Raja Aneece Ahmed

PEME 2020

School of Process, Environmental & Materials Engineering

PEME2020 Safety, Health & Environment 2012-2013

Student Name Student ID Title FAO Date

Raja Aneece Ahmed 200564028 Water Treatment Dr. Tim Hunter 08/03/2013
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Content Page
Introduction......................................................................................3

Present and future Requirements for recycling water..................................................4-7

Recycled water uses and regulations for potable water and grey water...................................................7-9

Current technologies and methods implemented for water recycling.................................................9-11

Advances in water recycling technologies..................................................................11-13

Alternative methods for recycling water..................................................................................13

Conclusion.........................................................................................14

References....................................................................................14-15

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Introduction
Water can be considered as the foundation of life, without water our existence would not be possible. Water has such great importance to this earth and to every living being that is an inhabitant of this planet that it is considered as the driving force of all nature. Even the location for the development of cities was decided upon depending on the water reserves that area of the land had to offer. All living creations depend on this important commodity which in todays society, especially in the developed nations of the world, has lost its superiority and people have forgotten its importance. The reason for this is mainly due to the incorrect public perception as many believe that water is an infinitely available commodity. The ease of obtaining water is also a reason to why many people have forgotten the importance of it, as all it takes to obtain it, is to rotate a tap. However, water is not available at an infinite quantity and suppliers are struggling with providing water to the masses as it is in more demand in todays modern world than it ever has been in the past history. This is due to the growing population and increasing industrialisation and because of this, demand for clean water is increasing and suppliers are struggling to keep up with the demand (Richard 2010). What many people also do not realise is that a complex system and technique is used to obtain pure quality water safe enough for consumption. It has been reported that an estimated 800 million people throughout the world have not been granted the opportunity of having clean, safe drinking water and this has resulted in the death of almost 3.5 million per year from water related illnesses. These figures mostly reflect the current situation in developing nations; nevertheless, even developed countries are showing signs of emergency measures. America, the richest country in the world, is finding it difficult to supply hygienic water to the citizens of Los Angles, a city that was built in the desert. This goes to show that, on a global scale, the supply of clean water is a concern and requires to be corrected by introducing changes to the current system that is used to obtain clean water to ultimately reduce the death toll of the suffering people (Richard 2010). As our soul existence depends on water it can be described as one of the most precious commodities on the face of this earth. A human body cannot function or survive without water for even a couple of weeks without resulting in serious health consequences and most likely death. For this reason this commodity needs to be preserved and must be used in a way that would result in minimal wastage. One way of achieving this is by recycling the water. The definition of recycling is to recover useful materials from garbage or waste and to extract useful material and reuse them. This has great importance and is a topic mostly discussed in the media and various government campaigns are preceded so that governments promote the increase of this practice. People are becoming more aware of this problem due to the alarming rate at which global warming is taking its affect on this planet which is causing rising sea levels to unexplained weather conditions resulting in draught in many areas. The advance in technology has created the opportunity for the recycling of many materials such as metals and plastics, which are vital processes that need to become more popular amongst nations throughout the world to help sustain this planet for future generations to come. Even though methods have been established to create perfectly safe drinking water through the means of recycling it, this process is still avoided by the majority of society. Sorely the 3

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mentioning of consumable recycled water is congregated with great hostility by the general public, even though on a scientific level, research has made it clear that even natural water is in fact to some extent recycled but through natural methods. Activists, leaders and environmentalists across the globe have realised the scale at which water reserves are consumed and that they are being used at a higher level than they are being replenished leading to a decrease in the reserves and plans are being made for the investment into research for new water recycling technologies as a way of overcoming this problem and most importantly the general public is being educated about the benefits recycling water has to offer. This report will explore this matter in greater detail by explaining the current and future trends of water recycling technologies and a description upon the advantages and disadvantages of recycling water will be made.

Present and future requirements for recycling water

The earth contains a total of 1.4 billion km3 of water out of which 97.5% is salt water and only 2.5% is fresh water. This amount of water covers an astonishing 70% of the earth and the remainder is landmass. The total volume of fresh water has been calculated to be 35 million km3 out of which only an estimated 90,000 km3 is readily available for human consumption being safe and clean enough to drink without treatment. The readily available water accounts for only 0.036% of all the water found on earth. These figures clearly prove that water availability even at a global scale is remarkably low and these reserves are being consumed at a record high rate. These figures give a further indication upon the requirement of the importance of the conservation of water through the process of recycling it (Barlour 2010).

Figure 1: Fresh water availability across the World (Hawken 2008) 4

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The map shown in figure 1 gives an indication on fresh water availability in different areas around the world. From the map it is clearly evident that most of the fresh water is found in the northern and southern hemispheres which are mostly uninhabitable areas of the world. The most densely populated areas do not have a sufficient quantity of water reserves and an estimated 80% of the worlds total population lives in areas that do not have a secure fresh water supply. One method that is used to overcome this problem is by the construction of pipelines and canals which are an expensive process that mostly only developed nations can afford to make. With the financial circumstances across the world which is being experienced by many nations, and the dramatic rise in water supply, the need for recycling water has never been greater than it has in todays circumstances (Hawken 2008). There are numerous benefits involved in recycling water and one of the most important ones being is that it spectacularly aids in the conservation of the drinking water supplies. This process assists the reuse of a precious and limited resource and lightens the heavy burden on the decreasing water reserves. Recycling water is especially important were water supply is very limited and in drought inflicted areas (Marcus 1998). This process is also beneficial to the environment as it helps in ecosystem restoration and reduces pollution. Many ecosystems are very sensitive to a change in the environment and greatly depend on the water quantity available to that ecosystem. An ecosystem with a large water reserve has been known to flourish and expand mainly because the wildlife has greater chance of survival. Plants, animals and fish like us depend on water and require a sufficient water flow to their habitats for their survival and reproduction. Recycling water would result in the reduction on the amount of water we extract from the ecosystems (Marcus 1998). A lot of the wastewater is diverted back into waterways. This wastewater has potential risks if consumed as it contains many harmful effluents and nutrients. Recycling water would significantly reduce if not totally diminish the amount of wastewater that travels back to the waterways and in doing so would increase the waters quality and reduce the harmful effects from the content of wastewater which clearly indicates another advantage of recycling water. Furthermore, the amount of water taken out of wildlife for human use would be reduced if the water we use was recycled leaving good quality water in an large enough quantity for the wildlife to survive off (Marcus 1998). In addition, recycling water has the benefit of saving energy. An increased demand of water has meant that there has been an increase in the process of extracting, treating and transporting water, sometimes over great distances. These processes require a lot of energy to occur. Water is pumped up from the ground and as it gets used up; water requires to be pumped deeper within the ground. The deeper within the ground that is required to be gone the more energy that is needed to extract the water. Recycling water on site overcomes these problems and reduces the need to transport the water as well as the need to pump water from deep within aquifers. Other ways recycling water helps save energy is that the water that is used to flush toilets or for gardening purposes needs to be less stringent as compared to the water that is needed for consumption which requires less energy to achieve when recycled. Using recycled water made to have lower quality for such purposes requires less energy to achieve. (Reifsheinder 2009). 5

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Like many process recycling water has its downsides. Recycled water requires several financial investments to be made mainly done by governments which include cost of labour and basic maintenance. Pipes need to be built and installed in order to collect the wastewater and to transport it to the recycling facility and once the recycling process is complete more pipes would subsequently need to be developed to transport the water to the public. Established cities would require tearing up road to create ways for the installation of these pipes however undeveloped areas do not have this problem as they do not have many buildings and roads (Jenkins 2005). The public perception of recycled water is a downside on its own. Once water exits a household for example by flushing it down the toilet or through pours down the sink; many people do not like the idea of re-using and drinking that same water. This is mainly due to the lack of knowledge the public has on the treatment recycled water undergoes and therefore there has been a general misconception which has lead people to believe that this type of water is not safe to be used again. Governments have launched several campaigns to help educate people on what goes on during the recycling process and how this in not the case. Nevertheless, many people still vote against this forcing governments not practice this procedure (Jenkins 2005). Even though the recycling of water involves an intense treatment process, some health concerns still exist. Studies conducted have found that recycled water still contains some dangerous impurities even after treatment. Some toxic chemical that were found included components found in medication and estragon. From the research done it was concluded that the traditional method of recycling water was not sufficient enough in removing some medication found within the wastewater to safe enough levels as there was still 16 different types of contaminants present within the water. Further studies were conducted and results from these studies gave an indication that only 92% of antibiotics were able to be removed with the remainder still present even after treatment. This presence in the water could be disastrous not only to the consumer but also to the effectiveness of the actual antibiotic. Pathogens are well known to develop immunity towards antibiotics and this would aid them into doing so meaning further treatment with the same antibiotics would be ineffective. According Richard Gerseberg, a researcher and professor at San Diego state university, has found that even deadly microbial pathogens such as bacteria like salmonella and E. coli and viruses such as the hepatitis virus to name a few, can also present in wastewater. Despite the vigorous treatment that is undergone before water is released to the public and the checkups made by environmental protection agencies, these microbial contaminants have the potential risk of still being present in potable water sources, which is the water used for drinking and bathing (Smith 2008). If population and industrialisation growth continues in the same manner in the future as it has in the past century; the demand for water will only increase at a momentous rate which calls out for changes that are needed to be made to the current system of acquiring drinkable water to help prevent the total collapse of the existing system which itself signifies the importance of recycling water. An increase in industrialisation has been shown the most in the far east, and many of these industries that are being built require huge amounts of water for their 6

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process to transpire. This will result in the exhaustion of the current supply of water as well as pollute existing supplies which would ultimately result in reducing the amount of fresh water for both nature and human use. Due to the advances made in medication, which has allowed the treatment for many illnesses and diseases possible, human populations have increased. This is because the fatality rate has decreased because of the many medications available for a whole range of diseases and illness. More humans means that there is an increased need for water as every individual uses and consumes water. Even the food we eat such as fruit and vegetation uses a vast quantity of water to produce. It is believed that by 2050 the population will increase to 9.2 billion people while the amount of people moving into cities would also rise which would put further strains on water infrastructure and reserves in the coming future (Asano 1999).

Recycled water uses and regulations for potable water and grey water
Potable water is defined as water sufficiently sterile for human consumption. Gray water is waste water obtained from certain domestic activities such as showers, washing clothes, washing dishes, baths and wash basins. This water does not require vigorous treatment and can very easily be recycled with little treatment for landscape irrigation and other non-potable uses. Using grey water is very beneficial to the environment but can have certain harmful effects. Some of the benefits included in using grey water is that it contains nutrients that promote the growth of plants. Grey water also requires very little filtration which saves costs in the treatment process. However, grey water contains microbes in the form of viruses and pathogens which if used can have harmful effects on the environment. Grey water can also contain chemicals used in households such as the chemicals found in cleaning agents and in shampoo for example which also have the potential to have detrimental effects on the environment. It can also be used for the cleansing of toilets via flushing which is a process that requires a large amount of water as it accounts for 50% of the total indoor water use. Due to the large amounts of water required for these processes it is possible to save enormous amounts of water by making the use of grey water more popular especially in the flushing of toilets (Casey 2009). As explained earlier recycled water do carry some risks when used. May it be in the form of grey water or recycled water if they are not treated and used in a correct manner they could entail serious consequences to both the health of the individual that gets in contact with this water and the environment. To prevent this from occurring environmental agencies have put together a vast amount of strict rules and regulations which are required to be followed. Below are some of these regulations made by the UK Environmental agencies (Environmental Agency 2011): Water quality: This describes the physical, biological and chemical characteristics of the water. When looking at the water from a physical perspective it includes on how clear the water is and its colour, total suspended solids and its temperature. The biological qualities relates to the presence of any microbes such as bacteria and 7

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viruses which further indicates, by looking into the type of microbes and its abundance, if there are signs of any faecal contamination. Finally, the chemical characteristics of the water looks into things like the pH of the water, the quantity of disinfectants present such as residuals of chlorine and bromine and measurements are taken to see the amount of organic material present in the water Type of contamination: Grey water obtained from showers, baths and washbasins has potentially been contaminated with intestinal bacterial or dead skin particles and hair. Chemicals found in shampoos, detergents and other cosmetic products contain nutrients together with other organic matter present and the high temperature provide ideal conditions for the growth of bacteria. This is why rules have been set out so that this water cannot be stored and then used for more than a few hours Potential risk: The most prominent risk to grey water is derived from microbes present from faecal contamination. The physical and chemical risks need also to be considered if correct levels are not reached they can interfere with treatment and make the water unsuitable for its intended use. This means that the grey water quality must be good enough for its intended use The required cleanliness of the water: While drinking water needs to meet very high standards, however, the UK regulation for the quality of grey water has no known regulatory standards. Many groups have advised that set standards must be met before the release of this water to help overcome concerns of potentially hazardous situation and to help bolster the confidence of the publics use and conception of non-potable water Water quality: Guidelines for the monitoring arrangements are represented by the tables below:
Table 1: Guidlines needed to be met for bacterial monitoring (Enviromental Agency 2011)

Table 2: Interpretation of results obtained in Table 2 (Environmental agency 2011)

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PEME 2020

Water fittings: the water supply (water fittings) is governed by the regulations set out in 1999 are used to indicate the efficient use and protection to drinking water in England and Wales. The rules and regulations apply to all plumbing systems, water fittings and equipment which are used to supply water from the public water supply. These are mandatory and require a correct level of backflow prevention to be attained. In grey water systems this is usually controlled by an air gap, which is used to prevent any of the grey water from mixing with the public potable water. Labelling water supply equipment: To prevent any cross-connection between grey water and the potable water supply from the mains all pipes installed must be labelled and marked accordingly. These guidelines can be found on the WRAS (Water Regulation Advisory Scheme).

Providers of recycled potable water are required to abide by the law and entail to meet the mandatory requirements set by the UK environmental agency as listed below (Enviromental Agency 2011): It is compulsory according to the regulations that before using indirect potable water that it must be treated by putting it back into a water cycle before mandatory requirements are met and therefore water can be collected for potable use Most importantly, any recycled potable water must meet the same quality standards and be free from any contamination as normally treated non-recycled water is

Current technologies and methods implemented for water recycling There are several different methods implemented in todays water treatment systems to achieve clean potable water. These include biological, chemical and physical methods. Biological methods that are used to treat wastewater apply the use of microorganisms which decompose most of the contamination found in the wastewater to produce sludge or convert waste materials into products such as carbon dioxide, other gases or even water itself. The following list outlines some of the biological methods used by many water treatment industries (Zhou 2002): Activated sludge process Anaerobic Digestion Aerated lagoon Trickling filters Rotating biological contactors Anaerobic digestion Biological nutrient removal

The activated sludge process is the most common biological method used world-wide. The process involves the use of a tank or basin in which a population of biological microorganism 9

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are suspended. To help increase the population of the suspended microorganisms nutrients and oxygen are fed into the tank making this process aerobic. These microorganisms are in the form of bacteria or single celled eukaryotic protozoa. The system is continuous and uses these activated microorganisms to stabilize organic matter and other waste materials. The process involves delivering the wastewater to the aeration tank where these active microorganisms are allowed to come into contact with the wastewater. The degradation process begins once this occurs where the microorganism aerobically convert the organic matter into carbon dioxide through the process of degradation. Other side-products are also formed in this process which include: new cells, water and other end products (Zhou 2002). Chemical methods are the most common methods applied for wastewater treatment. They involve chemical reactions to help generate pure water. The following are some examples of chemical methods used for treating wastewater (Zhou 2002): Chlorination Ion exchange Dechlorination Chemical precipitation Chemical coagulation Adsorption Disinfection

Out of the above list one of the most common chemical methods applied for wastewater treatment is chlorination. This process involves using chlorine to kill bacteria present in the wastewater. Addition of chlorine also has the benefit of reducing the rate of decomposition of the wastewater. Another strong oxidizing disinfectant that also works similar to chlorine and which can also be used is ozone. In industry, combinations of all three methods are applied to the treatment of the wastewater. In the majority of occasions governments have delegated responsibility for the treatment of wastewater to their provenances and territories. Australia is primary example of a country struggling with meeting demand of fresh water supply due to high demand and shortages of the freshwater supply. To overcome this problem the government have set-up schemes such as recycling water. Coliban water providers is a company based in Australia that deals with recycling wastewater obtained mainly from domestic sources. They have a specified system that delivers water good in enough in quality to be termed potable water. The underline principle Coliban water uses in the recycling process is described below (Zhou 2002): 1) Source control: Ensures that the wastewater entering the recycling system is liberated from any harmful contamination such as chemicals. This is achieved by preventing wastewater from being released from non-domestic sources such as industries, hospitals and other places that deal with high chemical waste 2) Water reclamation plant: The plant used in the recycling process consists of biological reactors and sand filters which are used to remove and even destroy solids,

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nutrients and organic matter. This process is also capable of destroying some of the microorganisms that are present 3) Advanced oxidation and Disinfection: The industry uses the chemical sodium hypochlorite to carry out the advanced oxidation and exposes its content to UV light for the purpose of disinfecting it to destroy the remaining bacteria and any other microorganism that may be present 4) Ultra filtration: this process uses a low pressure membrane to remove the remaining suspended bacteria, particles and other materials 5) Reverse osmosis: this process is very effective and is capable of removing 98% of biological matter and 99% of minerals. The process involves forcing the water through a thin plastic membrane 6) Deliver: This is the final stage of the industrial process where the water is either sent to the consumer or sent to a reservoir to increase purity via natural filtration Advances in water recycling technologies Since the last century technology has greatly advanced. With the new technology there are many advantages as recycling water has become an increasingly efficient way of obtaining potable water. One example of such a process includes the Actiflo process. This is a modern wastewater recycling process which is a common technique applied for the treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater. The Actiflo method is a clarification process which uses micro sand particles (ballast). The micro sand particles aid in the accumulation of suspended solids in the water. This process is suitable for the treatment of combined sewer flow, primary treatment before bio filtration or for the tertiary treatment which require the removal of suspend solids and phosphorus. At the start of the process a coagulant is added which has the role of destabilizing suspend matter within the flow. The coagulation of the flow occurs when it is introduced to a high speed mixing tank which contains chemicals reagents to aid the process. The flow of the material required to be treated is then transported into a second chamber which is also a mixing tank but here the speed of the mixer is reduced, at this stage the micro sand is added which has a large surface area to volume ratio. The suspended solid matter attaches to the micro sand producing flocs. This facilitates the gravitational settling of the flocs thus producing a smaller footprint than conventional clarification methods would do (Pizzi 2005). The next step of the process includes adding polymers to the maturation tank were the content flows. In some occasions it is also added to the second tank were the slower mixing of the material that requires being treated proceeds. In this maturation tank mixing also occurs at a slower rate allowing viable conditions to be created to induce bonding between micro sand and suspended matter. Once the floc settles, it is removed from the settling tank using plate settlers reducing the content in the tank. The treated clarified water exits the tank 11

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through the overflowing lamellas which are positioned above the plate settlers while the sludge and sand is collected at the inclined lamellas at the bottom of the tank and are transported using conveyors to the hydro-cyclone. The fast rotation of the hydro-cyclone separates the solid material according to density where the high density sand settles to the bottom and the low density sludge to the top. The sludge is separated and discarded as it has no further useful function while the sand can be re-used and re-circulated for the next process (Pizzi 2005).
Table 2: Summery of the process (Techcommentary 2006)

Figure 2: Actiflo process industrial operation ( CESCO 2011)

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The advantages the Actiflo process entails over conventional wastewater treatment methods (Techcommentary 2006) Due to the high density of the micro sand suspended matter that attaches to it can easily be removed as more of the solid matter sinks faster to the bottom The water quality that needs treatment can vary as this process can treat water with even very low quality Up to 50 times smaller than conventional wastewater equipment substantially reducing installation cost It only takes 20-30 minutes for steady state be reached making it a fast prcess

Alternative methods for recycling water As explained there are many reasons to why a system may want to use the method of recycling water to ultimately achieve pure water. Nevertheless, these systems are expensive to install and with the current financial crisis could put a strain on the governments and councils to force them into submitting into alternative methods. Many of the recycling methods have still not advanced in terms of the technology which is another reason to the use of alternative methods. Ultimately many alternative methods do give the same results.

Desalination Wastewater has been treated by the desalination process for years and is one of the earliest inventions made. It is still to this day a very popular method used with many desalination plants located in many countries across the world. This process is used in the treatment of saline water which humans are incapable of consuming. The saline water is converted into fresh water using this desalination process. Saline water is very abundant as most the sea is composed of it. This method of achieving fresh water from this sea water is very advantageous in conserving fresh water reserves. The modern desalination process involves three main unit operations to proceed successfully which are described below (Shaw 2009): Reverse osmosis: A popular operation used by many water treating industries which involves pushing seawater through a semi-permeable membrane. This process traps sea water and other impurities while allowing the fresh water to travel through the membrane Electro-dialysis: This process uses an applied electric current for the transportation of salt ions from one solution (water that contains salt) through ion exchange membranes to another solution. This unit operation is more suitable for treating salty ground water rather than sea water Thermal distillation: In this process the sea water is heated releasing fresh water vapour which rises and then condenses. The purified vapour is subsequently collected.

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Conclusion Technological advancements have made it possible to obtain high purity water through method of recycling wastewater. However, much more work needs to be done to make this process more successful and more popular. The work that needs to be carried should not just be concentrated at developing industrial operations that function to treat used water, but also at convincing the general population that this method is safe and the water obtained can benefit mankind in years to come if procedures are carried out according to strict rules and regulations. The initial investment required to allow such processes to occur is high and for this reason only developed nations of the world could benefit from this. For this reason undeveloped countries who are struggling financially have not got the funding to operate such industries. Furthermore, negligence and lack of care from local authorities and the corruption in leadership establishments; make the chances of opening recycled water facilities and overcoming their water shortage issues less likely. Therefore people in developing countries will continue to suffer even though opportunities and technologies like this exist. The increasing advancement of technology would undoubtedly only result in improved quality of water and this process has even got the potential of cleansing used water to such an extent that it creates water purer than currently used methods. I myself believe, that the pleasures purified and clean water bring to societies should not only be for those that live in developed countries but should be a commodity accessible to all of mankind especially those that are suffering the most. A global strategy should be derived, where nations work together so more recycling facilities are opened so that recycled water technology can benefit all.

References
Richard.M. (2010). Water Shortages. Today's World. 2 (1), p3-12 Barlour.M. (2010). Fresh Water. Available: http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/fresh-water.php. Last accessed 02/03/2013 Hawken.P. (2008). CLEAN WATER FOR ALL. Available: http://www.bigpicturesmallworld.com/war-peace/water.shtml. Last accessed 03/03/2013. Marcus.F. (1998). WATER RECYCLING AND REUSE: THE ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS. EPA . 4 (1), P3-11. Reifschneider.M. (2009). Benefits of Recycling. Available: http://www.kansasgreenteams.org/files/Benefits%20of%20Recycling%20Newsletter%20 Article_0_0.pdf. Last accessed 04/03/2013. Jenkins. A. (2005). Recycled Water Disadvantages. Available: http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_7285741_recycled-water-disadvantages.html. Last accessed 04/03/2013.

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Smith A (2008). Natural resource and water. Brisbane: Department of Natural Resources and Water. p6-30 Asano.T. (1999). Water Recycling and Reuse. Recyclig. 1 (1), p3-7 Casey.R. (2009). Greywater systems as an alternative to save freshwater. Greywater and its uses. 2 (1), p2-9. Environmental Agency . (2011). Greywater for domestic users: an information guide. Enviromental Agency . 1 (2), p11-15. H. Zhou. (2002). Advanced technologies in water and wastewater treatment. OZOMAX. 2 (1), p4-20 Nicholas G. Pizzi (2005). Water Treatment operations. 2nd ed. United States of America: Glacier publishing service. p30-50. CESCO. (2011). Water treatment solution. Available: http://www.gocesco.com/watersolutionsforthepowerindustry.html. Last accessed 05/03/2013. Techcommentary . (2006). High-rate clarification for the treatment of wet weather flows. Available: http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/highrt_clarificatn_tc113574.pdf. Last accessed 7/3/2013. Shaw.R. (2009). Desalination. Available: http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/technical-briefs/40-desalination.pdf. Last accessed 07/3/2013

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