol .lmond# .bhi5it *aner5ee# 6avid Cutler# "a5eev 6ehe5ia# Esther 6u7o# Ed 8laeser# Claudia 8oldin# "obin 8reen$ood# O er 0alamud# 4arah "eber# *en Ol,en# Emmanuel 4ae3# Tara /atson# and seminar participants at *oston University# Clemson# Columbia# -arvard# (*E" 4ummer !nstitute# (EU6C# Princeton# 9anderbilt# and the /orld *an,. .ny errors are solely mine. :inancial support rom the 4ocial 4cience "esearch Council Pro)ram in .pplied Economics# the Center or !nternational 6evelopment and the 1o,,alis Pro)ram at -arvard is )rate ully ac,no$led)ed. .6epartment o Economics and 4!P.# Columbia University# ;20/est %%<th 4treet# "m. %022 !.* 0C ==0<# (e$ >or,# (> %002+# cp2%2;?columbia.edu

% !ntroduction
. number o recent studies have used the le)ali3ation o abortion in the U4 in the %&+0.s to analy3e ho$ the chan)e in access to abortion a ects child outcomes later in li e. These studies @nd that the cohorts o children resultin) rom pre)nancies that could have been le)ally terminated display better socio-economic outcomes alon) a $ide ran)e o indicatorsA they are less li,ely to live in a sin)le household and less li,ely to live in poverty and in a household receivin) $el are B8ruber# 2evine# and 4tai)er# %&&&C# they consume e$er controlled substances BCharles and 4tephens# 2002C# have lo$er teen childbearin) rates B6onohue# 8ro))er and 2evitt# 2002C and are less li,ely to commit crimes B6onohue and 2evitt# 200%C.

This paper is also an e ort to understand the lin, bet$een access to abortion and socioeconomic outcomes o children# but usin) a ma5or policy chan)e in the opposite direction. !n %&'' "omania abruptly shi ted rom one o the most liberal abortion policies in the $orld to a very restrictive re)ime that made abortion and amily plannin) ille)al or most $omen. This policy $as maintained# $ith only minor modi@cations# until 6ecember %&<&# $hen ollo$in) the all o communism# "omania reverted bac, to a liberal policy re)ardin) abortion and modern contraceptives. The short-run impact o the %&'' chan)e in policy $as an immediate and enormous increase in birthsA the total ertility rate increased rom %.& to =.+ children per $oman bet$een %&'' and %&'+. On avera)e# children born in %&'+ 5ust a ter abortion became ille)al display si)ni@cantly better educational and labor mar,et achievements than children born 5ust prior to the chan)e. This seemin)ly paradoxical result is the opposite o $hat one $ould expect in li)ht o the @ndin)s rom the U4# but can be explained by a chan)e in the composition o $omen havin) childrenA urban# educated $omen $ere more li,ely to have abortions prior to the policy chan)e# so a hi)her proportion o children $ere born into urban# educated households a ter abortions became ille)al. Controllin) or this type o composition usin) observable bac,)round variables# children born a ter the abortion ban had $orse schoolin) and labor mar,et outcomes. This @ndin) is consistent $ith the vie$ that children $ho $ere un$anted durin) pre)nancy had in erior socio-economic outcomes once they became adults. .dditionally# ! provide evidence that the increase in cohort si3e due to 2 the abortion ban resulted in a cro$din) e ect in the schoolin) system. The @nal part o the paper contains t$o extensions to the main analysis. :irst ! sho$ that $hile in the short-run the more educated $omen $ere mostly a ected by the abortion

ban# in the lon)-run the less educated $omen had the lar)est increases in ertility as a result o "omania.s 2= year period B%&'+-%&<&C o continued pronatalist policies. This implies that educated $omen chan)ed their behavior more drastically as a result o the ban and su))ests that more educated $omen are more e ective in reachin) their desired ertility $hen access to birth control methods is di icult. 4econdly# ! o er some su))estive evidence that cohorts born a ter the introduction o the abortion ban had hi)her in ant mortality and increased criminal behavior later in li e. :ollo$in) is the plan o the paper. 4ection 2 provides an overvie$ o the channels throu)h $hich an un$anted birth mi)ht a ect the socio-economic outcome o a child. 4ection = describes the unusual history o abortion le)islation in "omania. !n section ;# ! describe the data and empirical strate)y. 4ection 5 presents the results o the main analysis. 4ection ' includes the t$o extensions and section + concludes.

2 The mechanisms by $hich an abortion ban a ects socio-economic outcomes o children

Consider a $oman.s decision as to $hether to use birth controlA i the costs o usin) a certain birth control method increases substantially# she $ill li,ely use less o it. !nstead# she $ill rely on abstinence# use alternative birth control technolo)ies# andDor have more births. Thus# the children born under a restrictive birth control re)ime are more li,ely to be unplanned# un$anted or mistimed# relative to a $orld $here a $oman exercised costless control over her ertility. ! $ill re er to children# $hose births are a result o the increased cost o ertility control# as .un$anted.. -o$ mi)ht un$antedness a ect adult outcomesE . @rst $ay in $hich an un$anted birth mi)ht a ect the Fuality o a child derives rom the standard model o the child FualityDFuantity trade-o B*ec,er# %&<%C. 4ince it is assumed that parents desire eFual levels o Fuality or each o their children# an increase

in the number o children as a result o an un$anted pre)nancy leads to a decrease in = child Fuality or all children in the household. 4econdly# optimal timin) o birth mi)ht play an important role in the uture development o a child. ! access to birth control methods becomes di icult# $omen are less able to delay childbearin) until conditions are more avorable or raisin) children. Un avorable conditions mi)ht arise or a number o reasons. Childbearin) can con7ict $ith the lon)er term educational and labor mar,et plans o a mother B.n)rist and Evans# %&&'C# $hich can have a ne)ative e ect on the child. !n addition a mother# $ho )ives birth to an un$anted child prior to marria)e# mi)ht either enter an undesired marria)e or ace sin)le parenthood. :inally# a $hole ran)e o additional actors# broadly related to a mother.s Band ather.sC physical and emotional $ell-bein) resultin) rom involuntary parenthood mi)ht a ect the development o children $ithin a amily. :inally# in the presence o selection in terms o pre)nancy resolution# a chan)e in access to birth control methods can a ect the avera)e Fuality o children. . number o studies B8rossman and Gacobo$it3 %&<%H Goyce %&<+H 8rossman and Goyce %&&0C sho$ that increased access to abortion increased the $ei)ht o children at birth and decreased neonatal mortality# su))estin) positive selection on etal health. The di erent theoretical channels 5ust revie$ed all predict that ma,in) access to abortions harder $ill have a ne)ative e ect on a child.s development. Thus# or the purposes o this paper# ! $ill call the combined e ect o the three channels the e ect o un$antedness on child outcomes. !n addition to the mentioned U4 based research# the papers by 0yhrman B%&<<C or :inland# *loomber) B%&<0C or 4$eden and 6ytrych et al. B%&+5C# 6avid and 0ate5ce, B%&<%C and 6avid B%&<'C or the C3ech "epublic have studied outcomes o children born to mothers $ho have been denied access to abortion.

Un$anted children display a number o ne)ative outcomes# ran)in) rom poorer health# lo$er school per ormance# more neurotic and psychosomatic problems# a hi)her li,elihood o receivin) child $el are# to more contentious relationships $ith parents and hi)her teen sexual activity. The ma5or dra$bac, o these studies is their inability to convincin)ly account or the sel -selection o a certain type o mothers into the treatment )roup.1
1The

-ec,man bivariate selection model B-ec,man# %&+&C is the standard approach to control or nonrandom selection into the treatment )roup. /ithout ma,in) stron) structural orm assumptions# this estimator )enerally needs an exclusion restrictionH in this case there are no plausible exclusion restrictions across the selection into treatment and child outcome eFuations.

; There are t$o additional $ays throu)h $hich a chan)e in abortion le)islation could a ect the avera)e socio-economic outcome o children. :irst# one has to understand ho$ the chan)e in policy in7uences the composition o $omen $ho carry pre)nancies to term. The direction o the e ect is theoretically ambi)uous and ultimately reFuires an empirical analysis o $hich types o $omen are most a ected by the chan)e in policy. /hile the evidence rom the U4 B8ruber# 2evine and 4tai)er# %&&&C su))ests that $omen rom disadvanta)ed bac,)rounds are more li,ely to use abortion and thus are more a ected by a chan)e in abortion re)ime# the present analysis sho$s that in the case o "omania# abortion $as used primarily by urban# educated $omen. :inally# i the ertility impact o the ban on abortions is lar)e# one could ima)ine a ne)ative cro$din) e ect resultin) rom a lar)er cohort competin) or scarce resources.2 The importance o possible cro$din) e ects is an interestin) Fuestion o its o$n and $ill be addressed in a later section.

= .bortion and birth control policy re)imes in "omania

Prior to %&''# "omania had one the most liberal abortion policies in Europe# since

abortions $ere le)al in the @rst trimester and provided at no cost by the state health care system. .bortion $as the most $idely used method o birth control B/orld *an,# %&&2C and in %&'5# there $ere our abortions or every live birth B*erelson# %&+&C. /orried by a rapid decrease in ertility#0 "omania.s communist dictator# (icolae Ceausescu# issued an unexpected decree in the all o %&''A abortion and amily plannin) $ere declared ille)al and the immediate cessation o abortions $as ordered. 2e)al abortions $ere allo$ed only or $omen over the a)e o ;5# $omen $ith more than our children# $omen $ith health
2.part

rom the direct cro$din) e ect caused# or example# by havin) more children in the school system# there could also be an additional compositional e ect resultin) rom havin) proportionally more di icult peers in school as a result o the abortion ban. 0The rapid decrease in ertility in "omania in this period is atributed to the country.s rapid economic and social development and the availability o access to abortion as a method o birth control. *e)innin) $ith the %&50s# "omania en5oyed t$o decades o continued economic )ro$th as $ell as lar)e increases in educational achievements and labor orce participation or both men and $omen.

5 problems# and $omen $ith pre)nancies resultin) rom rape or incest. The immediate impact o this chan)e in policy $as a dramatic increase in birthsA the birth rate1 increased rom %;.= to 2+.; bet$een %&'' and %&'+ and the total ertility rate9 increased rom %.& to =.+ children per $oman B2e))e# %&<5C. .s can be seen in :i)ure %# the lar)e number o births continued or about =-; years# a ter $hich the ertility rate stabili3ed or almost 20 years# albeit at a hi)her level than the avera)e ertility rates in -un)ary# *ul)aria# and "ussia. .bortions remained ille)al and the la$ $as strictly en orced $ithout ma5or modi@cations until 6ecember %&<&# $hen the communist )overnment $as overthro$n.5 :ollo$in) the liberali3ation o access to abortion and modern contraceptives in %&<&# the reversal in trend $as immediate# $ith a decline in the ertility rate and a sharp increase in the number o abortions. !n %&&0 alone# there $ere % million

abortions in a country o only 22 million people B/orld *an,# %&&2C. This le)islative history su))ests a simple di erence strate)y to estimate the e ects o chan)es in access to abortion on educational and labor mar,et outcomes o children. The basic idea is to compare outcomes o children born 5ust a ter the policy chan)e and 5ust be ore the chan)e. :i)ure 2 plots the ertility impact o the policy by month o birth o the children. The decree came into e ect in 6ecember o %&'' and the sharp increase in ertility $as observed about six months later be)innin) in Gune %&'+. 7 There ore most o the $omen $ho )ave birth immediately a ter Gune o %&'+ $ere already pre)nant at the time the la$ chan)e happened.4 :rom Guly to October o %&'+ the avera)e monthly birth rate $as about three times hi)her than durin) Ganuary to 0ay o %&'+. . substantial raction o these children $ould not have been born in the presence o access to abortionA this is the identi@cation assumption o my study.
1The 9The

in her li etime# assumin) no mortality in the childbearin) a)es# calculated rom the a)e distribution and a)e-speci@c ertility rates o a speci@ed )roup in a )iven re erence period. 5! discuss the ertility impact o the policy in detail in Pop-Eleches B2005C. 7The six month la) bet$een policy announcement and the ertility response results rom the act that a pre)nancy lasts about nine months and abortions under the liberal policy $ere le)al $ithin the @rst three months o pre)nancy. 4!n act a rou)h calculation o the number o pre)nancies# abortions# and births around the time o the policy su))ests that at least in the @rst couple o months ollo$in) the ban basically all pre)nancies $ere carried to term.

birth rate is the number o births per %#000 population in a )iven year. total ertility rate is the avera)e total number o births that $ould be born per $oman

'

; 6ata and empirical strate)y

;.% 6ata
The primary data or this analysis come rom a %5I sample o the "omanian %&&2 census. This dataset provides basic socio-economic in ormation# such as )ender# re)ion o birth# educational attainment and labor mar,et outcomes# or about 50#000 individuals

or each year o birth. !n addition the census provides not only the year but also the month o birth or each person# an important variable that $ill be used to identi y the e ect o the abortion ban $ithin a narro$ time $indo$. ! mainly rely on the sample consistin) o all children born bet$een Ganuary and October %&'+# producin) more than 55#000 observations. The period bet$een Ganuary and October is chosen primarily because it $ill allo$ me to separate the cro$din) e ect rom the other t$o e ects o the abortion ban Bun$antedness e ect and composition e ect C. .lthou)h the spi,e in births Bsee :i)ure 2C occurred rom Guly to October %&'+# all children born rom Ganuary to 0ay had# by la$# to enroll in school in the same year $ith the much lar)er )roup born in the later months. There ore the entire )roup $as exposed to the same cro$din) e ect in school and later upon entry into the labor mar,et. 4econdly# the short time period $ill also minimi3es the e ect o other unobserved time trends and pre-conception behavioral responses to the policy. -o$ever# in order to control or possible cohort o birth e ects and to examine potential e ects o cro$din) on child outcomes# one o the speci@cations adds to the analysis children born in similar periods o %&'5 and %&''# the t$o years prior to the policy chan)e. The cohort o interest or the present analysis Bthose born in %&'+C $as about 25 years old at the time o the %&&2 census. .t that a)e the vast ma5ority o people in the cohort had @nished school. Census in ormation on current school enrollment is used to correct or expected educational achievement. *ut a shortcomin) o the data is that labor mar,et outcomes can be observed only early in the cohort.s career and also 5ust three years a ter the all o communism. *ecause the lar)e ma5ority o individuals still in school at the time o the census $ere enrolled in universities# ! exclude rom the labor mar,et re)ressions all those currently enrolled in university# $ith a university de)ree or $ith a

post)raduate de)ree. 4ince most university )raduates are li,ely to have )ood labor mar,et + outcomes# their exclusion rom the labor mar,et re)ressions $ill un ortunately decrease the variability in labor outcomes.3 ! ocus on t$o measures o socio-economic outcomes or childrenA educational achievement and labor mar,et activity. The educational variables are a ran)e o dummies or school achievement10A apprentice BvocationalC school# hi)h school or more# and university or post)raduate.11 The labor mar,et outcomes are three s,ill speciali3ation dummies based on !4CO occupational codesA12 B%C elementary-s,ill B$hich includes individuals $or,in) in elementary occupationsC# B2C intermediate-s,ill B or $or,ers employed as cler,s# service and sales $or,ers# s,illed a)riculture# cra t $or,ers# plant operators and assemblers# and B=C hi)h-s,ill B$hich contains employees $ho are technicians# associate pro essionals and pro essionalsC.10 The census# ho$ever# contains socio-economic bac,)round variables o parents only or children $ho still live $ith their parents.11 These parental bac,)round variables are needed in order to control or the chan)es in the composition o the cohort o children born to parents o di erin) socio-economic status $ithin a )iven cohort. The proportion o children born in the @rst ten months o %&'+ $ho still live $ith their mother is lar)e Babout 50IC and some$hat lo$er Babout ;0IC or those $ho live $ith both parents. Table %# $hich presents the summary statistics or the main sample# sho$s that children born in the @rst ten months o %&'+ $ho lived $ith their parents in %&&2 $ere more educated# $or,ed in hi)her s,ill 5obs# $ere more li,ely to be born in an urban area and $ere less li,ely to be emale than children $ho $ere not livin) $ith their parents. These results are consistent $ith the common "omanian custom $hereby children live $ith their parents
3The

variables used in this analysis are urther de@ned in .ppendix ..

10The

omitted educational cate)ories belo$ apprentice school are elementary school and 5unior hi)h school. Only about 2I in the sample only @nish elementary school. 11-ence orth ! $ill re er to post )raduates and university students and )raduates under the rubric .university. and to those $ith at least a hi)h school de)ree as .hi)h school.. 12The !4CO B!nternational 4tandard Classi@cation o OccupationsC codes classi y 5obs $ith respect to the type o $or, per ormed and the s,ill level reFuired to carry out the tas,s and duties o the occupations. !4CO is the standard classi@cation o the !nternational 2abor Or)ani3ation B!2OC. 10The hi)h s,ill dummy combines !4CO s,ill levels = and ; because o the small number o pro essionals in the sample Bcorrespondin) to !4CO s,ill level ;C. 4ee appendix . or more in ormation on the de@nition o variables. 11The sample does not capture the lar)e number o un$anted children born as a result o the abortion ban $ho $ere abandoned by their parents. Thus the results provide ar)uably only a lo$er bound o the true e ects caused by the abortion ban.

< until they )et married. Thus# children $ho marry later# such as males and those $ho )et more education# are more li,ely to still live $ith their parents at the time o the census.19 /hile the usable sample is unrepresentative o the total population# :i)ure 2 con@rms that the proportion o individuals born in a )iven month $ithin this sample trac,s the birth records rom "omania.s vital statistics.

;.2 Empirical strate)yA

! estimate a simple di erence eFuation to capture the overall impact o the chan)e in abortion policyA B%C OUTCO0Ei J Q0 K Q1 L a teri K Ri# $here OUTCO0Ei is one o the measures o educational or labor mar,et outcomes or an individual born bet$een Ganuary and October o %&'+H a teri is a dummy ta,in) value % i an individual $as born a ter the policy came into e ect Bbet$een GuneOctoberC# 0 other$ise. /ithin this rame$or,# the overall impact o the chan)e in abortion le)islation on the socio-economic outcomes o the children is captured by the coe icient Q1. The next eFuation incorporates controls or other observable characteristics o a child.s parentsA

B2C OUTCO0Ei J S0 K S1 L a teri K S2 L Mi K Ri# $here OUTCO0Ei and a teri are the same as in the basic rame$or,# Mi contains t$o sets o control variables. The @rst )roup contains amily bac,)round variablesA 2 indicator variables or mother.s education# 2 indicator variables or ather.s education# an urban dummy or place o birth o the child# a dummy or the sex o the child and ;' re)ion o birth dummies. These bac,)round variables are li,ely to be airly exo)enous to the policy chan)e.15 The second )roup includes household speci@c variablesA home o$nership# rooms per occupant# sFuare eet per occupant# availability o toilet# bath#
19There

ore# "omanian children $ho are 25 and still live $ith their parents are very di erent rom children rom the U4 o the same a)e $ho live at home. !n the U4# children leave their parents. home much earlier# so the small raction o children $ho still live at home in their mid t$enties are probably a lot less representative o their birth cohort than it is the case in "omania. 15One potential $orry is the endo)eneity o the mother.s education# )iven that the birth o a child may have a ne)ative e ect on a $oman.s educational achievement B8oldin and 1at3# 2002C. ! believe that in the case o "omania this is not li,ely to be a si)ni@cant problem# since the raction o $omen $ith tertiary education is very small Babout =IC and in "omania.s traditional society the vast ma5ority o individuals @nish their education be ore )ettin) married and most children are born to married couples.

& ,itchen# )as# se$a)e# heatin) and $ater. The household controls are potentially more endo)enous# because they re er to household variables at the time o the census in %&&2. *y includin) these variables in the re)ression# ! can partially control or composition into the sample that results rom the di erential policy response across )roups.17 .ssumin) that ! have controlled or chan)es in the composition o amilies havin) children usin) the available socio-economic variables and that any unobservable actors that in7uence education and labor outcomes are constant across individuals# the coe icient S1 can be interpreted as the ne)ative un$antedness e ect.

The basic rame$or, does not allo$ one to test or cro$din) e ects in the schoolin) and labor mar,et due to sharp increases in cohort si3es# $hich is one o the potential channels throu)h $hich a chan)e in access to abortion a ects child outcomes. !n addition# the basic rame$or, 5ust outlined does not account or potential period o birth e ects. ! $ill estimate an extended re)ression model to shed li)ht on these issues. !n this model children born in %&'5 and %&''# the t$o years prior to the policy chan)e# are also included in the sample and ! use a sli)htly di erent ran)e o months. :irst# children born a ter 4eptember %5th are dropped rom the sample# because this is the )overnment cut-o date or school enrollment and this ensures that all the children born in a )iven year in the sample enrolled in the same )rade. 4econdly# since the )roup o children born in 0ay o %&'+ mi)ht already contain some children born as a result o the policy chan)e Bsee :i)ure 2C# ! drop children born in 0ay rom this speci@cation in order to di erentiate better bet$een un$antedness and cro$din) e ects. The extended rame$or, is described by the ollo$in) eFuationA B=COUTCO0Ei J T0KT1 La teriKT2 LbornBGuneH4eptemberCiKT0 Lyearo birthiK T1 L Mi K Ri# $here OUTCO0Ei and Mi are the same as in the basic rame$or,# a teri is a dummy ta,in) value % i a person $as born a ter the policy came into e ect Bbet$een Gune4eptember %5th o %&'+C# 0 other$iseH bornBGuneH4eptemberCi is a dummy ta,in) value % i a person $as born bet$een Gune-4eptember %5th# 0 other$iseH and yearo birthi is a dummy ta,in) value % i a person $as born in %&'+# 0 other$ise. ! interpret the coe icient
17Urban

and educated amilies used abortions more reFuently prior to the policy chan)e and there ore the raction o children born into such amilies is li,ely to have risen once abortion $as made available.

%0 T1 as the combined ne)ative un$antedness e ect once ! have controlled or period o birth#

cro$din) and composition e ects# $hile the coe icient T0 measures possible cro$din) e ects.

5 "esults
5.% 8raphical analysis
The overall impact o the %&'' abortion ban in "omania on avera)e education outcomes o children can be easily captured in )raphs. :i)ure = sho$s the percenta)e o persons in a particular education or labor mar,et cate)ory $ho $ere born in a )iven month bet$een Ganuary %&'' and 6ecember %&'<. The pattern o educational and labor mar,et achievement is consistent $ith the vie$ that children born a ter the restrictive policy chan)e came into e ect have better outcomesA they are more li,ely to have @nished hi)h school and university and they are less li,ely to $or, in a 5ob reFuirin) only elementary s,ills and more li,ely to $or, in a 5ob reFuirin) hi)h s,ills. This apparently surprisin) result o superior educational and labor mar,et outcomes o children born a ter the abortion ban can be explained by chan)es in the composition o $omen havin) childrenA urban# educated $omen $or,in) in )ood 5obs $ere more li,ely to have abortions prior to the policy chan)e# so a hi)her proportion o children $ere born into urban# educated households a ter$ards. Table 2 presents evidence o the si3e and statistical si)ni@cance o these compositional chan)es usin) a simple comparison o means o parents. bac,)round variables that had children in the period Ganuary - October %&'+. The percenta)e o urban $omen $ho )ave birth bet$een Ganuary and 0ay $as =5I# $hereas the percenta)e or the period Gune to October $as ;2.2I. !n terms o the educational level# the proportion o mothers $ho )ave birth a ter the abortion ban came into e ect and had only primary education decreased rom ;&.;I to ;;.'I. :or $omen $ith secondary education the proportion increased rom ;+.' I to 52.%I. 4imilar

di erences can be observed in the educational level o child born durin) this ten-month period in %&'+.14
14Table

athers $ho had a

2 also presents evidence that the avera)e a)e at $hich $omen )ave birth chan)ed a ter the introduction o the policy# su))estin) that the ban on abortions a ected the optimal timin) o children.

%% :i)ure ; presents the same educational and labor mar,et outcomes as :i)ure =# but ta,es into account the composition chan)es. This @)ure plots avera)e residuals rom re)ressions a ter controllin) or parental bac,)round. . visual inspection reveals that children born a ter Gune o %&'+ are less li,ely to have attended hi)h school or university and more li,ely to have )raduated only rom an apprentice school# $hich is considered a less desirable alternative to hi)h school. The results are also reversed or labor mar,et outcomes# $ith e$er children born a ter Gune o %&'+ employed in 5obs reFuirin) hi)h s,ills.

5.2 "e)ression results

"esults o the children.s educational achievement or the basic eFuation B%C are in columns B%C and B2C o Table =. Column B%C presents estimates o Q1# the coe icient or the treatment dummy# usin) all children in the census sample born bet$een Ganuary and October %&'+. Column B2C also presents estimates o Q1# but only children or $hom ! have parental educational variables and household in ormation are included. .s mentioned earlier# ! have parental in ormation only or those children $ho are still livin) at home and thus could be matched to their parents. T$o main conclusions can be dra$n rom an analysis o columns B%C and B2C o Table =. :irst# the overall impact o the abortion ban on children.s subseFuent educational outcomes is lar)e and positive. 6urin) the ten-month period o study# children born a ter Gune $ere more li,ely to have @nished hi)h school and university. The si3e o this impact

Bsee column %C is lar)e# the discrete chan)e in the probability o @nishin) hi)h school is ;I B rom a mean o ;'IC and the chan)e in probability o )oin) to university is .'I B rom a mean o &.%IC. These results su))est that overall children born immediately a ter the abortion ban have better educational outcomes than those born immediately prior to the ban# indicatin) that the positive e ect due to chan)es in the composition o mothers havin) children more than out$ei)hs all the other ne)ative e ects that such a restriction mi)ht have had. 4econdly# a comparison o columns B%C and B2C sho$s that the si3e and si)ni@cance
!nterestin)ly# the avera)e a)e at birth increased or $omen $ith primary and secondary education and decreased or $omen $ith tertiary education.

%2 o the treatment e ects or the ull and restricted sample are similar. Children still livin) $ith their parents Band or $hom ! can recover parent bac,)round variablesC are on avera)e not a ected very di erently by the policy compared to the $hole population o children. Thus# ! eel com ortable proceedin) to the next step o the analysis usin) this sub-)roup to control or the composition o children born into amilies $ith di erent socio-economic characteristics. Columns B=C and B;C o Table = present the estimates o S1# the coe icient on the treatment dummy a ter controllin) or only the more exo)enous bac,)round variables Bcolumn =C and both bac,)round and household variables rom the reduced orm eFuation B2C. This coe icient can be interpreted as the ne)ative un$antedness e ect a ter controllin) or composition e ects. .s mentioned earlier# this combined un$antedness e ect could be caused by a variety o di erent theoretically plausible channels# and the present analysis cannot distin)uish bet$een them. The results in column B;C con@rm the existence o a lar)e and si)ni@cant ne)ative

un$antedness e ect. . ter controllin) or amily composition# the e ect o the abortion ban on the probability o attendin) hi)h school or university becomes ne)ative.13 The results are statistically si)ni@cant and substantively lar)e. The chan)e in the probability o @nishin) hi)h school is -%.+I B rom a mean o 5%.2IC and the chan)e in probability o @nishin) university is -%.5I B rom a mean o %=.2IC. .t the same time# the probability o )oin) to an apprentice school - considered in "omania the de ault and a less desirable alternative to hi)h-school - increases by 2.%I B rom a mean o 2=.2IC. Thus# it appears that# controllin) or amily bac,)round# children born a ter the introduction o the abortion ban have $orse educational outcomes. .s mentioned earlier# ! assume that any unobservable actors that mi)ht a ect outcomes o children are constant across individuals. 8iven the rou)h control variables available and the act that composition and un$antedness have opposite e ects in the "omanian case# ! believe that i anythin) the estimates on the e ect o un$antedness are lo$er bound estimates o the true e ect. .s mentioned earlier# one concern $ith the speci@cations used in columns B;C is that some o the controls or the children.s socio-economic bac,)round mi)ht have been a ected
13The

reversal o the direction o the association bet$een the abortion ban and child outcomes a ter controllin) or amily bac,)round is an example o 4impson.s paradox B4impson# %&5%C.

%= by the policy chan)e. !n particular# the unexpected birth o a child mi)ht a ect the household variables Bsuch as sFuare eet per occupantC. The re)ressions in columns B=C try to correct or this potential source o bias by usin) only control variables lar)ely determined at the time o birthA re)ion o birth dummies# urbanDrural dummy o birth or the child# and parents. education.20 4ince the results in column B=C# $hich the more exo)enous bac,)round variables are )enerally Fualitatively and Fuantitatively similar to

those in column B;C# the discussion o the results $ill ocus primarily on results in column B;C $hich include both set o controls. Table ; presents the results $hen conductin) the same tests but usin) labor mar,et variables instead o educational achievement as outcomes. !n the @rst column ! present the reduced orm estimates o eFuation B%C usin) the ull sample. 4imilar to the educational outcomes# the overall e ect o the abortion ban on type o employment is positive and lar)e. The children a ected by the policy chan)e $ere# as adults# less li,ely to $or, in elementary occupations Bby -0.'I rom a mean o '.;IC and more li,ely to $or, in 5obs reFuirin) a hi)h level o s,ill Bby 0.+I rom a mean o <.'IC. The second column o Table ; sho$s estimates rom the same re)ression as in column B%C but uses the restricted sample. The coe icients are similar to those in the previous column# althou)h as in the case o the educational outcomes# children livin) $ith their parents have some$hat better outcomes. !n columns B=C and B;C ! present results rom the estimation o reduced orm re)ression B2C# $hich includes di erent sets o controls. The results in column B;C su))est the existence o a ne)ative un$antedness e ect in the labor mar,et. . ter controllin) or amily bac,)round# the e ect o the abortion ban reduces the probability o $or,in) in a hi)h-s,ill 5obs rom &.%I to <.;I and the chan)e in probability o $or,in) in a 5ob reFuirin) intermediate-s,ill %.2I B rom a mean o <5.=IC.21 The e ect is potentially )reater since the census data records employment patterns very early in the career o the people ! study# $hen there is less variability in outcomes across individuals. The labor mar,et e ect is potentially a lo$er bound also due to reduced variability in
20:urthermore#

the inclusion o di erent sets o control variables does not a ect the basic results. !n all speci@cations the mother.s education seems to be the most po$er ul control or amily bac,)round. 21.dditional results not sho$n here used an alternative de@nition to create @ve broad occupational

dummy variables# $hich are broadly re7ectin) increasin) s,ill in employmentA B%C elementary occupations# B2C s,illed a)riculture# B=C clerical or sales# B;C production# and B5C mana)ers and pro essionals. The si3e and si)ni@cance o these results are similar to those ound in the hi)h s,illDintermediate s,ill re)ressions.

%; employment outcomes resultin) rom the exclusion o university )raduates rom the labor outcome re)ressions. The use o a later dataset $ould provide a much better settin) or loo,in) at labor mar,et e ects. !n particular the currently unreleased 2002 "omanian census $ould be a )ood data source# but by this time $e expect very e$ individuals to live $ith their parents.22

5.= Cro$din) e ects and robustness chec,s

Table 5 presents the results rom the extended rame$or, or schoolin) outcomes# includin) children born in %&'5 and %&''# the t$o years precedin) the policy chan)e. Column B;C o Table 5 con@rms the existence o lar)e cro$din) e ects in the educational mar,et. Children born in %&'+# $ho $ent to school $ith a cohort that $as more than t$ice as lar)e as the cohort o the previous year# experience lo$er educational achievementsA the probability o @nishin) hi)h-school and university decreases by =.&I and %.=I respectively# $hile the probability o @nishin) only apprentice school increased by %.+I B rom a mean o 2=IC. Table ' su))ests that cro$din) e ects in the labor mar,et are small at best. /hile the coe icients point in the ri)ht direction# they are small and statistically not si)ni@cant.20 The lar)er cro$din) e ects in schoolin) outcomes compared to labor mar,et outcomes are not surprisin). The structure o the school system entails that each a)e cohort is in a separate )rade# so the cro$din) e ects are potentially very lar)e. On the other hand# the labor mar,et does not have such a ti)ht ali)nment o 5obs to cohorts# so the cro$din) e ect is spread over the entire labor mar,et in "omania. The extended rame$or, can also be used to chec, the robustness o my main @ndin)s.

The estimates o T1# the coe icient or the treatment dummy# are broadly similar to the results rom the basic model. ! $e control or amily bac,)round# $e see that children
22One

Fuestion o interest concerns the e ects in educational and labor mar,et outcomes di er dependin) on the sex o the child# the urbanDrural place o birth# the re)ion o birth o the child and the education levels o the parents. !n re)ressions Bnot reported in the paperC# the interaction o these variables $ith the treatment dummy $ere )enerally small and insi)ni@cant. The only exception $as the interaction bet$een treatment and a emale dummy $hich is positive and si)ni@cant in the education re)ressions. !n other $ords# emale children $ere less li,ely than male children to su er the adverse conseFuences o the la$. 20The interpretation o the cro$din) e ect in the labor mar,et should be treated $ith care# since a)e e ects mi)ht play a si)ni@cant role especially at the be)innin) o the labor mar,et career o individuals. .)e e ects should be less o a concern or educational outcomes since most people in "omania have @nished )ettin) an education by a)e 25.

%5 born a ter the policy chan)e experience lo$er educational achievements. /hile the si3e o the ma)nitude o the probability o @nishin) apprentice school# hi)h school and university are very similar to those in Table =# in this speci@cation the estimate o the hi)h-school variable is no lon)er statistically di erent rom 0 at the 5I level. The labor mar,et outcomes reported in Table ' are some$hat smaller than my previous @ndin). -o$ever# they )enerally con@rm that# once ! control or possible compositional and cro$din) e ects# children born a ter the ban are less li,ely to $or, in hi)h-s,ill 5obs and more li,ely to $or, in intermediate-s,ill 5obs. Tables 5 and ' also con@rm that the e ects o bein) born in the period Gune %st to 4eptember %5th are )enerally very small. :inally# the results o the analysis are not sensitive to the len)th o the cohort o birth intervals used# to the inclusion o monthly time trends or to clusterin) the standard errors on the treatment dummy.

' Extensions

'.% The lon)-term ertility impact o the policy

This section uses census data rom "omania and -un)ary to measure the lon)-term e ect o "omania.s restrictive policies to$ards abortion and modern contraceptive methods on ertility levels in )eneral# as $ell as the di erential impact across educational )roups. The ma)nitude o the lon)-term ertility impact o this policy is important because my analysis so ar has provided evidence that excess ertility can ne)atively a ect children.s outcomes. Understandin) the lon)-term e ect o the policy across educational )roups is o interest# )iven that the chan)e in the composition o $omen $ho )ave birth had a si)ni@cant e ect on avera)e child outcomes. The %&&2 "omanian census as,ed $omen about the number o children ever born and thus or $omen $ho $ere over ;0 in %&&2 Bor born prior to %&52C this variable is a )ood proxy or li etime ertility. !n :i)ure 5# ! display the avera)e number o children by year o birth or $omen born bet$een %&00 and %&55. :or $omen born bet$een %&00 and %&=0 ! see a )radual and si)ni@cant decline in ertility# $hich is broadly consistent $ith the timin) o "omania.s rapid demo)raphic transition a ter /orld /ar !!. The ertility impact o the restrictive policy can be observed or $omen born a ter %&=0. /omen born %' around %&=0 $ere in the their late thirties in %&'+ and thus to$ards the end o their reproductive years at the time o the policy chan)e. !n contrast# the cohorts born around %&50 $ere in their late teens in %&'+ and thus spent basically all their ertile years under the restrictive re)ime. The di erence in ertility bet$een these t$o cohorts is lar)e Babout 0.; children or a 25I increaseC and is probably a lo$er bound o the supply side impact since "omania.s rapid economic development in this period probably decreased demand or children. :i)ure 5 also plots the mean number o children born to -un)arians livin)

in "omania B rom the %&&2 "omanian censusC and to the population in -un)ary B rom the %&&0 -un)arian censusC. -un)ary and the -un)arian population in "omania provide )ood comparison )roups# since -un)ary did not restrict access to birth control methods. :i)ure 5 sho$s the similar trend in ertility or -un)arians in both countries or $omen born prior to %&=0 and the diver)ence in ertility levels a ter$ards. :i)ure ' presents evidence o increases in the ertility di erential bet$een educated and uneducated $omen over time. The ertility di erential bet$een educated and uneducated $omen experienced a )radual decline over time or cohorts born prior to %&=0 ollo$ed by a )radual increase or cohorts born a ter$ards. The di erential almost doubled $hen cohorts born around %&=0 and %&50 are compared.21 Thus the short-run and lon)-run impacts o the policy $ere very di erent bet$een educational )roups since educated $omen had the lar)est ertility increases immediately a ter the introduction o the ban but experienced the smallest ertility increases durin) "omania.s 2= year lon) restrictive policy.29 !n a related paper BPop-Eleches# 2005C# ! use detailed reproductive microdata25 to provide an extensive analysis o the ertility impact o the "omanian pronatalist policy. 0y results su))est the si)ni@cant importance that birth control methods play in in7uencin) ertility levels and the e ect o education on ertility.
21The

relatively small number o uneducated -un)arians in the "omanian census sample and the inability to properly match educational levels bet$een the "omanian and -un)arian data prevented an analysis o ertility di erentials over time or the -un)arian population. 29This result is complementary to the @ndin)s o de/alFue B200;C# $ho sho$s the substantial evolution in the -!9Deducation )radient durin) an -!9D.!64 in ormation campai)n in U)anda. 25The main dataset used in that paper is the %&&= "omanian "eproductive -ealth 4urvey. ! am also usin) the %&&+ 0oldovan "eproductive -ealth 4urvey as a control.

%+

'.2 Early child outcomes and crime behavior

!n this section ! explore the e ect o the abortion ban on t$o other socioeconomic

variablesA early in ant outcomes and crime behavior. :i)ure + plots the in ant mortality rate and the late etal death rate in "omania over the period %&55-%&&5. The data clearly su))est that the introduction o the restrictive policy caused lar)e short-term increases in stillbirths and in in ant deaths. *et$een %&'' and %&'<# the in ant mortality rate increased by 2+I B rom ;'.' to 5&.5C and the late etal death rate increased in the year ollo$in) the introduction o the restrictive policy by 22I B rom %;.+ to %+.&C. .nother indication o the ne)ative impact o the policy chan)e is the similarly lar)e increase in lo$ birth $ei)hts durin) this period. The percenta)e o lo$ birth $ei)ht children increased bet$een %&'' and %&'+ rom <.%I to %0.'I. These results are consistent $ith the vie$ that un$antedness at conception ne)atively a ects early child outcomes. -o$ever# these results could also be explained by reduced access to pre and post-natal care due to possible cro$din) in hospitals and health clinics. (ext# ollo$in) the $or, o 6onohue and 2evitt B200%C or the United 4tates# ! turn to the e ects o the chan)e in abortion re)ime on crime behavior later in li e. The crime data27contain all the penal cases in the period %&&%-2000 prepared by the re)ional tribunal o 4ibiu county24 or the re)ional courts.23 :or each o the over %&00 penal cases# ! have basic in ormation about the type o crime committed and most importantly or my purpose# the year o birth o the persons. ! use this in ormation to construct year-a)e cells or cohorts born bet$een %&=% and %&<5# dividin) the number o crimes by the birth cohort population recorded at the %&&2 census. The empirical strate)y uses the ollo$in) re)ression rame$or,A B5C crimeit J U0 K U1 L a)ei K U2 L yeart K U0 L born '+ '&i K U1 L born a ter+0i K Ri# $here crimeit is a year-a)e crime rate# a)ei and yeart are a set o a)e and year
274ince

no )overnment a)ency collects crime statistics at the individual level or the $hole country# the best alternative $as to manually collect data rom ori)inal archival documents in one re)ion.

244ibiu#

one o "omania.s ;2 counties# is located in the center o the country. /ith a population o rou)hly hal a million inhabitants# 4ibiu is a medium si3ed county $ith an above avera)e level o socio-economic development. 23!n "omania# the re)ional tribunals $ith the help o the re)ional police prepare a detailed report or every penal crime comitted. This report is then sent to the re)ional courts $ho use this evidence to decide the cases.

%< dummies# born '+ '&i is an indicator i a cohort $as born bet$een %&'+ and %&'&# the three years o hi)h ertility. :inally born a ter+0i ta,es value % or cohorts born a ter %&+0. The basic idea is to loo, at the crime behavior o cohorts born a ter the policy chan)e a ter accountin) or possible a)e e ects and year e ects. The cohort o birth indicator or the period immediately ollo$in) the introduction o the policy B%&'+%&'&C should account or the stron) compositional chan)es described earlier# in addition to the ne)ative un$antedness e ect. The e ect o the policy chan)e on crime is potentially better measured or the cohorts born a ter %&+0# a )roup that is less in7uenced by chan)es in the composition o amilies havin) children. Column % o Table + provides re)ression results or the total crime rate# $hich are consistent $ith my earlier @ndin)s. The cohort %&'+-%&'& had an avera)e crime rate00 that $as 0.%2 lo$er than the avera)e crime rate o 0.<& or cohorts born prior to %&'+. -o$ever# cohorts born a ter %&+0 had a 0.= increase in their crime rate compared to the cohorts born prior to the policy chan)e. The ne)ative coe icient or the cohort %&'+-%&'& su))ests that the compositional chan)es have the stron)est e ect on crime behavior# 5ust as in the education and labor re)ressions. The positive and si)ni@cant coe icient or the cohorts born under the restrictive policy a ter %&+0 provides some su))estive evidence that cohorts born in a period $ithout access to

abortion mi)ht experience hi)her crime rates durin) adulthood. 4ince in the medium and lon)-run the policy disproportionately a ected disadvanta)ed $omen BPop-Eleches# 2002C# the increased criminality o cohorts born a ter %&+0 could be explained not 5ust by chan)es in the proportion o un$anted children but also by compositional actors.01 -o$ever# the present rame$or, cannot control or other time speci@c actors that mi)ht also have a ected the criminal behavior o cohorts born a ter %&+0. .s an example# these results could also be explained by increased criminal behavior o youn) people durin) the transition process.02
00The

crime rate eFuals the number o crimes per %000 residents in a )iven birth cohort. the compositional e ect o the ban on abortion or cohorts born a ter %&+0 mi)ht have a ne)ative e ect on crime rates# 5ust li,e in the U4 a ter "oe v. /ade B6onohue and 2evitt# 200%C. 02The results in Table + are $ea,ened and lose their statistical si)ni@cance in speci@cations that include a)e-speci@c trends.
01Thus

%&

+ Conclusion
This paper has used "omania.s unusual history o abortion le)islation to assess the impact o a chan)e in abortion re)ime on the socio-economic outcomes o children. On avera)e# children born a ter abortion became ille)al display better educational and labor mar,et achievements# and this outcome can be explained by a chan)e in the composition o amilies havin) childrenA urban# educated $omen $or,in) in )ood 5obs $ere more li,ely to have abortions prior to the policy chan)e# so a hi)her proportion o children $ere born into urban# educated households. 0oreover# the analysis sho$s that a ter controllin) or this type o compositional chan)es# the children born a ter the abortion ban had si)ni@cantly $orse schoolin) and labor mar,et outcomes. ! interpret this result as evidence o the existence o a ne)ative un$antedness e ect. The analysis also sho$s that cro$din) in schools# due to the lar)e increase in ertility immediately ollo$in) the

abortion ban# lo$ered educational achievements o the cohorts a ected. :inally# ! have provided some su))estive evidence consistent $ith the vie$ that cohorts born a ter the introduction o the abortion ban had in erior in ant outcomes and increased criminal behavior later in li e. /hile the present study has sho$n evidence o ne)ative developmental e ects caused by a chan)e in abortion policy# the relevance o these @ndin)s could be o a broader nature and does not have to re er strictly to abortion le)islation. The @ndin)s o this study may be relevant in many settin)s $here social# political or economic actors cause excess ertility# due to lac, o access to birth control methods. 20

"e erences

.n)rist# G. and Evans# /. B%&&&C# .4choolin) and 2abor 0ar,et ConseFuences o the %&+0 4tate .bortion "e orms.# "esearch in 2abor Economics# %<# +5-%%; . *ec,er# 8.# . Treatise on the :amily. Cambrid)e# 0.A -arvard University Press# %&<%. *ec,er# 8. and 2e$is# -.# .On the !nteraction bet$een the Nuantity and Nuality o Children.. Gournal o Political Economy# <%B2# pt. 2C# 42+&-42<<. *erelson# *. B%&+&C# ."omania.s %&'' .nti-.bortion 6ecreeA The 6emo)raphic Experience o the :irst 6ecade.# Population 4tudies# ==#2# 20&-222. *loomber)# 4 B%&<0C# .!n7uence o maternal distress durin) pre)nancy on postnatal development#. .cta Psychiatrica 4candinavica# '2# ;05-;%+. Charles# 1. and 4tephens# 0. B2002C# ..bortion 2e)ali3ation and .dolescent 4ubstance Use.# (*E" $or,in) paper# no. &%&=# Cambri)e# 0.. Corman# -. and 8rossman# 0. B%&<5C# .6eterminants o (eonatal 0ortality "ates in the U4A . "educed :orm 0odel#. Gournal o -ealth Economics# ;# 2%=-2='. 6avid -. P. eds B%&&&C# :rom .bortion to Contraception# 2ondonA 8reen$ood Press. 6avid -.P. and O. 0ate5ce, B%&<%C# .Children *orn to /omen 6enied .bortionA .n Update#. :amily Plannin) Perspectives# %=# =2-=;. 6avid -. P. B%&<'C# .Un$anted ChildrenA . :ollo$ Up rom Pra)ue.# :amily Plannin)

Perspectives# %<# %;=-%;;. de /alFue# 6. B200;C# .-o$ 6oes the !mpact o an -!9D.!64 !n ormation Campai)n 9ary $ith Educational .ttainmentE Evidence rom "ural U)anda.# /orld *an, Policy "esearch /or,in) Paper (o. =2<&. 6onohue G. G.# 8ro))er# G. and 4. 6. 2evitt B2002C# .The !mpact o 2e)ali3ed .bortion on Teen Childbearin).# University o Chica)o mimeo 6onohue G. G. and 4. 6. 2evitt B200%C# .The !mpact o 2e)ali3ed .bortion on Crime..# Nuarterly Gournal o Economics# %%'B2C# =+&-;20. 2% 6ytrych et al.B%&+5C# .Children *orn to /omen 6enied .bortion.# :amily Plannin) Perspectives# +# %'5-%+%. 8rossman# 0. and Gacobo$it3. B%&<%C# .9ariations in !n ant 0ortality "ates .mon) Counties o the United 4tatesA The "oles o Public Policies and Pro)rams#. 6emo)raphy# %<B;C# '&5-+%=. 8oldin# C. and 1at3# 2. B2002C# .The Po$er o the PillA Oral Contraceptives and /omen.s Career and 0arria)e 6ecisions#. # Gournal o Political Economy# %%0B;C# +=0++0. 8rossman# 0. and Goyce# T. B%&&0C# .Unobservables# Pre)nancy "esolutions# and *irth /ei)ht Production :unctions in (e$ >or, City#. Gournal o Political Economy# &<B5C# &<=-%00+. 8ruber# G. 2evine# P.*. and 4tai)er# 6. B%&&&C# ..bortion 2e)ali3ation and Child 2ivin) CircumstancesA /ho is the .0ar)inal ChildE.# Nuarterly Gournal o Economics# %%;B%CA 2'=-2&%. -ec,man# G. G. B%&+&C# .4ample 4election *ias as a 4peci@cation Error.# Econometrica# ;+B%CA %5=-%'%. Goyce# Th.B%&<5C# .The !mpact o !nduced .bortion on *irth Outcomes in the United 4tates.. (*E" $or,in) paper# no. %+5+# Cambri)e# 0.. 2e))e# G. B%&<5C# .bortion PolicyA .n Evaluation o the ConseFuences or 0aternal and !n ant -ealth# .lbanyA 4tate University o (e$ >or, Press. 2evine# P.*. 4tai)er# 8. 1ane# T.G. and Oimmerman# 6.G. B%&&&C# ."oe v. /ade and

.merican :ertility#. .merican Gournal o Public -ealth# <&B2C# %&&-20= Pop-Eleches# C. B2005C# .The 4upply o *irth Control0ethods# Education and :ertilityA Evidence rom "omania#. Columbia University mimeo "oy# .. B%&5%C# .4ome Thou)hts on the 6istribution o Earnin)s#. Ox ord Economic Papers# =#%=5-%;'. 22 4impson# E.-. B%&5%C# .The !nterpretation o !nteraction in Contin)ency Tables.# Gournal o the "oyal 4tatistical 4ociety# 4eries *# %=A 2=<-2;%. /orld *an, Country 4tudy. B%&&2C# "omaniaA -uman "esources and the Transition to a 0ar,et Economy. /ashin)ton# 6C. /orld *an,. B%&+<-%&&<C /orld 6evelopment "eport. (e$ >or,A Ox ord University Press or the /orld. 2=
+345!E #: T/TAL +E!T3L3T6 !ATES 7 789 # #89 : :89 ; ;89 < #$97 #$99 #$=7 #$=9 #$>7 #$>9 #$%7 #$%9 #$$7 #$$9 :777 6EA! T+! !omania A,era"e ?Bul"aria, un"ary, !ussia@ Abortion banned Abortion legali8ed "otes2 The total fertility rate is the average total n)#ber of births that wo)ld be born per wo#an in her lifeti#e, ass)#ing no #ortality in the childbearing ages, calc)lated fro# the age distrib)tion and age-specific fertility rates of a specified gro)p in a given reference period' <o)rce2 !" 3?>>?4' +345!E :: 0/AT L6 B3!T !ATES ' B3TAL STAT3ST31S AA* !E2!ESEATAT3/A 3AT E #$$: 1EAS5S SA02LE 7 #7777 :7777 ;7777 <7777 97777 =7777 >7777 ':7 '#9 '#7 '9 7 9 #7 #9 :7 0/AT /+ B3!T ?from Jan8 #$== to *ec8 #$=%@ A50BE! B/!A 0onthly Birth !ates Aumber of people in census C >89 Aumber of people in census li,in" with parents C #9 "otes2 This graph plots the n)#ber of persons born between $%CC and $%C& by #onth of birth' 6onth > refers to J)ne $%CD, the first #onth with large fertility increases d)e to the restrictive abortion policy' Also plotted are the n)#ber of persons born in the sa#e period incl)ded in the cens)s sa#ple 3scaled $2D'H4 and those in the cens)s sa#ple who still lives with their parents 3scaled $2$H4' <o)rce2 $%%? Ro#anian

50A!RE G2 ED!9AT0,"AL A"D LAB,R 6AR ET A9(0EVE6E"T< RA7 DATA

Notes$ This gra!h !lots average educational and labor mar#et achievements b" month of birth for !ersons

born between 1355 and 1354. Month 0 refers to Iune 1357& the first month with large fertilit" increases due to the restrictive abortion !olic". Variables are further defined in A!!endi) A. +ource$ 1332 /omanian Bensus.
.19 .22 .0
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

ane l A $ A ! ! re ntic e + c ho o l
.09 .19 .99
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

ane l B $ @ ig h + c ho o l o r m o re
.09 .1 .19
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l B $ : n iv e rs it" o r m o re
.00 .05 .03
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l < $ A le m e n ta r" s # ills

.4 .49 .3
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l A $ . n te rm e d ia te + # ills
.05 .03 .12
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l 6 $ @ ig h + # ills

50A!RE @2 ED!9AT0,"AL A"D LAB,R 6AR ET A9(0EVE6E"T< RE<0D!AL< A5TER 9,"TR,LL0"A 5,R :ARE"TAL BA9 AR,!"D
"otes2 This graph plots average resid)als fro# ed)cational and labor #ar+er o)tco#e regressions after controlling for parental bac+gro)nd by #onth of birth for persons born between $%CC and $%C&' 6onth > refers to J)ne $%CD, the first #onth with large fertility increases d)e to the restrictive abortion policy' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A' <o)rce2 $%%? Ro#anian 9ens)s'
%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

ane l A $ A ! ! re ntic e + c ho o l
%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

ane l B $ @ ig h + c ho o l o r m o re
%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l B $ : n iv e rs it" o r m o re
%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l < $ A le m e n ta r" + # ills

%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 14
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n . 1 3 5 5 to < e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l A $ . n te rm e d ia te + # ills
%.01 0 .01
ercent of total

%1 4 0 1 4
Mo n th o f b ir th 7 from Ia n. 1 3 5 5 to <e c . 1 3 5 4 8

a n e l 6 $ @ ig h + # ills
+345!E 9: +E!T3L3T6 LEBELS /+ D/0EA B/!A BETDEEA #$77'#$99
# #89 : :89 ; #$#9 #$:7 #$:9 #$;7 #$;9 #$<7 #$<9 #$97 #$99 6EA! /+ B3!T 1 3L*!EA EBE! B/!A ?0EAA@ !omania o,erall un"arians in !omania o,erall

un"ary o,erall

"otes2 This graph plots the average n)#ber of children born in Ro#ania by year of birth of the #other' <i#ilar data is shown for the ()ngarian #inority in Ro#ania and for ()ngary' ()ngary did not i#ple#ent a si#ilar restriction d)ring this ti#e period' <o)rce2 $%%? Ro#anian 9ens)s, $%%> ()ngarian 9ens)s'

+345!E =: +E!T3L3T6 LEBELS 3A !/0AA3A B6 E*51AT3/A

7

789 # #89 : :89 ; ;89 < #$#9 #$:7 #$:9 #$;7 #$;9 #$<7 #$<9 #$97 #$99
6EA! /+ B3!T 1 3L*!EA EBE! B/!A ?0EAA@

5neducated Educated *ifferential ?5neducated'Educated@ "otes2 This graph plots the average n)#ber of children born by year of birth of the #other and ed)cational level' <o)rce2 $%%? Ro#anian 9ens)s'
+345!E >: 3A+AAT 0/!TASL3T6 !ATE, LATE +ETAL *EAT !ATE, AA* L/D B3!T DE34 T !ATE 3A !/0AA3A ?#$99'#$$9@ 7 #7 :7 ;7 <7 97 =7 >7 %7 #$99 #$=7 #$=9 #$>7 #$>9 #$%7 #$%9 #$$7 #$$9 6EA! 3A+AAT 0/!TAL3T6 AA* LATE +ETAL *EAT !ATE 7 787: 787< 787= 787% 78# 78#: L/D B3!T DE34 T infant mortality rate late fetal death rate low birth wei"ht "otes2 This graph plots the infant #ortality rate, the late fetal death rate and the low birth weight rate for Ro#ania in the period $%HH-$%%H' <o)rce2 Aovern#ent of Ro#ania, <tatistical ,ffice'

Table $2 <)##ary statistics

0ull Sample Do not live .estricted sample 0ull Sample 0ull Sample .estricted Sample .estricted Sample *ependent Bariables (ith either (,ive (ith Diff. *ontrols Treatments Diff. *ontrols Treatments Diff. (#an.12ct. !345" parent both parents" (#an.1%a' !345" (#une12ct.!345" (#an.1%a' !345" (#une12ct.!345" 5e#ale 78<%# 78=:= 78;;# '78:$9CCC 78<>< 78<%< 7877$CC 78;#; 78;;$ 787:=CCC !rban 78;$> 78;<> 78<;= 787%$CCC 78;97 78<:# 787>:CCC 78;>< 78<=< 787%$CCC Apprentice <chool 78::= 78::: 78:;: 7877#CCC 78::: 78::% 7877=C 78:;# 78:;; 7877: 78<=7 78<:7 789#: 787$:CCC 78<;9 78<>: 787;%CCC 78<%< 789:9 787<#CCC !niversity or #ore 787$# 7879% 78#;: 787><CCC 787%> 787$; 7877=CC 78#:> 78#;; 7877= 787=< 787=% 7879= '787#:CCC 787=% 787=# '7877=CC 787=7 7879< '7877=C 78%97 78%<$ 78%9; 7877< 78%9# 78%97 '7877# 78%9: 78%9< 7877: (igh <+ills 787%= 787%; 787$# 7877%CCC 787%# 787%$ 7877>CCC 787%% 787$: 7877< ,bservations 99;;> :><#> ::%<> #%;;$ ;=$$% >#<> #9>77 ,bs' for Job Type <#%$% :7=<% #>;;9 #;%<7 :%79% 9<#= ##$#$ Notes$ The full sam!le contains !eo!le born between Ianuar" and Gctober of 1357. The restricted sam!le contains children living with both their !arents at the time of the census in 1332& for whom . could obtain basic socio%economic variables of their !arents. The !ersons born between Ianuar" and Ma" of 1357 are in the control grou!& while those born between Iune and Gctober are in the treatment grou!. J indicates statistical significance at the 10K level& JJ at 9K and JJJ at 1K for the difference in means.Variables are further defined in A!!endi) A. 1hild&s Job Type Ele#entary <+ills 0nter#ediate <+ills 4ender of 1hild 2lace of Birth 1hild&s Education

(igh <chool or #ore

Table ?2 <election effects of the change in abortion legislation2 co#parison of #eans

*ontrol Group Treatment Group (#an.1%a' !345" (#une12ctober !345" Difference !rban 78;97 78<:: 787>#CCC ,bservations $%$HC G&@%@ :ri#ary 78<$< 78<<= '787<%CCC <econdary 78<>= 789:# 787<9CCC Tertiary 787;7 787;; 7877; ,bservations &@HG $&DG? :ri#ary 78;>7 78;:; '787<>CCC <econdary 789>= 78=#; 787;%CCC Tertiary 78799 787=< 7877$CCC ,bservations DHD@ $CC>$ :ri#ary :$8#%% :$8<$> 78;7$CCC <econdary :98%>< :=8<9: 789>%CCC Tertiary :%8><; :>8$=$ '78>><CC ,bservations &@HG $&DG?
"otes2 The sa#ple contains parents who had children born between Jan)ary and ,ctober of $%CDand living at ho#e at the ti#e of the cens)s in $%%?' The 9ontrol Aro)p contains people born between Jan)ary and 6ay $%CD' The Treat#ent Aro)p contains people born between J)ne - ,ctober $%CD' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P for the difference in #eans' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A'

2lace of Birth of 1hild 0other&s i"hest Educational Le,el 0other&s A"e at Birth by Education +ather&s i"hest Educational Le,el

Table G 2 Ed)cational achieve#ents for cohorts born between Jan)ary and ,ctober $%CD
*ependent Bariables 0ull .estricted .estricted .estricted Sample Sample Sample Sample (!" (2" (6" (7" Apprentice School Treat#ent d)##y 7877=<;C 7877#$$ 787#$=7CCC 787:#;<CCC 3>'>>GDC4 3>'>>C>?4 3>'>>HC>4 3>'>>HHC4 ,bserved probability 8::= 8:;: 8:;: 8:;: i"h School or more Treat#ent d)##y 787;>%$CCC 787<#<9CCC '78779=9 '787#>#;CC 3>'>>@@%4 3>'>>D$G4 3>'>>D%H4 3>'>>&$C4 ,bserved probability 8<= 89#: 89#: 89#: 5ni,ersity or more Treat#ent d)##y 78779>;CC 7877=## '787#:;:CCC '787#<>7CCC 3>'>>?HD4 3>'>>@D%4 3>'>>@>H4 3>'>>G%?4 ,bserved probability 87$# 8#;: 8#;: 8#;:

,bservations HHGGD ??&@D ??&@D ??&@D Bac+gro)nd controls ", ", .E< .E< (o)sehold controls ", ", ", .E<
"otes2 The table presents the res)lts of probit regressions' 5or contin)o)s variables, the coefficient esti#ates represent the #arginal effect of variables eval)ated at their #ean- for d)##y variables the coefficients capt)re the effect of switching the val)e fro# > to $' The sa#ple contains people born between Jan)ary and ,ctober of $%CD' The dependent variables are @ ed)cational achieve#ent d)##ies' The treat#ent d)##y is $ for people born after J)ne of $%CD, > otherwise' The bac+gro)nd controls incl)ded are2 ? ed)cational d)##ies of #other, ? ed)cational d)##ies of father, )rban d)##y for place of birth of child, d)##y for se1 of child and @C region of birth d)##ies' The ho)sehold controls are2 ho#eownership, roo#s per occ)pant, s)rface area per occ)pant, availability of toilet, bath, +itchen, gas, sewage, heating, water' The f)ll sa#ple refers to all individ)als in a given cohort incl)ded in the cens)s sa#ple' The restricted sa#ple refers to those individ)als in the cens)s sa#ple who live with their parents at the ti#e of the cens)s' Rob)st standard errors are shown below the coefficients in parentheses' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P'

Table @ 2 Labor #ar+et o)tco#es for cohorts born between Jan)ary and ,ctober $%CD
*ependent Bariables 0ull .estricted .estricted .estricted Sample Sample Sample Sample (!" (2" (6" (7" Elementary Skills Treat#ent d)##y '7877=<<CC '7877=7% '7877:%> '7877#=> 3>'>>?HD4 3>'>>G&@4 3>'>>GHC4 3>'>>G@@4 ,bserved probability 87=< 879= 879= 879= 3ntermediate Skills Treat#ent d)##y '78777$% 7877#%= 787#:#<CC 787#:<#CC 3>'>>GD>4 3>'>>H&$4 3>'>>H&?4 3>'>>H&G4 ,bserved probability 8%97 8%9; 8%9; 8%9; i"h Skills Treat#ent d)##y 7877><:CCC 7877<:: '7877=;$ '7877>:$C 3>'>>?&&4 3>'>>@C&4 3>'>>@$?4 3>'>>@>@4 ,bserved probability 87%= 87$# 87$# 87$# ,bservations @$&%& $DGGH $DGGH $DGGH Bac+gro)nd controls ", ", .E< .E< (o)sehold controls ", ", ", .E<
"otes2 The table presents the res)lts of probit regressions' 5or contin)o)s variables, the coefficient esti#ates represent the #arginal effect of variables eval)ated at their #ean- for d)##y variables the coefficients capt)re the effect of switching the val)e fro# > to $' The sa#ple contains people born between Jan)ary and ,ctober of $%CD' The dependent variables are G s+ill speciali8ation d)##ies based 0<9, && occ)pational codes' The treat#ent d)##y is $ for people born after J)ne of $%CD, > otherwise' The bac+gro)nd controls incl)ded are2 ? ed)cational d)##ies of #other, ? ed)cational d)##ies of father, )rban d)##y for place of birth of child, d)##y for se1 of child and @C

region of birth d)##ies' The ho)sehold controls are2 ho#eownership, roo#s per occ)pant, s)rface area per occ)pant, availability of toilet, bath, +itchen, gas, sewage, heating, water' The f)ll sa#ple refers to all individ)als in a given cohort incl)ded in the cens)s sa#ple' The restricted sa#ple refers to those individ)als in the cens)s sa#ple who live with their parents at the ti#e of the cens)s' Rob)st standard errors are shown below the coefficients in parentheses' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P'

Table H 2 Ed)cational achieve#ents for cohorts born in $%CH-$%CD

*ependent Bariables 0ull .estricted .estricted .estricted Sample Sample Sample Sample (!" (2" (6" (7" Apprentice School Treat#ent d)##y 78779$9 7877>77 787#>>:C 787#$=$CC 3>'>>H%>4 3>'>>%%D4 3>'>>%HH4 3>'>>%H?4 9rowding d)##y 7877$<<CC 7877$=# 787#==;CC 787#=>9CC 3>'>>@@?4 3>'>>D@D4 3>'>>D>@4 3>'>>D>>4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y 7877;#: '7877:=< 7877<<% 7877<;7 3>'>>G%@4 3>'>>D>G4 3>'>>CC$4 3>'>>CHC4 ,bserved probability 8::7 8:;7 8:;7 8:;7 i"h School or more Treat#ent d)##y 787:%=$CCC 787:;7%CC '787#:=$ '787:#$>C 3>'>>D>D4 3>'>$$DD4 3>'>$G$@4 3>'>$GH$4 9rowding d)##y '787#%;#CCC '787#;#: '787;%:;CCC '787;%99CCC 3>'>>HG>4 3>'>>&&&4 3>'>>%&D4 3>'>$>$C4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y 7877<># 787##77 '7877:=# '7877;=; 3>'>>@D?4 3>'>>&?%4 3>'>>%?@4 3>'>>%@&4 ,bserved probability 8<9% 897= 897= 897= 5ni,ersity or more Treat#ent d)##y 7877;>< '7877#;# '787#<7%CC '787#>9%CCC 3>'>>@$C4 3>'>>&>H4 3>'>>C>%4 3>'>>HCH4 9rowding d)##y '7877<;> '7877>9# '787#9##CCC '787#:=$CCC 3>'>>G$>4 3>'>>C$@4 3>'>>@&&4 3>'>>@C@4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y 7877#%9 7877>%# 787779; 7877::; 3>'>>?DG4 3>'>>HH%4 3>'>>@@$4 3>'>>@$G4 ,bserved probability 87$: 8#;9 8#;9 8#;9 ,bservations &@H>& G>CHD G>CHD G>CHD Bac+gro)nd controls ", ", .E< .E< (o)sehold controls ", ", ", .E<
"otes2 The table presents the res)lts of probit regressions' 5or contin)o)s variables, the coefficient esti#ates represent the #arginal effect of variables eval)ated at their #ean- for d)##y variables the coefficients capt)re the effect of switching the val)e fro# > to $' The sa#ple contains people born between Jan)ary-April and J)ne-<ept'$Hth of $%CH$%CD' The dependent variables are @ ed)cational achieve#ent d)##ies' The treat#ent d)##y is $ for people born after J)ne of $%CD, > otherwise' The crowding d)##y is $ for people born in $%CD, > otherwise' The J)ne<epte#ber d)##y is $ for people born between J)ne and <ept' $Hth, > otherwise' The bac+gro)nd controls incl)ded are2 ?

ed)cational d)##ies of #other, ? ed)cational d)##ies of father, )rban d)##y for place of birth of child, d)##y for se1 of child and @C region of birth d)##ies' The ho)sehold controls are2 ho#eownership, roo#s per occ)pant, s)rface area per occ)pant, availability of toilet, bath, +itchen, gas, sewage, heating, water' The f)ll sa#ple refers to all individ)als in a given cohort incl)ded in the cens)s sa#ple' The restricted sa#ple refers to those individ)als in the cens)s sa#ple who live with their parents at the ti#e of the cens)s' Rob)st standard errors are shown below the coefficients in parentheses' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P'

Table C 2 Labor #ar+et o)tco#es for cohorts born in $%CH-$%CD

*ependent Bariables 0ull .estricted .estricted .estricted Sample Sample Sample Sample (!" (2" (6" (7" Elementary Skills Treat#ent d)##y '7877=#9 '7877<>% '7877;;7 '7877:$> 3>'>>G&H4 3>'>>C>%4 3>'>>H&?4 3>'>>HC@4 9rowding d)##y 7877#<9 78777:: 7877#<: 7877#:% 3>'>>?%C4 3>'>>@C@4 3>'>>@G%4 3>'>>@?@4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y '78777#< '7877#=# '7877##9 '78777%; 3>'>>?CH4 3>'>>@G&4 3>'>>@$C4 3>'>>@>$4 ,bserved probability 87=< 879> 879> 879> 3ntermediate Skills Treat#ent d)##y '7877=7; '787779> 7877%#7 7877%## 3>'>>H%$4 3>'>>%H>4 3>'>>%$G4 3>'>>%$G4 9rowding d)##y 7877$9=CC '78777>< 7877:#< 7877:99 3>'>>@G&4 3>'>>D$@4 3>'>>C%@4 3>'>>C%@4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y 7877;=# 7877#<9 7877:%= 7877:$9 3>'>>G&%4 3>'>>CD>4 3>'>>CH?4 3>'>>CH$4 ,bserved probability 8%<$ 8%9= 8%9= 8%9= i"h Skills Treat#ent d)##y 787#:=%CCC 78779:$ '7877;=% '7877<#; 3>'>>@&?4 3>'>>DDC4 3>'>>C?D4 3>'>>C>G4 9rowding d)##y '787##:;CCC 787779: '7877;$: '7877<7# 3>'>>G@&4 3>'>>HD&4 3>'>>@&>4 3>'>>@C@4 J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y '7877;<= 78777:7 '78777;= '78777#9 3>'>>G>D4 3>'>>H@$4 3>'>>@H>4 3>'>>@G?4 ,bserved probability 87%> 87%> 87%> 87%> ,bservations C@>>? ?G??G ?G??G ?G??G Bac+gro)nd controls ", ", .E< .E< (o)sehold controls ", ", ", .E<
"otes2 The table presents the res)lts of probit regressions' 5or contin)o)s variables, the coefficient esti#ates represent the #arginal effect of variables eval)ated at their #ean- for d)##y variables the coefficients capt)re the effect of switching the val)e fro# > to $' The sa#ple contains people born between Jan)ary-April and J)ne<ept'$Hth of $%CH-$%CD' The dependent variables are G s+ill speciali8ation d)##ies based 0<9, && occ)pational codes' The treat#ent d)##y is $ for people born after J)ne of $%CD, > otherwise' The crowding d)##y is $ for people born in $%CD, > otherwise' The J)ne-<epte#ber d)##y is $ for people born between J)ne and <ept' $Hth, > otherwise' The bac+gro)nd controls incl)ded are2 ? ed)cational d)##ies of #other, ? ed)cational d)##ies of

father, )rban d)##y for place of birth of child, d)##y for se1 of child and @C region of birth d)##ies' The ho)sehold controls are2 ho#eownership, roo#s per occ)pant, s)rface area per occ)pant, availability of toilet, bath, +itchen, gas, sewage, heating, water' The f)ll sa#ple refers to all individ)als in a given cohort incl)ded in the cens)s sa#ple' The restricted sa#ple refers to those individ)als in the cens)s sa#ple who live with their parents at the ti#e of the cens)s' Rob)st standard errors are shown below the coefficients in parentheses' Variables are f)rther defined in Appendi1 A' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P'

Table D 2 9ri#e behavior in <ibi), Ro#ania

*ependent Bariables Total crime *rime against persons 8ropert' crime 2ther crimes (!" (2" (6" (7" dummy for birth?#$=>'#$=$@ '78##= '787$9 7879$ 7877# 3>'$>?4 3>'>CH4 3>'>HG4 3>'>HC4 dummy for birth?after #$>7@ 78;7#CC 787%% 78:;:CCC 78::#CCC 3>'$?@4 3>'>%H4 3>'>&$4 3>'>D$4 Age d)##ies incl)ded yes yes yes yes Ti#e controls incl)ded year d)##ies year d)##ies year d)##ies year d)##ies Avg' cri#e rate for $%CD-C% cohort >'DD >'GC >'?C >'?& ,bservations HH> HH> HH> HH> R-s;)ared >'C@ >'H? >'H@ >'@&
"otes2 The dataset contains all the penal cases /)dged by the <ibi) trib)nal in the period $%%$-?>>>' .ear-birth cohort cells were constr)cted for all cohorts born between $%G$-$%&H' The cri#e rate e;)als the n)#ber of cri#es per $>>> residents in a given birth cohort, based on data fro# the $%%? cens)s' The restrictive abortion policy ca#e into effect in 6ay $%CD and e1perienced three years of )n)s)ally large fertility 3$%CD-$%C%4' <tandard errors are cl)stered at the year of birth level and shown below the coefficients in parentheses' F indicates statistical significance at the $>P level, FF at HP and FFF at $P'

Appendi- A: *efinition of the ,ariables

This table describes the variables fro# the $%%? Ro#anian cens)s )sed in this st)dy'
#8 *ependent ,ariables: Educational achie,ements2 Ro#aniaNs ed)cational syste# is organi8ed as follows2 after & years of pri#ary school, which virt)ally all children attend, a st)dent has the choice to go to high-school for fo)r years or to go to an apprentice school' The apprentice schools, which rese#ble the vocational schools in other E)ropean co)ntries, are also @ years long and they co#bine for#al schooling with on /ob practical training b)t do not allow a st)dent to apply for a )niversity degree' ,nly grad)ates of high-schools are allowed to apply to )niversities' *efinition of education ,ariables2 $pprentice School O this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al has grad)ated fro# an apprentice school, > otherwise High School or moreO this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al has grad)ated fro# high school, > otherwise' Th)s, this variable incl)des those individ)als who received tertiary ed)cation 9niversit' or more O this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al has grad)ated fro# )niversity or a postgrad)ate school or is c)rrently enrolled in )niversity, > otherwise' 9)rrent enroll#ent in )niversity is defined as having a high school degree and being c)rrently in enrolled in school' Labor market outcomes2 The labor #ar+et o)tco#es refer to those individ)als c)rrently e#ployed in one of the fo)r #a/or 0<9, s+ill Aro)ps' The 0<9, 30nternational <tandard 9lassification of ,cc)pations4 codes classify /obs with respect to the type of wor+ perfor#ed and the s+ill level re;)ired to carry o)t the tas+s and d)ties of the occ)pations' The 0<9, is the standard classification of the 0nternational Labor ,rgani8ation 30L,4' <ince a si8eable fraction of individ)als were still enrolled in )niversity at the ti#e of the s)rvey, individ)als with a )niversity degree or those c)rrently enrolled in )niversity were dropped fro# the labor #ar+et regressions' *efinition of labor market ,ariables2 :lementar' s)illsO this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al is e#ployed at the ti#e of the cens)s in an

0<9, s+ill level $ occ)pation, > if e#ployed in a different s+ill level occ)pation' +ntermediate s)illsO this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al is e#ployed at the ti#e of the cens)s in an 0<9, s+ill level ? occ)pation, > if e#ployed in a different s+ill level occ)pation' High s)illsO this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al is e#ployed at the ti#e of the cens)s in an 0<9, s+ill level G or @ occ)pation, > if e#ployed in a different s+ill level occ)pation' :8 3ndependent ,ariables: Educational achie,ements of parents2 Secondar' :ducation O this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al has grad)ated fro# secondary school 3either high school or apprentice school4, > otherwise' Tertiar' :ducation O this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al has tertiary ed)cation , > otherwise' ousehold ,ariables ?refer to endowment of household at the time of the census in #$$:@ 2 Homeo(nership O this variable ta+es val)e $ if a ho)sehold owns the ho#e where it lives at the ti#e of the cens)s, > otherwise' .ooms per occupantO this variable #eas)res the n)#ber of roo#s in the ho)sehold per n)#ber of ho)sehold #e#bers at the ti#e of the cens)s' Surface area per occupantO this variable #eas)res the s)rface area 3#eas)red in s;)are #eters4 in the ho)sehold per n)#ber of ho)sehold #e#bers at the ti#e of the cens)s' Toilet O this variable ta+es val)e ? if a ho)sehold has a toilet inside the dwelling )nit, $ if a ho)sehold has a toilet o)tside the dwelling )nit, > if a ho)sehold has no toilet &athO this variable ta+es val)e ? if a ho)sehold has a bath inside the dwelling )nit, $ if a ho)sehold has a bath o)tside the dwelling )nit, > if a ho)sehold has no bath' ;itchenO this variable ta+es val)e ? if a ho)sehold has a +itchen inside the dwelling )nit, $ if a ho)sehold has a +itchen o)tside the dwelling )nit, > if a ho)sehold has no +itchen' GasO this variable ta+es val)e $ if a ho)sehold has access to gas for coo+ing in the ho)sehold, > otherwise Se(ageO this variable ta+es val)e $ if a ho)sehold is connected to a sewerage syste#, > otherwise HeatingO this variable ta+es val)e $ if a ho)sehold has central heating in the ho)sehold, > otherwise /aterO this variable ta+es val)e $ if a ho)sehold has access to hot water in the ho)sehold, > otherwise /ther ,ariables2 9rban O this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al was born in a )rban area, > otherwise' SexO this variable ta+es val)e $ if an individ)al is fe#ale, > otherwise' .egion of birthO these are a set of @D region of birth d)##ies' 0ertilit' O the n)#ber of live births born to a fe#ale respondent at the ti#e of the $%%? cens)s

Atitudini i percepii privind ntreruperile sarcinilor nedorite n Romnia i responsabilitile autoritilor http://www ipp ro/pa!ini/atitudini-"#$i-percep"##ii-privind php
Bucureti, 18 aprilie 2012 L <e !e locul al 1%lea Mn clasamentul NOrilor :niunii
Auro!ene la nivelul anului 2010& cu o medie Mntre 090 % 100 Mntreru!eri de sarcinO !e Pi& /omQnia se confruntO Mn !rePent cu o serioasO !roblemO constQnd Mn numOrul Mngri*orOtor al Mntreru!erilor sarcinilor nedorite& acesta stagnQnd Mn ultimii ani Mn *urul cifrei de 100.000 % 124.000 !e an. 6a!tul cO 41K dintre femeile fertile& !artici!ante la cel mai recent sonda* naNional realiPat de . & !rin diviPia sa s!ecialiPatO de cercetare de teren& considerO cO statul trebuie s se implice mai mult n prevenire sarcinilor nedorite aratO indubitabil cQt de !uNinO res!onsabilitate MRi asumO femeile Mn aceastO !rivinNO !e fondul unei educaNii insuficiente Ri chiar ineficiente cu !rivire la !lanningul familial Ri sOnOtatea re!roducerii Mn /omQnia. :n !rocent Mngri*orOtor de 13K dintre femeile fertile din /omQnia declarO& Mn 2012& cO nu au beneficiat de vreo form de educaie sexual sau a reproducerii.

Sn conte)tul interesului tot mai crescut atQt al statului romQn de a cre te natalitatea dar i al unor gru!uri religioase de a MngrOdi dre!tul la avort !rin mOsuri administrative& .nstitutul !entru olitici ublice 7. 8 ini iaPO astOPi seria de analiPe !rivind Atitudini i percepii privind ntreruperile sarcinilor nedorite n Romnia i responsabilitile autoritilor !rin lansarea rePultatelor unui sondaj naional !rivind atitudinile i com!ortamentul femeilor fertile din /omQnia fa O de Mntreru!erile de sarcinO 7caietul de sonda* este ataat acestui comunicat8. Bercetarea lansatO de . este finan atO cu s!ri*inul Merc# +har! T <ohme 7M+<8 /omQnia Ri s%a desfORurat Mn !erioada 24 februarie % 10 martie 2012 !rin o!eratorii . <ATA /A+AA/B@& diviPia de cercetOri i studii de !iaO a .nstitutului !entru olitici ublice din Bucure ti& !e un eantion re!rePentativ !entru !o!ula ia de femei fertile 14%13 ani& avQnd o eroare toleratO de UF%0K.

6emeile din eRantionul cercetOrii . & re!rePentative la nivel naNional& au Mn general un nivel scOPut de educaNie se)ualO res!ectiv Mn domeniul sOnOtONii re!roducerii Ri cunosc Mn general foarte !uNin des!re efectele folosirii mi*loacelor de contrace!Nie. Sn locul asumOrii de res!onsabilitONi !e baPa accesOrii cQt mai multor informaNii& ele aRte!tO ca statul s fac mai mult. 15K din res!ondentele la sonda* !retind cO nu ar fi Mngri*orate cO ar !utea rOmQne MnsOrcinate fOrO sO MRi doreascO. <e altfel 05K dintre femei declarO cO au avut cel !uin un avort iar !otrivit rOs!unsurilor oferite& o femeie din !atru de !este 00 ani a fOcut cel !u in un avort 7numOrul femeilor cu vQrste cu!rinse Mntre 14 % 02 de ani ce au realiPat Mntreru!eri de sarcinO este totuRi Mn scOdere faNO de cercetOri similare din anii !recedenNi8.

Sngri*orOtor !entru res!onsabilitatea fiecOreia faNO de controlul stOrii de sOnOtate este Ri !rocentul de 17K al celor care s!un cO au fOcut un control inecolo ic mai rar de o dat pe an . VMai grav& 9K s!un cO nu au fost niciodatO la un control de s!ecialitate& ceea ce este Mngri*orOtor !entru starea de sOnOtate a femeilor& de unde Ri incidenNa tot mai mare a caPurilor de cancer de col uterin-& a!reciaPO rof. <r. /adu VlOdOreanu& Weful Blinicii de GbstetricO >inecologie de la +!italul Alias din BucureRti& e)!ert Mn !rePenta echi!O de cercetare coordonatO de . .

Acest nivel scOPut de educaNie !rivind sOnOtatea re!roducerii ar trebui sO stea Mn atenNia atQt a autoritONilor e)ecutive cQt Ri a !arlamentarilor care iniNiaPO idei !rivind limitarea Mntreru!erilor de sarcinO !rin mOsuri administrative& mani!ulative !e care . le%a Ri criticat recent.

<eRi marea lor ma*oritate 757K8 !retind cO tiu suficient Mn legOturO cu metodele de !revenire a sarcinilor nedorite dar cO nu le folosesc 714K nu folosesc !rePervativ& 95K nu folosesc anticonce!Nionale8& un !rocent de 92K din cele ce nu au folosit mi*loace contrace!tive afirmO cO a au!it des!re reacii adverse pe care anticoncepionalele orale le"ar produce . VBa medic s!ecialist Mn endocrinologie& recomand femeilor sO se documentePe Ri sO caute informaNii de la s!ecialist. <in !Ocate Mn acest moment ele susNin cO acceseaPO informaNii de s!ecialitate !rin fa!tul cO urmOresc la televiPor un !retins s!ecialist sau folosesc !Orerile unor cunoRtinNe care la rQndul lor au fost la medic !entru !ro!ria !roblemO-& considerO Bonf. <r. BOtOlina oianO& medic Andocrinolog& .nstitutul de Andocrinologie C#$# %ar&on din BucureRti& e)!ert im!licat de . Mn !rePenta cercetare.

<ovada fa!tului cO femeile nu au cunoRtinNele necesare Mn acest domeniu Ri ca atare nu au o !Orere formatO !e baPa unor minime cunoRtinNe vine Ri din !rocentul a!roa!e egal al celor care fie considerO cO folosirea unui mi*loc contrace!tiv nu a avut niciun efect asu!ra vieNii de cu!lu 790K8 fie cO a MmbunOtONit%o 717K8. <e altfel 12K dintre femei cred Mn !rePent cO !artenerii lor nu ar fi de acord ca acestea sO foloseascO anticonce!Nionale. roblema sOnOtONii re!roducerii nu !riveRte e)clusiv femeile ci viaNa de cu!lu astfel cO orice cam!anie de informare !ublicO care ar trebui demaratO cQt mai curQnd& Mn o!inia .nstitutului !entru olitici ublice& trebuie sO Mi !riveascO !e ambii !arteneri. VAste un a!el cOtre autoritONile din /omQnia !e care Mn calitate de reRedinte al +ocietONii NaNionale de Medicina 6amiliei Ml fac !entru tratarea Mn !rimul rQnd a cauPelor acestor fenomene cum a a*uns sO fie cel al Mntreru!erilor sarcinilor nedorite& afirmO reRedinte +NM/& <r. /odica TOnOsescu !rePentO la conferinNa de !resO a . .

AceastO cercetare& demaratO chiar Mn conte)tul controverselor legate de recente ini iative legislative menite sO condiionePe efectuarea unei Mntreru!eri de sarcinO de !artici!area la edine de consiliere& se constituie inclusiv Mntr%un a!el cOtre autoritO i !entru a se organiPa dePbateri !ublice Mn BucureRti Ri Mn NarO !e aceastO temO astfel ca femeile din /omQnia& cOrora li se a!licO orice lege !rivind Mntreru!erea de sarcinO& sO fie cQt mai larg consultate1[1].

AnaliPele sociologice de ti!ul celei lansatO de cOtre . trebuie sO determine institu iile res!onsabile Mn !olitici de sOnOtate din /omQnia sO ia de urgen O mOsuri !entru gestionarea cores!unPOtoare a fenomenului Mngri*orOtor !rivind Mntreru!erile sarcinilor nedorite Mn /omQnia& au a!reciat inclusiv e)!erNii im!licaNi Mn cercetare& anume <r. /odica TOnOsescu& reRedintele +ocietONii Naionale de Medicina 6amilieiFMedicinO >eneralO din /omQnia& Bonf. <r. BOtOlina oianO& medic Andocrinolog& .nstitutul de Andocrinologie C#$# %ar&on din BucureRti Ri rof. <r. /adu VlOdOreanu& Weful Blinicii de GbstetricO >inecologie de la +!italul Alias din BucureRti.

%ro-choice or pro-li&e' (riminalisation doesn)t wor*

Eli8abeth 6athews This article was p)blished in ,iving :thics2 iss)e D& s)##er ?>>% Regardless of whether yo) s)pport or oppose abortion, its cri#inalisation fails to address the root ca)ses of )nwanted pregnancy and is instead r)ining yo)ng lives, writes Eli8abeth 6athews' :anic' 5ear' 0solation' These #a+e )p the roller coaster of e#otions #any wo#en e1perience when they discover they have an )nwanted pregnancy' Life plans are discarded, pic+ed )p and then thrown aside again /)st as ;)ic+ly as indecision r)ns riot in an area where decisions are all too final' Earlier this year, Tegan Leach, $%, and her boyfriend, <ergie Brennan, ?$, both fro# 9airns, went thro)gh this )nbelievably diffic)lt process and ca#e to a decision' The W)eensland co)ple decided they did not want to contin)e with the pregnancy' <o <ergie organised for the abortion dr)gs 6ilofian and 6isoprostol to be bro)ght to A)stralia and Tegan too+ the#, ind)cing a #iscarriage' !nfort)nately for Tegan and <ergie, W)eenslandNs 9ri#inal 9ode #a+es an abortion lawf)l only where it is perfor#ed by a doctor and where there is a serio)s ris+ to the physical or #ental health of the #other' That #eans that this co)ple are now facing the prospect of years behind bars when they sho)ld be en/oying the best years of their life' tegan has s)ffered eno)gh already witho)t a prison sentence r)nning another wrec+ing ball thro)gh her life 5ran+ly, 0 do not believe this was the best, or even an appropriate response to the actions of a frightened yo)ng wo#an' Tegan has s)ffered eno)gh already witho)t a prison sentence r)nning another wrec+ing ball thro)gh her life' W)eensland needs, for once, to be a leader in law refor# and follow in the footsteps of Victoria in decri#inalising abortion'

"ow, let #e #a+e #yself clear' This is not an article abo)t whether abortion is good or bad or whether people sho)ld be pro-choice or pro-life or pro-anything else' This is abo)t whether the response we have in place right now achieves anything at all, no #atter which ca#p yo) fall into' <o what e1actly is the /)stification for o)r present laws* The #ain reason )s)ally given by the #a/ority in :arlia#ent who s)pport the# is that they act as a deterrent to increasing abortion rates' (owever, there see#s to be little e#pirical evidence to bac+ )p this rationale' 5irstly, cri#inalisation doesnNt address the root ca)ses of abortion' According to a ?>>H st)dy in :erspectives on <e1)al and Reprod)ctive (ealth, the top reasons wo#en in the !nited <tates chose to ter#inate their pregnancies incl)ded interference with their wor+, ed)cation or ability to care for dependants 3D@P4, financial constraints 3DGP4 and the prospect of single #otherhood or relationship proble#s 3@&P4' <)rely, a #ore effective #eans of red)cing abortion rates wo)ld be to address these iss)es, rather than p)nishing wo#en after the fact' Loo+ing at these n)#bers, it see#s that advocates of the c)rrent laws wo)ld be better served by pro#oting paid #aternity leave, better s)pport for schoolage #)#s and eli#inating the social stig#a of single #otherhood than s)pporting prison sentences' <econdly, re#oving the c)rrent laws wo)ld not necessarily res)lt in any increase in abortion rates' 0n fact, a ?>>$ st)dy in E)ropean Jo)rnal of :)blic (ealth on the decri#inalisation of abortion in <pain has shown that re#oving a cri#inal penalty did nothing to affect trends in abortion rates' All that changed, the a)thors concl)de, was a red)ction in, Xthe ine;)alities i#plied by a lac+ of access to proper healthcare servicesY' a gaol sentence does #ore than deprive a yo)ng wo#an of liberty O it will affect her for the rest of her life ,n the other hand, all that the cri#inalisation of abortion does is to force frightened wo#en into dangero)s sit)ations, which co)ld r)in their lives forever' 6any people forget that a gaol sentence does #ore than deprive a yo)ng wo#an of liberty O it will affect her for the rest of her life' <ho)ld Tegan Leach be convicted, she will never be able to beco#e a teacher, policewo#an or a lawyer' <he will never be able to travel to the !nited <tates' <ho)ld her gaol ter# e1ceed five years, she will be )nable to vote in 9o##onwealth elections' 0n essence, she will be denied #any of the opport)nities o)r society regards as rights on the basis of a law that C@P of W)eenslanders are opposed to'

Tegan, and wo#en in her sit)ation, need s)pport to help the# #a+e the decision which is best for the#, not p)nish#ent' VictoriaNs done it2 so can other states' <o, to those in the W)eensland :arlia#ent who oppose the decri#inalisation of abortion, 0 as+ yo), please reconsider O the ne1t generation of yo)ng wo#en will than+ yo)' Eli8abeth 6athews is a :olicy ,ffer at Left Right Thin+-Tan+, A)straliaNs first independent and non-partisan thin+-tan+ of yo)ng #inds' www'leftright'org'a)

*in #$=> si pana in :77% in !omania au fost omorati aproape #< milioane de copii nenascuti Datele ,rgani8atiei 6ondiale <anatatii arata ca !omania este pe locul intai in Europa in pri,inta ratei a,orturilor 3n)#ar)l de avort)ri la $>>> nasc)ti vii O ve8i statistica4' Totodata, tara noastra oc)pa po8itia a treia pe continent in privinta procenta/)l)i privind avort)rile 3n)#ar)l de avort)ri la $>> de sarcini4, d)pa Anglia si 5ranta' D)pa abolirea regi#)l)i restrictiv al avort)rilor 3Decret)l DD>E$%CC4, Ro#ania a inregistrat, d)pa $%&%, )n n)#ar i#ens de avort)ri' <pre e1e#pl), in #$$7 au fost raportate peste $$:8777 de a,orturi ' De at)nci, in Ro#ania, drept)l la viata a fost #ere) invins de drept)l de a alege' 2 situatie pe care -iuaveche.ro va invita sa o de-batem.

0nainte de a pre8enta 3o vo# face )lterior4 date oficiale act)ali8ate 30nstit)t)l "ational de <tatistica, 6inister)l <anatatii4 privind proble#atica avort)l)i in Ro#ania 3statistici, evol)tii, legislatie, 8one geografice etc4, considera# ca n) este lipsit de interes sa face# o co#paratie intre principalii indicatori legati de avort, d)pa $%&% si, respectiv, in perioada $%CD-$%&%, perioada cat a fost in vigoare infamul *ecret >>7 care inter8icea avort)rile, date care ne-a) fost p)se la dispo8itie de asociatia :rovita B)c)resti, care a reactionat la de#ers)l nostr)' D)pa c)# se observa, din aceste date 3de la 6inister)l <anatatii si JohnstonNs archive4 re8)lta ca din #$$7 si pana in :77% in !omania a fost raportate >8 :9$89$= de a,orturi 3preci8a#, clinicile private n) s)nt obligate sa trans#ita statistici, d)pa c)# a declarat pentr) 8i)aveche'ro presedintele :rovita Bogdan 0oan <tanci)4' 0n perioada cat a f)nctionat decret)l DD>, dat de 9ea)sesc) in $%CC, a fost raportat )n n)#ar de C'H@%'&?G de avort)ri' !l)itor de #are, daca ne gandi# la ordinele dictator)l)i date fe#eilor2 cat #ai #)lti copii pentr) partid' 1u toate acestea, mii de femei au murit in acea perioada, statisticile pomenind peste $777 de caEuri , provocand)-si avort si alte #ii a) a/)ns in p)scarie' Alat)ri de ele a) a/)ns d)pa gratii si #edicii care i#piedica) venirea pe l)#e a ZNo#)l)i no)NN al l)i 9ea)sesc)' L)ate i#pre)na, cifrele s)nt )l)itoare, daca le raporta# la )n popor care, in covarsitoare #a/oritate, se declara crestin ortodo1' Din vremea lui *aragea< in vremea socialismului

0n Ro#ania traditionala, avort)l a fost tin)t s)b control, atat prin presi)nea #entalitatilor, do#inate de infl)enta Bisericii ,rtodo1e, cat si c) a/)tor)l legilor' 9) toate acestea, evol)tia regle#entarilor referitoare la avort [se inscrie in #iscarea )niversala de e#ancipare a fe#eiiY3Larisa 9iochina, 9onstantin 0fti#e, ZN, vi8i)ne as)pra vietiiY4' 0n epoca #edievala, fe#eia avea )n rol distinct, fiind distrib)it prin pris#a nor#elor )nivers)l)i fa#iliei' Aceasta po8itie a fe#eii se regaseste si in 9od)l 9ali#achi 3$&$D4 si 9od)l 9aragea 3$&$&4' 2rimele pre,ederi referitoare la a,ort le introduce F1odul 2enal din # mai #%=9 ' 0n articol)l ?@C 3#odificat prin legea din $D febr)arie $&D@4 se stip)la2 ZNoricare, prin l)cr)ri de #ancare, ba)t)ri, doctorii violente sa) prin orice alt #i/loc s-ar face, c) stiinta, pe fe#eia insarcinata sa lepede, ori c) voia ei ori n), se va pedepsiNN' :e langa fe#eie, #ai era) pedepsiti #edicii, chir)rgii, ofiterii de sanatate, spiterii si #oasele 3ide#4 9od)l :enal din $%GD pedepsea 3prin articol)l @&?4 [delict)l de avort, indiferent daca era savarsit c) sa) fara consi#ta#ant)l fe#eii insarcinateY' Era) e1ceptate cateva ca8)ri2 cele a)tori8ate din partea :archet)l)i, [in )r#a cererii #edic)l)i pentr) a inlat)ra )n pericol i#inent, a#enintand viata fe#eiiY, cand sarcina agrava o boala e1istenta si p)nea viata fe#eii in pericol, nee1istand o alta posibilitate de a-l inlat)ra si cand )n)l dintre parinti [era atins de alienatie #intala si pericol)l trecerii )nei ase#enea tare la copil era o certit)dineY 3art' @&@4' 1odul penal din #$<% ?republicat@, in articolul <%:, definea a,ortul ca fiind [delict)l co#is de acela care, prin orice #i/loace, provoaca intrer)perea c)rs)l)i nor#al al sarcinii' <e facea distinctie, de ase#enea, intre [avort)l co#is fara consi#ta#ant)l fe#eiiY 3pedepsit c) inchisoare corectionala de la do)a la cinci l)ni4, [avort)l co#is de insasi fe#eia insarcinata, necasatorita, sa) care a consi#tit ca altcineva sa i-l provoaceY 3inchisoare corectionala de la trei la sase l)ni4 si cel co#is sa) consi#tit de fe#eia casatorita 3inchisoare corectionala de la sase l)ni la )n an4' ") se pedepsea) avort)rile avi8ate de #edic, in conditiile preva8)te in 9od)l penal din $%GD' Acest regi# restrictiv s-a pastrat pana in $%HD' Decret)l @CG 3B)letin)l oficial nr' ?C, $%HD4 #odifica prevederile din 9od)l penal $%GD si 9od)l penal $%@ &, preva8and pedepsirea avort)l)i doar cand acesta este efect)at in afara instit)tiilor #edico-sanitare, sa) daca era efect)at in aceste instit)tii, dar de catre o persoana fara calificare #edicala de specialitate' Decret)l @CG a legiferat de fapt avort)l la cerere' 0ntrer)perile de sarcina se efect)a) la cererea fe#eii, iar interventia chir)rgicala treb)ia sa aiba loc n)#ai in instit)tii #edico-sanitare de stat' 9od)l :enal a fost #odificat in acelasi an, aliniind)-se la orientarea proavort' Articol)l @&? preci8a ca intrer)perile de sarcina, efect)ate in afara instit)tiilor #edicale sa) sanitare ori de catre o persoana care n) are calificarea necesara, era) sanctionate 8 1ostul a,ortului era relati, mic, apro-imati, : dolari la cursul ,remii8 LiberaliEarea a,ortului din #$9> a fost o masura cu caracter politic8 6a/oritatea tarilor din lagar)l co#)nist adoptasera o ase#enea legislatie 3$%HC4, d)pa #odel)l sovietic' !ni)nea <ovietica a reintrod)s avort)l liber, in $%HH, d)pa o perioada de interdictie de aproape ?> de ani 3$%GC-$%HH4' $ctul de nastere al decreteilor

La # octombrie #$==, 1onsiliul de Stat a emis *ecretul >>7 3co#pletat prin Legea C din $%DG4, prin care a fost reintrod)s regi#)l restrictiv' Ro#ania, in fel)l acesta, a devenit o e1ceptie in siste#)l statelor co#)niste' Tot)si, avort)l era per#is in cateva sit)atii, cand sarcina p)nea viata fe#eii in pericol, stare care n) p)tea fi inlat)rata prin alt #i/loc, cand )n)l din parinti s)fera de o boala grava, care se trans#ite ereditar sa) care deter#ina #alfor#atii congenitale, cand fe#eia insarcinata pre8enta invaliditati grave fi8ice, psihice sa) sen8oriale, cand fe#eia a cresc)t @ copii pe care ii avea in ingri/ire si cand sarcina era )r#area )n)i viol sa) a )n)i incest' 2rimul decret din seria celor antia,ort a fost usor modificat in #$>; 3Decret)l HG4' 0n $%D@ 3prin [0nstr)cti)nile pentr) aplicarea Decret)l)i DD>E$%CC pentr) regle#entarea c)rs)l)i sarciniiY4, a) fost ada)gate vechi)l)i act nor#ativ 3$%CC4 inca ?H de articole' 0n $%&H, a fost operata )lti#a schi#bare 3Decret)l $$$4' <chi#barile politice br)ste de la sfarsit)l an)l)i $%&%, a) av)t ca efect i#ediat, s)b i#perativ)l libertatii individ)ale, revenirea la legislatia per#isiva' 0n favoarea acestei #as)ri proavort a) cantarit #)lt ins)ccesele politicilor de#ografice anterioare' ") s-a p)t)t tine sea#a de fapt)l ca schi#barile legislative, fac)te in perioada $%CC$%&%, a) av)t doar )n caracter propagandist' Atit)dinea stat)l)i co#)nist, de a )r#ari si controla societatea la toate nivelele, a conferit o nota politica, la nivel)l i#aginii p)blice, si legislatiei antiavort' 0nterventiile stat)l)i co#)nist la nivel)l fa#iliei n) a) fost d)blate de #as)ri sociale si econo#ice' 0n acelasi ti#p, ideologia #aterialis#)l)i istoric a s)b#inat valorile traditiei, cladite pe f)nda#entele Bisericii ,rtodo1e' Statutul persoanei umane a fost "ra, afectat, in comunism, o#)l)i fiind)-i re8ervat doar rol)l de si#pl) individ al )nei #ase de #anevra 3Larisa 9iochina, 9onstantin 0fti#e4' *ecretul G Le"e nr8 # din := decembrie #$%$ a reintrodus a,ortul la cerere , in pri#ele trei l)ni de sarcina' Aceasta lege, i#p)sa #ai #)lt politic, asig)ra in contin)are cadr)l legislativ al acest)i do#eni)' Avort)l tardiv, d)pa trei l)ni, poate fi efect)at at)nci cand apare [starea de necesitateX sa) cand )n)l dintre parinti s)fera de o boala grava, care se trans#ite ereditar sa) poate cond)ce la #alfor#atii congenitale grave' Decret)l prevede si do)a e1ceptii, incest)l si viol)l' Aceste nor#e se regasesc si in 9od)l :enal, refac)t in $%%C' Avort)l poate fi practicat si in ca8)l sarcinii de peste $? sapta#ani, ca8 in care [intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii e necesara pentr) a salva viata, sanatatea si integritatea corporala a fe#eii insarcinate de la )n pericol grav si i#inent, care n) poate fi inlat)rat altfelY si [intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii se i#p)ne din #otive terape)tice, potrivit dispo8itiilor legaleY' $tletele avortului !n l)cr) este clar, atat pentr) s)stinatorii practicii avort)l)i cat si pentr) adversarii lor2 in !omania, liberaliEarea a,orturilor a dus la o scadere dramatica a populatie i' 0n acelasi ti#p, #ortalitatea infantila in tara noastra este c) #)lt peste #edia in !E' La fel si rata #ortalitatii #aterne' Dar si in statele !E avort)l a repre8entat ZNo hecato#baNN, c)# aprecia Vatican)l' ")#ai in ?>>& a) fost o#orati ?,% #ilioane de copii nenasc)ti, )n)l la fiecare $$ sec)nde' 0n )lti#ii $H ani, E)ropa co#)nitara inregistra peste ?> de #ilioane de avort)ri' Revenind la Ro#ania, se poate sp)ne ca, drept)l la viata a fost #ere) invins de drept)l de a alege'

/ deEbatere la care Eiua,eche8ro ,a in,ita sa participati8 *um a a=uns femeia din .omania de la o >?fabrica de copii?? pe vremea lui *eausescu< la o campioana a avorturilor@ De ce se practica< la ora actuala< avorturi pe banda rulanta (inclusiv orin metode babesti" intr1o tara membra 9:< unde exista mi=loace contraceptive alternative la indemana oricui@ *um se explica paradoxul ca< desi aproape 3AB din populatia .omaniei a au-it de o metoda contraceptiva si are acces gratuit la educatie sexuala< la ! de nou nascuti !2 de sarcini sunt intrerupte @ Lipsa #i/loacelor, saracia, pot fi invocate ca arg)#ent, desi statisticile arata ca fa#iliile c) venit)ri #ari a), in #edie, copii #ai p)tini ca cele sarace' Tot statistic, s-a dovedit ca, intr-o proportie de s)b $P avort)l este practicat din ca)8e #edicale' Rest)l, la cerere' Asteptam, asadar, opiniile si e-perientele dumnea,oastra pe mar"inea subiectului HIa,ort in !omaniaII8

Actualul 1od 2enal, art8 #%9 pre,ede:

M0ntrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii, prin orice #i/loace, savirsita intr-)na din )r#atoarele i#pre/)rari2 $' 0n afara instit)tiilor #edicale sa) cabinetelor #edicale a)tori8ate in acest scop' ?' De catre o persoana care n) are calitatea de #edic de specialitate' G' Daca virsta sarcinii a depasit patr)spre8ece sapta#ini se pedepseste c) inchisoare de la C l)ni la G ani'

<avirsita in orice conditii, fara consi#ta#int)l fe#eii insarcinate, se pedepseste c) inchisoare de la ? la D ani si c) inter8icerea )nor drept)ri' Daca prin faptele preva8)te la alin' $ si ? s-a ca)8at fe#eii insarcinate vreo vata#are corporala grava, pedeapsa este inchisoare de la G la $> ani si inter8icerea )nor drept)ri, iar daca fapta a av)t ca )r#are #oartea fe#eii insarcinate, pedeapsa este inchisoarea de la H la $H ani si inter8icerea )nor drept)ri'

0n ca8)l cind fapta preva8)ta in alin' ? si G a fost savirsita de #edic, pe linga pedeapsa inchisorii, se va aplica si interdictia e1ercitarii profesiei de #edic' Tentati,a se pedepseste8 ") se pedepseste intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii efect)ata de #edic2 $' Daca intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii era necesara pentr) a salva viata, sanatatea sa) integritatea corporala a fe#eii insarcinate de la )n pericol grav si i#inent care n) p)tea fi inlat)rat altfel' ?' 0n ca8)l preva8)t in alin' $ lit' c4, cind intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii se i#p)nea din #otive terape)tice, potrivit dispo8itiilor legale' 0n ca8)l preva8)t in alin' ?, cind fe#eia insarcinata s-a aflat in i#posibilitate de a-si e1pri#a vointa, iar intrer)perea c)rs)l)i sarcinii se i#p)nea din #otive terape)tice, potrivit dispo8itiilor legale'M

CONSIDERAII PRIVIND CHESTIUNEA EMBRIONULUI http://www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro/'o$&/&t#' /$o(& '%r!t )$h%&t #(%!)%*"r o(#+# .p', DR. DAN P-SCU ./ DR. MA0DA P-SCU ..
"NU EXIST NIMIC MAI JALNIC
I MAI NE!AST "N LUME #EC$T UN "N%&T'( , #IN '(ICE #'MENIU A( !I EL, CA(E NU ESTE (ELI)I'S I CA(E NU* I "M+LINE TE "N !A+T "N%&TU(A +E CA(E ' +'A(T ,ILNIC "N )U(- CINE*L %A C(E#E."

A#'L+/ 0'L+IN)1

CUPRINS

1 Alfred Kopling (1813-1865), teolog german. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolp !Kolping

"ntrod#$ere ..................................................................................................................................................... ........ % &on'idera(ii )iologi$e ............................................................................................................................................... 6 &on'idera(ii filo*ofi$e ............................................................................................................................................ 1% A. "ndi+id#alitatea em)rion#l#i pre$o$e ........................................................................................................ 1% ,. -er'oana em)rion#l#i pre$o$e .................................................................................................................. 13 1. .i*i#nea /lai$0/ ...................................................................................................................................... 15 %. .i*i#nea /per'onali't0/ .......................................................................................................................... 11 2 3o$tor 4n 5tiin(e medi$ale, medi$ primar o)'tetri$0-gine$ologie, dire$tor al 6pital#l#i &lini$ nr. 5 7)'tetri$0-8ine$ologie 9imi5oara 22 3o$tor 4n 5tiin(e medi$ale, medi$ primar radiolog, $onferen(iar la &lini$a de :adiologie 5i "magi'ti$0 ;edi$al0 9imi5oara <#$rare reprod#'0 $# a$ord#l a#torilor. =otele de '#)'ol apar(in A'o$ia(iei -ro-+ita.

P!1. 2/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro INTRODUCERE Ch !r '!$5 #r1%(t%+% %$o(o* $% !+% &o$ %t54 (o!&tr% !$t#!+% ,!$ &5 p8r5 (oport#(%/ (#t +% &!# $h !r ('%$%(t% or $% ' &$#4 '%&pr% %*"r o( 6 p%r&o!(5/ $o(& '%r $5 r%(!6t%r%! &%(&#+# 6 !

r%&p%$t#+# p%(tr# v!+or +% p%r&o!(% %&t% #( %9or$ &* (%$%&!r 6 #( pr * p!& %&%(4 !+ :( r%&t!#r!r%! #(% &o$ %t54 po&ttot!+ t!r% 6 :( %' , $!r%! (t%r o!r5 ! *%*"r +or &5 . D!$5 ;#r 6t / '%*o1r!, / &o$ o+o1 / , +o<o, / t%o+o1 6 po+ t $ %( pot 'o!r &5 ' &$#t% '%&pr% !vort/ *%' $#+ %&t% $%+ $!r% :+ %9%$#t5. At#($ $8(' provo!$5 #( !vort/ 1 (%$o+o1#+ r%(#(45 +! $!r!$t%r#+ h ppo$r!t $ !+ pro,%& % &!+% =>(# vo '! ( $ #(% ,%*% #( p%&!r $!r% &5 provo!$% !vort#+?@ p%(tr# ! o %9%r$ t! '#p5 $o(v%( %(4%+% $%+or p#t%r( $ &!# '#p5 #t + t!t%! &o$ !+5. M%' $#+ $!r% !$$%pt5 !$%!&t5 *#t!4 % (# %&t% '%$8t #( *%r$%(!r &!# #( ,#($4 o(!r !+ $5r# &%(& !+ r%&po(&!" + t54 %&t% p%rv%rt t. M%' $#+ $!r% %9%$#t5 !vort#+ %&t% '%&5r$ (!t '% ,#($4 ! &5 pr *or' !+5/ !$%%! '% ! r%&p%$t5 v !45/ :(! (t% '% ! :('%p+ ( >" (%+%>. A( ' v%r&% &p t!+%/ ($+#<8(' $%+% #( v%r& t!r%/ or $% $+!#<5 '% $o(6t (45 ! 1 (%$o+o1#+# $!r% r%,#<5 :(tr%r#p%r%! &!r$ ( >I! $%r%r%?/ %&t% !'%&%! (t%r%pr%t!t5 $! o !"' $!r% '% +! pro,%& ! &!/ $! #( r%,#< '% ! &%rv &!# $5 o B$ #'54%( %> ! #(# &%$t!(t. C5r5 :('o !+5 $5 %9%r$ t!r%! *%' $ (% (# %&t% ( $ (%#tr5/ ( $ (o$%(45 6 $5 %! %&t% &#p#&5 $o($%p4 % $!r% (&p r5 (&t t#4 +% ;#r ' $% 6 po+ t $% !+% &t!t#+# . D ( !$%&t p#($t '% v%'%r%/ $orp#+ *%' $!+ !r% $% &5)6 r%pro6%<% $# pr v r% +! %9%r$ t!r%! *%' $ (% &#" r%1 *#+ (!< &t &!# +! pr!$t $ +% $% !# !v#t +o$ :( &p t!+%+% p& h !tr $% &ov %t $%. D% !$%%!/ %&t% (' &p%(&!" + $!/ ' ( t *p :( t *p/ $orp#+ *%' $!+ &5 pro$%'%<% +! o r%:(to!r$%r% $r t $5 !&pr! &%(&#+# !$t v t54 &!+%. A( &p t!+#+ '% o"&t%tr $5)1 (%$o+o1 % :( $!r% +#$r%</ o %$h p5 *%' $!+5 :($%!r$5 &5 &!+v%<% v !4! #(# pr%*!t#r/ !r $84 v! p!6 *! ($o+o/ o !+t5 %$h p5 *!( p#+%!<5 $!(#+! !&p r!tor#+# p%(tr# :(tr%r#p%r%! #(% &!r$ ( . P% '% o p!rt%/ p%r&o(!+#+ *%' $!+ &% o$#p5 '% !p5r!r%! v %4 / !r p% '% !+t5 p!rt%/ %&t% !rt <!(#+ *or4 #(# $op + (%'or t. D!$5 #( $op + 'or t/ :(tr)#( !(#* t &t!' # !+ '%<vo+t5r &!+%/ !r% 'r%pt#+ &5 :6 $o(t (#% %9 &t%(4! (tr!#t%r (5 6 &5 &% (!&$5/ '%o!r%$% %+ P!1. 3/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro r%pr%< (t5 o v!+o!r% p%(tr# *!*! &!/ p%(tr# t!t5+ &!#/ $%+ (%'or t %&t% %v!$#!t. M!*!/ t!t5+ &!# !+t *%*"r# !+ ,!* + % &% pot pr%v!+! '% $o(' 4 ! '% !'#+t 6 '% po< 4 ! '% ,or45/ p%(tr# $!/ :( *o' #( +!t%r!+/ &5 '%! #( v%r' $t '% r%$#(o!6t%r% &!# '% (%r%$#(o!6t%r% ! v!+or , (4% (tr!#t%r (%/ !' $5 '% v !45 &!# '% *o!rt%. D%$ / $op +#+ %&t% !'* & &!# (# &5)6 $o(t (#% %9 &t%(4! pr ( r%,%r (4! !+t# !. I(vo$!r%! #(# !&%*%(%! pr ($ p # !9 o+o1 $ %&t% :( !,!r! or $5r% $o(& '%r!4 !&#pr! ,!<% !$t#!+% ! %9 &t%(4% . O*#+ %&t% !&t,%+ #( >+#p> p%(tr# propr #+ $op +/ %9%*p+# p% $!r% ( $ #( !( *!+ (# :+ o,%r5. R%$o*!('!r%! DEF ! A'#(5r P!r+!*%(t!r% ! Co(& + #+# E#rop% =GHEH@ &t p#+%!<5 $5 >'r%pt#+ , %$5r# $op + +! v !4!/ ' ( *o*%(t#+ $o($%p4 % &!+%/ tr%"# % r%$#(o&$#t 6 1#v%r(%+% (!4 o(!+% tr%"# % &5 !$$%pt% o"+ 1!4 ! '% ! ,!$% tot#+ p%(tr# ! p%r* t% !p+ $!r%! (t%1r!+5 ! !$%&t# 'r%pt.> E&t% p!r!'o9!+ ,!pt#+ $5/ p% '% o p!rt%/ 45r +% :( $!r% !vort#+ ! ,o&t + "%r!+ <!t &% !(1!;%!<5 &5 r%&p%$t% 6 $h !r &5 prot%;%<% $op +#+ (%(5&$#t/ !r p% '% !+t5 p!rt%/ %+% r%&t!#r%!<5 'r%pt#+ '% v !45 6 '% *o!rt% !+ +# p!t%r ,!* + !&/ !"o+ t pro1r%& v. M! *#+t/ !$%&t 'r%pt %&t% !$t#!+*%(t% !$or'!t 6 *!*% / *%' $#+# / p& ho+o1#+# / '%*o1r!,#+# %t$. Avort#+ (# po!t% $o(&t t# #( &%*( '% %*!($ p!r% ! ,%*% / $!r%/ '#p5 o %9pr%& % $%+%"r! 6 '% o v#+1!r t!t% &t#' !t5/ tr%"# % &5 '%v (5 >&t5p8(! propr #+# p8(t%$>. E9t rp!r%! #(# or1!( "o+(!v %&t% #( +#$r#/ '!r %9tr!$4 ! #(# %*"r o( %&t% $# tot#+ !+t$%v!/ '%o!r%$% %&t% '%;! pr%<%(t >#( !+t#+>/ o (o#! %9 &t%(45/ ' &t ($t5 '% *!*! &!/ $# #( $o' 1%(%t $ or 1 (!+/ ' ,%r t '% $%+ !+ $%+or 'o p5r (4 . D%)! +#(1#+ t *p#+# / :(tr%"!r%! r%,%r to!r% +! *o*%(t#+ $8(' :($%p% v !4! p%(tr# o (o#5 , (45 #*!(5 ! pr * t (#*%ro!&% r5&p#(&#r , +o<o, $%/ *%t!, < $%/ %*"r o+o1 $%. A( #r*5 $# p%&t% 2I '% &%$o+%/ Ar &tot%+/ &#&4 (8(' !vort#+ %#1%( $/ r%$o*!('! provo$!r%! +# >*! :(! (t% $! %*"r o(#+ &5 , pr * t v !45 6 & *4 r%? '%o!r%$% >$r *! or (%v (ov!4 ! !$%&t# ,!pt =! !vort#+# ) D.P.@ !t8r(5 (#*! '% !$%!&t! $o(' 4 %/ ! v %4 6 ! & *4 r >.

P%r&p%$t v! !vort#+# :( p+!( , $!r%! ,!* + !+5 %&t% $+!r '%, ( t5 :( Pro1r!*#+ '% A$4 #(%/ !'opt!t '% GEH '% 45r / ($+#& v Ro*8( !/ !+ Co(,%r (4% I(t%r(!4 o(!+% p%(tr# Pop#+!4 % 6 D%<vo+t!r%/ C! ro/ GHHF: >Avort#+ (# tr%"# % :( ( $ #( $!< pro*ov!t 'r%pt o ,or*5 '% P!1. F/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro p+!( , $!r% ,!* + !+5> 6 >tr%"# % '%p#&% to!t% %,ort#r +% p%(tr# ! %+ * (! r%$#r1%r%! +! !vort> J D!$5 p8(5 !$#* tr% '%$%( $o(& '%r!4 +% 6 '%<"!t%r +% pr v (' v !4! %*"r o(#+# #*!( &)!# '%&,56#r!t *%r%# :( $!'r#+ >po< 4 +or> !(1!;!t% '% ' v%r6 (t%r+o$#tor :( $h%&t #(%! !vort#+# / '%<vo+t!r%! t%h(o+o1 % '% pro$r%!4 % !& &t!t5 $% $o*port5 r & p5 '% %*"r o( 6 po& " + t!t%! *!( p#+5r %*"r o(!r% =$r o$o(1%+!r%/ &%+%$4 % %*"r o(!r5/ $+o(!4 % %t$.@/ ! pr +%;# t r%+#!r%! ' &$#4 +or :( &$op#+ pr%$ <5r &t!t#t#+# o(to+o1 $/ " o+o1 $ 6 ;#r ' $ !+ %*"r o(#+# pr%$o$% =p8(! +! ( '!4 %@. At8t t *p $8t !vort#+ >I! $%r%r%> %&t% ' &po( " +/ ' &$#4 +% pr v (' ,%$#('!4 ! ( v tro p!r '%r <or 6 $h !r ('%$%(t%/ *! !+%& '!$5 &% 4 (% &%!*! '% ,!pt#+ $5 r%pro'#$%r%! !& &t!t5 !r% #( &o+ ' &#port t%r!p%#t $/ !$%+! !+ o"4 (%r &!r$ ( +or (!t#r!+ *po& " +%/ &pr% "#$#r ! $#p+#r +or $% :6 'or%&$ $op . A$%!&t5 pro$r%!4 % !& &t!t5 %&t% !$#* o r%!+ t!t% 6 :( Ro*8( !/ $o+%$t v#+ C+ ( $ >B%1!> ' ( T * 6o!r!/ $o('#& '% Pro,. Dr. I. M#(t%!(# !v8(' pr or t!t% (!4 o(!+5 :( !$%&t 'o*%( #. P%r&o(!+ t!t%! o#+# #*!( ! :($%p#t &5 &% *p#(5 *!r%+# p#"+ $ $# o$!< ! ,%$#('!4 % ( v tro/ $! 6 $#* po& " + t!t%! '% ! v%'%! $8t%v! $%+#+% '%<vo+t8('#)&% :(tr)o %pr#"%t5 !r !#t%(t , $! r%!+ t!t%! #(% %9 &t%(4% pr%(!t!+%. Kt (4! 6 t%h(o+o1 ! !# p%r* & o*#+# $o(tro+#+ pro$r%!4 % / r%!+ t!t% $!r% (# po!t% &5 (# '%$+!(6%<% pro"+%*% *or!+%/ '!$5 &% :*p5rt!6%&t% '%%! $5 >%t $! %&t% r%$#(o!6t%r%! + * t%+or !$4 #( #*!(%>. St!t#t#+ %*"r o(#+# ! ,o&t $+!r pr%$ <!t '% $5tr% Co* & ! L#r ' $! 6 ! Dr%pt#r +or O*#+# =GHDM@2: >No 6t * !$#* $5 %9 &t%(4! #*!(5 :($%p% ' ( *o*%(t#+ o#+# ,%$#('!t>. C# to!t% !$%&t%!/ 18(' r%! , +o<o, $5 +! $5/ pr%$#* 6 $84 v! t%o+o1 $!to+ $ / "!<8('#)&% p% o*( pot%(4! "+!&to*%r%+or/ $o(& '%r5 $5 (o#! , (45 #*!(5 :6 :($%p% %9 &t%(4! :(tr)#( *o*%(t #+t%r or ,%$#('!4 % ='#p! < #! ! GF)!@. Or $% *%' $ !r% '!tor ! '% ! $#(o!6t% 6 ! %v!+#! $h%&t #( +% %t $% p% $!r% +% tr!v%r&%!<5 !$t#+ &5# *%' $!+/ !r :( !$%&t $o(t%9t/ (t%r%&#+ *%' t!4 % %t $% !&#pr! $h%&t #( %*"r o(#+# %&t%/ p%(tr# 1 (%$o+o1/ '%o&%" t '% pr!1*!t $/ pr ( r%&po(&!" + t!t%! $% 6 ) o !&#*5 ,!45 '% B!$tor ? pro$r%!4 % 6 ,!45 '% *or!+! '%o(to+o1 $5. 2 A A'#(5r P!r+!*%(t!r% ! Co(& + #+# E#rop% . P!1. N/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro A($5 ' ( GH3I/ #( 1 (%$o+o1 !*%r $!( / pr%o$#p!4 '% pro"+%*! %*"r o(#+# !,+!t :( pr *%+% &t!' !+% '%<vo+t5r &!+%/ !# prop#& t%r*%(#+ Bpr%)%*"r o(? &!# B%*"r o( pr%) *p+!(t!r%? p%(tr# p%r o!'! '% +! $o($%p4 % p8(5 +! &,8r6 t#+ ( '!4 % . D%<"!t%r%! &t!t#t#+# o(to+o1 $ 6 ;#r ' $ !+ %*"r o(#+# pr%$o$% %&t% !r1#*%(t#+ ,#('!*%(t!+ !+ " o%t $ / ' &$ p+ (5 $% ! !p5r#t pr ( !( OMI 6 $!r% %v!+#%!<5/ '#p! pro, +#+ *or!+ op%r!t v/ pro1r%&%+% 6t (4 , $% 6 t%h(o+o1 ! !p+ $!t5 :( 'o*%( #+ " o+o1 $ 6 *%' $!+. N#*%ro!&% + ( %t $% $o(,+#%!<5 6 $r%%!<5 !6! (#* t#+ >po+ t% &*> !+ " o%t $ / :(&5 'o#5 $#r%(t% &#(t pr ($ p!+%: >+! $> 6 >p%r&o(!+ &t> =t%o+o1 $@. C#r%(t#+ >+! $> r%,#<5 or $% *p#(%r% '%r v!t5 ' ( v < #(%! r%+ 1 o!&5/ $o(& '%r8(' $5 tot#+ po!t% , &#p#& !(!+ <% r!4 o(!+%. Et $! pro*ov!t5 %&t% $%! >#t + t!r &t5> pr ( *!9 * <!r%! pr%,%r (4%+or 6 * ( * <!r%! &#,%r (4%+or #*!(%3. E! !r% o or %(t!r% %vo+#4 o( &t)r%'#$t o( &t5/ $o(& '%r8(' $5 " (%+% %&t% !$%+! $!r% &% !$or'! $# t%(' (4! 1%(%r!+5 ! %vo+#4 % &p%$ % / :( $!r% tr%"# % !*%+ or!t5 $!r!$t%r &t $! 1%(%t $5 6 :*p %' $!t5 %9$%& v! $r%6t%r% '%*o1r!, $5. A( !$%&t $o(t%9t/ pr ($ p #+ >&!$r!+ t54 v %4 > '%v (% r%+!t v/ , (' pr%,%r!t $%+ '% >$!+ t!t% ! v %4 >. S% !$$%pt5 !&t,%+/ :( $o(' 4 '% $%rt5 pr%$ < %/ &# $ '#+ r!4 o(!+ =*%' $!+ !& &t!t@. Et $! +! $5 r%&p (1% $!+ , $!r%! '% p%r&o!(5 %*"r o(#+# / p8(5 (# :($%p% ,or*!r%! &tr#$t#r (%rvo!&%. C#r%(t#+ (#* t >p%r&o(!+ &t> (# (%!15 v!+o!r%! r!4 #( / '!r %! %&t% &#"or'o(!t5 %9 &t%(4% ' v (%. EI !, r*5 pr *!t#+

p%r&o!(% 6 $o(& '%r5 $5 ,or4! %t $ &% "!<%!<5 p% v!+o!r%! p%r&o(!+5. A'* t% %9 &t%(4! o" %$t v5 ! (or*% *or!+% =*or!+! '%o(to+o1 $5@. Co(& '%r8(' v !4! $! #( '!r ' v (/ %t $! p%r&o(!+ &t5 pro*ov%!<5 pr ($ p #+ > (t!(1 " + t54 v %4 >/ %9t (& 6 +! %*"r o(. I(' v '#+ %&t% + "%r :( $o(t%9t#+ '!tor % . Ap!r%/ '%$ / pr ($ p #+ r%&po(&!" + t54 / $% tr%"# % &5 &% *!( ,%&t% 6 ,!45 '% !( *!+% 6 !*" %(t/ $! "#(#r :($r%' (4!t% $#&to' % o*#+# . 3 Ut + t!r &*#+ &!# pr!1*!t &*#+ !r% +! "!<5 , +o&o, ! %*p r &t5 ! 6$o+ !(1+o)&!9o(% =Loh( St#!rt M ++@ 6 #r*5r%6t% o"4 (%r%! *!9 *#*#+# '% ,%r $ r% ) :(4%+%!&5 $! "#(5&t!r% %$o(o* $5 6 *!t%r !+5 ) $# * ( *#* '% &#,%r (45. Et $! #t + t!r &t5 %&t% o %t $5 ! %, $ %(4% : >Th% %(' ;#&t ,P th% *%!(&> =M ++@. P!1. M/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro CONSIDERAII BIOLO0ICE L! &p%$ ! #*!(5/ ,%$#('!4 ! $o(&t5 :(tr)#( pro$%& '% !*, * 9 % =1r%$: !*ph Q '% !*8('o#5 p5r4 +%@/ &!# & (1!* % =1r%$: &P( Q :*pr%#(5@/ !&t,%+ :($8t $o(top r%! &p%r*!to<o '#+# $# ov#+#+ !r% +o$ :( &%(&#+ '#!+ t54 +or '% p!rt $ p!r%. D#p5 p%(%tr!4 ! &p%r*!to<o '#+# :( ov#+ !r% +o$ ,#< o(!r%! %+%*%(t%+or (#$+%!r% 6 $ top+!&*!t $%. C% 'o pro(#$+% / *!&$#+ 6 ,%*%+ =, 1#r! G@/ * 1r%!<5 #(#+ &pr% !+t#+/ :6 p %r' *%*"r!(! (#$+%!r5 6 :6 $o(top%&$ *!&! $ro*!t $5 &#" ,or*5 &t%+!t5 =&t%!#! %$#!tor !+5@ r%&t!" + (' !&t,%+ (#*5r#+ ' po+ ' '% FM $ro*o<o* / &p%$ , $ $!r ot p#+# #*!(. D%$ / 'o#5 $%+#+% =&p%r*!to<o '#+ 6 ov#+#+@ &% #(%&$ $! &5 '%! (!6t%r% #(% ! (o / (#* t5 $%+#+5 o# &!# < 1ot/ ' ( $!r% &% '%<vo+t5 , (4! #*!(5. RC 1. G 7 C%$#('!4 ! =!*, * 9 !@ 7 + p&5S Op ( ! 'o* (!(t5 ! " o+o1 +or %&t% $5 :($%p#t#+ '%<vo+t5r (o , (4% &% pro'#$% o'!t5 $# ,%rt + <!r%! ovo$ t#+# . A( &t!' #+ '% !*, * 9 %/ =& (1!* %@/ %&t% '%(t , $!t :($%p#t#+ (o >%(t t54 >/ &!# >%9 &t%(4%>/ (#* t5 < 1ot. U( $o(& '%r5 $! pro$%&#+ :($%p% pr ( :(&56 p5tr#('%r%! &p%r*!to<o '#+# :( ov#+/ '%o!r%$%/ :( !$%&t &t!' #/ &% p#( :( * 6$!r% *%$!( &*% $!r% vor r%!+ <! & (1!* !. C%+#+%+% 1!*%t $% r%pr%< (t5 %+%*%(t% v t!+% p!rt $#+!r%/ ' &t ($t% '% !+t% $%+#+% !+% or1!( &*#+# / '%o!r%$% po&%'5 o t%+%o+o1 %F & (1#+!r5/ '%*o(&tr!t5 (# (#*! pr ( !'!pt!r%! *or,o) ,#($4 o(!I5/ $ *! !+%& pr ( 'ot!r%! $# p!tr *o( #+ $ro*o<o* !+ (%$%&!r :( $o(&tr#$4 ! & &t%*#+# 1%(%t $ !+ (o %9 &t%(4%. Sp%r*!to<o '#+ 6 ov#+#+ &#(t $%+#+% h!p+o '% =1r%$: >h!p+o&>Q & *p+# T >% 'o&> Q !&p%$t@/ !v8(' 23 $ro*o<o* / ' (tr% $!r% 22 !#to<o* 6 G $ro*o<o* &%9#!+ =1o(o<o*@. Ov#+#+ $o(t (% #( 1o(o<o* U/ !r &p%r*!to<o '#+ #( 1o(o<o* $!r% po!t% , U &!# V =, 1#r! 2@. F TELEOLO0WE &. ,. Do$tr (5 , +o<o, $5 potr v t $5r% ! tot#+ :( (!t#r5 !r , or1!( <!t :( $o(,or* t!t% $# #( !(#* t &$op/ $# o !(#* t5 $!#<5 , (!+5. \ St#' #+/ $%r$%t!r%! :( ,#($ % '% &$opX t%or ! , (!+ t5 . .Pr.: )+%)o)S 7 D ( ,r. tY+Yo+o1 %. =$,. DEU HD@ P!1. E/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro C 1#r! 2 7 P!tr *o( #+ $ro*o<o* !+ Pr ( !*, * 9 %/ , %$!r% $ro*o<o* !+ <%&tr% h!p+o '% &% #(%6t% $# o*o+o1#+ &5# 6 '#p5 >$ro&& (1 ov%r>/ &% '#p+ $5/ $# ,or*!r%! *%' !t5 ! pr *%+or 'o#5 "+!&to*%r% =, 1#r! 3@. RC 1#r! 3 7 Pr *%+% 2 "+!&to*%r% 7 + p&5S A&t,%+/ *!t%r !+#+ (#$+%!r !+ < 1ot#+# %&t% r%p!rt <!t $%+or 'o#5 $%+#+% =, 1#r! F@. C 1#r! F 7 D%<vo+t!r%! o#+# ( pr *%+% 2 < +% P!1. D/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro U(! ' (tr% $!r!$t%r &t $ +% ,%$#('!4 % %&t% (!t#r! 1%(%t $5 #*!(5 ! , (4% $o($%p#t5 '% "5r"!t 6 ,%*% %. A$%!&t! &%*( , $5 ,!pt#+ $5/ :( $o(' 4 (!t#r!+%/ ,%rt + <!r%! ovo$ t#+# #*!( $# #( &p%r*!to<o ' #*!( $o('#$% +! $o(&t t# r%! #(% <%&tr% $ro*o<o* !+% ' p+o '% $# !&p%$t B#*!(? 6 / '%$ / ! #(or $!r!$t%r% 1%(%t $% $!p!" +% &5 ,or*%<% #( or1!( &* #*!( =&!# or1!( &*% #*!(%@. D%<vo+t!r%! o#+# %&t% #( pro$%& $o(t (##/ Bor %(t!t?/ :( t *p/ :( ' r%$4 ! #(%

pro1r%& v% ' ,%r%(4 %r 6 !$h < 4 ! $o*p+%9 t54 / $% (# po!t% r%v%( +! &t!' +% '%;! p!r$#r&%. E&t% po& " +5 opr r%! pro$%&#+# pr ( $o(1%+!r%! %*"r o(#+# :( ,!<% ,o!rt% pr%$o$% 6 r%+#!r%! !$%&t# ! '#p5 '%$o(1%+!r%. S% po!t% r%!+ <!/ '%$ / o ' &o$ %r% :(tr% Bt *p#+ (!t#r!+? 6 Bt *p#+ *!( p#+5r ? '%<vo+t5r , (4% / $# *port!(t% $o(&%$ (4% ;#r ' $%. A( ,!<! pr%$o$%/ %*"r o(#+ !r% 'o#5 propr %t54t &#"&t!(4 !+ op#&%: o*( pot%(4! "+!&to*%r%+or 6 pro1r%& v! ' ,%r%(4 %r% $%+#+!r5 =, 1#r! F@. RC 1#r! N ) D%<vo+t!r%! o#+# =&t!' #+ '% F "+!&to*%r%@ 7 + p&5S O*( pot%(4! "+!&to*%r%+or &% r%,%r5 +! $!p!$ t!t%! #(# & (1#r "+!&to*%r '% ! '! +o$/ &%p!r!t #(#+ '% !+t#+/ #(# (' v ' $o*p+%t. A$%!&t5 propr %t!t% &% p %r'% 1r!'!t =:(tr% F 6 D "+!&to*%r%@ 6 %&t% tot!+ &,8r6 t5 :( t *p#+ ,or*5r &tr % pr * t v%/ ! &o* t%+or 6 ! v%< $#+% $%r%"r!+% pr * t v%. C%! '%)! 'o#! propr %t!t% '%(ot5 !$h < 4 ! #(# >'%&t (> *or,o1%(%t $/ $% $o('#$% ,o!rt% r!p ' +! ,or*!r%! >!1+o*%r5r +or $%+#+!r%> $!r% vor ,or*! (#$+%#+ %*"r o(!r/ &%p!r!t '% *!(t ! %9t%r(5 =pr%tro,o"+!&t $!@ ! "+!&to$ &t#+# / !po +! ' ,%r%(4 %r%! pro1r%& v5 ! >,r#(< 6#+# > %*"r o(!r/ $# ,or*!r%! v!r !t%+or 4%&#t#r 6 or1!(% =, 1#r! M@. P% +8(15 $o(t (# t!t%/ '%<vo+t!r%! o#+# %&t% #( pro$%& $% !r% 1r!'#!+ t!t% =tr%$%r%! t *p#+# (%$%&!r %vo+#4 % &pr% #( &t!' # *! ' ,%r%(4 !t@ 6 $oor'o(!r% =%9 &t%(4! #(or *%$!( &*% $% r%1+%!<5 pro$%&#+ '%<vo+t5r @. A$%&t% $!r!$t%r &t $ '%t%r* (5 p% #( " o+o1 &5 !, r*% $5/ :( '%, ( t v/ $h !r %*"r o(#+ &% $o*port5 $! or1!( &* =Bo*p !( / GHH3@. M%$!( &*%+% '% $oor'o(!r% (t%r$%+#+!r5 &% '%<vo+t5 :( t *p#+ ' ,%r%(4 %r o#+# . L! :($%p#t/ "+!&to*%r%+% &#(t ' &t ($t%/ :(&5/ #+t%r or/ $o(tr!$t5 !'%r%(4% :(tr% %+%/ pr (tr)#( & &t%* '% * $rov + . A( &t!' #+ '% *or#+5 =GM "+!&to*%r%@ ' v < #(%! "+!&to*%r%+or p %r'% & ($ro( ! ' ( &t!' #+ *! pr%$o$% 6 , %$!r% "+!&to*%r v! !;#(1% *! (t * +%1!t/ pr ( '%<vo+t!r%! #(or ' 1 t!4 *%*"r!(!r%. A$%&t pro$%& P!1. H/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro po!rt5 (#*%+% '% $o*p!$t!r% 6 $o('#$% +! ,or*!r%! #(# &tr!t $%+#+!r %9t%r(/ $!r% v! $o(&t t# v to!r%! tro,o%$to'%r*5. A$#*#+!r%! + $h '#+# :( p!rt%! $%(tr!+5 ! !1+o*%r5r "+!&to*%r $% v! ,or*! $!v t!t%! "+!&to$ &t $5 =, 1#r! M@. C 1#r! M ) D%<vo+t!r%! o#+# :( < +%+% 3)E Tro,o"+!&t#+ %&t% :(<%&tr!t $# & (t%<5 '% 1+ $oprot% (% '% &#pr!,!45 &t!" + ('#)&% !&t,%+ & &t%*% '% tr!(&port '% *%*"r!(5. M!&! $%+#+!r5 (t%r(5 &% !,+5 :( po< 4 % %9$%(tr $5/ !r $!v t!t%! "+!&to$ &t $5 &% +5r1%6t% $o(& '%r!" + :( t *p#+ '%<vo+t5r %*"r o(#+# #*!(. D ,%r%(4 %r%! "+!&to$ &t#+# p!r% r%1+!t5 '% #( Boro+o1 #? $or%+!t/ *! '%1r!"5/ $# (#*5r#+ ' v < #( +or (#$+%!r% &!# $ top+!&*!t $% '%$8t $# v8r&t! $ro(o+o1 $5 ! %*"r o(#+# . A(tr)!'%v5r/ $8(' $+ v!;#+ %&t% opr t &!# $8(' (#*5r#+ $%+#+%+or %*"r o(!r% %&t% r%'#& !rt , $ !+/ &%$r%4 ! ,+# '#+# "+!&to$ &t $ %&t% !pro9 *!t v !$%%!6 $# $%! ' ( !$%%!6 p%r o!'5 ! "+!&to$ &t#+# (t!$t. D#p5 ,or*!r%! ;o($4 #( +or (t%r$%+#+!r%/ %*"r o(#+ %&t% *! r%< &t%(t ,!45 '% %,%$t%+% #(# *%' # &5r!$ &!# ,!45 '% !$t v t!t%! %(< *!t $5. A( $o(tr!&t $# "+!&to*%r%+%/ $!r% &% ,or*%!<5 :( t *p#+ $+ v!;#+# / $%+#+%+% "+!&to$ &t#+# &#(t ,o!rt% ' ,%r%(4 !t%/ :( &p%$ !+ $%+% !+% tro,o%$to'%r*% . A( &t!' #+ !$t#!+ !+ $#(o6t (4%+or/ $o($+#< +% pr v (' %vo+#4 ! t%*poro)&p!4 !+5 ! o#+# ,%$#('!t po!rt5 :($5 o !*pr%(t5 *%t!" o+o1 $5. P!1. GI/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro A( !$%&t &%(&/ (# po!t% &5 (# &% r%$#(o!&$5 %9 &t%(4! #(# !'%v5r!t >& &t%* #( t!r> :( '%<vo+t!r%! o#+# . D%<vo+t!r%! o#+# / , (' #( pro$%& '% o # * to!r% pr%$ < % 6 & 1#r!(45/ ! tr%< t &%(t *%(t#+ #(% or' ( &#p%r o!r%/ $!r% 'o*(%6t% :( !$%&t p+!( '% <5* &+ r% ! v %4 =A. M ro(%&$#@. Sp%*!(( =GH2F@ ! :($%r$!t &5 !$r%' t%<% '%%! %9 &t%(4% #(or !6! (#* t >or1!( <!tor >/ !' $5 ! #(or &#"&t!(4% $% !p!r tr%pt!t/ '%t%r* (8(' %t!p%+% &#$$%& v% !+% '%<vo+t5r %*"r o(!r%. E&t% %9tr%* '% (t%r%&!(t $5 !$4 #(%! & &t%*#+# ('#$tor p!r% &5 , % %9t%r o!r5 $%+#+%+or 6 &% tr!(&* t% pr ( $o(t!$t. A$%!&t5 !$4 #(% &% po!t% *!( ,%&t! $h !r pr ( $%+#+% '%<or1!( <!t% &!#

' &tr#&%. C%r$%t5r +% &p%$ !+ 6t +or :( $#+t#r $%+#+!r% !# r%+ %,!t ,!pt#+ $5 o $%+#+5 v %/ &$o!&5 ' ( *%' #+ % :($o(;#r5tor (or*!+ =4%&#t#r +% or1!( &*#+# @/ :6 p %r'% '%(t t!t%! '#p5 o !(#* t5 p%r o!'5/ '%v (% $o*p+%t !(o( *5 6 !po *o!r%. C%+#+%+% ' (tr)o $#+t#r5 p %r'/ '%$ / '#p5 #( t *p/ #( !(#* t %+%*%(t v t!+/ ,%(o*%( $#(o&$#t :( " o+o1 % &#" (#*%+% '% >+ * t! +# H!P,+ $Z>. A(! (t% '% ! !;#(1% +! !$%!&t5 + * t5/ $%+#+%+% ' ( $#+t#r! <o+!t5 :6 p %r' >*%*or !>/ !&t,%+ :($8t to!t% !;#(1/ (' ,%r%(t '% or 1 (%/ &5 !r!t% +! ,%+/ '%6 $o(t (#6 &5)6 po!rt% !*pr%(t! 1%(%t $5/ &5 &% hr5(%!&$5 6 &5 &% ' v '5. E+%/ :(&5/ &% r%pro'#$ ,5r5 #( p+!( !(#*%/ , (' ($!p!" +% '% !)6 :('%p+ ( pot%(4 !+ t54 +% $o' , $!t%/ :($5/ :( $ro*o<o* . D%1r!'!r%! !$%&tor $%+#+% po!t% , opr t5 , % pr ( r%!'#$%r%! +or :( or1!( &*#+ '% or 1 (%/ , % pr ( ('#$%r%! #(% tr!(&,or*5r 1%(%t $%. P#(%r%! :( $o(t!$t ! $%+#+%+or !(o( *% $# 'o(or#+ ( 4 !+ +% v! r%v t!+ <!/ %+% !$4 o(8(' ' ( (o# p%(tr# !t (1%r%! #(# !(#* t &$op/ $!r%/ :(&5/ v! '%p ('% '% +o$!+ <!r%! +or. C%+#+%+% pr%+%v!t% ' ( or" t! #(# %*"r o( '% "ro!&$5 6 p+!&!t% !po :( r%1 #(%! &to*!$#+# (# vor pro'#$% #( o$h (t%r(/ $ vor :($%p% &5 $5pt#4%!&$5 &to*!$#+. E9 &t5/ '%$ / #( & &t%* '% $oor'o(!r%/ $!r% &% :(1r ;%6t% $! $%+#+%+% ' (tr)o !(#* t5 <o(5 &5 ,!$5 $%%! $% + &% $%r% !$o+o/ $h !r '!$5 or $!r% ' (tr% %+% %&t% $!p!" +5/ :( pr ($ p #/ &! ,!$5 or $%. A$%&t% $%(tr% '% $oor'o(!r%/ $!r% '#$ +! :('%p+ ( r%! (&tr#$4 #( +or 1%(%t $%/ (# !# p#t#t , ( $ o'!t5 '%t%$t!t% :( vr%o <o(5 ! $orp#+# / '!r p!r &5 , % pr%<%(t% p%&t% tot. S (1#r#+ +#$r# '% $!r% !r% (%vo % o $%+#+! !(o( *5/ $! &5)6 r%!* (t%!&$5 $ (% %&t%/ p!r% &! , % o tr!(&,#< % '% %(%r1 % '% t p potr v t/ '%o!r%$% $%+#+! :(&tr5 (!t5 po!t% &5)6 r%$86t 1% '%(t t!t%! 6 v 1o!r%!/ $h !r '!$5 &% r%,#<5 $o(t!$t#+ $h * $ $# $%+#+%+% '% !$%%!6 &p%$ %. Sp%$ !+ 6t :( $#+t#r 6t # $5 $%+#+%+% $%+ *! #6or '% $r%&$#t &#(t $%+% pr%+%v!t% ' ( propr +% +or $orp#r 6 $5 +% *%r1% '% * (#(% '!$5 + &% '5 ,o!rt% *#+t5 !t%(4 %. P!1. GG/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro C%+ '%)!+ 'o +%! *o' '% r%v t!+ <!r% ! $%+#+%+or !(o( *% %&t% '% ! +% pro'#$% o *#t!4 %/ $!r% &5 +% '%! !+t% (&tr#$4 #( '%$8t $%+#+%+% p5r (t%. A( *o' (or*!+/ :(tr)#( or1!( &*/ *#t!4 +% &% + * t%!<5 +! $%+#+%+% '% r%pro'#$%r%. Sp%r*!to<o < (# pot &#pr!v %4# / ( $ $h !r :( $o(' 4 +% opt *% ' ( #t%r/ *! *#+t '% FD '% or%. Sp%r*!to<o '#+/ $!r%/ :(&5/ ,%$#('%!<5 ov#+#+ 6 !&t,%+ &#,%r5 o *o' , $!r% 1%(%t $5/ po!t% &5 ( 4 %<% o $#+t#r5 $!r% &5 &% *%(4 (! ,o!rt% *#+t5 vr%*%. O#+ ,%$#('!t % $!p!" + &5 tr5 !&$5 6 &5 &% ' v '5 &#, $ %(t '% *#+t5 vr%*% p%(tr# ! pro'#$% #( (' v ' (o#/ :( t *p $% !+t5 $%+#+5 <o+!t5 ! tr#p#+# %&t% &#p#&5 + * t% H!P,+ $Z/ '%6 !r% (#*5r#+ o" 6(# t '% FM '% $ro*o<o* 6 !$$%& +! &#"&t!(4%+% pr *!r%. A$%&t pr v +%1 # %&t% $#(o&$#t :( " o+o1 % &#" (#*%+% '% v t!+ t!t% h "r '5/ %+ r%pr%<%(t8(' o &por r% ! ,%rt + 54 :( #r*! :($r#$ 65r ! 'o#! + ( 1%(%t $% ' ,%r t%. C%r$%t5r +% %*"r o+o1 $% !# r%+%v!t $5 %*"r o( pr%+%v!4 '% +! o ,%*%+5 6o!r%$% :( < #! ! G3)! '% 1%&t!4 %/ tr!(&,or*!4 :(tr)o *!&5 &#, $ %(t '% ,+# '5 $5 &5 tr%!$5 pr (tr)#( !$ '% &%r (15 6 (;%$t!4 :( $!v t!t%! p%r to(%!+5 ! #(or ,%*%+% '% !$%%!6 r!&5/ vor '%<vo+t! '#p5 N &5pt5*8( / *!&% %9t (&% '% 4%&#t %*"r o(!r/ !&%*5(5to!r% $%+or !+% %*"r o(#+# '% 6o!r%$% '% !$%%!6 v8r&t5. Av!(t!;#+ o#+# ,%$#('!t/ :( $%%! $% pr v%6t% &#pr!v %4# r%! $%+#+!r5 6 '%<vo+t!r%! &!/ (# po!t% , %9p+ $!t 'o!r pr ( !*%&t%$ '% *!t%r !+ 1%(%t $. P!r% &5 *! (t%rv (5 $%v!/ :(&5 (!t#r! !$%&t# (1r%' %(t/ $!r% $o(,%r5 #(# o# ,%$#('!t pot%(4 !+#+ &5# %9$%p4 o(!+/ % :($5 :(v5+# t5 :( * &t%r p%(tr# " o+o1 . C%r$%t5r +% %*"r o+o1 $% !$t#!+% &#(t or %(t!t% :( tr% ' r%$4 : G!@ '%(t , $!r%! *%$!( &*%+or '% !$t v!r%)r%pr%& % 1%( $5X !$%&t%!/ +! , %$!r% ' v < #(% $%+#+!r!/ or %(t%!<5 #r*5tor#+ >p!&> &pr% '%&t (#+ $%+#+% r%&p%$t v%X 2"@ &t#' #+ $o*#( $5r ' (tr% $%+#+% :( $o(&tr#$4 ! %*"r o(#+# X 3$@ &t#' #+ %,%$t%+or %9%r$ t!t% '% *%' #+ !*" !(t !&#pr! '%<vo+t5r %*"r o(#+# . P!1. G2/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro CONSIDERAII CILO[OCICE

D#p5 o !(!+ <5 r 1#ro!&5 ! $h%&t #( r%,%r to!r% +! *o*%(t#+ $8(' :($%p% v !4! #*!(5/ #( $o+%$t v pr%&t 1 o& '% " o+o1 / , +o<o, 6 t%o+o1 ,r!($%< / :( $!rt%! >A#9 '%"#t& '% +! V %> =GHHI@/ !, r*5 $5 (# %&t% po& " + &5 &% r5&p#('5 +! !$%!&t5 :(tr%"!r% p% "!<% " o+o1 $% 6 $5 pro"+%*! po!t% &5 ! "5 (#*! #( r5&p#(& , +o<o, $. D%, ( r%! &t!t#t#+# o(to+o1 $ !+ %*"r o(#+# %&t% +%1!t5 '% $h%&t #( +% , +o<o, $% (' v ' 6 p%r&o!(5. O pr *5 $h%&t #(% , +o<o, $o)%t $5 %&t% r ' $!t5 (# !t8t '% r%$#(o!6t%r%! (!t#r " o+o1 $% #*!(% ! pro'#&#+# '% $o($%p4 %/ $ / *! !+%&/ '% '%t%r* (!r%! *o*%(t#+# $8(' !$%&t! %&t% (' v '. A. INDIVIDUALITATEA EMBRIONULUI PRECOCE L! $ N &#&4 ( $5 < 1ot#+ (# po!t% , $o(& '%r!t (' v ' p% "!<! #r*5to!r%+or !r1#*%(t%: N L! $ :(&%!*(5 >$!r% (# ,!$% p!rt% ' ( r8('#+ $+%r#+# X +#*%&$X * r%!(>/ or/ :( t%9t %&t% vor"! '%&pr% p%r&o!(% $!r% (# :*p5rt56%&$ o v < #(% r%+ 1 o!&5 6 $!r% &% "!<%!<5 %9$+#& v p% r!4 #(% 7 !t% &!# >+ "%r $#1%t5tor >. M STRWE/ &tr / &.,. =A(!t.@ G. 0r#p '% , "r% (%rvo!&% $# tr! %$t +o(1 t#' (!+/ :( %($%,!+. 2. L%< #(% ! p %+ $# !&p%$t + ( !r. ) D ( ,r. &tr %. S#r&!: DEU \HD GG@ 1%(ot p#+ % $o(' 4 ! (%$%&!r5/ '!r (# &#, $ %(t5/ p%(tr# %9 &t%(4! (' v '#+# #*!(X 22@ t%r*%(#+ '% (' v ' pr%&#p#(% &%(&#+ '% (' v < " +/ !r < 1ot#+ %&t% ' v < " + =&%1*%(t!4 ! o#+# 6 ,or*!r%! "+!&to*%r%+or@X 33@ (#*! 2] ' (tr% "+!&to*%r% vor ,or*! %*"r o(#+/ !&t,%+ :($8t/ :( &t!' #+ pr%$o$%/ $%%! %&t% '%(#* t %*"r o(/ po!t% , '% ,!pt v to!r%! p+!$%(t5X FF@ &tr ! %*"r o(!r5M (# %&t% %v '%(4 !" +5/ %! , (' pr *! 'ov!'5 $5 %9 &t5 #( %*"r o( :( (t%r or#+ $o(1+o*%r!t#+# '% $%+#+%X NN@ p%(tr# po&t!<! (' v '#!+5 %&t% (%$%&!r5 #( t!t%! %*"r o(#+# / $!r% (# po!t% , !& 1#r!t5 :( + p&! &tr % pr * t v% 6 ! +%15t#r +or (%rvo!&%. C%r$%t5r +% !$t#!+% !# 'ov%' t $5 %&t% po& " +5 '%<vo+t!r%! #(# (' v ' $o*p+%t ' (tr)#( "+!&to*%r o*( pot%(t <o+!t =S%rr!/ GHDH@/ '%$ / '%<vo+t!r%! (' v '#+# (# %&t% o"+ 1!tor # $or%+!t5 $# #( t!t%! %*"r o(#+# / r%!+ <!t5 $# !;#tor#+ & &t%*#+# (%rvo&. P!1. G3/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro B. PERSOANA EMBRIONULUI PRECOCE Co($%pt#+ '% p%r&o!(5 &)! $o(&tr# t :( &%$o+#+ IV/ :( $o(t%9t#+ ' &$#4 +or tr ( t!r%. P%(tr# ! 15& o ,or*#+5 'o1*!t $5 $or%$t5 * &t%r#+# tr ( t!r/ $!r% &5 p%r* t5 !, r*!r%! & *#+t!(5 :( D#*(%<%# ! #( t54 6 ! tr ( t54 6 &5 %9p+ $% r%+!4 ! p%r&o(!+5 ! Tr% * $# $r%!4 !/ P5r (4 C!p!'o$ %( / !# !'opt!t t%r*%(#+ '% >p%r&o!(5>/ $!r%/ :( 1r%!$5 =pro&opo(@/ %9pr *5 '%%! '% r%+!4 % 6 +)!# %$h v!+!t $# B po&t!&#+>. A&t,%+/ p%r&o!(! '%v (%/ ' (tr)o & *p+5 >*!&$5> %9t%r o!r5 , (4% / $# ro+ 'r!*!t $ or &o$ !+/ $#* %r! $o(& '%r!t5 :( !(t $h t!t%! 1r%$o)+!t (5/ > po&t!&#+> :(&#6 / ,!$tor#+ #+t * 6 $o(&t t#t v !+ , (4% =I$5 I. ;r./ GHH3@. Cor*#+! 'o1*!t $5 ! >'#*(%<% r #( $% :( , (45 6 :(tr% t% :( p%r&o!(%> :(,54 6%!<! p +o(#+ '% &pr ; ( !+ po& " + t54 '% $o*#( $!r% :(tr% p%r&o!(% 6 !+ $o*#( $5r $# D#*(%<%#. Co(trov%r&! hr &to+o1 $5 ! pr +%;# t $o(&!$r!r%! $o($%pt#+# '% p%r&o!(5. A&t,%+/ $o(t (! , +o<o, $5 #+t%r o!r5 ()! *! p#t#t 1(or! pro"+%*! p%r&o!(% $! r%!+ t!t% '%o&%" t5 '% , (5. Cor*#+! 'o1*!t $5 ! S (o'#+# %$#*%( $ '% +! C!+$%'o( =!(#+ FNG@ r%+ %,%!<5 #( t!t%!/ '!r ' &t ($ ! $%+or 'o#5 (!t#r =>, r >@ !+% +# I&#& Hr &to&/ >D#*(%<%# '%p+ ( o* '%p+ (>/ $!r% >$o($#r1 :(tr)o p%r&o!(5 :(tr)#( po&t!&>/ '#p5 *o'%+#+ ' ( S,. Tr% *%/ #('% $%+% tr% p%r&o!(% &#(t (#* t% po&t!&#r =St5( +o!%/ GHH3@. D!$5 +! ( v%+#+ %9 &t%(% ' v (% t%*! p%r&o!(% )! 15& t ,or*#+!r%! +o1 $5/ %9 &t5 :($5 $o(trov%r&% pr v (' :(%+%1%r%! p%r&o!(% #*!(%/ $!r% % >!t8t '% p+ (5 '% t! (5/ :($8t (# &)! 15& t ( *%( &5 '%! #( r5&p#(& $!r% &5 o +#* (%<%> =St5( +o!%/ GHH3@. P!r!' 1*! :( $!r% %! %&t% 18(' t5 %&t% $%! ! r%+! % $h p ) Arh%t p/ (o #(%! '% I*!1o D% =$h p !+ +# D#*(%<%#@ , (' $%! *! :(!+t5

,or*5 '% $!p!$ t!t% p%(tr# o*. C!+$h (')o p% !rh%t p#+ tr ( t!r/ D. St5( +o!% $o(& '%r5 $5 '%, ( r%! p%r&o!(% tr%"# % &5 +5*#r%!&$! tr% ,!$tor : >(!t#r! #*!(5 'r%pt $o( (#t !+ p%r&o!(% / po&t!&#+ 'r%pt $%(tr# '% $o($%(tr!r% %+%*%(t!r5 &#" %$t#+ $! pr ($ p # !$t v !+ p%r&o!(% ?. C (' o t%or % , +o<o, $5 ! &%$o+#+# (o&tr#/ p%r&o(!+ &*#+ $o(& '%r5 $5 p%r&o!(! %&t% o(to+o1 $ ,#('!*%(t!+5/ !r D#*(%<%# %&t% *!( ,%&t!r%! pr *!r5 ! p%r&o(!+ t54 . A$%&t ,!pt *p#(% $! $%r$%t!r%! , +o<o, $5/ :( tot!+ t!t%! % / &5 &% '%&,!6o!r% $# r%,%r r% +! $o($%pt#+ '% p%r&o!(5/ $!r% (' $5/ & (t%t $/ $!r!$t%r &t $! #(% $%rt% !(tropo+o1 !tr "# t5 , (4% #*!(%. D%& &% !$$%pt5 $5 p%r&o!(! %&t% ,or*! (' v '#!+5 6 '% & (% &t5t5to!r% ! #(% (!t#r &p r t#!+%/ $5r% ! D#*(%<%# )! r8('# t o %9 &t%(45 p5*8(t%!(5/ '%, ( r%! p%r&o!(% $o*port5 !*p+% ' &$#4 . P!1. GF/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro Co($%pt#+ '% r!4 o(!+ t!t%/ '% +! Bo%th #& =>R!t o(!+ & (!t#r!% (' v '#! &#"&t!(t !?@/ ! r%v%( t *%r%# :( %9p+ $!4 +% t%r*%(#+# =C+%w A./ GHHM@. Co(,or* (t# 4 % 1%(%r!+%/ p%r&o!(! %&t% #( (' v ' o!r%$#* $o(6t %(t 6 r!4 o(!+. Co($%pt#+ '% $orpor!+ t!t% %&t% #t + <!t p%(tr# ! &#"+ ( ! #( t!t%! ' (tr% $orp 6 &#,+%t. U( '%, (%&$ p%r&o!(! $! , (' o >&#" %$t v t!t% p%r&o(!+5 :($!r(!t5? =^#!tro$$h / GHDI@. E&t% v!+or <!t !&t,%+/ &#" (,+#%(4! 18(' r t%o+o1 $% $r%6t (%/ $!r!$t%r#+ #( t!r !+ ' *%(& #( $orpor!+% 6 &p r t#!+%. A$%&t $o($%pt !$$%(t#%!<5 ,!pt#+ $5 #( t!t%! ' (tr% $orp 6 &#,+%t p#(% :( p%r&p%$t v5 *%t!, < $5 v!+or +% tr#p#+# =v !4!/ (t%1r t!t%! %t$.@ 6 &#"+ ( !<5 $!r!$t%r#+ &p r t#!+/ (t%+%$t#!+ 6 *or!+ !+ p%r&o!(% #*!(% =S1r%$$ !/ GHDD@. A$t v t!t%! & *"o+ $5 = (t%+ 1%(4!/ $o(6t (4! '% & (%/ + *"!;@ %&t%/ :( v < #(%! #(or!/ $!r!$t%r &t $! %&%(4 !+5 ! p%r&o!(% #*!(%. C!<! pr%$%'%(t5 :( $!r% &#(t !$h < 4 o(!t% !$%&t% propr %t54 %&t% (#* t5 B%9 &t%(45 #*!(5? 6 (# %&t% $o(& '%r!t5 p%r&o!(5. A( !$%!&t5 !(tropo+o1 % B,#($4 o(!+ &t5?/ t%r*%(#+ '% p%r&o!(5 '%&%*(%!<5 >o (tr $!r% ! $!p!$ t54 +or op%r!4 o(!+%/ $!r% tr%"# % &5 , % pr%<%(t% 6 :( *5&#r5 '% ! ,#($4 o(!> =Mor'!$$ / GHH2@. E9 &t5 $o(trov%r&% pr v (' (!t#r! *%(t!+5 &!# , < $5 ! p%r&o!(% . >P%r&o!(! %&t% #( $o($%pt pr * t v ' ( p#($t '% v%'%r% +o1 $/ '%o!r%$% #(# #( $ (' v ' '% !$%&t t p #( $ &% !p+ $5 '%opotr v5 pr%' $!t% $% %9pr *5 &t5r '% $o(6t (45 6 pr%' $!t% $% %9pr *5 $!r!$t%r &t $ $orpor!+%> =C+%w/ GHHM@. Co(& '%r8('#)I !*" 1##/ #( prop#( :(+o$# r%! $o($%pt#+# '% p%r&o!(5 $# !+t%+% =$! '% %9. $# $%+ '% >&#" %$t v t!t%?@/ $!r% &5 p#(5 !$$%(t#+ p% &%(t *%(t#+ '%v%( r p%r&o!(% / :*p %' $8(' '%(t , $!r%! !$%&t% ! $# #( !(#* t &t!' #/ or $!r% !r , !$%+!/ !+ '%<vo+t5r p%r&o!(% :(&56 =Bo*p !( / GHH3@. A&t,%+/ Lo*"!r' )V!++!#r =GHHI@ (tro'#$% (o4 #(%! '% &#" %$t v t!t% :( v!r !(t5 >$%(tr!+5> 6 >*!r1 (!+5>/ :($%r$8(' !&t,%+/ &5 ,!$5 ' &t ($4 ! :(tr% >p%r&o!(5>/ $!r% %&t% #( $o($%pt o(to+o1 $ 6 >p%r&o(!+ t!t%>/ $!r% r%pr%< (t5 #( $o($%pt !$t v/ ' (!* $ !+ p%r&o!(% . Co(trov%r&%+% pr v (' p%r&o!(! %*"r o(#+# pr%$o$% '%r v5/ :( pr ($ p!+/ ' ( %t $! pro*ov!t5. S% ' &t (1 !&t,%+/ 'o#5 v < #( !(tropo+o1 $%: >+! $5> 6 >p%r&o(!+ &t5>. P!1. GN/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro G. VI[IUNEA >LAIC-> V < #(%! >+! $5> (%!15 < 1ot#+# 6 %*"r o(#+# pr%$o$% $!+ t!t%! '% p%r&o!(5/ p% "!<! #r*5to!r%+or !r1#*%(t%: G!@ ,%$#('!4 ! (# %&t% #( %v%( *%(t (&t!(t!(%# =:( $o($%p4 ! t%o+o1 $5 &#,+%t#+ %&t% (,#<!t (&t!(t!(%# :( *o*%(t#+ ,%$#('!4 % @/ < 1ot#+ '%<vo+t8('#)&% +%(t/ :( ,#($4 % '% ' (!* &*#+ ' ,%r t !+ $%+or 'o 1!*%4 &%p!r!4 X 2"@ * ( *#* NI] ' ( < 1o4 6 pr%)%*"r o( &#(t %+ * (!4 X 3$@ < 1ot#+ 6 pr%)%*"r o(#+ &#(t #6or ' v < " + =1%*%( *o(o$or !+ @ 6 '%$ / (# %9 &t5 (' v ' 6 pr ( #r*!r%/ ( $ p%r&o!(5X F'@ '!$5 &% !$$%pt5 '%, ( 4 ! +# Bo%th #&/ !t#($ %*"r o(#+ pr%$o$% (# !r%/ :( *o' $%rt/ (!t#r5 r!4 o(!+5/ '%o!r%$% (# %9 &t5 or1!(% $!p!" +% '% ! !(#(4!/ $h !r * ( *!+/ '%<vo+t!r%! !$t v t54

(%rvo!&% $%(tr!+% 6 & *"o+ $% =Mor / GHHG@X (# !r% ( $ $!r!$t%r '% (' v '/ '%o!r%$% $%+#+%+% &!+% &#(t :($5 o*( pot%(t%X N%@ :( !(t $h t!t%/ p%r&o!(! r%pr%<%(t! *!&$! tr!1 $5/ &!# $o* $5/ $# $!r% &% %9pr *!# +!t ( 6 1r%$ X '!$5 (# %9 &t5 ( $ o po& " + t!t% '% %9pr%& %/ !t#($ (# %9 &t5 p%r&o!(!. (8(' $o(t '% $o(& '%r!4 +% '% *! &#&/ o p#"+ $!4 % !p5r#t! :( GHDD ! Co* & % p%(tr# Kt (45 6 T%h(o+o1 % ! Co(& + #+# E#rop% / ! prop#& t%r*%(#+ '% Bpr%)%*"r o(> p%(tr# p%r o!'! '% +! $o($%p4 % p8(5 +! &,8r6 t#+ ( '!4 % / !' $5 p8(! :( < #! ! GF)! '% +! ,%$#('!4 %. C!r!$t%r &t $ +% pr%)%*"r o(#+# &#(t: G_ &tr ! %*"r o(!r! (# %&t% %v '%(t !" +5X 2_ (# %9 &t5 4%&#t (%rvo&X 3_ (# %9 &t5 propr %t54 *#(o+o1 $%X F_ (# &% $#(o!6t% '%&t (#+ pro'#&#+# '% $o($%p4 % =>o#+ $+!r>/ 1%*%( *o(o$or !+ / *o+5E h '!t ,or*5 !(%*"r o(!t5 %t$.@X N_ (# %9 &t5 ( $ #( t!t%/ ( $ #( $ t!t%. E M`L- &. ,. t#*o!r% :( #t%r/ '#p5 ,%$#('!r%/ :*p %' $8(' '%<vo+t!r%! ,5t#+# . =a ,r. *b+%@. S#r&!: DEU \HD A( $!rt%! >A#9 '%"#t& '% +! V %>/ C!rt %r 6 $o+!". =GHHI@ prop#( prop#( o !t t#' (% (t%r*%' !r5 :(tr% $% $% !$$%pt5 %9 &t%(4! #(% ,!<% pr%)%*"r o(!r% 6 po< 4 ! t%o+o1 $5/ $!r% &#&4 (% :(&#,+%4 r%! *%' !t5/ pr ( ' &t (1%r%! ! tr% p%r o!'% :( '%<vo+t!r%! o#+# . GG. P%r o!'! '% +! ,%$#('!4 % p8(5 +! ' v < #(%! :( D "+!&to*%r%: o#+ tr5 %6t% tot!+*%(t% ' ( r%<%rv% *!t%r(%/ 1%(o*#+ p!t%r( pr!$t $ (% (t%rv%( ('. N# !r% &%(& $! o#+ &5 , % (#* t %*"r o(. P!1. GM/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro G2. P%r o!'! '% ,or*!r% ! "+!&to$ &t#+# : :($%p% +! N < +% '#p5 ,%$#('!4 %/ $# '%<vo+t!r%! tro,o"+!&t#+# +! %9t%r or 6 ! "#to(#+# %*"r o(!r +! (t%r or/ :(tr% $!r% &% '%+ * t%!<5 $!v t!t%! "+!&to$ &t $5. S% po!t% !$$%pt5 t%r*%(#+ '% %*"r o(/ :(&5 *!&! $%+#+!r5 (t%r(5 (# %&t% :($5 #( %*"r o(/ '%o!r%$% to!t% $%+#+%+% &!+% :6 *%(4 ( $!r!$t%r &t $ +% (%' ,%r%(4 !t%. G3. P%r o!'! '% pr%15t r% p%(tr# *p+!(t!r%: :($%p% +! M/N < +% '#p5 ,%$#('!4 % 6 &% $!r!$t%r <%!<5 pr (: 2_ p %r'%r%! *%*"r!(% p%++#$ '!DX 3_ '%$+!(6!r%! #(or &%*(!+% '% *o' , $!r% ! ,#($4 % ov!r %(% *!t%r(%X F_ !$t v t!t%! pro+ ,%r!t v5 ! $%+#+%+or tro,o"+!&t $%/ $# r%+!t v! (%r4 % ! $%+#+%+or "#to(#+# %*"r o(!r. D [o(! p%++#$ '! Q *%*"r!(5 1+ $oprot% $5 $% :($o(;o!r5 *%*"r!(! p+!&*!t $5 ! #(# ovo$ t. http://%(.w Z p%' !.or1/w Z /[o(!cp%++#$ '! 08(' r%! , +o<o, $5 +! $5 ! *#t!t r%$%(t o"&%rv!4 ! ' ( " o+o1 % :( , +o&o, %/ !, r*8(' $5 (# %&t% !t8t '% *port!(t '% 6t #t $% %&t% #( %*"r o( :( ' v%r&%+% *o*%(t% !+% '%<vo+t5r &!+%/ $ / *! !+%&/ ,!pt#+ $8(' %*"r o(#+ '%v (% p%r&o!(5. R5&p#(&#+ (# po!t% , " o+o1 $/ p%(tr# $5 pro"+%*! (# *! %&t% 6t (4 , $5. D ( *o*%(t $% p%r&o!(! %&t% $!r!$t%r <!t5 pr ( $!p!$ t!t%! r!4 o(!+5/ (# %9 &t5 ( $ o 6t (45 " o+o1 $5 &5 po!t5 '%, ( r!4 #(%!. A( !$%&t &%(&/ C+!* 1( 6 L!#r $%++! =GHHG@ !, r*5 $! BR%$%(t%+% $#(o6t (t% r%+!t v% '%&pr% o*( pot%(4! < 1ot#+# 6 %*"r o(#+# / $or%+!t% $# !+t% $o(& '%r!4 / (% '!# po& " + t!t%! &5 !, r*5* $5/ p8(5 :( < #! ! GF)! '% +! ,%$#('!4 %/ &% po!t% %9$+#'% $5 %*"r o(#+ !r% v !45 p%r&o(!+5 &!# $5 %&t% p%r&o!(5. N# %&t% &!r$ (! (o!&tr5 '% !

&t!" + $8(' &% :(t8*p+5 !$%!&t!/ '!r/ :( *o' $%rt 6 !$%&t +#$r# %&t% *port!(t/ (# %9 &t5 :( *o*%(t#+ ,%$#('!4 % / $ :(tr)#( *o*%(t #+t%r or>. Ut + <!r%! #(# t%r*%( t%*por!+ =< #! ! GF)! '% +! ,%$#('!4 %@/ $8(' &% ,or*%!<5 pr *#+ &%*( !+ 4%&#t#+# (%rvo&/ p!r% &5 $o(&t t# % p%(tr# #( o 1!r!(4 % + ( 6t to!r% :( pr v (4! %*"r o(#+# . R%&p%$t#+ !"&o+#t ,!45 '% %*"r o(/ '#p5 < #! ! GF)! '% +! ,%$#('!4 %/ '%6 r%pr%< (t5 o '%$ < % $o(v%(4 o(!+5/ %&t% !pr%$ !t5 $! $%rt5. C8(' &#rv (% p!&!;#+ ' ( pr%)%*"r o( :( %*"r o( &!# :( p%r&o!(5 (# %&t% $+!r , $!t/ '%$ (# &% po!t% &p#(% $8(' (# %9 &t5 p%r&o!(! &!# $8(' !$%!&t! %9 &t5 :( *o' $%rt. P!1. GE/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro >L! * %<#+ (op4 % & 1#r (o!pt%/ +! * %<#+ < +% % & 1#r < / '!r o!r% (# %&t% $o(v%(4 o(!+! v r%! <or +ord> =Mor / GHHG@. A$%!&t5 ($%rt t#' (% %&t% *%(4 o(!t5 6 :( 'o$#*%(t%+% %#rop%(%: >(# &% po!t% ' &t (1% :( %vo+#4 ! o#+# ,%$#('!t p!&!;#+ '% +! ,!<! pr%)%*"r o(!r5 +! ,!<! %*"r o(!r5>. 2. VI[IUNEA >PERSONALIST-> V < #(%! >p%r&o(!+ &t5> =t%o+o1 $5@ $o(& '%r5 $5 %*"r o(#+ %&t% p%r&o!(5 ' ( *o*%(t#+ $o($%p4 % . A$%!&t5 $o($%p4 % v!+or <%!<5 $!r!$t%r &t $ +% " o+o1 $% !+% '%<vo+t5r o#+# 6 $+!r , $5/ pr (tr)o pot%<5 p+!#< " +5/ $h%&t #(%! '%<vo+t5r &!r$ ( 1%*%+!r% *o(o< 1ot $% =S%rr!/ GHHG@. S#(t #t + <!t% #r*5to!r%+% !r1#*%(t%: G!@ (!t#r! 1%(%t $5 #*!(5 ! pro'#&#+# '% $o($%p4 %X 2"@ $!r!$t%r &t $ +% '%<vo+t5r o#+# : or %(t!r%/ $o(t (# t!t%/ 1r!'#!+ t!t%/ $oor'o(!r%X 3$@ %*"r o(#+ pr%$o$% %&t% %9pr%& ! #(# or1!( &*/ $!r% *!( ,%&t5 $o%< #(% :(tr% ' ,%r t%+% p5r4 6 o $o*p+%9 t!t% or1!( <!to!r% 6 ,#($4 o(!+5 tot *! $r%&$#t5/ *%(4 (8(' ' * (#!t5 o*( pot%(4! "+!&to*%r%+or/ $!r!$t%r &t $5 pr *% ,!<%X F'@ (o4 #(%! (&%p!r!" + t54 :(tr% $orp 6 &#,+%tX N%@ (#*! :( $#r&#+ %vo+#4 % &% po!t% r%$#(o!6t% *!( ,%&t!r%! pro1r%& v5 6 &%$#('!r5 ! propr %t54 +or ,#($4 o(!+% !+% p%r&o!(% = (t%+ 1%(45/ $o(6t (45 '% & (%/ + *"!;@/ :( r!port $# %9 &t%(4! #(% >$!#<% or %(t!(t%>/ $!r% r%$+!*5 , (!+ t!t%! :(&$r &5 :( < 1ot/ ,5r5 $!r% !$%&t! (# &) !r 6t $% %&t%. 08(' r%! t%o+o1 $5 %&t% &%(& " +5 +! $o($%pt#+ (!t#r p%r&o(!+%/ or %(t!t5 :( $%%! $% pr v%6t% , (!+ t!t%!/ ' ( p!tr *o( #+ 1%(%t $ =0#<<%tt / GHDE@. A( *o*%(t#+ ,%$#('!4 % &% r%!+ <%!<5 #( t!t%! pr ($ p #+# *!t%r !+ 6 &p r t#!+. S% !$$%pt5/ !&t,%+/ '%, ( 4 ! p%r&o!(% #*!(% :( '%v%( r% +! $!r% (# &% o"&%rv5 + * t% '% tr!(< 4 % '% +! #( &t!' # +! !+t#+/ ( $ ' ( p#($t '% v%'%r% o(to+o1 $/ ( $ ' ( p#($t '% v%'%r% !+ %v!+#5r !9 o+o1 $% =Pr v t%r!/ GHHG@. S1r%$$ ! =GHH2@/ !(!+ <8(' &%p!r!t &t!t#t#+ %t $/ !(tropo+o1 $ 6 " o+o1 $ !+ %*"r o(#+# / $o(& '%r5 $5/ !t8t pr ( &t!t#t#+ %t $/ $8t 6 pr ( $%+ !(tropo+o1 $/ %*"r o(#+ %&t% p%r&o!(5 ' ( *o*%(t#+ $o($%p4 % . A( &t!t#t#+ " o+o1 $/ S1r%$$ ! &t!" +%6t% $8t%v! $!r!$t%r &t $ / $!r% P!1. GD/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro '%(t , $5 #( t!t%! 6 #( $ t!t%! < 1ot#+# / !' $! ! $%+#+% :( $!r% %&t% '%;! ,#< o(!t p!tr *o( #+ 1%(%t $ !+ $%+or 'o 1%( tor . A#tor#+ ' &$#t5 '%&pr% $!+ t!t%! & ($ro( $5 ! o#+# ,%$#('!tX $5r% ! : !p!r4 ( #( t!t%! 6 #( $ t!t%!/ pr%$#* 6 '%&pr% ' !$ro( %H/ $!r% ($+#'% $oor'o(!r%!/ $o(t (# t!t%! 6 1r!'#!+ t!t%! '%<vo+t5r o#+# . A( !$%&t *o'/ S1r%$$ ! p!r% &5 %+!"or%<% o (o#5 '%, ( 4 % ! %*"r o(#+# 6 !(#*% !$%%! ! #(% , (4% $% !r% $oor'o(!r% :( '%<vo+t!r%. D%6 op ( ! pr%v!+%(t5 ! B &%r $ C!to+ $% $o(& '%r5 $5 +! &,8r6 t#+ $o($%p4 % %9 &t5 o , (45 #*!(5/ o * (or t!t% $!to+ $5 $o(t (#5 &5 &#&4 (5 'o$tr (! +# To*! '\Ae# (o/ $o(,or* $5r% ! (# &% po!t% vor" '% , (45 #*!(5 :( t *p#+ pr *#+# &t!' # !+ 1%&t!4 % ='o$tr (! +o*or, &t5@. Co(,or* +o*or, &*#+# / &#,+%t#+ o*%(%&$ %&t% ,or*! &#"&t!(4 !+5 ! o*#+# / :( t *p $% $orp#+ %&t% r%<#+t!t#+ #( r &#,+%t#+# $#

*!t%r !. S#,+%t#+ o*#+# &t5 :( $orp $! ,or*! #(% &t!t# :( "+o$#+ '% *!r*#r5X (# %9 &t5 &t!t# !/ '%o!r%$% &$#+ptor#+ :($5 (# ! t%r* (!t)o. A$%&t $o($%pt/ !'opt!t :( G3G2 +! Co($ + #+ '% +! V %(!/ ! ,o&t #+t%r or !"!('o(!t :( ,!vo!r%! t%or % pr%,or*!4 o( &t% =>o*#($#+#&> #*!( :( &p%r*!to<o '@ 6 !po ! %p 1%(%<% / $!r% &#&4 (% '%<vo+t!r%! pro1r%& v5 ! or1!( &*%+or ' ( o#5 ,%$#('!t%. Do($%%+ =GHEI@ 6 Cor' =GHDD@/ &!$%r'o4 / &#&4 ( pot%<! :(&#,+%4 r :(t8r< !t%/ p% "!<! '!t%+or %*"r o+o1 % %9p%r *%(t!+% 6 p% o*( pot%(4! $%+#+!r5 ' ( pr *! ,!<5 ! '%<vo+t5r %*"r o(!r%. A( B "+ %/ %(t t!t%! v %4 " o+o1 $% %&t% !&o$ !t5 $# B(%ph%&h?)#+ $r%!t/ $#v8(t#+ o" 6(# t :( V%$h #+ T%&t!*%(t p%(tr# B&#,+%t?/ '!r tr!'#& ,r%$v%(t 6 pr ( >v !t!>/ pr%$#* 6 :( ' v%r&% !+t% *o'#r / :( ,#($4 % '% $o(t%9t. EI &% r%,%r5 %&%(4 !+*%(t% +! v !4! !( *!+5 !$t v5/ &pr% ! o '%o&%" '% & *p+%+% ,%(o*%(% , < $o)$h * $% &!# '% $r%6t%r%! p+!(t%+or. H DIACRONWE &. ,. %vo+# % :( t *p ! #(# pro$%&/ ! #(# !(&!*"+# '% ,%(o*%(%. =a ,r. ' !$hro( %@. S#r&!: MDN. Cr%!r%! o*#+# &)! ,5$#t B'#p5 $h p#+ +# D#*(%<%#? =0%(%<! G:2E@. C8(' t%9t#+ vor"%6t% '% ,or*!r%! tr#p#+# o*#+# / B(%ph%&h?)#+ %&t% !&o$ !t $# B&#,+!r%! '% v !45>X >+#8(' Do*(#+ D#*(%<%# 45r8(! ' ( p5*8(t/ ! ,5$#t p% o* 6 ! &#,+!t :( ,!4! +# &#,+!r% '% v !45/ 6 &)! ,5$#t o*#+ , (45 v %> =(%ph%&h@ =0%(%<! 2:E@. D%$ / p%(tr# ! po&%'! >(%ph%&h>)#+ $r%!t/ tr#p#+ tr%"# % &5 po&%'% &#,+!r%/ $!r% r%pr%< (t5 P!1. GH/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro tr!'#$%r%! %"r! $#+# >r#!$h>. A$%&t! %&t% tr!'#& 6 pr ( >v8(t> &!# >'#h>. Tr#p#+ %&t% %+%*%(t#+ *!t%r !+/ &#"&tr!t#+ , < $ !+ v %4 . EI !r% !$%%!6 or 1 (% 6 $o*po< 4 % $h * $5 $# to!t5 +#*%! v %. D#*(%<%# +)! ,5$#t ' ( >45r8(5>/ ' ( >p#+"%r%! p!*8(t#+# > =0%(%<! 2:E/ 3:GH/ E$+%< !&t#+ G2:E@/ $!r% >! '!t ' ( & (% v%r'%!45> =0%(%<! G:GG/ G2@/ pr%$#* 6 >, (4% v > =0%(%<! G:2F@. Ch !r 6 (#*%+% +# A'!* =A'!*!h@ :(&%!*(5 >' ( p5*8(t>. D!r !$%!&t5 #( t!t% $h * $5 ! *!t%r % v (# %9$+#'% &p%$ , $ t!t%!/ '#p5 $#* *%(4 o(%!<! Apo&to+#+ P!v%+: >N# to!t% tr#p#r +% &#(t !$%+!6 tr#p ... > =Cor (t%( GN:3H@. S#,+%t#+ %&t%/ :( pr *#+ r8('/ pr ($ p #+ v t!+/ pr ($ p #+ v %4 or1!( $%/ >&#,+!r%! '% v !45>/ !t8t ! o*#+# / $8t 6 ! !( *!+%+or =0%(%<! G:3I/2:E@. S$r pt#r +% &t!" +%&$ #( pr ($ p # ,o!rt% *port!(t '% '%(t , $!r% ! !( *!+%+or po&%&o!r% '% v !45/ :( !'%v5r!t#+ &%(& " "+ $: >v !4! tr#p#+# %&t% :( &8(1%> =0%(%<! H:F)M/ L%v t $#+ GE: GG/ G3@/ >&8(1%+% !r% :( %+ v !45> =D%#t. G2:23@. S#,+%t#+ %&t% '%(t , $!t $# &8(1%+%/ pr%$#* 6 $# o r%&p r!4 % v < " +5/ &#,+#+ =I&! ! F2:N/ C!pt%+% Apo&to+ +or GE:2N@. C5 &#,+%t#+ (# &% r%'#$% +! #(#+ ' ( ,%(o*%(%+% *!t%r % / (%)o '%*o(&tr%!<5 ' v%r&%+% %9p%r %(4% p!r!p& ho+o1 $% =t%+%p!t %/ $ t r%! 18('#r +or/ pr%$o1( 4 %/ $+!rv < #(% %t$.@/ pr%$#* 6 '%;! $%+%"r%+% r%+!t5r >' ( pr!1#+ *or4 > p#"+ $!t% '% R. Moo'P =GHEN@. D%&pr% !$%&t%!/ 'r. E. f#"+%r)Ro&& (ot%!<5 $5 >vor +!*#r p% *#+4 6 vor $o(, r*!/ $%%! $% !* ,o&t :(v54!4 '% 2.III '% !( / $5 %9 &t5 v !45 '#p5 *o!rt%>. A( t *p $% tr#p#+ ! (!6t%r% p% $!+% " o+o1 $5/ &#,+%t#+ %&t% $r%!t '% D#*(%<%# +! , %$!r% <5* &+ r% '% pr#($. EI !r , / '#p5 D. St5( +o!%/ r%<#+t!t#+ >#(% $o(+#$r5r ! +# D#*(%<%# $# p5r (4 >. N#*! $5 &#,+%t :(tr#p!t ' ( pr *#+ *o*%(t !+ %9 &t%(4% &!+%/ &#,+%t#+ #*!( %&t% #( ,!$tor (&%r!t :( +#*%/ $5$ :( &#,+%t &#(t p#t%r +% ,or*!to!r% '% tr#p ' ( *!t%r %. U( , +o<o, 6 (!t#r!+ 4t $o(t%*por!( $o(& '%r5 $5 o*#+ %&t%/ '% ,!pt/ o #( t!t% '% tr% %+%*%(t%: tr#p/ &#,+%t 6 '#h/ '#p5 '%o&%" r%! ,!$#t5/ !$#* 2.III '% !( / '% Apo&to+#+ P!v%+: >:(tr%1 tr#p#+ vo&tr# 6 &#,+%t#+ 6 '#h#+ &5 &% p5<%!&$5 ,5r5 '% pr h!(5... > =G. T%&!+o$. N:23@ P!1. 2I/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro A( !$%!&t5 $o($%p4 %/ '#h#+ (# &% &#pr!p#(% &#,+%t#+# X %+ %&t% pr ($ p #+ v %4 &p r t#!+% pr ( $!r%/ D#*(%<%#/ >D#h#+>/ ! ,5$#t p% o* >'#p5 $h p#+ 6 !&%*5(!r%! S!> =0%(%<! G:2M/2E@. D#h#+ (% ' ,%r%(4 !<5 (%t '% !( *!+/ pr ( '#h &#(t%* :( +%15t#r! $# D#*(%<%# 6 !v%* 18('#+ v%6( $ % =E$+%<. 3: GH/ G2:E/ L#$! 23:FM/ C!pt%+% Apo&to+ +or E:NH/ Ro*!( D:GN/GM@. C %$!r%

p%r&o!(5 po&%'5/ '%$ / #( tr#p 6 #( &#,+%t/ tr!(&* &% pr ( *o6t%( r% 1%(%t $5 '% +! pr * p5r (4 / A'!* 6 Ev!. D% !&%*%(%!/ , %$!r% p%r&o!(5 po&%'5 :($5 o %(t t!t% (#* t5 >$h p#+ +# D#*(%<%#>. Cr%!r%! o*#+# >'#p5 $h p#+ +# D#*(%<%#> ! (%$%& t!t #( !$t &p%$ !+ '% $r%!4 %/ :( p+#& ,!45 '% $r%!r%! %+%*%(t%+or , < $% 6 ! pr ($ p +or v %4 / '%&%*(!t% ! , tr!(&* &% pr ( r%pro'#$%r% 1%(%t $5. S% po!t% pr%&#p#(% $5 !$%&t !$t &p%$ !+ '% $r%!4 % (# &% tr!(&* t% pr ( *o6t%( r% 6 $5 p!rt%! $% : r%v (% , %$5r% p%r&o!(% ' ( >$h p#+ +# D#*(%<%#> ! ,o&t $r%!t5 (' v '#!+ p%(tr# %!. A$%!&t5 $r%!4 % (# p!r% &5 &% %,%$t#%<% :( *o*%(t#+ $o($%p4 % / $ %! !r , !v#t +o$ :( *o*%(t#+ :(&#6 !+ pr *% $r%!4 ! !$%&t% %(t t54 / , %$!r% >$h p> , (' r%<%rv!t :( D#*(%<%# p8(5 $% %&t% tr!(&* & :( *o*%(t#+ $o($%p4 % . D%t!+ +% !$%&t% * (#(!t% $r%!4 (# !# ,o&t r%+%v!t% :( *o' + *p%'%. D%6 (# %&t% $o*p+%t $+!r , $!t/ !&t5< &% 6t % $5 pro$%&#+ $r%6t%r %*"r o(!r% %&t% p!r4 !+ '!tor!t '#"+#+# h%+ 9 !+ *o+%$#+% '% ADN 6 ! (,or*!4 % 1%(%t $%. Sp r!+! '#"+5 &%rv%6t% $! >6!"+o(> p% $!r% >&% "ro'%!<5> $orp#+ %*"r o(#+# . A$%&t pro$%& %&t% r%+%v!t po%t $ :( P&!+*#+ G3D !+ +# D!v ' =G3)GM@: >T# ! < ' t r5r#($h *% / Do!*(%/ T# *)! !+$5t# t :( p8(t%$%+% *! $ *%+%. T% vo +!#'!/ $5 &#(t o ,5pt#r5 !6! '% * (#(!t5 ... N# &#(t !&$#(&% '% T (% o!&%+% *%+%/ p% $!r% +%)! ,5$#t :(tr# !&$#(&/ ( $ , (4! *%! p% $!r% ! #r< t)o $! :( $%+% '% *! ;o& !+% p5*8(t#+# . C%+% (%+#$r!t% !+% *%+% +%)!# $#(o&$#t o$h T5 6 :( $!rt%! T! to!t% &% vor &$r %J> P!1. 2G/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro C 1#r! E ) D%<vo+t!r%! %*"r o(#+# GI C#v8(t#+ >!+$5t# t> tr!'#$% %"r! $#+ >&!Z!Z>/ $!r% :(&%!*(5 >! :*p+%t > :*pr%;#r 6 p% '%!&#pr! p%(tr# prot%$4 %. S% tr!(&* t% !&t,%+ '%%! (# 'o!r ! prot%;5r ,5t#+# ( #t%r/ $ 6 '% !& 1#r!r% ! #(# *o'%+ '% (t%r$o(%9 #( :( v%'%r%! $r%6t%r +# tr%pt!t%. C#v (t%+% //,5pt#r! * (#(!t5> &#(t :( or 1 (!+ #( & (1#r $#v8(t/ %"r! $#+ >p!+!h> $!r% &%*( , $5 >,5$#t :( *o' #( $>. D%6 pro$%&#+ 6 *o'%+#+ '% "!<5 %&t% !$%+!6 p%(tr# , %$!r% p%r&o!(5/ & &t%*#+ 1%(%t $ %&t% !&t,%+ &tr#$t#r!t/ :($8t , %$!r% (' v ' %&t% #( $. V tor#+ tr#p %&t% v5<#t '% D#*(%<%# (# (#*! :(tr)o v < #(% pro,%t $5/ $ :( to!t5 &tr#$t#r! &!. A( t%9t#+ %"r! $ !p!r% $#v8(t#+ >r!e!*>/ $!r% :(&%!*(5 >"ro'!t>. E&t% &#1%r!t5 !&t,%+ !$4 #(%! t p!r ! 1%(%+or $% ' r ;%!<5 pro$%&#+ '% *o'%+!r% ! $orp#+# / +! ,%+ $#* o "ro'%r % $!p!t5 $o(t#r/ $#&5t#r5 '% $#&5t#r5/ p% "!<! *o'%+#+# &%$r%t !+ *!t%r !+#+# . E9pr%& ! >$! :( $%+% '% *! ;o& !+% p5*8(t#+# > %&t% %( 1*!t $5. Co(t%9t#+ :( $!r% *! !p!r% !$%!&t! !r!t5 + *p%'% $5 %&t% vor"! '%&pr% *!r%! 1ro!p5 ' ( (t%r or#+ p5*8(t#+# / $!r% 15<'# ! &p r t%+% o!*%( +or *or4 . M!;or t!t%! $o*%(t!tor +or $o(& '%r5 $5 :(t#(%r $#+ ' ( 1ro!p! !'8($5 %&t% $o*p!r!t/ +! , 1#r!t/ $# :(t#(%r $#+ p8(t%$#+# . GI E*"r o( '% N &5pt5*8( . CopPr 1ht L ,% I&&#%& I(&t t#t%/ USA. P!1. 22/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro O !+t5 (t%rpr%t!r% %&t% !$%%! $5 ,!t#+ %&t% >"ro'!t> :( p8(t%$% ' ( %+%*%(t% $!r%/ +! or 1 (%/ prov ( ' ( !'8($#r +% p!*8(t#+# . D#*(%<%# ! v5<#t '%<vo+t!r%! v tor#+# %*"r o(/ $h !r :(! (t% '% $o($%p4 %: >A(! (t% '% ! t% , <5* &+ t :( p8(t%$% t%)!* $#(o&$#t> =I%r%* ! G/N@. A( t%9t#+ %"r! $ %&t% #t + <!t $#v8(t#+ >1o+%*>/ $% &%*( , $5 >o *!&5 :(,5#r!t5 6 (,or*5>/ $# r%,%r r% $8t &% po!t% '% %9p+ $ t5 +! %*"r o(. P8(5 6 >< +%+%> +# &#(t :(&$r &% :( $!rt%! +# D#*(%<%#. To!t% &#(t * &t%r o& , 9!t% '% $%!&#+ " o+o1 $ $o' , $!t :( (t%r or#+ & &t%*#+# 1%(%t $. A( $o($+#< %/ $+!r , $!r%! $h%&t #( %*"r o(#+# pr%$o$%/ (%, (' po& " +5 p% "!<% " o+o1 $%/ provo!$5 +! *%' t! %... C %$!r% $o(t (5 &% $o(,r#(t5/ :( $%+% ' ( #r*5/ $# :(tr%"5r r%,%r to!r% +! r%+! ! &! $# &%*%( 6 $# D#*(%<%#. A( !$%!&t5 (t%ro1! %/ , %$!r% : $!p5t5 $o(t (! & t#&)#+# &5#. D ( !$%!&t5 p%r&p%$t v5/ (% r!+ %* op ( +or ,!vor!" +% !$$%pt5r #(% !(tropo+o1 p%r&o(!+ &t%/ o(to+o1 $ ,o('!t5 6 $o(& '%r5* $5 p%r&o!(! %&t% o r%!+ t!t%/ !t8t %9h!to+o1 $5/ t%o+o1 $5/ '!r 6 &tor $)po+ t $5.

P!1. 23/23 A&o$ !4 ! Pro)v t! p%(tr# N5&$#4 6 N%(5&$#4 / B#$#r%6t 7 www.prov t!"#$#r%&t .ro BIBLIO0RACIE: Bo*p !( A.: I(' v '#!+ t! " o+o1 $! % ' 1( t! #*!(! '%+ $o($%p to/ R v. C+%ro It/ 3/ 3/ 3)GG/ GHE2. M ro(%&$# A.: C%rt t#' (% 6 !'%v!r/ E'. H!r &*!/ GHH2. S%rr! A.: ^#!('o % ( < !t! +! * ! v t!d L! C v + t! C!tto+ $!/ IV/ NEE)NDN/ GHDH. I$5 I./ ;r.: P%r&o!(5 6 o(to+o1 % :( 18(' r%! orto'o95 $o(t%*por!(5/ E'. Arh %p &$op % orto'o9%/ S " #/ 3NH)3DN/ GHH3. St5( +o!% D.: I &#& Hr &to& &!# r%&t!#r!r%! o*#+# / E'. O*( &$op/ Cr! ov!X GIF)G2E/ GHH3. S1r%$$ ! E. =! $#r! ' @: I+ 'o(o '%++! v t!/ V t! % p%(& %ro/ IV/ NEE)NDN/ GHDH ^#!tro$$h P.: P%r&o(! % $orpo ( " o%Ph $!/ I( Att D%+ Co++oe# o BI+ $o($%rto ' p%r&o(! $o*% po&& " +% ,o('!< o(% p%r +! " o%th $!?/ 0%(ov!/ N)E '%$%*"r%/ GHHI. C+%w A.: D $4 o(!r '% , +o&o, % 6 +o1 $5/ E'. H#*!( t!&/ B#$#r%6t / 2NH/ GHHM. Mor'!$$ / R.: L! (o< o(% ' p%r&o(! (%+ ' "!tt t! ' " o%th $!/ P%r +! , +o&o, !/ IU/2N/ DH)H2/ GHH2. Mor M.: L! " o%th $!: e#%&t o( *or!+ % po+ t $h% p%r + ,#t#ro '%++ #o*o/ B "+ oth%e#%/ M +!(o/ GHHG. C!rt %r M./ D!v ' 0./ M $h!#' L./ Mo (%t L./ S#r%! C./ T "!#+t Ch./ V!+!' %r P.: A#9 '%"#t& '% +! v %. D%& $!tho+ e#%& pr%((%(t po& t o(/ L! '%$o#v%rt%/ P!r &/ GHHI. C+!* 1( C.: Pro"+%* $ " o%t $ propo&t '!++% (#ovo t%$h(o+o1 % r%pro'#tt v%/ LUIU Co(1r%&&o SI0O/ CIC E' < o( I(t%r(<!t (!+ / Ro*!/ 3NM)3EI/ GHH3. 0#<%tt C.B.: ^#!('o I %*"r o(% % p%r&o(!d R v &t! ' T%o+o1 ! Mor!+%/ D/E3/ ME)EH/ GHDE. Pr v t%r! S.: R ,+%&& o( &#++o &t!t#to *or!+% % 1 #r '$ '%++ %*"r o(%/ R v &t! ' T%o+o1 ! Mor!+%/ DH/ H3)GII/ GHHG.

Titlu i autor ?Jn ori"inal@2 9ole#an, :' ' 3in press4' $bortion and %ental HealthC $ Duantitative S'nthesis and $nal'sis of .esearch 8ublished from !33E12 3' Vol' $%% British Jo)rnal of :sychiatry p' $&> 3?>$$4 !eEumat: !n #eta-st)di) de #are a#ploare, p)blicat de prestigios)l periodic [J)rnal)l Britanic de :sihiatrieY arat] c] avort)l aproape d)blea8] risc)l de afec i)ni #entale i c] )na din 8ece astfel de afeci)ni ale fe#eilor este legat] direct de avort' Aceasta este cea #ai i#portant] esti#are as)pra relaiei ^ntre avort i proble#ele de s]n]tate #ental] disponibil] la ora act)al] ^n literat)ra #ondial]' Tip: 6eta-anali8] ba8at] pe ?? de st)dii care c)prind GC de efecte i date c)lese de la &DD'$&$ participani' , #eta-anali8] este o sinte8] cantitativ] sa) n)#eric] a datelor din n)#eroase st)dii pre-e1istente' Acestea n) s)nt tratate ^n #od egal' 9ontrib) iile st)diilor individ)ale la re8)ltatele totale s)nt apreciate statistic' Doar st)diile care respect] criterii #etodologice foarte stringente a) fost ad#ise' :rintre criteriile de incl)dere ^n #eta-anali8] se n)#]r] anali8a eantioanelor de $>> de participani, folosirea gr)p)rilor de control i l)area ^n considerare a )nor variabile care pot afecta re8)ltatele finale prec)# sit)a ia de#ografic], violena do#estic], proble#ele pre-e1istente de s]n]tate #ental] etc' Scop2 :racticienii ^n do#eni)l s]n]t]ii #entale a) nevoie de )n sinopsis adecvat al celor #ai b)ne date disponibile, pentr) a p)tea f)rni8a fe#eilor infor#a ii valide ^n proces)l de l)are a )nei deci8ii infor#ate ^n ce prive te s]n]tatea lor' !eEultate:

$4 _n ansa#bl), fe#eile care a) e1peri#entat )n)l sa) #ai #)lte avort)ri pre8int] risc c) &$P cresc)t de afeci)ni #entale' 9reterea risc)l)i varia8] ^ntre G@P i ?G>P, ^n f)ncie de t)lb)rarea st)diat], astfel2 t)lb)r]ri an1ioase - risc cresc)t c) G@P, depresie - GDP, ab)8 de alcool - $$>P, )8Eab)8 de drog)ri [)oareY - ??>P, co#porta#ent s)icidar - $HHP' ?4 !na din 8ece afeci)ni #entale este direct atrib)ibil] avort)l)i' 1oncluEie: Ab)ndena de date i obiectivitatea #etodelor fac aceast] #eta-anali8] #)lt #ai de#n de l)at ^n considerare dec`t st)diile individ)ale' :)blicarea ^ntr-)n periodic prestigios, J)rnal)l Britanic de :sihiatrie, confer] credibilitate i serio8itate at`t a)torilor c`t i #etaanali8ei ^n sine'