Fiber Optics Getting Started in Fibre Optics - You need tools, test equipment and most of all - training!

This guide will help you get started by providing very basic information (we will also point you to more advanced studies) and demonstrating that you don't need to brea the ban to brea into the field! What is "Fibre Optics"? And a short history! "t's the communications technology that wor s by sending signals down hair thin strands of glass #ibre (and sometimes plastic #ibre!) "t began about $% years ago in the &'( labs ()orning, *ell +abs, "TT ,-, etc!) and was first installed in )hicago, "+, ,./ in 0123! *y the early 014%s, #ibre networ s connected the ma5or cities on each coast! *y the mid-4%s, #ibre was replacing all the telco copper, microwave and satellite lin s! "n the 1%s, )/T6 discovered #ibre and used it first to enhance the reliability of their networ s, a big problem! /long the way, the discovered they could offer phone and "nternet service on that same #ibre and greatly enlarged their mar ets! )omputers and +/7s started using #ibre about the same time as the telcos! "ndustrial lin s were among the first as the noise immunity of #ibre and its distance capability ma e it ideal for the factory floor! 8ainframe storage networ s came ne9t, the predecessors of today's #ibre ./7s (storage area networ s!) :ther applications developed too; aircraft, ship and automobile data busses, ))T6 for security, even lin s for consumer digital stereo! Today #ibre optics is either the dominant medium or a logical choice for every communication system! Which Fibre Optics? <henever you read an article or tal to someone about #ibre optics, you need to now the point of view of the writer! #ibre optics, you see, is not all the same! "s the writer discussing =outside plant= #ibre optics as used in telephone networ s or )/T6! :r is the article about =premises= #ibre optics as found in buildings and campuses> ?ust li e =wire= which can mean lots of different things - power, security, @6/), ))T6, +/7 or telephone - #ibre optics is not all the same! /nd this can be a big source of confusion to the novice! +ets define our terms!

Outside Plant (OSP) Telephone companies, )/T6 and the "nternet all use lots of #ibre optics, most of which is outside buildings! "t hangs from poles, is buried underground, pulled through conduit or is even submerged underwater! 8ost of it goes relatively long distances, from a few thousand feet to hundreds of miles! :utside plant installations are all singlemode #ibre (we'll define the #ibre types in the ne9t chapter), and cables often have very high #ibre counts, up to A44 fibres! )able designs are optimised for resisting moisture and rodent damage! "nstallation requires special pullers or ploughs, and even trailers to carry giant spools of cable! +ong distances mean cables are spliced together, since cables are not longer than about B m (A!C miles), and most splices are by fusion splicing! )onnectors (.), .T or #) styles) on factory made pigtails are spliced onto the end of the cable! /fter installation, every #ibre and every splice is tested with an :T(&! "f this sounds li e big buc s, you are right! The installer usually has a temperature controlled van or trailer for splicing andDor a buc et truc ! "nvestments in fusion splicers and :T(&s can add up to over E0%%,%%% alone! )ontractors doing outside plant wor are few and far between! 8ost outside plant telephone installs are done by the telco themselves, while a small number of large, specialised installers do )/T6 wor ! Premises Cabling *y contrast, premises cabling- cabling installed in a building or campus involves short lengths, rarely longer than a few hundred feet, with A to B4 fibres per cable typically! The #ibre is mostly multimode, e9cept for the enlightened user who installs hybrid cable with both multimode and singlemode fibres! .plicing is practically un nown in premises applications! )ables between buildings can be bought with double 5ac ets, FG for outside plant protection over F6) for building applications requiring flame retardant cable 5ac ets, so cables can be run continuously between buildings! Today's connectors often have lower loss than splices, and patch panels give more fle9ibility for moves, adds and changes!

8ost connectors are .T style with a few .)s here and there! Termination is by installing connectors directly on the ends of the fibres, primarily using adhesive technology or occasionally some other variety of termination method! Testing is done by a source and meter, but every installer should have a flashlight type tracer to chec #ibre continuity and connection! ,nli e the outside plant technician, the premises cabler (who is often also installing the power cable and )at C for +/7s too!) probably has an investment of less than EA,%%% in tools and test equipment! There are thousands of cabling installers who do #ibre optic wor ! They've found out it isn't =roc et science,= and their small initial investment in training, tools and test equipment is rapidly paid bac ! he !nstallers #ew installers do both outside plant and premises cabling! The companies that do are usually very large and often have separate divisions doing each with different personnel! 8ost contractors do nothing but premises cabling! Fibre "s Copper '.@YH you may be surprised by who wins this contest! "f you are already terminating copper wire then you are well along in learning to install #ibre! Twenty years ago, #ibre was 5ust being introduced and required Fh('s from *ell +abs to install it while copper wire was easy to install! Today it is often the opposite! *ecause #ibre is so powerful, at today's networ speeds #ibre is hardly wor ing hard at all and can loo to the future of ten gigabit speeds with confidence! )opper on the other hand, can handle gigabit Gthernet but only if it is carefully installed and tested with very e9pensive test equipment and components! Gven the e9perts have to be very careful because it has little =headroom=! /lso, if you are currently wor ing with copper, you also have to now that +/7 copper cable is delicate! "t only has a AC pound pulling tension limit and in s will ruin the high speed performance! <ith #ibre - even though it's glass #ibre - it has more strength and greater tolerance to abuse than copper wire! (<hat do you thin gives the strength to your =fibreglass= boat>)

:-, you might say, " can buy everything you've said so far, but isn't #ibre more e9pensive> Telcos and )/T6 operators use #ibre because it's much cheaper! They optimise their networ to ta e advantage of fibre's speed and distance advantages! "n +/7s, you need to follow the new G"/DT"/ C34 *!$ standard to optimise the #ibre usage, and then it can be cheaper than copper! @ow about test equipment> Iuess again '.@YH #ibre optic test equipment costs lots less than )at CeD3 testers! .ee 7etwor s where we will show you how the setup for a #ibre networ has some surprising savings! he Secret o Success !n Fibre Optics !s raining# You wouldn't try to drive a truc or fly a plane without ta ing lessons! +i ewise for improving your golf or tennis game! <ell, the secret to #ibre optics is training too! <ith some basic nowledge and hands-on practice gained in a training course, #ibre is pretty easy to install! Where to get training? <ell, you can start right here, of course! *ut this guide is only designed to get you started and you should have =hands-on= training leading to a recognised certification program to be qualified to install #ibre! #irst, chec the Tech :ptics @ome Fage for information on advanced training and organisations that offer training! /lso chec the website of the #ibre :ptic /ssociation at http;DDwww!thefoa!orgD! for the leading #ibre optic certification program in the industry! #inally, ta e advantage of the training offered by manufacturers and distributors whenever you can, often this training is free or cheap! (but limited to the equipment being =pushed= of course!) .ee the section on training at the end for more information! Standards 8ost of what we call standards are voluntary standards, created by industry groups to insure product compatibility! They are not =codes= or actual laws that you must follow to be in compliance with local ordinances! .tandards li e G"/DT"/ C34* ( from the Glectronic "ndustries /llianceD Telecommunications "ndustry /ssociation) which covers all of the things

you need to now to install a standard premises cabling networ are good guidelines for designs, but 5ust guidelines - they are not mandatory! .tandards for #ibre optic components and testing have been set by several groups, but most in the ,. follow the G"/DT"/ developed #:TF's (#ibre optic test procedures) for testing! .ome of the G"/ procedures are also called :#.TF (optical #ibre system test procedures) li e :#.TF-0B for the installed cable plant! .tandards for optical power measurements are set by 7".T (the ,. 7ational "nstitute of .tandards and Technology) The only common mandatory standard is the 7G) 22% (7ational Glectrical )ode)! The 7G) specifies fire prevention standards for #ibre optic cables! "f a cable doesn't have a 7G) rating - don't install it - it won't pass inspection! / complete listing of the G"/DT"/ standards is on the website of The #ibre :ptic /ssociation! "nformation on the G"/DT"/ standards can be found on the website of most of he suppliers of structured cabling hardware!

$e%ore &e get started ' Sa%ety First# You might thin that eye damage from wor ing with lasers would be the big concern in #ibre optic installations! The reality is that high power lasers burning holes in metal or burning off warts mostly have little relevance to your typical #ibre optic installation! :ptical sources used in #ibre optics are of much lower power levels (The e9ception is high power (<(8 or )/T6 systems)! :f course, you should always be careful with your eyes, especially when using a #ibre optic microscope! 7G6G& loo into a #ibre unless you now no light is present - use a power meter to chec it - and anyway, the light is in the infrared and you can't see anything anyway! The real safety lecture will always be about small scraps of glass cleaved off the ends of the fibres being terminated or spliced! These scraps are very dangerous! The cleaved ends are e9tremely sharp and can easily penetrate your s in! "f they get into your eyes, they are very hard to flush out! (on't even thin about what happens if you eat one! .afety glasses are a must!

/lways follow these rules when wor ing with #ibre! 0! (ispose of all scraps properly! A! /lways use a properly mar ed container to dispose of later and wor on a blac pad which ma es the slivers of glass easier to spot! $! (o not drop them on the floor where they will stic in carpets or shoes and be carried elsewhere! B! (o not eat or drin anywhere near the wor area! #ibre optic splicing and termination use various chemical adhesives and cleaners as part of the processes! #ollow the instructions for use carefully! &emember, even simple isopropyl alcohol, used as a cleaner, is flammable! (ero olerance %or )irt <ith #ibre optics, our tolerance to dirt is near Jero! /irborne particles are about the siJe of the core of .8 #ibre- they absorb lots of light and may scratch connectors if not removed! (irt on connectors is the biggest cause of scratches on polished connectors and high loss measurements! 0! Try to wor in a clean area! /void wor ing around heating outlets, as they blow dust all over you A! /lways eep dust caps on connectors, bul head splices, patch panels or anything else that is going to have a connection made with it! $! ,se lint free pads and isopropyl alcohol to clean the connectors! B! #errules on the connectorsDcables used for testing will get dirty by scraping off the material of the alignment sleeve in the splice bushing creating a 0-A d* attenuator! You can see the front edge of the connector ferrule getting blac ! ,se the metal or ceramic alignment sleeve bul heads only for testing!

Fibre Speci%ications The usual fibre specifications you will see are siJe, attenuation and bandwidth! <hile manufacturers have other specs that concern them, li e numerical aperture (the acceptance angle of light into the fibre), ovality (how round the fibre is), concentricity of the core and cladding, etc!, these specs do not affect you! Fibre !tsel% #ibre :ptics, as we said, is sending signals down hair-thin strands of glass or plastic fibre! The light is =guided= down the centre of the fibre called the =core=! The core is surrounded by a optical material called the =cladding= that traps the light in the core using an optical technique called =total internal reflection!= The core and cladding are usually made of ultra-pure glass, although some fibres are all plastic or a glass core and plastic cladding! The fibre is coated with a protective plastic covering called the =primary buffer coating= that protects it from moisture and other damage! 8ore protection is provided by the =cable= which has the fibres and strength members inside an outer covering called a =5ac et=! *ultimode + Singlemode %ibres 8ultimode and .inglemode fibre are the two types of fibre in common use! *oth fibres are 0AC microns in outside diameter - a micron is one one-millionth of a meter and 0AC microns is %!%%C inches- a bit larger than the typical human hair! 8ultimode fibre has light travelling in the core in many rays, called modes! "t has a bigger core (almost always 3A!C microns, but sometimes C% microns ) and is used with +G( sources at wavelengths of 4C% and 0$%% nm (see below!) for slower local area networ s (+/7s) and lasers at 4C% and 0$0% nm for networ s running at gigabits per second or more! .inglemode fibre has a much smaller core, only about 1 microns, so that the light travels in only one ray! "t is used for telephony and )/T6 with laser sources at 0$%% nm and 0CC% nm! Flastic :ptical #ibre (F:#) is large core ( about 0mm) fibre that can only be used for short, low speed networ s! Step inde, multimode was the first #ibre design but is too slow for most uses, due to the dispersion caused by the different path lengths of

the various modes! .tep inde9 #ibre is rare - only F:# uses a step inde9 design today! Graded inde, multimode fibre uses variations in the composition of the glass in the core to compensate for the different path lengths of the modes! "t offers hundreds of times more bandwidth than step inde9 fibre - up to about A gigahertJ over 0 m! Singlemode fibre shrin s the core down so small that the light can only travel in one ray! This increases the bandwidth to almost infinity - but it's practically limited to about 0%%,%%% gigahertJ - that's still a lot! #ind out more about )abled #ibre .pecifications

Si-e *atters #ibre, as we said, comes in two types, singlemode and multimode! G9cept for fibres used in specialty applications, singlemode fibre can be considered as one siJe and type! "f you deal with long haul telecom or submarine cables, you may have to wor with specialty singlemode fibres! 8ultimode fibres originally came in several siJes, optimised for various networ s and sources, but the data industry standardised on 3A!C core fibre in the mid-4%s (3A!CD0AC fibre has a 3A!C micron core and a 0AC micron cladding!) &ecently, as gigabit and 0% gigabit networ s have become widely used, an old fibre has been revived! The C%D0AC fibre was used from the late 2%s with lasers for telecom applications before singlemode fibre became available! "t offers higher bandwidth with the laser sources used in the gigabit +/7s and can go longer distances! <hile it still represents a smaller volume than 3A!CD0AC, it is growing!

#ibre Types and Typical .pecifications (#or more detailed specifications on common fibres, clic here) )oreD)ladding /ttenuation *andwidth (minimum) /pplicationsD7otes

8ultimode Iraded-"nde9 K4C%D0$%% nm K4C%D0$%% nm

C%D0AC m OM2 C%D0AC m OM3 3A!CD0AC m OM1

$D0 d*D m $D0 d*D m $D0 d*D m

C%%DC%% 8@J- m 0C%%DC%% 8@Jm 03%DC%% 8@J- m 0C%D$%% 8@J- m .inglemode

+aser-rated for IbG +/7s optimised for 4C% nm 6).G+s 8ost common +/7 #ibre G9pensive D little use

0%%D0B% microns $D0 d*D m

K0$0%D0CC% nm 4-1D0AC microns %!BD%!AC d*D m @"I@! L0%% TerahertJ K4C% nm C% 8@J- m K 3C% nm LC 8@J- m .hort +in s ' )ars .low +/7s ' lin s TelcoD)/T6Dlong high speed +/7s

8ultimode .tep-"nde9 K4C% nm A%%DAB% microns B-3 d*D m K 3C% nm 0 mm L 0 d*Dm

F:# (plastic optical #ibre)

)/,T":7; You cannot mi9 and match fibres! Trying to connect multimode to singlemode fibre can cause A% d* loss - that's 11M of the power! Gven connections between 3A!CD0AC and C%D0AC can cause loss of $ d* or more - over half the power!

#ibre optic =cable= refers to the complete assembly of fibres, strength members and 5ac et! #ibre optic cables come in lots of different types, depending on the number of fibres and how and where it will be installed! )hoose cable carefully as the choice will affect how easy it is to install, splice or terminate and, most important, what it will cost!

Choosing a cable - what haJards will it face> )able's 5ob is to protect the fibres from the haJards encountered in an installation! <ill the cables be e9posed to chemicals or have to withstand a wide temperature range> <hat about being gnawed on by a rodent or some animal> "nside buildings, cables don't have to be so strong to protect the fibres, but they have to meet all fire code provisions! :utside the building, it depends on whether the cable is buried directly, pulled in conduit, strung aerially or whatever! .ince the plan will call for a certain number of fibres, consider adding spare fibres to the cable - fibres are cheap! That way, you won't be in trouble if you brea a fibre or two when splicing, brea ing-out or terminating fibres! /nd request the end user consider their future e9pansion needs! 8ost users install lots more fibres than needed, especially adding singlemode fibre to multimode fibre cables for campus or bac bone applications! Cable ypes

)ables (+N&); Oipcord, (istribution, +oose Tube, *rea out Simple, and -ip cord; .imple9 cables are one fibre, tight-buffered (coated with a 1%% micron buffer over the primary buffer coating) with -evlar (aramid yarn) strength members and 5ac eted for indoor use! The 5ac et is usually $mm (0D4 in!) diameter! Oipcord is simply two of these 5oined with a thin web! "t's used mostly for patch cord and bac plane applications, but Jipcord can also be used for des top connections! )lic her for more details

)istribution cables; They contain several tight-buffered fibres bundled under the same 5ac et with -evlar strength members and sometimes fibreglass rod reinforcement to stiffen the cable and prevent in ing! These cables are small in siJe, and used for short, dry conduit runs, riser and plenum applications! The fibres are double buffered and can be directly terminated, but because their fibres are not individually reinforced, these cables need to be bro en out with a =brea out bo9= or terminated inside a patch panel or 5unction bo9! )lic here for more details $rea.out cables; They are made of several simple9 cables bundled together! This is a strong, rugged design, but is larger and more e9pensive than the distribution cables! "t is suitable for conduit runs, riser and plenum applications! *ecause each fibre is individually reinforced, this design allows for quic termination to connectors and does not require patch panels or bo9es! *rea out cable can be more economic where #ibre count isn't too large and distances too long, because is requires so much less labour to terminate! )lic here for more details /oose tube cables; These cables are composed of several fibres together inside a small polymeric buffer tube or tubes, which are in turn wound around a central strength member and 5ac eted, providing a small, high fibre count cable! This type of cable is ideal for outside plant trun ing applications, as it can be made with the loose tubes filled with gel or water absorbent powder to prevent harm to the fibres from water! "t can be used in conduits, strung overhead or buried directly into the ground! .ince the fibres have only a thin buffer coating, they must be carefully handled and protected to prevent damage! )lic here for more details 0ibbon Cable; This cable offers the highest pac ing density, since all the fibres are laid out in rows, typically of 0A fibres, and laid on top of each other! This way 0BB fibres only has a cross section of about 0DB inch or 3 mm! .ome cable designs use a =slotted core= with up to 3 of these 0BB fibre ribbon assemblies for 43B fibres in one cable! .ince it's outside plant cable, it's gel-filled for water bloc ing! Armoured Cable; )able installed by direct burial in areas where rodents are a problem usually have metal armouring between two 5ac ets to prevent rodent penetration! This means the cable is conductive, so it must be grounded properly! )lic here for more details

Aerial cable; /erial cables are for outside installation on poles! They can be lashed to a messenger or another cable (common in )/T6) or have metal or aramid strength members to ma e them self supporting! Gven 8ore Types /re /vailable; Gvery manufacturer has it's own favourites, so it's a good idea to get literature from as many cable ma ers as possible! /nd chec out the little guysH often they can save you a bundle by ma ing special cable 5ust for you, even in relative small quantities! Cable )esign Criteria Pulling Strength; .ome cable is simply laid into cable trays or ditches, so pull strength is not too important! *ut other cable may be pulled thorough A m or more of conduit! Gven with lots of cable lubricant, pulling tension can be high! 8ost cables get their strength from an aramid #ibre (-evlar is the duFont trade name), a unique polymer #ibre that is very strong but does not stretch - so pulling on it will not stress the other components in the cable! The simplest simple9 cable has a pull strength of 0%%-A%% pounds, while outside plant cable may have a specification of over 4%% pounds! Water Protection; :utdoors, every cable must be protected from water or moisture! "t starts with a moisture resistant 5ac et, usually FG (polyethylene), and a filling of water-bloc ing material! The usual way is to flood the cable with a water-bloc ing gel! "t's effective but messy requiring a gel remover (use the commercial stuff - it's best- -but bottled lemon 5uice wor s in a pinch!)! / newer alternative is dry water bloc ing using a miracle powder - the stuff developed to absorb moisture in disposable diapers! )hec with your cable supplier to see if they offer it! Fire Code 0atings; Gvery cable installed indoors must meet fire codes! That means the 5ac et must be rated for fire resistance, with ratings for general use, riser (a vertical cable feeds flames more than horiJontal) and plenum (for installation in air-handling areas! 8ost indoor cables us F6) (polyvinyl chloride) 5ac eting for fire retardance! "n the ,nited .tates, all premises cables must carry identification and flammability ratings per the 7G) (7ational Glectrical )ode) paragraph 22%! These ratings are; 7G) &ating (escription

:#7 :#) :#7I or :#)I :#7& or :#)& :#7F or :#)F :#7-+.

:ptical #ibre 7on-conductive :ptical #ibre )onductive general purpose riser rated cable for vertical runs plenum rated cables for use in airhandling plenums low smo e density

)ables without mar ings should never be installed as they will not pass inspections! :utdoor cables are not fire-rated and can only be used up to C% feet indoors! "f you need to bring an outdoor cable indoors, consider a double-5ac eted cable with FG 5ac et over a F6) ,+-rated indoor 5ac et! .imply remove the outdoor 5ac et when you come indoors and you will not have to terminate at the entry point! You can use an "ndoorD:utdoor rated product with a +ow .mo e Oero @alogen 5ac et!

Choosing A Cable <ith so much choice in cables, it is hard to find the right one! The table below summarises the choices, applications and advantages of each! )able Type Tight *uffer (istribution *rea out +oose Tube /rmoured /pplication Fremises Fremises Fremises :utside Flant /dvantages 8a es rugged patchcords .mall siJe for lots of fibres, ine9pensive &ugged, easy to terminate, no hardware needed &ugged, gel or dry waterbloc ing

:utside Flant Frevents rodent damage

&ibbon

:utside Flant

@ighest #ibre count for small siJe

Pulling Fibre Optic Cable "nstallation methods for both wire cables and optical fibre cables are similar! #ibre cable can be pulled with much greater force than copper wire if you pull it correctly! ?ust remember these rules; (o not pull on the fibres, pull on the strength members only! The cable manufacturer gives you the perfect solution to pulling the cables, they install special strength members, usually duFont -evlar aramid yarn or a fibreglass rod to pull on! ,se it! /ny other method may put stress on the fibres and harm them! 8ost cables cannot be pulled by the 5ac et! (o not pull on the 5ac et unless it is specifically approved by the cable manufacturers and you use an approved cable grip! (o not e9ceed the ma9imum pulling load rating! :n long runs, use proper lubricants and ma e sure they are compatible with the cable 5ac et! :n really long runs, pull from the middle out to both ends! "f possible, use an automated puller with tension control or at least a brea away pulling eye! (o not e9ceed the cable bend radius! #ibre is stronger than steel when you pull it straight, but it brea s easily when bent too tightly! These will harm the fibres, maybe immediately, maybe not for a few years, but you will harm them and the cable must be removed and thrown away! (o not twist the cable! Futting a twist in the cable can stress the fibres too! /lways roll the cable off the spool instead of spinning it off the spool end! This will put a twist in the cable for every turn on the spool! "f you are laying cable out for a long pull, use a =figure 4= on the ground to prevent twisting (the figure 4 puts a half twist in on one side of the 4 and ta es it out on the other, preventing twists!) /nd always use a swivel pulling eye because pulling tension will cause twisting forces on the cable!

)hec the length! 8a e sure the cable is long enough for the run! "t's not easy or cheap to splice fibre and it needs special protection! Try to ma e it in one pull, possible up to about A-$ miles! )onduit and "nnerduct; :utside plant cables are either installed in conduit or innerduct or direct buried, depending on the cable type! *uilding cables can be installed directly, but you might consider putting them inside plenum-rated innerduct! This innerduct is bright orange and will provide a good way to identify fibre optic cable and protect it from damage, generally a result of someone cutting it by mista e! The innerduct can speed installation and maybe even cut costs! "t can be installed quic ly by uns illed labour, then the fibre cable can be pulled through in seconds! You can even get the innerduct with pulling tape already installed!

Cable Plant 1ard&are 6arious enclosures, cabinets, rac s and panels are used to protect and organise splice and termination points! The networ designer should now the type of networ , support systems, the routes to be ta en! Then the connectionDsplice locations can be determined and the hardware planned! There are lots of rules to follow, of course (the G"/DT"/ C31 has something to say about all this)! @ere are some e9amples of fibre optic hardware; $rea.out .its; They allow you to separate and protect individual fibres in a loose tube cable so it can be terminated! Splice enclosures - for long cable runs outside, the point where cables are spliced, sealed up and buried in the ground, put in a vault of some ind or hung off a pole! Splice panels- connect individual fibres from cables to pigtails Patch panels - provides a centralised location for patching fibres, testing, monitoring and restoring cables!

0ac.s and cabinets; enclosures for patch panels and splice panels! ,sually these also include cable management - without this the cables start loo ing li e spaghetti flying everywhere in a short time! #or Froduct details )lic @ere There are tons of hardware and tons of manufacturers who ma e them! *e sure to choose panels that have the connections behind loc ed doors, since the biggest problem we see is connectors bro en by people messing around in communications closets! #ibre doesn't need maintenance or inspection! +oc 'em up and only unloc it when you have to move something!

<e terminate #ibre optic cable two ways - with connectors that can mate two fibres to create a temporary 5oint andDor connect the #ibre to a piece of networ gear or with splices which create a permanent 5oint between the two fibres! These terminations must be of the right style, installed in a manner that ma es them have little light loss and protected against dirt or damage in use! 7o area of #ibre optics has been given greater attention than termination! 8anufacturers have come up with over 4% styles of connectors and and about a doJen ways to install them! There are two types of splices and many ways of implementing the splice! #ortunately for me and you, only a few types are used most applications! (ifferent connectors and splice termination procedures are used for singlemode and multimode connectors, so ma e sure you now what the #ibre will be before you specify connectors or splices! Connectors <e'll start our section on termination by considering connectors! .ince #ibre optic technology was introduced in the late 2%s, numerous connector styles have been developed! Gach new design was meant to offer better performance (less light loss and bac reflection), easier andDor termination and lower cost! :f course, the mar etplace determines which connectors are ultimately successful! Connector and Splice /oss *echanisms

)onnector and splice loss is caused by a number of factors! +oss is minimised when the two #ibre cores are identical and perfectly aligned, the connectors or splices are properly finished and no dirt is present! :nly the light that is coupled into the receiving fibre's core will propagate, so all the rest of the light becomes the connector or splice loss! Gnd gaps cause two problems, insertion loss and return loss! The emerging cone of light from the connector will spill over the core of the receiving #ibre and be lost! "n addition, the air gap between the fibres causes a reflection when the light encounters the change n refractive inde9 from the glass #ibre to the air in the gap! This reflection (called fresnel reflection) amounts to about CM in typical flat polished connectors, and means that no connector with an air gap can have less than %!$ d* loss! This reflection is also referred to as bac reflection or optical return loss, which can be a problem in laser based systems! )onnectors use a number of polishing techniques to insure physical contact of the #ibre ends to minimise bac reflection! :n mechanical splices, it is possible to reduce bac reflection by using non-perpendicular cleaves, which cause bac reflections to be absorbed in the cladding of the #ibre! The end finish of the #ibre must be properly polished to minimise loss! / rough surface will scatter light and dirt can scatter and absorb light! .ince the optical #ibre is so small, typical airborne dirt can be a ma5or source of loss! <henever connectors are not terminated, they should be covered to protect the end of the ferrule from dirt! :ne should never touch the end of the ferrule, since the oils on one's s in causes the #ibre to attract dirt! *efore connection and testing, it is advisable to clean connectors with lint-free wipes moistened with isopropyl alcohol! Two sources of loss are directionalH numerical aperture (7/) and core diameter! (ifferences in these two will create connections that have different losses depending on the direction of light propagation! +ight from a #ibre with a larger 7/ will be more sensitive to angularity and end gap, so transmission from a #ibre of larger 7/ to one of smaller 7/ will be higher loss than the reverse! +i ewise, light from a larger #ibre will have high loss coupled to a #ibre of smaller diameter, while one can couple a small diameter #ibre to a large diameter #ibre with minimal loss, since it is much less sensitive to end gap or lateral offset!

These fibre mismatches occur for two reasons! The occasional need to interconnect two dissimilar fibres and production variances in fibres of the same nominal dimensions! <ith two multimode fibres in usage today and two others which have been used occasionally in the past and several types of singlemode #ibre in use, it is possible to sometimes have to connect dissimilar fibres or use systems designed for one fibre on another! .ome system manufacturers provide guidelines on using various fibres, some don't! "f you connect a smaller fibre to a larger one, the coupling losses will be minimal, often only the fresnel loss (about %!$ d*)! *ut connecting larger fibres to smaller ones results in substantial losses, not only due to the smaller cores siJe, but also the smaller 7/ of most small core fibres!

Guide to Fibre Optic Connectors )hec out the =spotters guide= below and you will see the most common fibre optic connectors! (/ll the photos are to the same scale, so you can get an idea of the relative siJe of these connectors!) .T (an /T'T Trademar ) is the most popular connector for multimode networ s, li e most buildings and campuses! "t has a bayonet mount and a long cylindrical ferrule to hold the #ibre! 8ost ferrules are ceramic, but some are metal or plastic! /nd because they are spring-loaded, you have to ma e sure they are seated properly! "f you have high loss, reconnect them to see if it ma es a difference!

#)DF) has been one of the most popular singlemode connectors for many years! "t screws on firmly, but ma e sure you have the ey aligned in the slot properly before tightening! "t's being replaced by .)s and +)s! .) is a snap-in connector that is widely used in singlemode systems for it's e9cellent performance! "t's a snap-in connector that latches with a simple push-pull motion! "t is also available in a duple9 configuration! *esides the .) (uple9, you may occasionally see the #((" and G.):7P duple9 connectors which mate to their specific networ s! They are generally used to connect to the equipment from a wall outlet, but the rest of the networ will have .T or .) connectors! PG.):7 is an "*8 trademar *elow are some of the new .mall #orm #actor (.##) connectors; +) is a new connector that uses a 0!AC mm ferrule, half the siJe of the .T! :therwise, it's a standard ceramic ferrule connector, easily terminated with any adhesive! Iood performance, highly favoured for singlemode!

8T-&? is a duple9 connector with both fibres in a single polymer ferrule! "t uses pins for alignment and has male and female versions! 8ultimode only, field terminated only by prepolishedDsplice method! :pti-?ac is a neat, rugged duple9 connector cleverly designed around two .T-type ferrules in a pac age the siJe of a &?-BC! "t has male and female (plug and 5ac ) versions!

6olition is a slic , ine9pensive duple9 connector that uses no ferrule at all! "t aligns fibres in a 6-groove li e a splice! Flug and 5ac versions, but field terminate 5ac s only!

GA%%%D+Q-C is li e a +) but with a shutter over the end of the #ibre!

8, loo s a miniature .) with a 0!AC mm ferrule! "t's more popular in ?apan!

8T is a 0A #ibre connector for ribbon cable! "t's main use is for preterminated cable assemblies!

The .TD.)D#)D#(("DG.):7 connectors have the same ferrule siJe A!C mm or about %!0 inch - so they can be mi9ed and matched to each other using hybrid mating adapters! This ma es it convenient to test, since you can have a set of multimode reference test cables with .T connectors and adapt to all these connectors! +i ewise, the +), 8, and GA%%%D+Q-C use the same ferrule but cross-mating adapters are not easy to find! Connector ypes The .T is still the most popular multimode connector because it is cheap and easy to install! The .) connector was specified as a standard by the old G"/DT"/ C34/ specification, but its higher cost and difficulty of installation (until recently) has limited its popularity! @owever, newer .)s are much better in both cost and installation ease, so it has been growing in use! The duple9 #((", G.):7 and .) connectors are used for patch cords to equipment and can be mated to .T or .) connectors at wall outlets! .inglemode networ s use #) or .) connectors in about the same proportion as .T and .) in multimode installations! There are some (Bs out there too! G"/DT"/ C34 * allows any #ibre optic connector as long as it has a #:)". (#ibre :ptic )onnector "ntermateability .tandard) document behind it! This opened the way to the use of several new connectors, which we call the =.mall #orm #actor= (.##) connectors, including

/T'T +), the 8T-&?, the Fanduit =:pti-?ac ,= $8's 6olition, the GA%%%D+Q-C and 8,! The +) has been particularly successful in the ,.! Connector Ferrule Shapes + Polishes #ibre optic connectors can have several different ferrule shapes or finishes, usually referred to as polishes! early connectors, because they did not have eyed ferrules and could rotate in mating adapters, always had an air gap between the connectors to prevent them rotating and grinding scratches into the ends of the fibres! *eginning with the .T and #) which had eyed ferrules, the connectors were designed to contact tightly, what we now call physical contact (F)) connectors! &educing the air gap reduced the loss and bac reflection (very important to laser-based singlemode systems ), since light has a loss of about CM (L%!AC d*) at each air gap and light is reflected bac up the #ibre! <hile air gap connectors usually had losses of %!C d* or more and return loss of A% d*, F) connectors had typical losses of %!$ d* and a return loss of $% to B% d*! .oon thereafter, it was determined that ma ing the connector ferrules conve9 would produce an even better connection! The conve9 ferrule guaranteed the #ibre cores were in contact! +osses were under %!$d* and return loss B% d* or better! The final solution for singlemode systems e9tremely sensitive to reflections, li e )/T6 or high bit rate telco lin s, was to angle the end of the ferrule 4 degrees to create what we call an /F) or angled F) connector! Then any reflected light is at an angle that is absorbed in the cladding of the #ibre!

ermination Procedures Whatever you do, follow the manufacturer's termination instructions closely! 8ultimode connectors are usually installed in the field on the cables after pulling, while singlemode connectors are usually installed by splicing a factory-made =pigtail= onto the #ibre! That is because the tolerances on singlemode terminations are much tighter and the polishing processes are more critical! You can install singlemode connectors in the field for low speed data networ s, but you may not be able to get losses lower than 0 d*! )ables can be pulled with connectors already on them if, and a big if, you can deal with these two problems; #irst, the length must be precise! Too short and you have to pull another longer one (its not cost effective to splice), too long and you waste money and have to store the e9tra

cable length! .econdly, the connectors must be protected! .ome cable and connector manufacturers offer protective sleeves to cover the connectors, but you must still be much more careful in pulling cables! You might consider terminating one end and pulling the unterminated end to not ris the connectors! There is a growing movement to install preterminated systems but with the 8T 0A multifibre connector! "t's tiny '.@YH not much bigger than a .T or .), but has up to 0A fibres! 8anufactures sell multifibre cables with 8Ts on them that connect to preterminated patch panels with .Ts or .)s! <or s well if you have a good designer and can live with the higher loss (L0 d*) typical of these connectors!

8ultimode Terminations; .everal different types of terminations are available for multimode fibres! Gach version has its advantages and disadvantages, so learning more about how each wor s helps decide which one to use! / note on adhesives; 8ost connectors use epo9ies or other adhesives to hold the #ibre in the connector! ,se only the specified epo9y, as the #ibre to ferrule bond is critical for low loss and long term reliability! <e've seen people use hardware store epo9ies, )raJy Ilue, you name it! /nd they regretted doing it! Gpo9yDFolish; 8ost connectors are the simple =epo9yDpolish= type where the #ibre is glued into the connector with epo9y and the end polished with special polishing film! These provide the most reliable connection, lowest losses (less than %!C d*) and lowest costs, especially if you are doing a lot of connectors! The epo9y can be allowed to set overnight or cured in an ine9pensive oven! / =heat gun= should never be used to try to cure the epo9y faster as the uneven heat may not cure all the epo9y or may overheat some of it which will prevent it ever curing! =@ot 8elt=; This is a $8 trade name for a connector that already has the epo9y (actually a heat set glue) inside the connector! You strip the cable, insert it in the connector, crimp it, and put it in a special oven! "n a few minutes, the glue is melted, so you remove the connector, let it cool and it is ready to polish! #ast and easy, low loss, but not as cheap as

the epo9y type, it has become the favourite of lots of contractors who install relatively small quantities of connectors! /naerobic /dhesives; These connectors use a quic setting adhesive to replace the epo9y! They wor well if your technique is good, but often they do not have the wide temperature range of epo9ies, so only use them indoors! / lot of installers are using +octite 3B4, with or without the accelerator solution, that is neat and easy to use! )rimpDFolish; &ather than glue the #ibre in the connector, these connectors use a crimp on the #ibre to hold it in! Garly types offered =iffy= performance, but today they are pretty good, if you practice a lot! G9pect to trade higher losses for the faster termination speed! /nd they are more costly than epo9y polish types! / good choice if you only install small quantities and your customer will accept them! FrepolishedDsplice; .ome manufacturers offer connectors that have a short stub #ibre already epo9ied into the ferrule and polished perfectly, so you 5ust cleave a #ibre and insert it li e a splice! (.ee ne9t section for splicing info!) <hile it sound li e a great idea, it has several downsides! #irst it is very costly, five to ten times as much as an epo9y polish type! .econd, you have to ma e a good cleave to ma e them low loss, and that is not as easy as you might thin ! Third, even if you do everything correctly, you loss will be higher, because you have a connector loss plus two splice losses at every connection! The best way to terminate them is to monitor the loss with a visual fault locator and =twea = them! 1ints %or doing %ield terminations @ere are a few things to remember when you are terminating connectors in the field! #ollowing these guidelines will save you time, money and frustration! )hoose the connector carefully and clear it with the customer if it is anything other than an epo9yDpolish type! .ome customers have strong opinions on the types or brands of connectors used in their 5ob! #ind out first, not later! 7ever, never, 7G6G& ta e a new connector in the field until you have installed enough of them in the office that you can put them on in your sleep! The field is no place to e9periment or learn! "t'll cost you big time! @ave the right tools for the 5ob! 8a e sure you have the proper tools and they are in good shape before you head out for the 5ob! This

includes all the termination tools, cable tools and test equipment! (o you now your test cables are good> <ithout that, you will test good terminations as bad every time! 8ore and more installers are owning their own tools li e auto mechanics, saying that is the only way to ma e sure the tools are properly cared for! (ust and dirt are your enemies! "t's very hard to terminate or splice in a dusty place! Try to wor in the cleanest possible location! ,se lint-free wipes (not cotton swaps or rags made from old T-shirts!) to clean every connector before connecting or testing it! (on't wor under heating vents, as they are blowing dirt down on you continuously! (on't overpolish! )ontrary to common sense, too much polishing is 5ust as bad as too little! The ceramic ferrule in most of today's connector is much harder than the glass #ibre! Folish too much and you create a concave #ibre surface, increasing the loss! / few swipes is all it ta es! &emember singlemode #ibre requires different connectors and polishing techniques! 8ost .8 #ibre is terminated by splicing on a preterminated pigtail, but you can put .8 connectors on in the field if you now what you are doing! G9pect much higher loss, approaching 0 d* and high bac reflections, so don't try it for anything but data networ s, not telco or )/T6! )hange polishing film regularly! Folishing builds up residue and dirt on the film that can cause problems after too many connectors and cause poor end finish! )hec the manufacturers' specs! Fut covers on connectors and patch panels when not in use! -eep them covered to eep them clean! "nspect and test, then document! "t is very hard to troubleshoot cables when you don't now how long they are, where they go or how they tested originally! .o eep good records, smart users require it and e9pect to pay e9tra for good records! Splicing .plicing is only needed if the cable runs are too long for one straight pull or you need to mi9 a number of different types of cables (li e bringing a B4 #ibre cable in and splicing it to si9 4 #ibre cables - could you have used a brea out cable instead>) /nd of course, we use splices for restoration, after the number one problem of outside plant cables, a dig-up and cut of a buried cable, usually referred to as =bac hoe fade= for obvious reasons! .plices are =permanent= connections between two fibres! There are two types of splices, fusion and mechanical, and the choice is

usually based on cost or location! 8ost splicing is on long haul outside plant .8 cables, not multimode +/7s, so if you do outside plant .8 5obs, you will want to learn how to fusion splice! "f you do mostly 88 +/7s, you may never see a splice! #usion .plices are made by =welding= the two fibres together usually by an electric arc! :bviously, you don't do that in an e9plosive atmosphere (at least not more than once!), so fusion splicing is usually done above ground in a truc or trailer set up for the purpose! Iood fusion splicers cost E0C,%%% to EB%,%%%, but the splices only cost a few dollars each! Today's singlemode fusion splicers are automated and you have a hard time ma ing a bad splice! The biggest application is singlemode fibres in outside plant installations! 8echanical .plices are alignment gadgets that hold the ends of two fibres together with some inde9 matching gel or glue between them! There are a number of types of mechanical splices, li e little glass tubes or 6-shaped metal clamps! The tools to ma e mechanical splices are cheap, but the splices themselves are e9pensive! 8any mechanical splices are used for restoration, but they can wor well with both singlemode and multimode #ibre, with practice! Which Splice ? "f cost is the issue, we've given you the clues to ma e a choice; fusion is e9pensive equipment and cheap splices, while mechanical is cheap equipment and e9pensive splices! .o if you ma e a lot of splices (li e thousands in an big telco or )/T6 networ ) use fusion splices! "f you need 5ust a few, use mechanical splices! #usion splices give very low bac reflections and are preferred for singlemode high speed digital or )/T6 networ s! @owever, they don't wor too well on multimode splices, so mechanical splices are preferred for 88, unless it is an underwater or aerial application, where the greater reliability of the fusion splice is preferred!