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Plate Tectonics 1

What are Plates?

Lithosphere vs. Asthenosphere and Crust vs. Mantle


distinguish mechanical vs. compositional differences

Existence of plates is inferred through:


earthquake distribution volcano distribution topographic features (e.g., mid-ocean ridges, trenches) movement over time, as indicated by - fossil distribution - magnetic patterns on the sea floor - displacements across plate boundaries

Litho

Earths Internal Structure


Continental Crust (35 km thick)

Astheno

Oceanic Crust (5 km thick) Lithosphere (100 km thick) Plates = Lithosphere Asthenosphere (100-200 km thick) Mesosphere (~2600 km thick)

Mantle (silicates) Outer Core (liquid Iron +)

Inner Core (solid Iron +)

Crust Mantle Core

versus

Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere

Crust low-density silicates Mantle high-density silicates Outer Core liquid Fe alloy Inner Core solid Fe alloy

Lithosphere strong, makes plates Asthenosphere weak (flows) Mesosphere not as weak (still flows)

Not to true scale

Global Earthquakes Outline Plates

This distribution indicates that faulting is largely restricted to curvilinear zones between broad areas where little deformation occurs

Global distribution of active volcanoes

Volcanoes found above subduction zones and at hotspots Larger volumes of lava come out of mid-ocean ridges (underwater, and not shown here)

Earthquakes A closer look: Earthquake and Volcano distribution in the Aleutian Islands

Volcanoes
The close spatial (and temporal) relationship between earthquakes and volcanism argues that these phenomena are caused by the same process or mechanism.

Depth distribution of earthquakes

shallow intermediate deep

Shallow earthquakes (blue) found at all boundary types. Deep (red) and intermediate earthquakes (yellow) are only found associated with trenches (subduction zones) and show an asymmetrical distribution.

Trench Topography

Example of a Trench and Arc: Japan


Subducting Lithosphere (slab) - Released water causes melting above slab. - Magmas rise to form volcanoes

Dots are Earthquakes Blue = shallow Yellow = intermediate Red = deep

The surprisingly good jig-saw puzzle fit across the South Atlantic caused Alfred Wegener to propose the idea of mobile continents in the 1920s

Fossil Similarities Across Southern Continents


In the 1920s such evidence was used to suggest connections between continents

Topography of Ocean Floors


Echo sounding (sonar) is used to map topography

Outgoing signal Reflected signal

Ocean-floor topography was largely unknown until World War II Navy Captain and Princeton Prof. Harry Hess kept his sonar on during trans-Atlantic crossings, discovering mountains in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean

Topographic Divisions of Atlantic Ocean


A

A
Continental Margin

Ocean Basin Floor

Mid-ocean Ridge

Ocean Basin Floor

Continental Margin

Black: White:

Magnetism Stronger Magnetism Weaker

Ridge Axis

Peculiar patterns of magnetism were observed on the ocean floor

Iceland

Rock Magnetism
Igneous rocks contain some magnetic minerals, particularly magnetite Magnetism fades at temperatures above the Curie temperature (about 500 C) As an igneous rock cools below the Curie point, it acquires a magnetism because magnetic mineral grains align themselves to the Earths magnetic field The rock locks in the magnetic orientation of the Earths field as it cools, preserving it as long as it is not reheated to the Curie point

The Earths magnetic field has reversed many, many times over Earth history

Dark bars are Normal Polarity Light bars are Reversed Polarity

Geologic Time Units: Ma = Millions of Years

Magnetic Field Reverses from Time to Time


This can be seen by igneous rocks that become magnetized as they cool below 500 C Reverse direction Normal direction Reverse direction

S N N
Radiometric dating can determine the ages of reversals

S N

High magnetic intensity - where rock magnetism adds Level due to present field Low magnetic intensity - where rock magnetism subtracts

Ocean Floor acts as a Magnetic Tape Recorder

Iceland Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Ship (or airplane) measures sum of present field and rock magnetism

Mirror symmetry demonstrates sea floor spreading, and marks the age of the ocean floor

Sea floor repeatedly splits apart at the middle as spreading proceeds

R
N = Normal R = Reversed

Magnetic patterns off the Cascadia margin, Pacific NW

Ages are assigned based on known ages of magnetic reversals, which are the same over the entire globe

Age of The Ocean Floor


This distribution confirms the existence of sea-floor spreading
Ages in Millions of Years

66-84 117-144 144208 84-117

3758 2437 0-2 2-5 5-24

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