Rift Basin & Hydrocarbon Potential

1. Element petroleum system

2. Discussion & conclusion

Rift Basin concept , Basin evolution and Basin formation Rift basins have been increasingly the focus of research in tectonics, structural geology, and basin analysis. The reasons for this interest include: (1) Rift basins are found on all assive (!tlantic " ty e) continental #argins and rovide a record of the early stages of (su er)continental brea$u . (%) The architecture of these basins and the basin fill are strongly influenced by the dis lace#ent geo#etry on the bounding nor#al fault syste#s (e.g., &ibson et al., 1'('). Thus, as ects of the evolution of these fault syste#s, including their nucleation, record. (*) +any #odern and ancient e)tensional basins contain lacustrine de osits (e.g., ,at-, 1''.) that are sensitive recorders of cli#ate. +ilan$ovitch cycles (e.g., /lsen and ,ent, 1''') recorded in these strata rovide a 0uantitative test of the redictions of basin1filling #odels (e.g., 2chlische and /lsen, 1''.) that can, in turn, be used to infer as ects of crustal rheology during rifting (e.g., 3ontreras et al., 1''4). (5) +any of the #a6or etroleu# rovinces of the 7orld are associated 7ith rift basins (e.g., the 8orth 2ea basins, the 9eanne d:!rc basin, the Bra-ilian rift basins). ro agation and lin$age, can be e)tracted fro# the sedi#entary

This section articular, 7e e)a#ine

rovides a brief overvie7 of the rift basins related to Pangean

brea$u , es ecially those along the central !tlantic #argin (e.g., /lsen, 1''4). ;n

(1) The structural architecture of rift basins< (%) The inter lay of tectonics, sedi#ent su scale stratigra hy of rift basins< (*) Ho7 the sedi#entary fill can be subdivided into tectonostratigra hic ac$ages that record continental rifting, initiation of seafloor s reading, basin inversion, and drifting< and (5) Ho7 coring can be used to ans7er funda#ental 0uestions related to these to ics. Structural Architecture ! ty ical rift basin is a fault1bounded feature $no7n as a half graben (=ig. *.*.1.1a). ;n a cross section oriented er endicular to the boundary fault (transverse section), the half graben has a triangular geo#etry (=ig. *.*.1.1b). The three sides of the triangle are the border fault, the rift1onset unconfor#ity bet7een rerift and synrift roc$s, and the ostrift unconfor#ity bet7een synrift and ostrift roc$s (or, for #odern rifts, the resent1day de ositional surface). >ithin the triangular 7edge of synrift units, stratal boundaries rotate fro# being sub arallel to the rift1onset unconfor#ity to being sub arallel to the ostrift unconfor#ity. This fanning geo#etry, along 7ith thic$ening of synrift units to7ard the boundary fault, are roduced by synde ositional faulting. 3ore fro# the 8e7ar$ basin confir#s the thic$ening relationshi s (see 2ection *.*.%). 2ynrift strata co##only onla rerift roc$s. ;n a cross section oriented arallel to the boundary fault (longitudinal section), the basin has a synclinal geo#etry (=ig. *.*.1.1c), although #ore co# licated geo#etries are associated 7ith seg#ented boundary fault syste#s (e.g., 2chlische, 1''*< 2chlische and !nders, 1''?< +orley, 1'''). ly, and cli#ate in controlling the large1

Fi ure !.!.1.1. &eo#etry of a si# le half graben. (a) +a 1vie7 geo#etry. (b) &eo#etry along a cross section oriented er endicular to the boundary fault, sho7ing 7edge1sha ed basin in 7hich synrift strata e)hibit a fanning geo#etry, thic$en to7ard the boundary fault, and onla roc$s. (c) &eo#etry along a cross section oriented arallel to the boundary fault, sho7ing syncline1sha ed basin in 7hich synrift strata thin a7ay fro# the center of the basin and onla rerift roc$s. rerift

The half1graben geo#etry described above is directly controlled by the defor#ation (dis lace#ent) field surrounding the boundary fault syste# (&ibson et al.,

1'('< 2chlische, 1''1, 1''@< 2chlische and !nders, 1''?< 3ontreras et al. 1''4). ;n a gross sense, dis lace#ent is greatest at the center of the fault and decreases to -ero at the fault ti s (=ig. *.*.1.%a)< this roduces the syncline1sha ed basin in longitudinal section. ;n traverse section, the dis lace#ent of an initially hori-ontal surface that intersects the fault is greatest at the fault itself and decreases 7ith distance a7ay fro# the fault. This roduces foot7all u lift and hanging17all subsidence, the latter of 7hich creates the sedi#entary basin (=ig. *.*.1.%b). Ho7ever, this geo#etry is affected by fault ro agation and forced folding (e.g., >ith6ac$ et al., 1''.< &a7thor e et al., 1''4). !s dis lace#ent accu#ulates on the boundary fault, the basin dee ens through ti#e. Because the 7idth of the hanging17all deflection increases 7ith increasing fault dis lace#ent (Barnett et al., 1'(4), the basin 7idens through ti#e. Because the length of the fault increases 7ith increasing dis lace#ent (e.g., 3o7ie, 1''(), the basin lengthens through ti#e. The gro7th of the basin through ti#e roduces rogressive onla of synrift strata on rerift roc$s (=ig. *.*.1.*).

Fi ure !.!.1.2. =ault1dis lace#ent geo#etry controls the first1order geo#etry of a half graben. (a) Pers ective diagra# before (left) and after faulting sho7ing ho7 nor#al faulting u lifts the foot7all bloc$ and roduces subsidence in the hanging1 7all bloc$. The yello7 dashed line sho7s the outer li#it of hanging17all subsidence and #ar$s the edge of the basin. Ais lace#ent is a #a)i#u# at the center of the fault (only the right half of the fault is sho7n) and decreases to7ard the fault ti . (b) Traverse section before faulting (left) and after faulting and sedi#entation sho7ing foot7all u lift and hanging17all subsidence. The latter roduces a 7edge1sha ed basin (half graben).

Basin infillin And Basin Deformation

Fi ure !.!.1.!. 2i# le filling #odel for a gro7ing half1graben basin sho7n in #a vie7 (stages 115), longitudinal cross section (stages 11@), and transverse cross ly deter#ines 7hether sedi#entation is fluvial or lacustrine. =or section (stages 115). Aashed line re resents la$e level. The relationshi bet7een ca acity and sedi#ent su

lacustrine sedi#entation, the relationshi bet7een 7ater volu#e and e)cess ca acity deter#ines the la$e de th. +odified fro# 2chlische and !nders (1''?).

The si# le structural architecture described above #ay be co# licated by basin inversion, in 7hich a contractional hase follo7s the e)tensional hase (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1''@). Ty ical inversion structures include nor#al faults reactivated as reverse faults, ne7ly for#ed reverse and thrust faults, and folds (=ig. *.*.1.5, *.*.1.@). Basin inversion occurs in a variety of tectonic environ#ents (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1''@), including several assive #argins related to the brea$u of Pangea (e.g., AorB and Cundin, 1''?< Dagnes et al., 1''(< >ith6ac$ et al., 1''@, 1''(< Hill et al., 1''@< >ith6ac$ & Eisenstadt, 1'''). The causes of inversion on these assive #argins is not 7ell understood. 2ection 5.%.1 describes ho7 coring, in co#bination 7ith other #ethods, #ay hel further our understanding of basin inversion on assive #argins.

Fi ure !.!.1.". E)a# les of ositive inversion structures. (a) 3ross section across beca#e reverse faults, art of 2unda arc. Auring inversion, nor#al faults roducing synclines and anticlines 7ith har oon

geo#etries (after Cetou-ey, 1''.). (b) ;nter reted line dra7ings (7ith *:1 and 1:1 vertical e)aggeration) of !&2/ Cine 11.11% fro# E)#outh sub1basin, 8> 2helf !ustralia (after >ith6ac$ & Eisenstadt, 1'''). Auring +iocene inversion, dee 1seated nor#al faults beca#e reverse faults. ;n res onse, gentle #onoclines for#ed in the shallo7, ostrift strata.

Fi ure !.!.1.#. E) eri#ental #odels of inversion structures. 3ross sections through three clay #odels sho7ing develo #ent of inversion structures (after Eisenstadt and >ith6ac$, 1''@).

;n each #odel, a clay layer (7ith colored sub1layers) covered t7o overla ing #etal lates. +ove#ent of the lo7er late created e)tension or shortening. Thin clay layers are rerift< thic$ clay layers are synrift< to 1#ost layer is ostrift and re1inversion. To section sho7s #odel 7ith e)tension and no shortening< a half graben containing very gently di ing synrift units is resent. The #iddle section sho7s #odel 7ith e)tension follo7ed by #inor shortening< a subtle anticline has for#ed in the half graben, and is associated 7ith #inor stee ening of the di of synrift layers. Botto# section sho7s #odel 7ith e)tension follo7ed by #a6or shortening. The anticline in the half graben is #ore ro#inent, and is associated 7ith significant stee ening of the di of synrift strata. 8e7 reverse faults have for#ed in the rerift layers. !lthough the inversion is obvious in this #odel, erosion of #aterial do7n to the level of the red line 7ould re#ove the #ost obvious evidence of inversion in the half graben. =urther#ore, the ro#inent reverse faults cutting the rerift units could be inter reted to indicate rerift contractional defor#ation, as is co##on in the rift -ones related to the brea$u of Pangea.

Strati raphic Architecture 8u#erous non1#arine rift basins of varied geogra hy and geologic age share a re#ar$ably si#ilar stratigra hic architecture (Ca#biase, 1''.< 2chlische and /lsen, 1''.< =ig. *.*.1.?). ,no7n as a tri artite stratigra hy, the section begins 7ith basin17ide fluvial de osits overlain by a relatively abru t dee ening1u 7ard lacustrine succession overlain by a gradual shallo7ing1u 7ard lacustrine and fluvial succession. The $ey to understanding the significance of this tri artite stratigra hy rests in the relationshi s a#ong basin ca acity and sedi#ent and 7ater su su su ly (2chlische and /lsen, 1''.< 3arroll and Bohacs, 1'''). Tectonics creates acco##odation s ace or basin ca acity. 2edi#ent ly deter#ines ho7 #uch of that basin ca acity is filled and 7hether or not la$e ly e)ceeds ca acity, and lacustrine de osition results 7hen ca acity e)ceeds ly. syste#s are ossible (=igure *.*.1.4). ;n general, fluvial de osition results 7hen sedi#ent sedi#ent su

Fi ure !.!.1.$. 2tratigra hic architecture of Triassic19urassic rift basins of eastern 8orth !#erica. =or tectonostratigra hic (T2) ac$age ;;;, nearly all basins e)hibit all or art of a tri artite stratigra hy: 1, basal fluvial de osits< %, Fdee er17aterF lacustrine de osits< *, Fshallo717aterF lacustrine and fluvial de osits. The southern basins do not contain T21;D. T21; is only recogni-ed in the =undy basin and #ay or #ay not be a synrift de osit. >here T21;; is recogni-ed, a significant unconfor#ity (in ter#s

of #issing ti#e) co##only se arates it fro# T21;;;. +odified fro# /lsen (1''4), /lsen et al. (%...), and 2chlische (%...).

Fi ure !.!.1.%. Relationshi s a#ong basin ca acity, sedi#ent su basins. ;n e)a# le 1, basin17ide fluvial sedi#entation is sedi#ent su

ly, and

volu#e of 7ater deter#ine the large1scale de ositional environ#ents of terrestrial rift redicted. ;n e)a# le %, shallo717ater lacustrine sedi#entation is redicted. =or the basin ca acity and available ly sho7n in this e)a# le, no very dee la$es are ossible because the e)cess ca acity of the basin (and thus la$e de th) is li#ited. Thus, under these conditions, cli#ate is a relatively uni# ortant control on la$e de th. ;n e)a# le *, dee 1 7ater lacustrine sedi#entation is redicted. The relationshi s sho7n in =igure *.*.1.4 allo7 us to inter ret the large1scale stratigra hic transitions observed in #any non1#arine rift basins. The fluvial1lacustrine transition #ay result fro# an increase in basin ca acity andGor a decrease in sedi#ent

su

ly. The shallo717ater lacustrine to dee 17ater lacustrine transition #ay result fro# ly, andGor increase in the

an increase in basin ca acity, a decrease in sedi#ent1su

available volu#e of 7ater. The dee 17ater lacustrine to shallo717ater lacustrine transition #ay result fro# a decrease or an increase in basin ca acity (de ending on the geo#etry of the basin:s e)cess ca acity), an increase in the sedi#ent su ly, andGor decrease in the available volu#e of 7ater. Ho7 do 7e go about choosing the #ore li$ely inter retationH ;nterestingly, all of the #a6or stratigra hic transitions can be e) lained by an increase in basin ca acity, for 7hich a si# le basin1filling #odel is sho7n in =igure *.*.1.*. /ther basin filling #odels are described by Ca#biase (1''.), 2#oot (1''1), and Ca#biase and Bos7orth (1''@). !s discussed in 2ection *.*.*, long cores fro# rift basins, co#bined 7ith basin #odeling (e.g., 3ontreras et al., 1''4) and seis#ic reflection data (e.g., +orley, 1'''), are re0uired to test the #odels. redictions of these basin1filling

Fi ure !.!.1.&. ;deali-ed rift basin sho7ing unconfor#ity1bounded tectonostratigra hic ac$ages. Thin blac$ lines re resent stratal truncation beneath unconfor#ities< red half1 arro7s re resent onla s. ;n eastern 8orth !#erica, T21; #ay not be a synrift de osit, and thus the geo#etry sho7n here 7ould be incorrect. T21;; is #uch #ore areally restricted and #ore 7edge1sha ed than T21;;;. The transition bet7een T21;;; and T21;D is li$ely related to an increase in e)tension rate. !n offset coring techni0ue (vertical orange lines), as used in the 8e7ar$ basin coring ro6ect, does not sa# le T21; and #ost of T21;;. !

dee core (vertical yello7 line) is necessary to recover T21; and T21;;. +odified fro# /lsen (1''4).

'ectonostrati raphic (ac)a es and Basin Evolution /lsen (1''4) subdivided the synrift strata of central !tlantic #argin rift basins into four tectonostratigra hic (T2) ac$ages (=ig. *.*.1.?, *.*.1.(). !n individual T2 ac$age consists of all or art of a tri artite stratigra hic succession, is se arated fro# other ac$ages by unconfor#ities or correlative confor#ities, and generally has a different cli#atic #ilieu co# ared to other T2 ac$ages. T21; is a Per#ian de osit that #ay or #ay not be synrift, 7hereas T21;;, T21;;;, and T21;D are Cate Triassic and Early 9urassic synrift de osits (/lsen et al., %...). The unconfor#ities bet7een T21;, T21;;, and T21;;; re resent significant geologic ti#e. Ho7ever, it is not yet clear if these unconfor#ities are related to regional tectonic changes (e.g., ulsed e)tension) (/lsen, 1''4) or to relatively local rocesses such as strain locali-ation (a change fro# distributed e)tension on lots of s#all faults to e)tension on a fe7 large ones< e.g., &u ta et al., 1''() (=ig. *.*.1.'). &iven their geo#etry and location in the rift basin, T21; and T21;; can generally only be sa# led through dee coring and not the relatively shallo7 offset coring utili-ed in the 8e7ar$ basin (2ection *.*.*). The rift1onset unconfor#ity bet7een rerift roc$s and various synrift units should not be ta$en as evidence of regional u lift receding rifting< rather, it #ore li$ely reflects erosion and non1de osition occurring over a to ogra hically elevated region resulting fro# the asse#bly of Pangea.

Fi ure !.!.1.*. 2tages in the evolution of a rift basin. (a) Early rifting associated 7ith several #inor, relatively isolated nor#al faults. (b) +ature rifting 7ith through1going boundary fault -one, 7ides read de osition, and foot7all u lift and erosion T21;;; and T21;D 7ere de osited in #uch larger basins or sub 1 basins than 7as T21;;, and the unconfor#ity bet7een the# is s#all to non1e)istent (/lsen, 1''4). T21;D includes the 7ides read 3!+P basalts that 7ere eru ted in a geologically short interval at I%.% +a (e.g., /lsen et al., 1''?< /lsen, 1''') (The 3!+P basalts co# rise a large1 igneous rovince or C.;.P.< see 2ection *.1.*). 2ignificantly, T21;D is absent in all of the southern basins of the central !tlantic #argin. !s discussed #ore fully in >ith6ac$ et al. (1''(), T21;D 7as robably never de osited in this region, indicating that syn 1 rift subsidence had ceased rior to T21;D ti#e. J! ost 1 rift basalt se0uence, 7hich #ay or #ay not be the sa#e age as 3!+P, is resent in the southern region and lausibly can be connected to a sea7ard1di ing reflector se0uence at the continental #argin (/h et al.,

1''@). The te# oral and s atial relationshi s of these igneous roc$s is a critical coring target< see sections 5.%.1 and 5.%.%.K !lso significantly, basin inversion in the southern basins occurred shortly rior to and during T21;D ti#e, 7hile inversion in the northern basins occurred after T21;D ti#e. (Auring T21;D ti#e, the northern basins under7ent accelerated subsidence< see =igure *.*.%.4). Thus, the end of rifting, the initiation of inversion, and robably the initiation of seafloor s reading are diachronous along the central !tlantic #argin (i.e., during earliest 9urassic ti#e in the southeastern Lnited 2tates and Early to +iddle 9urassic ti#e in the northeastern Lnited 2tates and +ariti#e 3anada) (>ith6ac$ et al., 1''(). 3oring, field analysis, and seis#ic1reflection rofiles of syn " rift and i##ediately overlying ost " rift de osits and the structures for#ed in the#, are necessary to clarify the i# ortant events occurring at the rift1drift transition. The inferred diachronous initiation of seafloor s reading along the resent1day #argin of the central 8orth !#erica /cean is develo , seafloor s reading art of larger trend that reflects the rogressive dis#e#ber#ent of Pangea. !s the 8orth !tlantic /cean continued to ro agated north7ard. =or e)a# le, seafloor s reading bet7een the &rand Ban$s and south7estern Euro e began during the Early 3retaceous (e.g., 2rivastava and Ta scott, 1'(?)< seafloor s reading bet7een Cabrador and 7estern &reenland began during the early Tertiary (ano#aly %48) (e.g., 3hal#ers, et al., 1''*)< 7hereas seafloor s reading bet7een eastern &reenland and north7estern Euro e began slightly later during the early Tertiary (ano#aly %5R) (e.g., Tal7ani and Eldhol#, 1'44< Hin- et al., 1''*).

R;=T B!2;82 1 ! TE3T/8;3 +/AEC 9a#es. /. 2alveson 3hevron on Resources 3o# any, 2an =rancisco, 3! Rift basins are characteri-ed by linear de ressions filled by thic$ sedi#ent layers cut by nu#erous nor#al faults. 2 eculations about the origin of rift basins are generally focused on t7o rocesses are:

(l) initiation by a ther#al lu#e in the #antle (Bur$e, ,. and Ae7ey, 9.=., 1'4*) and (%) assive for#ation fro# e)tension caused by late #otion (2alveson, 9./., 1'4(). The ther#al lu#e #odel re0uires on initial u lift and the creation of a graben fro# this u lift. 3ontinued e)tension beyond the for#ation of graben relies on late #otions. The #odel for assive for#ation of rift basins relies on late #otion fro# ince tion. 3onstraints regarding the origin of rifting are contained in the geologic data reserved in the sedi#entary record of rift basins. Lnfortunately, #uch of these data are buried dee ly 7ithin the basin and can only be obtained by drilling. Ho7ever, several rift basins have been found to have rolific etroleu# roduction and so data fro# e) loration activities is available. These data rovide the basis for understanding the tectonics of rift basins. Basins 7here data are available include the 8orth 2ea Basins, Reconcano Basin, Rhine &raben, Red 2ea1&ulf of 2ue- Basins and the &i sland Basin. These e)a# les sho7 considerable variation in basin si-e, sedi#ent ty es, and stage of develo #ent. They also sho7 significant si#ilarities. !ll contain e)tensive nor#al faulting. +ost has elevated ther#al gradients and contain volcanic roc$s. 2ignificantly, three stages of sedi#entation can be recogni-ed. These stages, re1rift, rift and ost1rift, brac$et the tectonic develo #ent and so contribute significant infor#ation. The occurrence of re1rift sedi#ents 7ithin the basin is contrary to the theory of large1scale u lift rior to graben for#ation. ;n a ther#al u lift scenario, the re1rift sedi#ents should be eroded a7ay. =urther, the a#ount of e)tension 7hich can be generated by on u lift #odel is very li#ited. =ive $ilo#eters of e)tension is calculated for the Rhine &raben (lllies, 9.H., 1'4@). The u lift needed to generate @ $# of e)tension is in the range of %@ to *@ $#. 3learly, a #odel 7hich re0uires that #uch u lift is not viable. The u lifted shoulders of rifts are cited as evidence for ince tual do#ing (Co7ell, 9.A. and &eni$, &.9., 1'4%). ho7ever, the u lift of the shoulders ore e) ected fro# the isostatic relations involved in e)tensional tectonics. This is illustrated by a si# le diagra# of isostatically balanced colu#ns of lithos here (=igure l). The diagra# is based on the assu# tion that the crust fails under tensional stress by brittle fracture and shearing 7hile the #antle thins li$e taffy by nec$ing. The graben starts dro ing as the

e)tension starts. The re1rift sedi#ents are faulted do7n and reserved. The effect of @ $# of e)tension s read over a seg#ent of crust @. $# 7ide and *@ $# thic$ is the sa#e as unloading * $# of #aterial fro# it. !s the u er #antle nec$s, co# ensating #aterial rises in a 7edge sha e out of the asthenos here. ! regional u lift results, tilting the shoulders a7ay fro# the graben. The e)tension is clearly the cause of the u lift, not the result.

=igure l. 2tandard colu#n at left ortrays isostatic e0uilibriu# for 1.. $# thic$ lithos here. Relations re0uired to return to isostatic balance after a l.M e)tension by flo7 is sho7n in ne)t colu#n 3o# ensating #aterial at botto# of colu#n co#es fro# asthenos here. 8e)t, another standard colu#n sho7s D seg#ent 7here crustal e)tension is confined for rift #odel. Cost colu#n sho7s l.M e)tension 7here crustal e)tension is

li#ited to center seg#ent and u

er #antle has defor#ed by nec$ing. +aterial fro#

asthenos here flo7s in fro# belo7 to co# ensate for dise0uilibriu# caused by e)tension. ( D is volu#e of colu#n 7ith unit thic$ness, N is density, The su# of the DN roducts are the so#e for standard colu#ns but l.M higher for the e)tended colu#n.

The rising asthenos here rovides a source of increased heat flo7. The u generates volcanis# and odds to the increased heat flo7.

er

#antle is raised to o decreasing ressure regi#e and so artial #elt is for#ed 7hich

!n e)tension rate of @ ## er year 7ould resul.t in @ $# of e)tension in only one #illion years. !s e)tension continues, the crust and u er #antle are thinned until finally the asthenos here reaches the base of the crust. (2ee =igure %). =urther e)tension results in e# lace#ent of oceanic crust and a transfer of the e)tension to the oceanic s reading center. >hen faulting of the continental crust abates, the ost1rift stage of sedi#ents is de osited. E)tension #ay not al7ays roceed to the for#ation of a ne7 ocean1basin. !ny ti#e the e)tension aborts, faulting sto s and the ost1rift hase of sedi#entation begins. The rift #odel sho7n in =igure % starts 7ith o seg#ent of lithos here and roceeds through @ @. and 1.. $# of e)tension to a #ature continental #argin. The #odel is only diagra##atic because every sedi#entary basin has uni0ue ele#ents deter#ined by #any factors: the thic$ness of the crust, the effects of revious tectonic regi#es, the ther#al condition of the lithos here, the direction and a#ount of tectonic stress a lied, etc. ho7ever, the #odel is scaled and incor orates the isostatic rinci les discussed earlier. This #odel of assive res onse to late #otion allo7s for considerable variation. in the develo #ent of rift basins yet e) lains the co##on constituents of rift basins: e)tensive nor#al faulting, u lifted shoulders, volcanis# and high heat flo7. reserved re1rift sedi#ents,

E)a# le of 3ase 2tudy Rift Basin & Hydrocarbon Potential +ntroduction The continental shelf of Dietna# co# rises several #a6or Tertiary basins, of 7hich the etroleu# otential has been confir#ed including 2ong Hong Basin, Phu ,hanh Basin, 3uu Cong Basin, 8a# 3on 2on Basin and +alay1Tho 3hu Basin. Recent studies indicated the esti#ated reserves and resources, both onshore and offshore Dietna# to be *15 billion cubic #etres (B3+) of oil and gas, co# rising ..'11.% B3+ of oil and %.11%.( B3+ of natural gas. !bout @. oil and gas ros ects have been found 7ith reserves of a ro)i#ately * billions barrels of oil and %* T3= of natural gas.

3o##ercial oil has been discovered and roduced in 3uu Cong, 8a# 3on 2on and +alay1Tho 3hu Basins, 7hile co##ercial gas is being roduced in 2ong Hong and develo ed in 8a# 3on 2on and +alay1Tho 3hu Basins. 3uu Cong Basin is no7 considered to be #ature, 7ith greater than @.M robability that #ore than @.M of the total etroleu# in the region has been discovered, generally covered by e)tensive seis#ic grid and high drilling density. 2ub#ature regions such as 2ong Hong, 8a# 3on 2on and +alay1Tho 3hu Basins have a greater than @.M robability that less than @.M of the region:s total etroleu# resources has been discovered 7ith #ediu# seis#ic and drilling density. Phu ,hanh Basin and frontier areas are those 7ithout etroleu# discoveries, 7here seis#ic coverage is s arse and 7ith fe7 7ells drilled.

Re ional ,eolo ical Settin Tectonic Evolution The Dietna# continental shelf area constitutes a art of a syste# of 3eno-oic sedi#entary basins that lies 7ithin a transition -one fro# the continental crust of the ;ndochina 3raton to the sub oceanic crust of the eastern dee 7ater basins. The basins develo ed here are rift basins 7ith #ulti hase history. Tectonic evolution of the East Dietna# 2ea 3eno-oic Basins can be divided into the follo7ing #ain stages: 1. Cate 3retaceous1Eocene: re rift u liftGinitial rifting hase. The #a6or tectonic event is the collision of ;ndia and Eurasia, resulted in the southeast7ard e)trusion in ;ndochina, re resented by stri$e1sli #ove#ents. ;n Cate Eocene a change in the s reading direction in the 2E Pacific resulted in the develo #ent of a ne7 8E12> subduction -one. %. Cate Eocene1/ligocene: #ain rifting haseGinitial ocean floor s reading hase. This 7as the #ost o7erful, resulted in the develo #ent of #ost of the #ain structure ele#ents in the basins. The do#inating style of the defor#ation 7as e)tension and transtensional. *. Early1+iddle +iocene: regional subsidenceGrene7ed rifting. ;n the #a6ority of the basins, there ha ened a shift fro# the rift to the ther#ally controlled high1rate

subsidence. 2ignificant tectonic ulses occurred at the end of this eriod #ar$ing a #a6or inter basinal inversion event. 5. Cate +iocene: artial inversionGregional subsidence. Auring this stage, the 7hole area beca#e do#inated by co# ression, 7hich, in co#bination 7ith the de)tral stri$e1sli fault syste# east offshore Dietna#, #ight be the driving force for the conte# orary basin u lift and artial inversion in #ost of the basins. @. Pliocene1Pleistocene: regional subsidenceGrene7ed rifting. The tectonic activity at that stage 7as diverse in different basins, fro# lo7 to #oderate1a# litude differential u lift. The high1rate fault bounded subsidence in the outer area can be considered as the rifting activation hase associated 7ith the s reading of the dee 7ater basins. Depositional Evolution The #ain regular sedi#entation along ;ndochina #argin 7ere defined by rate of subsidence and structure of the base#ent, location of large river syste# of the 2outh East !sia, eustatic sea level changes and aleocli#ate factor. The basins are characterised by high sedi#entation rates, abru t facies changes, abru t thic$ening of sedi#entary se0uences over short ranges, nu#erous unconfor#ities and scattered volcanicGe)trusive activity. 1. %. Palaeocene1Eocene: sedi#ents 7ith great thic$ness 7ere de osited in the fluvial1lacustrineGcoastal lainGdeltaic conditions /ligocene: ti#e of #a)i#u# develo #ent of the non1#arine to transitive deltaicGcoastal lain conditions, including lacustrine and estuarine environ#ents, 7hich osses the #ain source otential in the basins all over the ;ndochina #argin. *. Early1+iddle +iocene: 7ithin the eriod, sedi#entation 7as si#ultaneous 7ith a sea level eustatic rise. The rifting caused a ra id increase in subsidence rate in all the basins, resulted in the 7est7ard regression of the deltaGcoastal lain syste#s.

5.

Cate +iocene: the #arine transgressive de osition continued, but its rate 7as reduced. The shelf edge carbonate latfor#s 7ere de osited in #ost of southern basins.

@.

Pliocene1Pleistocene: sedi#ent in ut increased, associated 7ith high1 rate of subsidence in al#ost all the basins. Ra id east7ards rogradation of the shelf edge of the basins 7ere acco# anied by de osition of sub#arine fan slo e syste#s.

Location of Tertiary Basins in Vietnam

Son -on Basin

Geological Development 2ong Hong Basin, the largest Tertiary basin in the continental shelf of Dietna#, is classified as a ull1a art syste#, filled u 7ith u to 1@,... # of Eocene to Recent sedi#ent, evolving in several hases throughout /ligocene to Pliocene ti#es. The onset of the basin:s for#ation is related to the collision of the ;ndian sub1continent 7ith !sia during the Cate Eocene.

Ceft lateral stri$e1sli and ull a art along the 2ong Hong =ault Oone in 7hich t7o #ain fault syste#s for#ed the eastern and 7estern li#its of its #ain de ocentre controlled the sha e of the basin. The Eocene1/ligocene #ar$ed the #a6or rifting hase. 2edi#entation 7as ri#arily in fluvio1lacustrine environ#ent, reflecting the restricted nature of the basin cou led 7ith ra id sedi#ent filling. The Early1+iddle +iocene 7as a 0uiescent #arine sedi#entation eriod. 3arbonate develo #ent along shelf boundary rolonged and bac$ste ed in areas during the +iddle +iocene sea level transgression. Throughout the Cate +iocene to Plio1Pleistocene, abundant clastic sedi#ent continued as a result of ther#al contraction and subsidence.

Petroleum System T7o otential source roc$s have been identified in the basin: /ligocene lacustrine oil rone shales and /ligo1+iocene deltaicG aralic gas1 rone coalsGcoaly shales. +odeling results indicate that #ost of the basin is #ature for gas (,erogen ty e ;;;G;;). Paleogene sedi#ents are #ature for oil only in the north7estern art and in so#e of the half1graben area in the 7estern #argin of the basin. Reservoirs in the basin co# rised redo#inantly of +ioceneG/ligocene clastic sedi#ents associated 7ith rifting and subse0uent ther#al contraction and sag. The carbonates including carbonate build1u s and reefs can be found in the basin:s central arts or #argins 7here u lift has occurred caused by listric faulting. =ractured base#ent could also be an e) loration target.

The #a6or tra ty es in 2ong Hong basin are rollover folds, tilted fault bloc$s, base#ent high and carbonates buildu s. The do#inant seal in the 2ong Hong Basin is the Tertiary seal and although there is very little regionally correlatable shale across the basin, local shales for#ing intrafor#ational seals are nu#erous and a ear to be very co# etent. Prospectivity 2ong Hong Basin is assessed to contain 1@M of the total hydrocarbon resources of Dietna#. The #a6or etroleu# lays in the 2ong Hong Basin include:

Pre1Tertiary fractured granite dra e across base#ent high bloc$s /ligoceneG+iocene sandstones structure associated 7ith tilted fault bloc$s, base#ent bloc$s or inversion

/ligoceneG+iocene sandstones stratigra hic lays (es ecially turbidites)

+iddle +iocene carbonates reef latfor#sThere are 5 etroleu# contracts that re#ained in active in the 2ong Hong Basin. There is one s#all roducing field, and another is being develo ed at the onshore north7estern art of the basin. ;n the southern area, a nu#ber of significant gas discoveries 7ere #ade, but unfortunately conta#inated by high 3/% content. (hu .hanh Basin Geological Development Phu ,hanh Basin is a resent dee 7ater basin. ;t sho7s characteristic rift

structures, 7hich belong to the transtensional syste# develo ed along the #ega shear -one at the boundary bet7een the relatively rigid continental bloc$ and the #ore #obile s reading -one of the East 2ea. The Basin 7as for#ed during the /ligocene to Early +iocene #ain rifting hase. The do#inant styles of defor#ation 7ere e)tension and transtension. Auring the +iddle +iocene, a regional subsidence too$ lace 7ith a tilting to7ards the east that affected the

entire basin, and a #ediu# rate of subsidence 7as #aintained. T7o significant trans ressional tectonic events too$ lace during the +iddle +iocene, for#ing large1si-e flo7er structures in sedi#entary succession and artial inversion of the base#ent bloc$s. Auring the Cate +iocene1Puaternary, the tectonic activity 7as a rifting hase 7ith high rate of subsidence. The dee ening of the basin 7as acco# anied by #inor events of sub#arine erosion and non1de osition in the shelf areas. The final subsidence along the inherited fault -ones at the shelf #argin and a relatively lo7 a# litude u lift of the 7estern art of the inner shelf gave the basin its resent day #or hostructures.

Petroleum System and Prospectivity 2ince there have been no e) loratory 7ells drilled in the area, hydrocarbon syste#s as 7ell as characteristics of source roc$s, reservoirs and ca roc$s in the basin have been assessed on the basis of analogue fro# ad6acent basins (2ong Hong, 3uu Cong and 8a# 3on 2on). The #ain source roc$ is believed to be /ligocene and ossible Co7er +iocene and Eocene organic rich shale. There are several ty es of reservoirs, including /ligoceneG+iocene deltaic to shallo7 #arine sandstones< PaleogeneG+iocene carbonates latfor#s and reefs, and ossible fractured granite. The #a6or tra ty es are related to fault bloc$s associated 7ith transtensional and trans ressional #ove#ents< but carbonates1in1situ and base#ent are ros ective e) loration targets. Potential seals are /ligocene and +iocene claystones and claystones intercalated 7ith siltstones.

Phu ,hanh Basin is forecasted to contain 1.M of the total hydrocarbon resources of Dietna#. The #a6or etroleu# lays in the Phu ,hanh Basin include:

/ligoceneG+iocene shallo7 #arine sandstones fault bloc$s structures +ioceneGPaleogene carbonates reefsGbuild1u s +iocene stratigra hic lays related to inch1out, sub#arine fan, turbidites =racturedG7eathered granite re1Tertiary base#ent bloc$s

CUU Long Basin Geological Development 3uu Cong Basin, a 8E12> trending e)tensional basin, is for#ed 7ithin the 2undaland craton at the Cate Eocene. Auring the first hase of e)tension, narro7 grabens 7ere created. Auring Early /ligocene, a broader do7n 7ar ing roduced a shallo7 sag basin. The a)ial -one of the basin subsided ra idly again in the Cate /ligocene. ! regional unconfor#ity at the end of the /ligocene #ar$ed a eriod of u lift. Auring the earliest rifting hase (Palaeocene or Eocene), narro7 grabens subsided ra idly and 7ere filled 7ith great thic$ness of the non1#arine clastics. The basin subsided broadly during the /ligocene, and the fluvial lacustrine for#ations 7ere de osited, containing coarse clastics in its lo7er #udstones. Auring the +iddle +iocene, a 7ides read #arine incursion flooded the 3uu Cong Basin, de ositing the Rotalia #udstones, a thic$ shale section, 7hich act as a regional seal. This for#ation co# rises a rograding delta se0uences, fro# rodelta to delta lain. The L er +iocene and the overlying Pliocene1Puaternary sedi#ents 7ere de osited during transgressiveGregressive cycles of the #odern 3uu Cong delta. They a ear to be controlled by changes in eustatic sea level. art and grades u 7ard into sand, silts and

Petroleum System The co##on source roc$s in 3uu Cong Basin are /ligocene lacustrine #udstones 7ith high T/3. ,erogen is #ainly of ty e ;G;; (oil rone). The #ost i# ortant reservoir roc$s in 3uu Cong Basin are 7eathered and fractured granite and granodiorite base#ent 7ith #ore than 1,... # thic$ness. =ractures in the base#ent are develo ed into vertically different -ones 7ith orosity of 11@M. /il test rate is greater than 1.,... bo d. The re#aining roven reservoirs are /ligocene and +iocene sandstones. The /ligocene and +iocene Rotalia shale rovides both vertical and lateral seals. Cocal ca roc$s are Co7er /ligocene lacustrine clay and Co7er +iocene #udstones. Tra ty es encountered are: base#ent highs, rollover folds, tilted fault bloc$s, dra e anticlines and stratigra hic inchouts. Prospectivity 3uu Cong Basin is assessed to contain %.M of the total hydrocarbon resources of Dietna#. The #a6or etroleu# lays in the 3uu Cong Basin include:

Pre1Tertiary granite1fractured base#ent on horst or tilted fault bloc$s,

/ligocene and Co7er +iocene clastics associated 7ith four17ay di structures, dra e above base#ent fault bloc$s, locally by inversion.3uu Cong Basin is the #a6or source for Dietna# oil roduction. 3urrently, oil is roduced fro# four fields 7ith average of **.,... bo d, '.M of 7hich is fro# fractured base#ent. >ith the recent significant oil field discovery, the roduction is e) ected to increase (.,...11%.,... bo d by %..5. !lso, the basin is resently su lying all the associated gas 7ith roduction of a ro). 1?@ ##cfd through the first i eline syste#. Eight etroleu# contracts have been signed since 1'(( and 4 of the# are still effective. The success rate for e) loration 7ells in the basin is greater than @.M. /am 0on Son Basin Geological Development Aevelo #ent of the 8a# 3on 2on Basin situated at the intersection of t7o #a6or tectonic syste#s related to ;ndochina e)trusion and East 2ea floor s reading, 7as initiated during the Paleogene. Auring the Eocene1/ligocene, e)tension related to the early o ening of the East 2ea resulted in the develo #ent of 8E12> trending half1graben< rift se0uences fill of these half1graben are continental. !s ther#al subsidence set in and the individual discrete half1graben filled, the sedi#ent rovenance beca#e #ore regional resulting in the basin1 7ide de osition of high net to gross fluvial sedi#ents fro# the 7est. 2ag se0uences beca#e #ore non1#arine u 7ard and #ore #arine 7est to east, due to overall transgression and bac$ste ing of deltas during the earliest +iocene. To7ard the end of Early +iocene, 8>12E e)tension associated 7ith a change in s reading direction of the East 2ea led to enhanced to ogra hic relief 7ithin the basin centre and structurally controlled facies attern, in 7hich carbonate syste#s 7ere restricted to latfor# or foot7all locations 7hilst dee er shelf and slo e facies 7ere de osited 7ithin the graben. ;n the Cate +iocene, the basin 7as again tectonically restructured by a #ild inversion, follo7ed by ther#al subsidence, resulting in large

carbonate reefal buildu s and infilled sandy turbidites, basin floor. The rocess 7as interru ted during the early Pliocene due to a #a6or transgression.

Petroleum System The Co7er +iocene aralic #udstones of the u er ost1rift are established as the

#a6or, oil rone source roc$s. L er /ligocene coals (,erogen ty e ;; and ;;, gas rone) and /ligocene syn1rift lacustrine oil1 rone shales are also of i# ortance. Three #a6or ty es of reservoirs identified in the 8a# 3on 2on Basin are, re1 3eno-oic 7eathered fractured base#ent, /ligocene and +iocene clastics, ranging fro# continental deltas to dee carbonates. There are a variety of tra ty es recognised in the 8a# 3on 2on, the #a6or ones are rollover folds, e)tensional tilted fault bloc$s, base#ent highs and carbonate buildu s. Aevelo ed throughout the basin, L er +iocene1Pliocene #udstones are considered as a regional seal. /ligocene, +iocene interbedded #udstones are local seals. Prospectivity #arine turbidites in origin, and high 0uality +iocene

8a# 3on 2on Basin is assessed to contain %.M of the total hydrocarbon resources of Dietna#. The #a6or etroleu# lays in the basin include:

Pre1Tertiary fractured granite at base#ent highs /ligocene clastics on four17ay di structures, dra e across base#ent faults +iocene clastics on rollover fault bloc$s, four17ay di or anticline L er +iocene sandstones associated 7ith turbidites latfor#s 3urrently, o erations are erfor#ed on (

er +iocene carbonate

contracts in the 8a# 3on 2on Basin. !lthough oil is roducing in Aai Hung field, the basin is considered to have #ainly natural gas otential 7ith roven reserves esti#ated at around 1. Tcf. Besides the Can Tay1Can Ao field 7ith first gas in the end of %..%, other fields such as Rong Aoi, Hai Thach1+oc Tinh, etc., are scheduled to be brought on roduction during the eriod of %..@1%..4. !dditional gas discoveries in bloc$s .51*, 1% have been on a raisal. The 8a# 3on 2on i eline syste# 7hich has a ca acity of ?14 bc# er year #ar$ed a #ilestone in the develo #ent of the gas industry of 2outh Dietna#. 1alay2'ho 0hu Basin Geological Development +alay1Tho 3hu Basin is $no7n as the Dietna#ese art of the +alay Basin. This can be described as an intra1cratonic basin, 7hich 7as created in Early Tertiary as a result of the collision bet7een the ;ndia late and the Eurasian late, involving three #ain hases of structural defor#ation. The first hase 7as related to rifting, 7hich co##enced in Cate EoceneGEarly /ligocene resulting in the for#ation of nu#erous East1>est orientated half grabens, so#e cut by 8orth12outh trending faults. This rift hase 7as connected to the drift of the ;ndochina bloc$ relative to the !sia #ainland, 7hich #oved along the #ain left1lateral stri$e1sli faults. The sedi#entation in the early art of rift hase 7as do#inated by alluvial1fluvial

facies de osited in narro7, half1graben1li$e area, and follo7ed by de osition of a ossible la$e facies at the late stage in 7ider basin. causing the erosion of #ost anticlines. ! 7ea$ e)tensional hase revailed in this area during #ost of the Pliocene1Pleistocene ti#e, 7hich is referred to as the third hase. The second hase 7as a sag hase, 7hich lasted until the Cate +iocene. Auring the Cate +iocene, the transtensional stress changed to trans ressional #ove#ent, 7here the graben fills 7ere inverted, basically along East1>est orientated anticline and associated 7ith 7rench related folds. The inversion hase ended 7ith an eustatic dro in sea level,

Petroleum System The L er /ligocene and Co7er +iocene coalGclaystones se0uence is the ri#ary source roc$s in the +alay1Tho 3hu Basin. The /ligocene lacustrine claystones are roven to be 7orld class oil source roc$ 7ithin the basin (,erogen ty e ; and ;;), 7hile the Co7er +iocene deltaic and lagoonal li tic coals and claystones are good source for both oil and gas. The organic #atter co# rises a #i)ture of ty e ; and ;;; $erogens 7ith a robable u 7ard trend to7ards ty e ;;;. The +iddle and L er +iocene sections are therefore believed to be #ore gas rone. Reservoirs in the basin are ri#arily vertically stac$ed sandstones de osited in a variety of continental to shallo7 #arine environ#ent, including /ligocene deltaic, alluvial fan and lacustrine sandstones< 7idely1distributed Co7er +iocene delta lain de osits, and locally +iddle +iocene fluvial and lacustrine sandstones.

There are a nu#ber of tra ty es found in the basin, such as structures inherited fro# base#ent horsts, e)tension tilted bloc$s, e)tension related dra e closure, four17ay di closure, stratigra hic inch1outs, etc. Regional seal is L er +iocene1Co7er Pliocene #arine #udstones. Cocal seal is /ligoceneG+iocene alternating #udstones. Prospectivity +alay1Tho 3hu Basin is assessed to contain @M of the total hydrocarbon resources of Dietna#. The #a6or etroleu# lays in the +alay1Tho 3hu Basin include:

/ligocene sandstone anticlines or fault bloc$s (#ay be associated 7ith e)tensional tilted bloc$s

Co7erG+iddle +iocene sandstone anticlines or fault bloc$sThere have been * etroleu# contracts signed. =or the Dietna#1+alaysia overla ing overla ing area, the first discovery Bunga /r$id 7as #ade in 1''1 follo7ed by a series of other oil and gas discoveries. 3urrently, the Bunga ,e$7a field roduces a ro)i#ately 1@,... bo d< ad6acent fields are develo ing. >ith the area:s roven reserves of about ? Tcf gas, the second gas i eline syste# 7ith ca acity of 1.@1* bc# er year has been scheduled to co# lete in %..@. 2olveson, 9./. (1'4() Dariations in the &eology of Rift Basins1! Tectonic +odel. !bstracts for international 2y# osiu# on the Rio &rande Rift. L.3. Cos !t0#os 2cientific Cob Pub. C!145(413 .(%1(?. References !llen !. Phili and !llen, 9. R, (1''.) Basin !nalysis (Princi les and ! ! lying Plate Tectonics to /ld Roc$s. 9. of &eol. D(l: .5.?15**. lication) Bur$e, ,. and Ae7ey, 9.=., (1'4*) Plu#e1generated Tri le 9unctions: ,ey indicators in

lllies, 9.H, (1'4@) Recent and Paleo1intra late Tectonics in 2table Euro e and the Rhine &raben 2yste#. Tectono hysics, %', .%@11%?5. Co7ell, 9.A. and &eni$, &.9., (1'4%) 2eo =loor 2 reading and 2tructural Evolution of the

Red 2ea. !!P&, D@?, 8o.% .%541%@'. Roy >. 2chlische & +artha /liver >ith6ac$ Ae art#ent of &eological 2ciences, Rutgers Lniversity, Piscata7ay, 89 .((@51(.?? L.2.!.

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