Communication Engineering 3

A. Prof. Kamran Ghorbani

email:kamran.ghorbani@rmit.edu.au


School of Electrical and Computer Engineering


Lecture 01




Gain or Loss

Log and linear units

CDF and probability density function (pdf)

Power spectral density

Additive white Gaussian noise

Gaussian probability density

Thermal and shot noise

Antenna noise temperature




Lecturer KG 01/2
Gain/Loss





The gain/loss of a device normally expressed in
decibels.




G 20 log

|
V

|

For example if V

=10 V and

=
10

or

\

out
|

V
in
.
out
V
in
=2 V then the gain is 14 dB







G 10 log





|
P

|

If P
out
= 10 mW and P
in
=1 mW

then the gain is 10 dB.
=
10

\
out
|

P
in
.

If P
out
= 1 mW and P
in
=10 mW
then the gain is -10 dB or the
loss is 10 dB




Lecturer KG 01/3
dBW and dBm





The noise characteristics of a device or a system is
specified by the power level.

The power levels are denoted by dBm or dBW.






0.01 -20 10
0.1 -10 20
1 0 30
10 10 40
100 20 50
1000 30 60


Lecturer KG 01/4
dB and dBm




dBW/dBm defines the power level and dB defines
the ratio (for the gain or the loss)


P
out

= P
in
+ G





P
in


Device

P
out




















Lecturer KG 01/5
If P
out
= 3 dBm and the gain is 5 dB, then

P
in
= -2 dBm.


You can add/subtract dB and dBm,
however you cannot add/subtract dBm
and dBm.
Cumulative Distribution Function



A cumulative distribution
function (cdf) of the
random variable X is
given by:



P (x) =

P(X


s x)

|
n
X


s x
|

|
X
lim

n \

n
.



Random variable X will
be less than or equal to
some specific value of x.



Lecturer KG 01/6










Glover, Fig 3.4
Probability Density Function (pdf)



A probability density
function (pdf) is given by
p
X
(x) where:



p
X
(x) =
dP
X
( x)
dx




+

p
X
(x)dx = 1














Lecturer KG 01/7
x
2


p
X
(x)dx

x
1

= P(x
1
< X

x
2
)
Example 1.1




The CDF represents the voltages that
are associated with a collection of a
large number of flashlight batteries. The
associate pdf is obtained by taking the
derivative of the CDF.


Calculate the probability of obtaining a
battery having a voltage between 1.4
and 1.6 V.








P
X
(x

)




x

x
2


p
X
(x)dx

x
1

= P(x
1
< X



1.6

x
2
)






p
X
(x)
P(1.4 < X 1.6) =

p
X
(x)dx

1.4
= P(1.6) P(1.4) = 0.19


Lecturer KG 01/8




Couch, Fig B5
lim


T

|
Power Spectral Density (PSD)



The power spectral density (PSD) for a
deterministic power waveform is:


P
w
( f )
|
W

( f )
2
|

T
|

T
\

.
T
lim 1
2
R
w
( ) =

w(t ) w(t ) dt

T T
T


2


R
w
( )

P
w
( f )


P
w
(f) is Fourier transform of R

w
()













Lecturer KG 01/9

P =

P
w
( f ) df



The normalized average power
A
2

R
w
( ) = cos(
0
)
2






P
w
(f)
A
2
4
freq.
- f
0
f
0



ean Square Value of the signal =
2
Example 1.2



Find PSD of Sinusoid w(t) = A sin (
0
t)

Compute Autocorrelation then take Fourier Transform





P
w
( f ) = {R
w
( )}







A
2

4







M


Lecturer KG 01/10

A
2


P
w
( f ) df =









If you are building a Cathedral (or Mosque, or Temple):



Turn to your neighbor and discuss
what I have been talking about in
the lecture so far.




If you are squaring a block:



Relax for the time or talk about anything you like.




Bob Lord




Lecturer KG 01/11
Additive White Gaussian Noise, AWGN





Generally, noise is any unwanted signal that adds
onto the wanted signal in a communication system.
Noise that adds on to the wanted signal is called
Additive Noise.

Noise can be picked up from external sources (e.g.
radio interference or atmospheric noise collected by
an antenna), or generated by electronic /
electromagnetic devices inside the communication
system (e.g. amplifiers or lossy transmission lines).





Lecturer KG 01/12
Additive White Gaussian Noise, AWGN





White Noise is a noise that
has constant Power Spectral
Density [W/Hz] over all
frequencies.

All communication systems
contain AWGN, which affects
the quality of the received
wanted signal as measured by
Signal-to-Noise Ratio or
Probability of Bit Error.







P
w
(f)






White noise













f




Lecturer KG 01/13
Gaussian Probability Density





Gaussian Noise is
random noise with
noise amplitude
variation that can
be described by the
Gaussian
Probability Density.




Mean square noise voltage
is the variance,
2
,
Glover, Fig 4.22

x
2


of this Gaussian distribution.

Mean value is zero.
Lecturer KG 01/14
p
X
( x) =

1
e

2
(2
2
)
Thermal noise





Thermal noise is generated by the random motion of
electrons in a resistor due to temperature. These random
motions causes random currents through the resistor which
produces random voltage across the resistor.

A transmission line is shown here. By closing the switches,
the thermal energy will be trapped as standing waves :



The wavelength of nth mode:
2

n
=
n


is the length of the transmission line

The frequency difference:

f f


=
nc

(n 1)c


Glover, Fig 12.1




Lecturer KG 01/15
n n 1
2 2
Thermal noise (ctd)






The number of modes in a bandwidth B:





B

=
f
n

f
n1
2B

=
c







Glover, Fig 12.2

The principle of equipartition states that the average thermal
energy per degree of freedom is KT joules.

Applying this principle to the transmission line, each
standing wave has two degree of freedom (sinusoidal or
cosinusoidal) hence contains KT joules.
Lecturer KG 01/16
c
Thermal noise (ctd)




However each standing wave is composed of two travelling
waves, then the spatial energy density in each traveling
wave is KT/l.


The available power per oscillating mode is:


1
KT


P
mod e
=
2



( J / s)

Where
=

c


The available power, N, in a bandwidth is:


1
KTc


Nyquists formula

N = P

=
2
2


( J / s)


Hence


N = KTB


(W )






Lecturer KG 01/17
mod e
Thermal noise (ctd)



The noise power spectral density is given by:

G
n
( f ) = KT

(W / Hz)



The thevenin equivalent circuit of a thermal noise is
shown here.

The maximum available RMS noise voltage
across the matched load is:



V
na
=

NR = KTBR (V )





Since the same voltage is dropped across the source and load resistance.
Glover, Fig 12.4




Lecturer KG 01/18
Thermal noise (ctd)



An equivalent random current source can also be
defined using the Norton equivalent circuit.







Glover, Fig 12.5












Lecturer KG 01/19







If you are building a Cathedral (or Mosque, or Temple):



Turn to your neighbor and discuss
what I have been talking about in
the lecture so far.




If you are squaring a block:



Relax for the time or talk about anything you like.




Bob Lord




Lecturer KG 01/20




















f
Power Spectral Density of N








G
n
( f ) = kT

= N
0

(Watts /Hz)




=1.38 E-23 x 290 (watts)
=-174 dBm
at 290 K, room temp




Noise voltage pdf
p
x
(v)
Noise PSD P
n
(f)



0.5 N
0
(=0.5 kT)

2
= kTB










Lecturer KG 01/21
v
- B 0 B


nsity of N


















f




Single Sided
Noise PSD
N
0








f

0 B













N
0

Power Spectral De




Double Sided
Noise PSD





2



-B 0 B






Noise Temperature T (K)
Avail. Power Spectral Density N
o
= k T (W/Hz)
Available Noise Power N = N
o
B = k T B (W)



Lecturer KG 01/22
V = V + V
I = I + I
Example 1.3











2
n source




2
n source 1




2
n source 2
Glover, Fig 12.6

(V
2
)
2

n source




2
n source 1




2
n source 2




( A
2
)



V
n source
=

4KTB(R
1
+ R
2
) (V )

I
n source
=


4KTB(G
1


+ G
2
)


( A )





Lecturer KG 01/23
I
n
Shot noise





If individual charge carriers pass through a potential
barrier (such as the junction of PN diode, or the
emitter-base junction of a bipolar transistor), it
creates statistical fluctuations. These fluctuations
constitute shot noise.



2
= 2qI
DC
B

( A
2
)















Lecturer KG 01/24
The total direct current flowing in the circuit is defined by I
DC



For a PN junction diode I
DC
=I
B



For a bipolar transistor I
DC
=I
c

b
V
b
b
V
V
V = 4
'
nB B
2
2
ns s
nL L
Example 1.4



Consider the circuit below, there are two sources of
shot noise and three sources of thermal noise.


2
KTr
'
B

r
(V
2
)

n
b



2
= 2qI


B(R
s



+ r
'
)


(V
2
)
R
s
=

R
o
// R
1
// R
2




V
2
=

2qI
C
B(R
s
+ r
'
+ r

)

(V
2
)

nC
( g
m
r

)


2
= 4KTR B (V
2
)



2
= 4KTR B (V
2
)



Glover, Fig 12.11
Lecturer KG 01/25
Noise temperature of antenna





The antenna noise
temperature is
given by:


T
ant
= T
A

+ T
ph
(1

)

(K )



R
r
is radiation resistance, R

is ohmic
resistance , R
in
is input resistance and T
ph
is physical temperature of antenna
Glover, Fig 12.26
Equivalent circuit of an antenna for noise calculations

=
R
r

R
r
+ R

Antenna ohmic efficiency






Lecturer KG 01/26
Noise temperature of antenna (ctd)






Noise temperature depends on
frequency and atmospheric
conditions (including man-made
interference).
Atmospheric
(Cosmic) Noise


T
A
= T
skye

+ T
gnd

(K )


Antenna noise temperature usually
dominates communication system
performance at frequencies below
1 GHz and receiver noise figure
usually dominates performance at
frequencies above 1 GHz.










Ground Noise



Lecturer KG 01/27















THE END


LECTURE 1

















Lecturer KG 01/28