Chemnitz Print 2007 PDF

International Student Conference
07
November 5-8, 2007
Proceedings
Chemnitz, Germany
Chemnitz University of Technology
PRINTING
F U T U R E
DAYS 2007
2nd International Student Conference
on Print and Media Technology
Pr o c e e di ngs
November 5 8, 2007
Chemnitz, Germany
Event under the auspices of
Hosted by
PRINTING FUTURE DAYS
proceedings
international student conference on print and media technology
14 - 17 November 2005 Chemnitz, Germany
organised under the auspices of IARIGAI - sponsored by PRINTPROMOTION, German Printing Ink Industry
Association, Free State of Saxony and Benno-Bolza-Foundation - hosted by Institute for Print and Media
Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology [pmTUC]
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ISBN 3-89700-100-4
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Verlag fr Wissenschaft und Forschung, Berlin, 2007
Proceedings of the 2nd International Student Conference "Printing Future Days 2007"
November 5 8, 2007
Chemnitz, Germany, 2007
Institute for Print and Media Technology
Reichenhainer Strae 70
09126 Chemnitz, Germany
VWF Verlag fr Wissenschaft und Forschung GmbH
Meininger Strae 8
10823 Berlin, Germany
ISBN 978-3-89700-101-5
Welcome to the Printing Future Days 2007
The organisers of the second student conference "Printing Future Days" at the Chemnitz University
of Technology welcome all the participants from Africa, the Americas, Asia and Europe.
Conferences especially organised for students to present their rst scientic results on an interna-
tional event are rather rare, even though there is a mutual interest concerning the networking of
students, scientists from universities and industry and company representatives. The "Printing Fu-
ture Days 2007" will provide students and PhD students from leading universities with a platform to
experience to give a talk for international experts in printing technologies and to establish contacts
for their carrier planning, either in science or industry.
This booklet contains the technical programme and the papers presented at "Printing Future Days
2007", the second student conference on Printing Technologies and Applications. The content of
the sessions is arranged to amend the technical papers of the young scientists with reviews given by
senior scientists and company presentations of those enterprises which enabled the student-friendly
conditions by generous donations.
The organisers and participants thank these enterprises:
The International Association of Research Organisations for the Information, Media and
Graphic Arts Industries (iarigai)
Print Promotion GmbH
Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG
International Association of the Deinking Industry (INGEDE e. V.)
Koenig & Bauer AG (Benno-Bolza-Stiftung)
MAN Roland Druckmaschinen AG
OC Printing Systems GmbH
Organic Electronics Association (oe-a)
Schsische Walzengravur GmbH & Janoschka Group
Stora Enso AG
We also would like to thank our colleagues on the conference committee, the session chairs and all
the sta members of the Institute for Print and Media Technology of the TU Chemnitz for their
dedication and hard work which has made this conference and proceedings possible.
We also whish to thank the contributors and participants for sharing their results and discussing
with their colleagues advances in the area of printing technologies, a eld with a promising future.
Conny Schuhmann
Head of the Organising Committee
Reinhard R. Baumann
General Chair
Institute for Print and Media Technology
Chemnitz, November 5 - 8, 2007
We are looking forward meeting you again on "Printing Future Days 2009"!
Contents
November 5, 2007 11
Session AI 11
Michael M. Mller: Design of an inline measurement system for printed electronic
patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chengyao Lo: Capability of Realization of Roll-to-Roll Printed MEMS Fabry-Prot
Display Pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Session AII 25
Andreas Willfahrt: Examination of the printability of microstructures by means of
pad printing for the realization of minimal structures for the use of conductive inks
on PET-Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Nikola Perinka: Production and characterisation of printed electrical conductive struc-
tures for RFID-application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Jolke Perelaer: Inkjet Printing and Microwave Sintering of Conductive Tracks on
Polymer Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Stephan Jahn, Susann Ebert: Porous Polymer Membranes with a Hierarchical Struc-
ture via Inkjet Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Enrico Franz: Investigations on High Precision Deposition of Liquids by Using Ink Jet
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Marta Ivantsiv, Halyna Zherebetska: The Development of Methods for the Deter-
mination of Ink-Film Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
November 6, 2007 61
Session BI 61
Ingo Reinhold: Numerical Simulation and Investigation of Processes Present in AC
Corona Charging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Marko Stupi: Color Changes in System Motive Digital Photography Digital Printing 69
Maja Ostoji: Expansion of e-learning in University of Zagreb and projections for the
future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Session BII 83
Michael Espig: Physical characterization of a new liquid toner system . . . . . . . . . . 84
Michael Rubits: XML in Printing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Anna V. Berdovchtchikova: Direct Laser Printing: Possible Future Trends in Digital
Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Marina Paulenka: Evaluation of Color Reproduction and Print Quality Elements of
Ink-jet Prints on Uncoated Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Miroslav Tejkl: Formulation of Water-based Inkjet Ink Using the Design of Experiment
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Session BIII 111
Martina Miletic: Ink Trapping in Hybrid Printing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Georgios Vlachopoulos: Studies on misting mechanism of viscoelastic uids using
lithographic printing inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Akakiy Dzhvarsheishvili, Elena Sencheva: Some Physico-Chemical Studies of Poly-
graphic Material Tyvek
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Robert Thieme: Ink transportation in anilox oset printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Maxim Aleksashenko: Experimental research of anilox rolls parameters with raster
electronic microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
November 7, 2007 139
Session CI 139
Sergey Dydyshko, Alexander Shevelev: Use 3-D modeling of a print for an esti-
mation of quality of polygraphic production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Hyun-Kyoo Kang: Feedforward control of downstream register errors in high speed
gravure printing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Maria Kolesnichenko: Ways of Improving Flexible Polymeric Packing in Russia . . . . 149
Poster Session 155
Dorotea Agoston: Colour Appearance modelling of dierent prints . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Petro Begen, Myroslav Basnyk: Synthesis of Rocker and Lever CAM Gear with
Fixed Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Vihans Dugar: Inuence of printing colour sequence on colour reproduction through
colour measurement and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Matja Erker: Statistical Analysis of PDF Files Preighted with the Enfocus Pitstop
Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Jaka Jeli: Process making of envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Olha Khamula: Perspective of the technologies and means of the laser control usage in
graphic arts industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Ana Keler: Dierences in colorimetric values of conventional and hybrid inks . . . . . . 187
Cathleen Macher: Printed electronics: sprayed PAni source-drain-structures printed
on PET foil applying a spraying technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Katarna Remenrov: Study of Flow Behaviour of Conventional, Hybrid and UV
Oset Inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Branka Sakovic: Eect of dierent types of lamination on colour gamut and tone value
increase of digital prints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Mukul Anand Singh: Comparison of dot area possible using ideal inks as against avail-
able inks for process colour printing using neugebauer equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Ashok Sridhar: Adhesion Characterisation of Inkjet Printed Silver Tracks . . . . . . . . 209
Mohd Sallehuddin Yusof: The Eects of Anilox Roller on Fine Line Printing in
Flexographic Printing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Mohd Sallehuddin Yusof: The Eects of Printing Plate on the Reproduction of Fine
Solid Line Printing in Flexography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
November 8, 2007 221
Session DI 221
Mladen Lovreek: Philosophy and future trends of CtP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Davide Deganello: Measuring extensional characteristics of printing inks . . . . . . . . 223
6
Josef Knobloch: Monitoring of exo UV inks and varnishes cure process . . . . . . . . 229
Stephanie Pieruccini: Pigment-Resin Aggregation Eects in Water-based Gravure Inks 235
Session DII 241
Nataliya Yarka: Inuence of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Polymeric Tapes on
Their Wettability and Quality of Imprints in Flexography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Maria Estrina: Research of materials deterioration that are used for stamps manufacturing248
Julia S. Gubnitskaya: Packaging Printing & Smart Object Fabrication. Design of
packing of childs commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7
November 5, 2007
Session AI
Michael M. Mller
Design of an inline measurement system for printed electronic
patterns
Michael M. Mller, Karin Weigelt, Uta Fgmann, Arved C. Hbler
Institute for Print and Media Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
mmicha@hrz.tu-chemnitz.de
Abstract
Keywords: inline measurement, printed electronics, mass printing, printed circuits, organic elec-
tronics
Mass-printing of electronic devices is seen as an enabling technology for printed electronics to come
into everyday lifes products. Key factors to market maturity of printed electronics are constant
quality and reliability issues. Quality surveillance inline to the manufacturing process of reel-to-reel
printed functional layers and real time adjusting of printing process parameters is indispensible to
accomplish constant high quality. However, conventional optical measurement systems are not able to
indicate specic electrical properties properly, e.g. the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS layers. For this
reason, a novel method for conductivity measurements of printed layers on rapidly moving webs was
devised. A working prototype of such an inline measurement system was designed and tested. The
analysis of the captured data can be viewed by the operator in real time and might facilitate automated
control of important printing parameters. The contrived method enables a simple and adaptable
implementation of inline conductivity measurement systems in various pilot printing machines.
Introduction
There are many visionary products associated with mass-printed electronics. For example, large
area and self-luminescent displays [1, 2, 3] might embellish cities and RFID-tags might replace the
barcode on everyday lifes products in future [4]. But whether these visions come true depends
predominantly on whether highly productive and cheap mass production of electronic devices will
become reality. Though, constant quality of these devices and therefore constant quality of all
printed layers is one of the key issues which have to be overcome to get printed electronics to
market maturity.
Mass printing processes are always aected by changing ambient conditions and the incidence of
disturbance variables. To achieve constant quality in reliable processes, results of measurements
inline or oine to the process need to be used as input parameters for the readjustment and control
of the printing process itself.
Since the 1980s inline quality measurement and closed loop control systems have been integrated
into conventional printing machines to enhance the quality, to ensure constant quality and to reduce
maculature [5]. Compared to visual printing, printed electronic devices require much higher quality
[6] while maculature is much more expensive. Inline measurement systems in conventional printing
machines are mostly based on optical systems located behind the last printing unit or dryer. Similar
systems for measuring of register and layer quality are also useful in printed electronics.
However, visual quality surveillance is often insucient for the indication of important layer proper-
ties in printed electronics. For example, the conductivity of printed PEDOT:PSS
1
layers is not only
determined by the layer thickness and ink formulation, but also by various processes during zoning
and drying, which are only partially allegeable up to now (e. g. Viscous Fingering [7]). Moreover,
the quality requirements vary for almost any layer. Key quality indicators in printed electronics are
conductivity, resolution, accurate reproduction, layer thickness and homogeneity.
Consequently, appropriate inline measurement systems have to be designed and integrated into the
1
poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonate), commercially available as Baytron P - H.C.
Starck (http://www.baytron.com)
12
Design of an inline measurement system for printed electronic patterns
process for printing electronic devices. The measuring methods have to be adjusted to the operating
conditions and the requirements of printed electronic patterns.
IMS Development
Concept
In preliminary experiments it turned out, that optical systems and contact free measurements are
not capable to represent the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS layers [8, 9].
Hence, a contacting but non-destructive inline measurement system (IMS) has been developed and
integrated into the experimental rotary printing press pmTUC BABYMAN. This features one
convertible printing unit for oset, exo and gravure printing. The measurement system has been
developed for a conguration of oset printed PEDOT:PSS source/drain-structures (cf. gure 1)
on PET foils (35 mm width) at print run speeds of up to 2 m/s.
Figure 1: Layout of an oset printed source/drain structure for an integrated circuit
The pattern pictured in gure 1 represents the bottommost layer of a ring oscillator, which was
the rst all-printed and organic integrated circuit manufactured at the pmTUC [10]; i. e., it was
made by means of mass printing techniques. The substrate is PET foil. One small load and one
large drive transistor form an inverter stage. Seven inverter stages set up a ring oscillator. Short
circuits caused by ngers contacting one another and low conductivity of the horizontal and vertical
interconnections cause malfunction of the oscillator.
Hence, potential short circuits between (1) and (4) as well as the conductivity between (2) and (3)
have to be tested. This has been done oine by hand so far. The IMS is capable of monitoring
the conductivity between (2) and (3) inline to the printing process. The short circuit test may be
realized by a second measurement system with a similar set-up with contact electrodes sensing (1)
and (4).
The system built up is located behind the dryer and before the rewind unit of the printing press.
The position of the devices is pictured in gure 2. The IMS consists of ve main modules which are
namely the measurement roll (7) with two rotary electrodes on its surface, the rubber nip roll (10),
the sensor signal amplier (8) and the receiving unit (9) as well as a subsequent analyzing unit (not
pictured).
The sensor signal amplier is congured to resistance measurement and transmits the sensed signal
by radio frequency coupling to the receiver
2
. The hereby obtained signal is recorded by a PSM4010
Swordsh Hand Held USB Oscilloscope
3
and analyzed by a PC using LabView 8.2
4
.
2
Manner Sensortelemetrie GmbH, Germany (http.//www.sensortelemetrie.de).
3
EasySync Ltd., Glasgow, UK (http://www.usb-instruments.ocm).
4
National Instruments Corp., TX, USA (http://ni.com).
13
Michael M. Mller
Figure 2: Schematic set up of devices in the experimental printing press pmTUC "BABYMAN"
Principle
In earlier experiments it turned out that for adequate resistance measurements of the of printed
PEDOT:PSS layers large area contact electrodes or high contact forces are required [9]. However,
these layers printed on PET foils are very sensitive to scratching, scrubbing and squashing. There-
fore, these exposures have to be avoided despite the need of the application of high contact forces
between the electrodes and the printed layer. The size of the contact area is limited by the dimen-
sions of the printed patterns. To overcome these conicting issues, the contact principle is based
on two rotary electrodes forming a homogeneous surface with the rest of the roll. Figure 3 shows
schematically the measurement roll sensing the source/drain-structure on the foil.
Figure 3: Contact principle between layer and IMS
Obviously, the measurement roll and the rubber nip roll form a soft nip and therefore a well-dened
contact area between the rotary electrodes and the printed layer on the foil. The size of this contact
area is determined by the pressure between the rolls on the one hand and by the stress-strain
characteristics of the rubber nip roll on the other hand.
This rolling contact enables a non-destructive resistance measurement at high contact forces. Since
the measurement roll touches the PEDOT:PSS layer, there are high requirements regarding the
surface roughness, anti-adhesive properties and the homogeneity of the roll surface. These are to
be met by appropriate design, materials and production technique of the measurement roll.
14
Theoretical Considerations
Layer Contact
The most important requirement for the design of the moving contact principle is to achieve an
optimal contact between the electrodes and the printed layer. The contact resistance between the
contact electrodes and the printed PEDOT:PSS layer determines the quality of the measurement
signicantly [9]. Therefore, special attention should be paid on minimizing the contact resistance.
The contact resistance R
ctr
/ consists of two parts, the constriction resistance R
csr
/ and the
surface contamination resistance R
scr
/ [11].
R
ctr
= R
csr
+R
scr
(1)
The constriction resistance R
csr
arises from the inhomogeneous surfaces of the contact materials and
is in the present case predominantly determined by the PEDOT:PSS layer. This exhibits a branched
inhomogeneous morphology with a mean thickness of about 500 nm and a surface roughness of
200 nm, with peaks up to a few micrometers [7]. Due to these peaks, a layer deformation is required
to achieve a large contact area and therefore a low constriction resistance resulting in a low contact
resistance.
The surface contamination resistance R
csr
is caused by insulating or semiconducting layers on the
surface of the contact electrodes. To minimize the surface contamination resistance noble metals
with low anity to the formation of impurity layers (e. g. gold or alloys) on the surface should be
used as contact electrodes.
Measuring Nip
The conditions in the measuring nip, between the measurement and the gum roll, are of particular
interest. Especially the distribution of stress in the nip, called metric stress, inuences the measure-
ment. When it comes to analysis, the conditions in the nip are of prime importance for interpreting
the measured data. During the run of the machine, the interconnection bars between the load and
the drive transistors (cf. gure 1) go through the nip and induce bands of low resistance values.
However, a number of samples at the beginning and at the end of each low must be discarded
because they are not sensed at full contact force. The representative data are recorded, when the
bar is completely inside the nip and the maximum contact area is touched by the rotary electrodes.
IMS Design
Prototypes and Test Runs
In the rst place, prototypes were built up as rolls covered with a layer composition made of various
adhesive tapes. The electrodes were made of copper tape with a conductive adhesive which was
loaded with silver particles. The isolation was realized with a PE tape and the surface between the
contact electrodes was covered with PTFE tape. In gure 4 a photo of one of the prototypes built
up is pictured.
Setting up the prototypes using adhesive tapes facilitated testing various arrangements and sizes of
measurement rolls and contact electrodes. It turned out, that a measurement roll with a diameter
of 30 mm contact electrodes of 1.5 mm width is a good compromise of feasibility, measurement
quality and miniaturization. Therefore, in the second place, a solid prototype (cf. gure 5) for the
integration into the printing press with an electrode diameter of 30 mm was designed as a kind of
a building set. The isolating parts of the roll were lathed of POM-C and the contact electrodes
were bought as standard part copper ring DIN 7603A with a width of 1.5 mm. The electrodes
were connected to the side of the roll with strand and all parts were assembled using cyanoacrylate
adhesive (CA) and an adapted primer for POM-C. On the front side of the measurement roll the
sensor signal amplier was mounted. The sensor signal amplier is supplied by a voltage inducted
15
Michael M. Mller
Figure 4: Prototype 1 (adhesive tapes)
Figure 5: Prototype 2 (POM-C and copper rings)
by the voltage source unit and transmits the measured data to the receiving unit by radio frequency.
The measurement roll and the rubber nip roll are mounted on a specically designed adjusting unit.
The rubber nip roll is mounted movable on a linear bearing. The pressure between the rolls can be
set by the pretension of a spring. This enables variable contact forces, compensation of mechanical
inhomegeneities and easy feed-in of the web when setting-up the machine.
Figure 6: Course of resistance values of an inline measured interconnection bar
The designed IMS was integrated in the printing press as described in "Concept". After this, rst
measurements were performed and real time analyzed using LabView. A course of resistance values
of an interconnection bar measured with the IMS is depicted in gure 6. The measurement range
16
is limited by the telemetry unit. Linear characteristics of the measurement system were observed
between 1 k and 50 k; the maximum drive is reached approx. at 60k. The surface resistance
of the PET foil is in the range of M and causes maximum drive of the measurement system. The
resistance of the conductive PEDOT:PSS bars is within the measurement range. The course which
represents an interconnection bar is curved. The relevant measurement data are represented by the
minimum of this curve. This is because of the distribution of stress mentioned in "Measuring Nip".
During the test runs a couple of optimization approaches to be realized in following prototypes
turned out. First of all, the copper electrodes had to be cleaned with acetone periodically to
remove surface contamination layers. This problem should be solved by galvanic gold-plating of
the electrodes. Furthermore, runability and web tension problems occured. This was because the
measurment roll in this prototype was only driven on by the moving web and the manufacturing
tolerances of the rolls were not sucient. Therefore, following measurment rolls schould be driven
on seperately and should be manufactured with minimal tolerances.
Nevertheless, the capability of the designed IMS to measure the resistance and thus monitoring
the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS layers on PET foil inline to the printing process was proven. The
measured structures were inspected with regard to visible changes (light optical microscope) and
changes in the resistance (multimeter) of the interconnection bars due to the measurement. No
changes could be detected.
Conclusion
A contacting but non-destructive method for sensing conductive layers on moving webs was devised.
The method was proven to be operating satisfactory in a printing press by the application of a
prototype. The developed prototype is capable to measure, monitor and record the resistance of
special parts of printed PEDOT:PSS source/drain structures. The IMS is designed as a kind of
a building set and can be easily adapted to various patterns and applications. It turned out that
there is optimizing potential in view of web travel, materials and manufacturing tolerances of the
rolls. Future tests are to be performed regarding issues like thermal and long-term stability as well
as the utilizability of fully automated control of printing parameters.
References
[1] Gelinck, H., et al., Flexible active-matrix displays and shift registers based on solution-processed
organic transistors, Nature Materials , vol. 3, 2004, pp. 106 - 110.
[2] Dimitrakopoulos, C.D., et al., Organic Thin Film Transistors for Large Area Electronics, Ad-
vanced Materials, vol. 14, 2, 2002, pp. 99 - 117.
[3] Rogers, John A., Bao, Zhenan, Printed plastic electronics and paperlike displays,, Journal of
Polymer Science Part A Polymer Chemistry, Vol. 14, 20, 2002, pp. 3327 - 3334.
[4] Chang, P.C., et al., All-Printed RFID Tags: Materials, Devices, and Circuit Implications, VLSI
Design, 2006, pp. 6 -.
[5] Kipphan, H., Handbook of Print Media, Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2000.
[6] Bartzsch, M., et al., All-printed electronics and its applications: a status report, Digital Fab-
rication 2006 Final Proceedings and Program, 2006, pp. 13 - 16.
[7] Reuter, K., et al., Inuence of process parameters on the electrical properties of oset printed
conductive polymer layers, Progress in Organic Coatings, vol. 58, 4, 2007, pp. 312 - 315.
[8] Szusdziara, T., Evaluierung von Messmethoden und Entwicklung technologischer Konzepte zur
Qualittskontrolle gedruckter, leitfhiger Fingerstrukturen, Projektarbeit, Chemnitz: TU-Chem-
nitz, 2005.
[9] Mller, M.M., Entwicklung und Test einer Messeinrichtung zur Inline-Messung der elektrischen
Leitfhigkeit von Gedruckten Elektronischen Strukturen, Studienarbeit, Chemnitz: TU-Chemnitz,
2006.
17
Michael M. Mller
[10] Hbler, A.C, et al., Ring Oscillator Fabricated Completely by Means of Mass Printing Tech-
nologies, Organic Electronics, vol. 8, 5, 2007, pp. 480 - 486.
[11] Fischer, Hans, Hofmann, Hans-Georg and Spindler, Jrgen, Werkstoe der Elektrotechnik,
Mnchen: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2007.
18
Capability of Realization of Roll-to-Roll Printed MEMS Fabry-Prot Display Pixels
Capability of Realization of Roll-to-Roll Printed MEMS
Fabry-Prot Display Pixels
Chengyao Lo, Olli-Heikki Huttunen*, Jarno Petj*, Jukka Hast*, Arto Maaninen*, Harri Kopola*,
Hiroyuki Fujita and Hiroshi Toshiyoshi
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo
4-6-1, Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
TEL: +81-3-54526277, FAX: +81-3-54526250, E-MAIL: chengyao@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
* VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
Kaitovyl 1, Oulu, FI-90571, Finland
Abstract
We demonstrated the possibility of using roll-to-roll mass production techniques like gravure print-
ing, hot embossing, and lamination for MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical System) Fabry-Prot
display pixel. Integration of printing process was raised and demonstrated. Preliminary struc-
tural demonstration of integrated MEMS display pixel made by low cost, high throughput, and
easy process printing techniques on exible substrate was proved.Hot embossing results show good
100 m-wide electrode isolation on highly amorphous polymer (cellulose acetate, CA) substrate
while highly crystalline polymer (polyethyline naphthalate, PEN) shows its stiness and robustness
under high temperature. Structure sizes ranging from 50 to 300 m with heights ranging from 1 to
15 m were successfully gravure printed on Al coated PEN substrate with wetting options. Lami-
nation process of 16 m-thick PEN on 125 m-thick PEN with gravure printed spacers in between
proved easy, simple roll-to-roll process capability for large area display devices.
Introduction
Photolithography was widely used in electronic device industry for patterning for the past few
decades. As the designs and devices shrink for higher compact integration, higher performance,
lower cost, and lower power consumption, photo mask fabrication becomes a complex challenge
with optical characteristics. When line width reduces to the range of light wavelength, optical
interference easily takes place and inuences the exposure results a lot. As a result, patterns
after photolithography bend, distort, or miss. Complicated, time-consuming, and costly optical
proximity correction (OPC) is necessary to keep good performance for patterning in up-to-date
electronic circuits. Roll-to-roll pattern printing techniques such as gravure, exography, and screen
printing play very important roles for publication industry. All of them provide large-volume mass
production, low cost, and repeatability characteristics. Various kinds of electron circuits have been
successfully patterned by these techniques [1-3]. Besides, hot embossing is widely used for trench
patterning for isolations or insulations. Recent publications also indicate the possibility of using hot
embossing for decoration or security by taking advantage of optical interference [4-5]. This work
examined the capability of replacing photolithography processes for MEMS Fabry-Prot display
pixel by using hot embossing, roll-to-roll gravure printing, and lamination.
Device Concept
Cross-sectional device schematic plot is shown in Figure 1. Its operation concept comes from
Fabry-Prot interferometer and MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical System). Under its OFF state,
the multilayer structure doesnt meet interference condition and the backlight goes through the
whole structure. Under its ON state, multilayer structure satises interference requirement and the
output color will be changed. With proper waveguide layer and spacer layer design, red, green, and
blue pixel can be realized [6] and full color display is possible.
19
Chengyao Lo
Figure 1: Device schematic plot.
Hot Embossing
In the design (Figure 1), pixel will be controlled separately as active matrix. Hot embossing was
then introduced for this purpose as described in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Process of hot embossing.
Shim structures are with 20 m, 30 m, and 40 m heights. Flat-bed hot embosser (MADAG
P2000) with designed shim structures were used for hot embossing process. Temperatures close to
substrates glass transition temperatures were applied in the same time in order to break polymer
molecule bondings to form good separation trenches. Embossing time was set for 5 seconds and
embossing pressure was set as 6 bars. We examined commercial cellulose acetate (CA, Clarifoil P27,
115 m) and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN, Teonex Q65FA, 125 m) for our substrates.
Figure 3 is a typical hot embossed trench pattern of cellulose acetate. In our study, we found the
trench width can be controlled with 200 m and the connection line can be controlled as narrow
as 100 m. For the case of CA under 120oC and 6 bars for 5 seconds, trench depth of larger than
10 m can be achieved with apparent electrode separation without damaging the substrate. Figure 4
shows the hot embossing result and eciency with dierent shims for CA and PEN.
Here we dene the vertical hot embossing transfer eciency (E
v
) as:
E
v
=
d
h
100%,
where d is the trench depth on substrate, h is the pattern height on shim. In order to have
good isolation on substrate, a larger, close to 100 % E
v
value is highly expected. From Figure 4,
we summarize the E
v
of CA is approximately 50 % when temperature is lower than 120. As
shim height increases, trench depth also increases with the same eciency. When temperature
reached 120, we achieved larger E
v
value of 70-75%. For PEN, however, less than 20 % E
v
was
achieved even under 160. Although PEN also shows positive correlation of trench depth with
temperature, diculty of emboss PEN substrate can be attributed to surface semi-crystalline [7].
By examining this inuence, both CA and PEN provide isolation capability by hot embossing is
well understood but amorphous substrates are still expected for larger E
v
. Furthermore, a) trench
depths have positive relations with embossing temperatures and shim heights and, b) larger trench
20
Figure 3: Hot embossed CA sample.
Figure 4: Trench depth dependency on temperature.
depth variation at high temperature with high shim pattern have been cleared. Thus optimization of
embossing parameters grows in importance when higher shim pattern is used. These hot embossing
data shows applicable isolation process to replace the etching process of photolithography. Since
the electrode metal is only with less than 100nm thickness, several tens of microns of trench depth
are a good isolation for active matrix electrode design.
Gravure Printing
Gravure printing is separately prepared for spacer structure fabrication in Figure 1. Printed ink
can be designed by rheology for merge option with lower solid content. In our design, in order to
form good air leakage path for display pixel, we intentionally keep all printed ink dots separating
from each other. By doing this, the upper layer will be supported by spacer dots and air between
upper layer and lower layer can be evacuated to adjacent pixels when upper layer is in contact with
lower layer.
SiO
2
based polysiloxane ink was gravure printed on both bare PEN and Al coated PEN as shown in
Figure 5. Printed samples were cured under 140oven for 1 minute and UV light (8.6 mW/cm
2
at
365 nm) for 1 minute for solidication. Owing to dierent surface energies of PEN and Al, printed
spacer dots are in dierent shapes. Contact angle of SiO
2
/Al/PEN case is larger than SiO
2
/PEN
21
Chengyao Lo
case suggests a smaller surface energy of Al than PEN. As a result, SiO
2
spacer dots on Al/PEN
converge to high hills with a larger contact angle (Fig. 5(b)) while SiO
2
spacer dots on PEN diverse
to low hills with larger contact angle (Fig. 5(a)).
Figure 5: Wetting performance comparison.
Ink (spacer dots) wetting performance will inuence the operation voltage reduction in our design.
Since ink transferred out from cups to substrate will be changed with dierent surface energy
substrate and cup shapes [8], to know the wetting performance helps to know the dot size and
spacer height. Lower contact angle also provides higher possibility for spacer merging or result in
ink left on substrate. Although spacer slope is expected to exist to avoid Newtons ring [9] by using
opaque spacer, larger contact angle is also wished to reduce Newtons rings size. In our design,
thin Al metal layer which provides a larger contact angle for separated spacer dots will be the most
promising result.
Lamination
Lamination process was performed on gravure printed spacer substrate. In this case, we chose
adhesive ink as our spacer material for adhesion. Good spacer separation can be found through
the upper layer as air leakage paths under ON state as shown in Figure 6. The upper layer after
lamination also provides a function as a protection layer. The whole structure was placed under
room temperature for 24 hours for curing and solidication. Without extra force, the upper layer
sticks to the lower layer with no peeling or shifting issue. For passive matrix electrode design, only
one layer alignment is necessary but it is not an issue for up-to-date registration techniques. For
active matrix electrode design, pattern alignment process is not necessary. This also expedites the
realization of roll-to-roll printing on electronic devices. Preliminary movement functionality has
also been shown after lamination in Figure 6.
Conclusion
In this work, we targeted on the evaluation of hot embossing and gravure printing techniques
for MEMS Fabry-Prot display pixel. Larger than 50 % transfer eciency was obtained for good
isolation by highly amorphous cellulose acetate while polyethylene naphthalate showed strong resist
to high temperature by its semi-crystalline characteristic. This provides one roll-to-roll process
solution to replace photolithography/etching process. Gravure printing was performed to conrm
structure shapes and wetting properties on dierence substrate interface. Good isolation between
structures and large contact angles of spacer dots provide reliable air groove between spacers but is
still with exibility for ink merging option.
With proper ink, lamination process without alignment proved robust adhesion force under opera-
tion. Although shorter curing time by heat or UV treatment is highly expected, easy and reliable
process was proposed and demonstrated in this work.
22
Figure 6: Proof-of-concept demonstration.
We successfully proved main printing processes for MEMS Fabry-Prot display pixel by hot em-
bossing, gravure printing, and lamination. These works also contribute the printing industry about
capability and possibility of making devices for the electronic industry.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovations (TEKES)
for nancial support for this project (funding decision 40104/07). Special thanks to VTTs Kati
Salonen, Jenni Pyki, Minna Perl, Mikko Heikkinen, Johanna Hiitola-Keinnen for their admin-
istrative and technical supports. This project is also supported by Industrial Technology Research
Grant Program in 2006 (ID: 06D48522d) from New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
Organization (NEDO) of Japan.
The authors also want to thank for Teijin DuPont Films kindly support on providing PEN substrate
samples and BraggOnes support on providing SiO
2
based polysiloxane samples.
Reference
[1] H. Koo et. al., "Physical chromaticity of colorant resist of color lter prepared by inkjet printing
technology," Appl. Phys. Lett., pp. 111908, Vol. 88, No. 11 (2006).
[2] C. Lee et. al., "Humidity sensors fabricated with polyelectrolyte membrane using an ink-jet
printing technique and their electrical properties," Sens. and Actua. B: Chem., pp. 334-340, Vol.
109 (2005).
[3] J.-P. Viricelle et. al., "Compatibility of screen-printing technology with micro-hotplate for gas
sensor and solid oxide micro fuel cell development," Sens. and Actua. B: Chem., pp. 263-268, Vol.
118 (2006).
[4] M. Worgull et. al., "Large-scale hot embossing," Microsyst. Technol., pp. 110-115, Vol. 12
(2005).
[5] P. Leech et. al., "Hot embossing of diractive optically variable images in biaxially-oriented
polypropylene," Microelec. Eng., pp. 25-30, Vol. 84 (2007).
[6] Y. Taii et. al., "A transparent sheet display by plastic MEMS," Journal of the SID, pp. 735-741,
Vol. 14, No. 8 (2006).
[7] Y. Zhang et. al., "Crystal orientation in poly (ethylene naphthalate) ultrathin lms revealed by
reection-absorption infrared spectroscopy and grazing incidence X-ray diraction," Surf. Sci., pp.
23
Chengyao Lo
1559-1564, Vol. 600 (2006).
[8] Maxim Aleksaschenko, "Calculation of anilox roll ink capacity," Proc. Printing Future Days
2005, Chemnitz, Germany, pp. 9-14 (2006).
[9] F. Graham Smith et. al., "Optics and photonics", John Wiley & Sons, pp. 191-193 (2007)
24
Session AII
Andreas Willfahrt
Examination of the printability of microstructures by means of pad
printing for the realization of minimal structures for the use of
conductive inks on PET-Substrate
Andreas Willfahrt
Stuttgart Media University, Institute for Applied Research (IAF), Germany
willfahrt@hdm-stuttgart.de
Introduction and scope of the work
This study shows the potentials and limitations of the pad printing technology in order to explore
its ability to reproduce minimal structures using conductive inks on several substrates, especially
on PET-foil. This study is focused on the practical work to optimize the printing technology for
the aspired purpose and not on a theoretical approach, neither for the printing technology nor for
the electronic properties. The structures that have been printed could be utilized as the lowermost
layer of an organic eld-eect-transistor (OFET), the source-drain-layer as shown in g. 1.
Figure 1: source-drain layer
The working conditions were not clean-room-like, but rather alike the conditions in the production
halls in printing plants.The microstructures dimensions determine signicantly the performance of
the printed electronic. Besides the smoothness of the lines edges and the exact width, the distance
between the lines aects the electrical function. Further, a homogenous surface of the layer is
needed for good conductivity. The structures measurements foremost the gap width should be
in the range of about 20 microns. The study deals with various parameters, aecting the quality
of the printed elements, e.g. the pads hardness and geometrical shape, the impact of the elements
angle relative to the doctor blades direction of motion or the rheology and characteristics of the
conductive inks.In the following the above mentioned parameters are described in detail.
Excerpts of the experimental results
The diploma thesis was fostered by several enterprises. The plates and the pastes were contributed
by well-known manufacturers. Also the platemaking was accomplished externally under standard
conditions, using a high resolution CtP imaging system. Only photopolymer plates were used, that
could be imaged digitally.
26
Examination of the printability of microstructures by means of pad printing for the realization of
minimal structures for the use of conductive inks on PET-Substrate
1. Prepress Press dierences
The rst step was the structure design in a vector-based application (Adobe Illustrator [CS1]).
Hereby unexpected rounding errors due to the resolution of 1 m occur. The second step in the
prepress process chain, RIPing the data for imaging the plates, also has signicant inuence on the
correct transfer of the target data. The actual measured widths of a negative line on the printing
plate dier signicantly from the target width values. As shown in g. 2, where the 45 line through
the origin represents the ideal transfer, except for the 40 m gap all actual values are less than the
target values. The experiment was carried out with dierent screen rulings.
Figure 2: Diagram target value actual value, regarding data and platemaking
Screen ruling
One major rule that can be found in educational textbooks says that pad printing always needs a
screening with cells and lands to support the doctor-blade by removing only the excess ink from
the plates surface. Explicitly: "For very large surfaces, the dip of the doctor blade can be avoided
by additionally copying a ne screen into the motif." /01, P. 5/
Dierent screen rulings were tested: 300 lpi (g. 6), 400 lpi , 440 lpi (g. 7), 530 lpi and 640 lpi. The
CtP imaging system enables two resolutions, depending on the screen ruling. 530 lpi and 640 lpi
were exposed with 8000 dpi, the coarser screen rulings were exposed with 4000 dpi. As shown in
g. 2, the coarsest (300 lpi) and the nest screen ruling (640 lpi) revealed exactly the same values.
The assumption that a higher imaging resolution leads to a better result could not be proven. An
explanation could be an interference problem between the screening grid-pattern and the systems
resolution mostly interacting in the range of 400 and 440 lpi.
Depending on the position on the plate, dierent kinds of distortions of the line edge smoothness
could be observed. Obviously there is interference between the sample rate of the imaging system
and the screen ruling. If both frequencies interfere heavily with each other, the defects reach their
maximum.
The 4000-dpi-plates use laser spots with nominal approx. 6 m in diameter, the 8000-dpi-plates
use half the diameter, approx. 3 m. More signicant distortions are expected with a resolution of
4000 dpi. With 4000 dpi more interrupted lines could be observed and a greater number of defects.
The ner screening leads to smaller defects, but more frequently due to the higher resolution.
Another eect of the ner screen ruling is the possibility of lacking stability and cohesion between
the lands and the (printing plate) oor. The ner the screen ruling, the more lands "wash away"
in the platemaking process. This leads to an excess of ink provided by the wider cells. This excess
27
Andreas Willfahrt
leads to an increasing line width by scooping out too much ink. Also the evenness of the borders is
inuenced by too much ink.
Conclusion: "Dot-gain" between prepress and press
If one considers the deviation between the whole production step "prepress printing", the lines
increase about 10 20 %, depending on several parameters like pad shape, pad formulation (the
manufacturers call it pad quality), line width, angle etc. The gaps are also altering, the average
decrease is between 20 and 50 %.
2. Pads
The choice of the pad is one of the quality factors in pad printing. Pads are made of dierent
compounds and in dierent shapes. But all of them are consisting more or less of silicone rubber.
Hirth et al. /02/ recommends hard, spiky and sticky pads for ne, thin images. For large areas
the pad should be softer and of at shape in order to prevent the appearance of entrapped air.
The study showed, that a medium pad-hardness with 12Shore A meets best the requirements of
the source-drain-structure. Regarding the quality (the manufacturer divides the dierent pads in
quality levels), the darker, harder pads showed a better performance compared to the brighter,
softer pads. g. 4 shows one of these "standard" pads the deployed silicone rubber formula is
used for most common applications. The spikier pad as shown in g. 3 performed better than the
at pad. The results comply with the literature.
Figure 3: Pad Tampoprint TP 410 Figure 4: Pad Tampoprint TP 509
3. The structures angle (against the doctor blade)
"In the case of long or ne lines, the motif must be at an angle of approx. 5 to 15 to the blade
track in order for the doctor blade not to dip too low and scoop out too much ink." /01, P. 5/
Angles between 5 and 15
The above-quoted citation leads to the next examination, the appropriate angle for microstructures
in pad printing. Only the lines smoothness was rated in this examination, because of their im-
portance for the electrical function. The result was that there is no preferred angle. The optical
interpretation of the results showed slightly worse results at an angle of 15. But none of the tested
28
angles performed considerable better than the others. The conclusion is that in the range of 5 to
15 the angle has no signicant impact on the printing quality.
Angles between 0 and 90
Since the angles mentioned above dont seem to have a great impact on the lines smoothness, a
wider range of angles has to be examined. There are some prominent angles, that recur in the
context of (laser-)imaging of printing plates. The examination includes the following angles: 0,
12, 22.5, 45, 75 and 90.
After optical analysis, there are three groups: good results, average results and bad results. 22.5
and 45 show good results. 0, 12 and 75 are worse. The worst results were examined at an
angle of 90 (orthogonal to the doctor blade). These structures were only printed partially. The
most frequent defects that occurred regarding all angles were discontinuous and/or ragged lines
and increasing line width compared to the target values (see above, Paragraph 1. Prepress Press
dierences).
4. Screenless elements
"The screen is crucial for the nal print result. With the exception of very ne points, type or
elements, all motifs should be screened. This prevents the ink from being drawn out by the doctor
blade from the ink transporting recesses." /03, P. 5-04/ In the second sentence there lies the hint for
the next step: removing the screen from ne elements could lead to a better result, due to smoother
lines. To avoid an excess of ink, the cells depth should be reduced. Further it is recommendable
to distinguish between ne elements and coarser ones. To minimize the impact of the doctor-blade
supporting lands, the generated raster-data is manually edited. In the rst case the dots are centred
in the middle of the thin lines (20 m) manually as shown in g. 5. For the second test the dots
in the thin lines were completely removed (g. 6). The areas at the lines end stay screened. The
RIP-generated screening shows unwanted interference with the structures edges, both lines and
areas. g. 6 and g. 7 demonstrate the impact of the screen ruling on the plates.
Figure 5: Manually edited RIP-le with dots in the
nger-structures
Figure 6: Manually edited RIP-le without dots in
the nger-structure
The results of the rst test compared to the results of non-edited lands were better regarding the
smoothness of the line. But the lines were heavily disrupted and mostly all source-drain-structures
showed disruption. The second tests results faced another problem. The line was continuous, but
the edges were heavily distorted by the excess of ink. The reduction of the cells depth to 14 m (ne
elements) and 30 m (area) respectively, lead to an improvement. But the problem of too much ink
persisted. If the depth of the cells decreases further, the lm thickness of the conductive ink will
decrease again. The crux of the matter lies in the interdependence of the amount of ink, that can
be printed and the inks conductivity. The more transfer of ink, the better conductivity will be and
vice versa. As long as the printable conductive material has to struggle with the lack of a sucient
conductivity, the printing technology must be able to provide a maximum dry lm thickness.
Due to the functional composition the conductive inks rheological properties dier from that of
conventional inks. The tests were therefore printed with conventional inks as well as with conductive
inks.
29
Andreas Willfahrt
5. Conductive Ink
There are several systems of conductive inks available, but not all of them are practicable for printing
utilization. The aim of this study was to test the most common systems, but the polymer paste
wasnt printable. The available conductive water-based polymer paste didnt meet the requirements
regarding viscosity and solvent. Therefore only the two other systems of conductive inks were tested.
One was based on carbon-black and the other one was based on silver particles. The silver particles
were slightly bigger (8 - 12 m) than the carbon particles (6 - 7 m). But both didnt comply with
the demand that the largest particles should be three or four times smaller than the thinnest part of
the printed structure (20 m or less) /04/. Two dierent silver-pastes were used. The particle size
varied from 8 to 12 m dependent on the pastes manufacturer. Due to the percentage of conductive
material in the inks formulation (up to 70 - 80 %), the rheological properties are dierent to that
of conventional inks used in pad printing. These dierent properties lead to fast drying-out in the
cells, abrasive behaviour and successively destroying of the plates. As shown in g. 8 - g. 11,
the carbon-black showed better results. The lines are less disrupted and the surface looks more
homogenous than the lines printed with silver paste.
Conclusion
Under certain circumstances pad printing is able to realize structures in the range of 20 to 30 m
regarding the width and the distance of the lines. Because of the rheological properties, the results
of the conductive inks are worse than the results provided by conventional pad printing inks.
Printing plates, 200x magnication
Figure 7: 300 lpi, negative line width 20 m Figure 8: 440 lpi, negative line width 20 m
References
[01] "Pad Printing Theory and Practice", Prll KG,
http://www.proell-inks.com/_les/pdf/Pad%20Printing%20Theory%20and%20Practice.pdf,
retrieval date: 28.09.2007
[02] "Vorderseitenmetallisierung multikristalliner Siliziumsolarzellen im Tampondruckverfahren",
Erhard Hirth, Diploma Thesis at Fraunhofer-Institute Freiburg, 1999
[03] Siebdruck-Service Eickmeyer, price list pad printing,
http://www.eickmeyer.com/Tampondruck-Preisliste/Tampondruck_Preisliste_Original.pdf,
retrieval date: 28.09.2007
[04] "Siebdruck-Handbuch", Hans Gerhard Scheer, Verlag Der Siebdruck, Lbeck,1999
30
Prints on PET-foil, 200x magnication
Figure 9: carbon-black, screened, 20 m negative line
width, 50 m line width
Figure 10: carbon-black, screenless, 20 m negative
line width, 50 m line width
Figure 11: silver, screened, 30 m negative line
Figure 12: silver, screenless, 30 m negative line
Figure 13: conventional ink, screened, 20 m nega-
tive line width, 50 m line width
Figure 14: conventional ink, screenless, 20 m nega-
tiv line width, 50 m line width
31
Andreas Willfahrt
Author Information
Andreas Willfahrt Research Assistant
Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart Institut fr Angewandte Forschung (IAF)
Nobelstrae 10, D-70569 Stuttgart
Phone: 0711-8923 2717
Mail: willfahrt@hdm-stuttgart.de
Andreas Willfahrt passed academic high school in 1997. After serving civil service, Willfahrt began
the course of studies of communications engineering. He quitted after one semester, started an
editor-apprenticeship instead and worked as freelance journalist until February 2002, when he began
the course of studies in printing and media technology at the Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart
(HdM). He nished his diploma thesis in November 2007. Since January 2007 Willfahrt works as
an research assistant at the HdM.
32
Production and characterisation of printed electrical conductive structures for RFID-application
Production and characterisation of printed electrical conductive
structures for RFID-application
Nikola Perinka
University of Pardubice, Czech Republic
nikola.perinka@hotmail.com
The introduction into the issue concerning RFID-transponders production
Nowadays, the general interest for RFID (Radio-Frequency-Identication) gain strength signi-
cantly. The new technology of the Identication has been intensely explored and oers a big
challenge for the development in research of innovative identication technology. The aims of the
RFID are the noncontact bulk reading and scanning from longer distance [1].
The main questions about RFID are:
How to produce the RFID-system?
How to make a low cost RFID-system?
How to make it possible to wide-spread this RFID-system substantially?
The work deals with the question relating to the RFID-system production. The RFID-system con-
sists of a transponder and a reader. This work concentrates on the producing of RFID-transponders.
The two main build parts of RFID-transponder are formed by the antenna and the Microchip, whose
application can be made through the use of, so called, strap. The object of the exploration in this
work is the RFID-antenna. This antenna can be produced by means of conventional mass printing
methods. Those methods are for example exographic printing, screen printing, gravure printing
and inkjet printing. That eld poses a big space for a further development.
This thesis should provide the survey and reference for the development of printed RFID-antenna
[1].
The Exploration of facts about the classic processes of the electric conductive
thin layers production
Classic processes of the electric conductive thin layers production
For the production of the printed electric conductive thin layers can be used a variety of technologies.
As mentioned in the introduction, those are exographic print, screen printing, gravure printing
and inkjet printing. Practically, the attention of the experimental part of this work is paid on
exographic print.
Currently, exographic print is used very often for the production of packaging. The advantages
of the exographic-printing are for example represented by the rotary printing, which can achieve,
relatively; high production rates (in contrast to atbed screen printing), high resolution and the print
form can be produced quickly and with low-costs. This printing technology is perfectly appropriate
for the printing on a lm substrate. In the exographic printing are shown various parameters as
the surface morphology, electrical and rheological parameters. By means of those parameters can be
understood, where the emphasis for the quality assessment of RFID-antenna, produced by the mass
printing methods, inhere. The Results of those parameters also show, on which of them should be
the next development of the printed RFID-antenna directed, and recognise, which values of these
parameters were during the work implementation already reached. The screen printing has the
possibility to print thicker layer then for instance exographic and gravure printing. Screen printing
is used in two variations. With the rst one, the atbed screen printing method, the acceptable
production rates can not be achieved. The second, rotary (roll to roll) method, encourage us to
solve this leak. The gravure printing is commonly known as printing technology with the highest
production rates. However, the problem of this technology could be found in the very low viscosity of
33
Nikola Perinka
printing ink, which is essential when using this method and, especially, the expensive printing form.
The Inkjet printing is one of the technologies that are, nowadays, highly explored and therefore
has a relatively high potential of the further development. The Inkjet is actually one of the digital
technologies, also suited for the production of thin conductive layers. The inkjet inks do have, in
contrast to exographic, gravure or screen inks, very dierent composition. These inks own much
smaller particles not to clutter the printing head.
In the characterisation of the particular processes has been presented that the exographic printing
has a good potential to be used for the printing of conductive thin layers. Moreover, the exographic
print means the possibility of printing on almost any substrate, the ink does not have to be so much
diluted as the gravure printing and it can achieve relative high production rates without the decrease
of a print quality (apart from screen and inkjet printing).
The exographic print stands also on basis of, the above mentioned, conditions of the technologies,
suited for an exploration, which can be realized without having high costs. This was also one of the
causes, what made this exploration possible.
Composition of the conductive ink
As an example of the composition of conductive ink was, for this particular work, selected a exo-
graphic ink. To get the better survey, of what components the conductive ink consists, is compared
a typical conventional exographic ink and a conductive ink.
The conventional exographic ink consists of four main components: a dye (Pigment) (5 30 wt %),
a binder (10 50 wt %), solvents and diluents (10 85 wt %) and additives (1 10 wt %) [2].
The elected representative example of an conductive ink consists of three main components mixture
of a thermal curable resin system (comprising an admixture of 1 20 wt % epoxy resin, 0.2 15 wt %
of a cross-link agent and 0.1 5 wt % of a catalyst such as an acid), a particulated, electrically con-
ductive material (50 90 wt %) and an organic solvent. Optional ingredients include ow additives,
adhesion promoters and rheology modiers (0.01 5 wt %) [3].
Physical properties of the conductive ink
For the most important physical qualities were chosen the ashpoint, the viscosity, the surface
resistance, the density.
Process technology and printing parameters
These parameters are substrate, printing pressure, unrolling speed, roller type, cure temperature.
The characterisation of the produced structures
For the producing of the RFID-antenna structures was used the exographic print (already men-
tioned). The antennas were printed by using of two various silver conductive paste producers DuPont
and Acheson Industries. As an addition was also tried an organic ink PEDOT:PSS (these samples
were though eliminated regarding their functionally inaccessibly high resistance). It was printed on
a laboratory exographic printing machine. Some of the samples were additionally sintered to be
able to study inuence of the sintering process on printed structure properties.
The produced structures were characterised by their surface morphology (measurements of layer
thickness with a prolometer and microscopic pictures with a microscope camera), specic resistance
with a voltmeter. The values of those parameters were taken into a relationship on the sintering
process, substrate, dimension of the structure and the direction of the print. The used conductive
inks were studied in relation to their rheology (viscosity measurement with a rotary viscosimeter).
34
Production and characterisation of printed electrical conductive structures for RFID-application
Interpretation
Measurement of the surface-morphology
Exploration of the thickness of printed structure showed that it oscillates by the exographic print
relatively substantially. To be able to produce RFID-antennas in a mass printing process with
reproducible properties, the thickness of homogeneity has to be still improved.
One another aspect discovered that the diluted variations of conductive inks create less thickness of
printed structure than the undiluted ones. Also the structures, printed on a polymer lm, generate
less thickness then on a paper. If the other parameters as viscosity or surface resistance are in for
the functionality and production acceptable values, oers this thickness reduction a potential for
cutting of the cost for conductive ink.
The microscopic snaps illustrate for example how inuence of the dilution on disruption of the
surface homogeneity is. Another snaps show that the sintering process helps networking of the
printed structures. This was also proofed by the measurement of the surface resistance, where
higher values after sintering process were measured.
Interesting nding introduce the better edge resolution in the cross direction then in the direction
of printing. That means that the ne structures should be placed on the printing plate to in the
cross direction.
The observed screen eects by printed antenna are considered not to be contrived, but by the sample
PM-460A, where these eects were observed, it was not found any bad inuence on the electrical
conductivity. This says us that the inuence on the electrical parameters of the printed structure
can be by the measured samples ignored.
Measurement of electrical Parameters
It has been examined that the sintering-process has a positive control on the electrical parameters.
The decrease of the specic resistance amounts by the explored samples approximately 5 m/square
at 25 m.Very interesting is the relationship between the substrate and the specic resistance (g. 1).
If there is used a lm as the substrate, it can be achieved thinner conductive layers. This could
represent a way to spare a conductive paste. This could be caused by so called skin eect (which
means a tendency for the current density to be greater at the edge of a wire or trace instead of
being evenly distributed over the entire cross section. Eect increases with frequency) [4].
Figure 1: Specic resistance in the relationship on the substrate
35
Nikola Perinka
Measurement of rheological Properties
The exploration of the viscosity illustrates that the both variants, the diluted and also the undiluted
of the conductive paste, show the structural viscosity. The sample PM-460A has also light thixotropy
(g. 2).The viscosity is one of the parameters, which oers the possibility to reduce the cost for
the conductive ink. In the work was tested to print an RFID-antenna with a help 1:1 diluted
conductive ink. The measurements of the specic resistance of those samples were so high that
there is no possibility of the functionality. It means the dilution should be lower in order to achieve
such high surface resistance, which is necessary for functionality of the antenna.
Figure 2: Viscosity measurements
Conclusion
The work shows that by means of the exographic print, as a substitute of the conventional mass
printing method, can be produced the functional RFID-antenna structure. If we accept the maxi-
mization of electric conductivity of printed layer as the criterion for good functional antenna prop-
erties, the conductive paste PM-460A from the company Acheson Industries should be throned. In
the combination with the lm sheet Melinex would be measured the lowest surface resistance, in
that case. Furthermore, may be said that the other specications as homogeneity of the layer or
screen-eect, were not displayed as negative phenomenon, although it might have been expected
at the beginning of the exploration. The conductive paste PM-460A, which was printed on paper
substrate, was obtained also by strap with a chip and consequently tested. The operation reach of
this printed RFID-antenna was about 60 cm.
References
[1] Finkenzeller, K.: RFID-Handbuch Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen induktiver Funkan-
lagen, Transponder und kontaktloser Chipkarten, Carl Hanser Verlag Mnchen Wien, 2002, 3. Au-
age
[2] Bauman, W., Liedtke, B. H.,: Druckerei-Chemikalien Daten und Fakten zum Umweltschutz,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 1991
[3] Xiao, Yue (Belle Mead, NJ): Conductive ink compositions, U.S. Patent 6,322,620, November 27,
2001
[4] Brooks, Douglas: Signal integrity issues and printed circuit board design, Prentice Hall PTR,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003, 395
36
Inkjet Printing and Microwave Sintering of Conductive Tracks on Polymer Substrates
Inkjet Printing and Microwave Sintering of Conductive Tracks on
Polymer Substrates
Authors: Jolke Perelaer,
1,2
Berend-Jan de Gans,
1,2
Ulrich S. Schubert
1,2,3
1,2
Laboratory of Macromolecular Chemistry and Nanoscience, Eindhoven University of Technology
and Dutch Polymer Institute (DPI), PO Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Phone: +31 40 247 2835, Fax: +31 40 247 4186
3
Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Hum-
boldtstr. 10, 07743 Jena, Germany.
E-mail: J.Perelaer@TUe.nl, Internet: http://www.schubert-group.com
Printing techniques, such as inkjet printing, are interesting alternatives to conventional photolithog-
raphy for the production of electronics.[1] The advantage of printing lies in the ease of mass produc-
tion, low cost and exibility. Compared to other printing techniques (e. g. screen printing), inkjet
printing lacks production speed. However, the unprecedented exibility of inkjet printing makes it
very well suited for rapid prototyping applications. In addition, it allows the use of inviscid uids,
like dilute polymer solutions or suspensions without binder added.
Recently, there has been a growing interest in the printing of conductive materials, such as metals
or conductive polymers. A typical application is inkjet printing of conductive tracks, for example
using inks based on an (in)organic silver, gold or copper precursor.[2, 3, 4] These conductive inks
can either be a suspension of colloid conductive particles or a solution based ink. A colloid particle
suspension contains (nano)particles that have an organic coating around each (nano)particle to
avoid agglomeration and to form a stable ink within the solution.[5] A solution based conductive
ink, typically based on silver, contains a silver salt that is tailored with an organic anion to be able
to be dissolved in organic media.[6]
Since the inks are precursors to a conductive feature, both types of ink need to be sintered after
printing. The silver salt solution is typically heated to reduce the silver cation to metallic silver and
to evaporate/burn-o the remaining organic materials. For a suspension based ink, heating is also
performed to burn-o the organic shells around each (nano)particle. Typically, nanoparticle based
silver inks are commercially available, and therefore, the focus here will be on these colloid particle
suspensions.
In the past, two dierent techniques were used to sinter printed nanoparticle structures, conventional
radiation-conduction-convection heating being the most common method. Sintering temperatures
are typically above 200.[7] The use of nanoparticles reduces the sintering temperature due to the
high surface to volume ratio. The mechanism of sintering is shown in Figure 1. Typically, nanopar-
ticles smaller than 5 nm show a sharp decreased melting temperature below 300.[8] The organic
coating that is surrounded strongly inuences the melting temperature of the nanoparticles.[9]
Figure 1: Mechanism of sintering metallic nanoparticles.
Sintering nanoparticles was also performed by following the printed features by a laser beam.[10]
37
Jolke Perelaer
The laser follows the conductive tracks and sinters these selectively, without aecting the substrate.
However, this method is costly and complex from a technical point of view. Thus, a clear need
can be discerned for a fast, simple and thus cost-eective technique that allows sintering of printed
structures by selective heating of the printed structures only. Microwave heating fullls these
requirements.
Microwave heating is widely used for sintering of dielectric materials, and in synthetic chem-
istry.[11, 12] It oers the advantage of uniform, fast and volumetric heating. The absorption of
microwave radiation is due to the coupling with charge carriers or rotating dipoles. Derived from
the Maxwell equations, the absorbed power per unit volume P is:
P = E
2
= 2f
E
2
(1)
with the conductance, f the frequency of the microwave radiation,
the dielectric loss factor,

and E the electromagnetic eld amplitude. At normal incidence the amplitude is an exponentially
decaying function of distance characterized by a penetration depth d
p
,
d
p
=
c
0
2f
=
1
f
(2)
with the permeability of the material. This equation shows a reciprocal dependence of the
conductance on the penetration depth. Therefore, highly conductive materials, e.g. metals, have
only a low penetration depth. For example, the penetration depth of 2.54 GHz for silver, gold and
copper is 1.3 to 1.6 m. Microwave sintering of metals is therefore non-trivial and can only be
successful if the dimension of the object perpendicular to the plane of incidence is of the order of
the penetration depth. Inkjet printed features typically have these dimensions. However, successful
microwave sintering is not limited to features that have a vertical dimension in the order of the
penetration depth; silver is also a perfect thermal conductor, thus sintering of the features also
takes place by heat conduction.
Figure 2: Photographic image of inkjet printed silver antenna structure on polyimide. The zoom-in shows the dimen-
sion of a single silver track within the antenna feature.
We have inkjet printed a commercially available silver ink that contained 60 % silver by weight onto
polyimide (PI) foils. Typical inkjet printed results are shown in Figure 2.[13] The antenna features
could be, for instance, be used in radio frequency identication tags applications.[4]
Then the non-conductive silver lines were treated in a microwave reactor operating in constant
38
Inkjet Printing and Microwave Sintering of Conductive Tracks on Polymer Substrates
Figure 3: Conductance of the silver tracks as function of sintering time.
power mode (300 W). Sintering times are dramatically shortened in the microwave, from 60 minutes
or more down to 240 seconds, as is shown in Figure 3.[13] Longer sintering times did not increase
the conductivity, but sometimes resulted in deformation or decomposition of the substrate at the
edges of the silver lines and the substrate.
In conclusion, microwave sintering allows the selectively heating, an thus opens a new route to use
thermoplastic polymers or paper to be used, which was not possible with conventional heating in
an oven. Furthermore, the long sintering times required usually 60 minutes or more is also not
necessary, since the sintering takes place already in a few minutes.
References
[1] a) B.-J. de Gans, P. C. Duineveld, U. S. Schubert, Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 203; b) R. F.
Service,Science 2004, 304, 675 c) C. W. Sele, T. von Werne, R. H. Friend, H. Sirringhaus, Adv.
Mater. 2005, 17, 997.
[2] a) H.-H. Lee, K.-S. Chou, K.-C. Huang, Nanotechnology 2005, 16, 2436; b) Z. Liu, Y. Su,
K.Varahramyan, Thin Solid Films 2005, 478, 275-279.
[3] a) C.M. Hong, S. Wagner, IEEE Electron Device Letters 2000, 21, 384; b) T. Cuk, S.M. Troian,
C.M. Hong, S. Wagner, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2000, 77, 2063.
[4] a) S. Molesa, D.R. Reinger, D.C. Huang, V. Subramanian, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
2003,769, H8.3.1-6; b) D.C. Huang, F. Liao, S. Molesa, D. Redinger, V. Subramanian, J. Elec-
trochem. Soc. 2003, 150, G412.
[5] a) K. Jong Lee, B. Ho Jun, T. Hoon Kim, J. Joung, Nanotechnology 2006, 17, 2424; b) S.B.Fuller,
E.J. Wilhelm, J.M. Jacobson, J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2002, 11, 54; c) D. Kim, S. Jeong, J.
Moon, K. Kang, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 2006, 459, 45.
[6] a) P.J. Smith, D.-Y. Shin, J.E. Stringer, N. Reis, B. Derby, J. Mater. Sci. 2006, 41, 4153; b)
Y.Wu, Y. Li, B.S. Ong, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 1862; b) A.L. Dearden, P.J. Smith, D.-Y.
Shin, N. Reis, B. Derby, P. OBrien, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2005, 26, 315.
[7] K. Cheng, M.-H. Yang, W.W.W. Chiu, C.-Y. Huang, J. Chang, T.-F. Ying, Y. Yang, Macromol.
39
Jolke Perelaer
Rapid Commun. 2005, 26, 247-264; b) A. Kamyshny, M. Ben-Mohse, S. Aviezer, S. Magdassi,
Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2005, 26, 281.
[8] a) P. Buat, J.-P. Borel, Phys. Rev. A 1976, 13, 2287; b) K.-S. Moon, H. Dong, R. Maric, S.
Pothukuchi, A. Hunt, Y. Li, C.P. Wong, J. Electron. Mater. 2005, 34, 168.
[9] L.H. Liang, C.M. Shen, S.X. Du, W.M. Liu, X.C. Xie, H.J. Gao, Phys. Rev B. 2004, 70,205419.
[10] J. Chung, S. Ko, N.R. Bieri, C.P. Grigoropoulos, D. Poulikakos, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004,
84,801.
[11] K. J. Rao, B. Vaidhyanathan, M. Ganguli, P. A. Ramakrishnan, Chem. Mater. 1999, 11, 882.
[12] F. Wiesbrock, R. Hoogenboom, U.S. Schubert, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2004, 25, 1739.
[13] J. Perelaer, B.-J. de Gans, U.S. Schubert, Adv. Mater. 2006, 18, 2101.
40
Porous Polymer Membranes with a Hierarchical Structure via Inkjet Printing
Porous Polymer Membranes with a Hierarchical Structure via
Inkjet Printing
Stephan Jahn (Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Print and Media Technology, Chem-
nitz, Germany, stephan.jahn@mb.tu-chemnitz.de, tel.: +49-(0)371-531-35190)
Susann Ebert (Chemnitz University of Technology, Department for Physical Chemistry, Chemnitz,
Germany, susann.ebert@chemie.tu-chemnitz.de, tel.: +49-(0)371-531-35812)
Lutz Engisch (Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia, lutz.engisch@qut.edu.au,
tel.: +49-(0)162-4949177)
Werner A. Goedel (Chemnitz University of Technology, Department for Physical Chemistry, Chem-
nitz, Germany, werner.goedel@chemie.tu-chemnitz.de, tel.: +49-(0)371-531-31713)
Reinhard R. Baumann (Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Print and Media Technol-
ogy, Chemnitz, Germany, reinhard.baumann@mb.tu-chemnitz.de, tel.: +49-(0)371-531-35843)
Abstract
The inkjet printing technology was established in the last few years as a proven procedure for
printing thin continuous lms as well as a variety of three-dimensional structures. It is particularly
favorable that by inkjet printing smallest quantities of a liquid can be placed purposefully on a
substrate. Selecting the distance between the printed drops closely enough and/or if the printed
liquid drops spread suciently on the surface, the drops merge with one another and form a thin
continuous liquid lm on the substrate. If the interface energy between the printed liquid and
the substrate is large enough, minted drops stay on the substrate after printing. By purposeful
arrangement of a multiplicity of drops on a surface, three-dimensional structures can be printed
in this way. We developed a method for the preparation of thin porous polymer membranes with
hierarchical structures by using the inkjet printing technology. With an inkjet printer small water
droplets were deposited on a substrate and afterwards covered with a thin polymer layer. Thereby
the water droplets are used as molds for the pores in the membrane. The diameter of the pores is
adjustable by the volume of the water droplets and by the thickness of the polymer lm.
Introduction
Porous polymer membranes could be used as lters for particles or as tissues for living cells. Used as
a lter the pore size is one of the most important parameters. Porous polymer membranes with pore
diameters of 100 microns or lower are called micromembranes. Main characteristics of micromem-
branes are the selectivity and the ow rate. The selectivity depends on the distribution of the pore
size. The more uniform the distribution is the higher is the selectivity of the micromembrane. The
ow rate increases with decreasing membrane thickness [1]. If the membrane thickness is in the
same dimension like the pore size the ow resistance could be considered as very good. Fabrication
methods for micromembranes are for example track etching or extrusion processes [2, 3]. Also by
the use of breath gures the fabrication of micromembranes is possible [4]. But all these fabrication
methods have in common that they are not able to dene the position of each single membrane
pore. The here presented fabrication method via inkjet technology shows a exible and additive
way of manufacturing porous polymer membranes with hierarchical structures.
Experimental
The idea was to use simple water droplets as molds for the pores in the fabrication process of
micromembranes. Figure 1 shows the principle of using the inkjet technology for the fabrication of
hierarchically structured porous polymer membranes.
Single water droplets are printed onto a hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobisation was done by
vapor deposition of silane onto commercial aluminum foil. Using a Dimatix Materials Printer with
41
Stephan Jahn, Susann Ebert
Figure 1: Inkjet fabrication method for hierarchically structured porous polymer membranes
its 10 picoliters print heads single water drops are applied onto the silane surface. Polymethyl
methacrylat (PMMA), dissolved in chloroform, is poured around these water drops with a pipette.
The solution ows around the drops and glazes without disturbing the water droplets after some
minutes. After some further minutes the water drops dry and pores stay back in the polymer lm.
Instead of the drops concave spaces are left which have exactly the same shape like the former drops.
The removal of the substrate is done manually or by etching with hydrochloric acid. In contrast
to other fabrication methods the inkjet technology allows to dene the location of each single pore.
This in turn gives the possibility to dene pore and non-pore areas on a polymer lm to combine
the ltering function of the pores and to maximize the mechanical strength of the membrane. In
gure 2 the principle of the so called hierarchical structuring is depicted.
Figure 2: Principle of hierarchical structuring, (a) hierarchy of pores and non-pore areas, (b) additional support
structures for mechanical strength
Like shown in g. 2(a) a hierarchy of pores and non-pore areas should increase the mechanical
strength of the membrane. The stability could further be increased by applying an additional
support material onto the non-pore areas. The support structure could be made of the same
material like the membrane itself. This is shown in g. 2(b).
A water drop on a plane surface could be seen as a spherical cap (g. 3). Depending on the droplet
volume Vdroplet (Vdroplet =10 pl, n...number of single droplets per drop) and the contact angle
in the triple point of polymer, water, and substrate the height of the drop hdrop can be calculated:
h
drop
=
3 n V
droplet
3
sin
1
(1)
42
Figure 3: Model of a drop used as mold in a membrane
Table 1: Physical properties of water/EG mixture (30/70 %)
Surface tension [N/m] 46.1
Contact angle on silane/Al-Foil [] 75
Viscosity [mPas] 6
Density [g/cm
3
] 1.1
Boiling point [C] >100
With equation 1 in equation 2 the theoretical nal pore diameter dpore can be calculated:
d
pore
=
2 h
drop
sin
1
_
1
_
1
h
polymer
h
drop
_
sin
_
2
(2)
It is easy to see that the pore size is adjustable by changing the drop volume or the polymer height.
The variation of the drop volume can be done by applying dierent numbers of single droplets per
each drop. One drop consists of 1 up to 24 single droplets, i. e. the drop volume ranges between
10 and 240 picoliters per drop. The polymer height is adjustable in a variation of the PMMA
concentration in the chloroform.
Results and Discussion
Pure water has a vapor pressure of 2340 Pa in a normal ambient atmosphere. From this it follows
that a single inkjet droplet dries in a few seconds. For a function as cast drops for the fabrication
of porous polymer membranes a drying time for at least 5 minutes is necessary. Pure ethylene
glycol (EG) has a much lower vapor pressure than water (5 Pa) but is soluble in chloroform and for
that reason not usable as ink for the cast drops. But a mixture of 70 % EG and 30 % water is not
reasonable soluble in chloroform but because of the colligative properties of the mixture an inkjet
drop stays stable on a surface for about 10 minutes.
Table 1 shows the physical properties of the used mixture. The relatively high surface tension results
in a contact angle of 75C on the hydrophobic surface. The bigger the contact angle the higher is the
potential of varying the pore diameter by the polymer height and the drop volume respectively. But
a contact angle higher than 90makes the drop instable and it tends to roll over the surface while
applying the PMMA solution. Finally, the physical properties show that the mixture is printable
with an inkjet printer.
Figure 4 shows some membranes manufactured via inkjet technology. In gure 4(a) the concave
shape of the drop is clearly visible. So it is easy to imagine that a variation in polymer height
would cause a variation in pore size. That the membrane fabrication is possible up to the square-
centimeters scale is depicted in gure 4(b). Figure 4(c) shows the accuracy in positioning the pores
which only depends on the accuracy of the printer. The pore diameter vs. the calculated drop
volume is displayed in the chart in Figure 5. The pore diameter was determined optically with a
digital microscope Keyence VHX 500. The drop volume is calculated by a multiplication of the
43
Figure 4: Porous polymer membranes manufactured via inkjet technology, 240 pl per cast drop, (a) SEM picture of
a single membrane pore, taken from the bottom side, (b) a membrane on aluminum foil, (c) microscopy
image of pores
number of inkjet droplets per pore times the volume of a single inkjet droplet. The polymer height
was measured by a prolometer VEECO DEKTAC 8M and was 21 m.
Figure 5: Pore size vs. drop volume
You can see that the pore size increases with increasing drop volume. The measured pore sizes
are pretty close to the theoretical curve calculated by using equation 2. Deviations are probably
based in a volume reduction of the drops due to evaporation. It is conspicuous that only the drops
consisting of only a few drops cause bigger pores than calculated. Reason for this is likely the so
called rst drop problem, i. e. the rst drops of an inkjet ring sequence are remarkable taller than
the following ones. So the real volumes of the rst three data points in the diagram are probably
much bigger. With the current set up it is possible to fabricate membranes with pore sizes down
to 20 m. The minimal pore size depends mainly on the droplet size of the inkjet print head. So
the use of a print head or a printing system which generates smaller droplets would lead to smaller
pore sizes.
For a quantication of the selectivity the distribution of the pore size is crucial. The chart in gure 6
displays the diameter distribution of 150 pores with a drop volume of 240 pl each. The mean value
is 96 microns and the standard deviation is 12 microns (12.5 %). The high uctuations are mainly
founded in two facts. The height of the polymer is not very homogenous and constant from one
membrane to another. This could be adjusted by the use of a squeegee. With a squeegee the height
of the polymer solution could immediately be leveled after pouring it over the cast drops. So the
glazed polymer would be leveled as well. In further research work the utilization of this tool shall
be evaluated.
The printed drops stay stable on the substrate for a few minutes but nevertheless there is a constant
evaporation. Figure 7 shows that for a pore made of a 240 pl drop. There is a drift in pore diameter
44
Figure 6: Drop size distribution of 150 pores made of 240 pl drops
Figure 7: Diameter drift for a pore made of a 240 pl drop
of about 1 micron per minute. This problem could be reduced by an intelligent design of the print
pattern which reduces the printing time or a faster printing system respectively. By printing the
polymer solution synchronously with the cast drop ink in a secondary print head this eect could
be avoided completely. To check the stability of the hierarchical membranes tensile tests have been
carried out. Therefore samples of membranes with no pores, completely covered with pores, and
partly covered with pores were manufactured. The pore arrangement on the last named membranes
was in a hexagonal pattern, i. e. they were hierarchically structured. The samples of 1 x 3 cm
2
were
stretched until rupture. The measured tension the rupture stress at this time is displayed in
gure 8.
The pore sizes of the fully covered and the hierarchically structured membranes were all about
96 microns. The number of pores of the hexagonal pattern was reduced by 25 % (compared to
fully covered). Due to the hierarchical structure the rupture stress increased from 10 N/mm
2
to
23 N/mm
2
. That means that an intelligent arrangement of the pores is more benecial for mechanical
stability than a simple reduction of the number of pores.
Conclusion
A new technology for the fabrication of porous polymer membranes is presented. Inkjet was used
as a tool to deposit single drops as cast for the pores. Pore sizes down to a few microns are possible
and the position of each single pore is selectable easily through the print pattern. To counteract
the fast evaporation of pure water a mixture of water and ethylene glycol (30/70 %) was used as
cast drop ink. It was shown that it is possible to vary the pore size through the variation of the
polymer height and the drop volume. To increase the mechanical stability of the whole membrane
a hierarchical structure was implemented. This was done by an arrangement of pore and non-pore
areas in the membrane. Due to this a remarkable rising of rupture stress was measurable.
45
Figure 8: Results of the rupture tests of dierent membranes
Author Biography
Stephan Jahn received his diploma in Micromechanics/Mechatronics in 2005 from Chemnitz Univer-
sity of Technology. Since then he is working as junior researcher and PhD-student at the Institute
for Print and Media Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology. At the institute he belongs
to the digital printing team. His work is focused on digital fabrication by inkjet printing.
Susann Ebert studied chemistry at the Chemnitz University of Technology and received her Diploma
in 2006. Since October 2006 she is a PhD-student in the Department for Physical Chemistry at the
Chemnitz University of Technology. Her research topic is concerned with the preparation of ultra
thin porous polymer lms.
References
[1] C.J.M. van Rijn, Nano and Micro Engineered Membrane Technology, Membrane Science and
Technology Series, 10, Elservier Verlag, 2003, 137 - 148.
[2] W. Pusch. A. Walch, Angew. Chem. 1982, 94, 670 695.
[3] D. Paul, Chemie in unserer Zeit, 1998, 4, 197 205.
[4] M. Srinivasarao, D. Collings, A. Philips, S. Patel, Science 2001, 292, 79 83.
Keywords
Inkjet, membrane, hierarchical structure
46
Investigations on High Precision Deposition of Liquids by Using Ink Jet Technology
Investigations on High Precision Deposition of Liquids by Using
Ink Jet Technology
Enrico Franz, Lutz Engisch*, Stephan Jahn, Reinhard Baumann
Chemnitz University of Technology, Institute for Print and Media Technology, Germany
* Queensland University of Technology, Australia
enrico.franz@s2003.tu-chemnitz.de
Keywords: coee drop eect, drop volume, register of deposition, accuracy, reliability model
Abstract
This paper deals with the analysis of the exact volume deposition of liquids by inkjet printing.
Several methods were evaluated. For example, dierent print patterns were developed to get infor-
mation about the parameters of the printing process, by printing dierent patterns the drop size
and the register for positioning have been checked, by the help of graphic programs parameters like
the register coordinates have been gathered, and drop volumes were measured. Furthermore, the
coee drop eect was evaluated and a reliability model was developed. The data were plotted and
discussed, to optimize the inkjet printing process.
Introduction
In the last few years, ink jet printing became a multifunctional printing technique. Today it is used
for printing three-dimensional objects by means of rapid prototyping or for printing of conductive
structures. Therefore, we need precision and accuracy to a high degree. The method of using ink jet
printing has hauled out. Because this technique allows the deposition of only a few drops wherever
you want. Also because of the wide range of usable inks and the non-impact printing method, ink
jet works almost independently of the substrate. The piezo ink jet method is a drop-on-demand ink
jet technique, where no contact between the substrate and the print head occurs. Ruling principle
is to decompose the liquid reservoir in discrete ink drops. The most important advantage of piezo
ink jet is the independence from thermal characteristics, so a wide range of inks can be used.
Piezo Ink Jet
The piezoelectric eect describes the inducing of voltage by changing the mechanical pressure on a
piezo crystal. For piezo ink jet printing, the indirect eect is used. Therefore, several modes have
been invented. The most important is the bend-mode. Due to the crystal lattice of piezoelectric
materials, atoms can be moved by applying an electrical eld. This movement depends on the
direction of the electrical eld and the polarisation of the material. So the macroscopically shape
of a crystal can be changed in small dimensions [1]. With a smart arrangement of two dierentially
polarized piezo elements you can reach the eect like shown in gure 1. The piezo element seems to
bend. The volume of the ink chamber changes.
Acoustic waves are arising in the chamber and superposing each other, until one drop left the
chamber. The generation of drops can be repeated up to 20,000 times a second in the used printer.
Laboratory and Materials
For the investigations we used the Dimatix Materials Printer (DMP 2800). With this printer it
was possible to observe the printing process by changing the specications and properties of the
print head. We changed the tapped voltages on the piezo elements as well as we arranged optimal
settings for using dierent uids. Also we could observe the drop generation and examine the
printed patterns. The Dimatix Model Fluid, PEDOT:PSS, and silver ink were used for our tests.
47
Enrico Franz
Figure 1: Principle of piezo ink jet [2]
Coee Drop Eect
One of the most common problems in multifunctional ink jet printing is the phenomenon of the
coee drop eect. While drying on a substrate a drop builds a circle at the outer margin. There you
can see many solid components of the printed ink. In the middle of the circle, there are almost no
components left. In contrast to its prevention, the reasons of its appearance are almost explained.
In a drop of a solution, solid particles always pin on the contact line of a drop. At the borderline is a
higher evaporation rate, than in the centre. Therefore, the solvent tries to compensate the growing
lack of liquid in the outer regions. At the same time, it carries the solid particles to the border [3].
Figure 2: Image of dried PEDOT:PSS on PET foil
With the DMP this eect can be observed. In our research the eect appeared while printing silver
solvent, PEDOT:PSS, and also coee on dierent substrates, for example on glass and PET foil. In
gure 2 you can see a picture of a dried PEDOT:PSS drop captured with the integrated camera of
the DMP. The ring appeared very clearly, with almost every solid particles of the former solvent.
Figure 3 shows the contour map of four drops (prolometer VEECO DEKTAC 8M).
This eect can cause many problems because of its inhomogeneity for the printed patterns: If you
need conductive structures, it may happen, that the connection between particular lines is not going
to be printed exactly. If you print three-dimensional structures, the height may not be exactly that,
what was calculated before. One possibility to solve this problem is shown by deGans and Schubert
[4]. In their investigations, they found out that the appearance of the coee drop eect depends on
48
Figure 3: Contour map of dried drops
the composition of the solvent. Therefore, they used liquids with dierent evaporation rates. By
the combination of high boiling solvents with low boiling solvents, they could reduce the eect (see
gure 4).
Figure 4: Prole of 80/20 wt. % mixture of ethyl acetate/acetophenone after drying [4]
Drop Size Measurement
For printing high precision structures on dierent substrates with dierent properties, we need
to know reliable information about the printing characteristics. Therefore, printing patterns were
created and the tapped voltage of a nozzle was changed in 4 volts steps from 16 to 40 volts. As
ink, we used the model uid of the DMP. The result was that the drop size depends on the ring
voltage, as you can see in gure 5.
The higher the voltage, the bigger are the drops. However, between 28 and 40 volts there is almost no
rising of the drop size anymore. You can see a maximum, which the drop size reaches by increasing
the voltage. The higher the voltage on the piezo crystal the faster the drop ies to the substrate [5].
Faster speed means a higher kinetic energy and so more deformation on the drop while striking on
the ground. The limitation of the maximum drop size depends on the quantity of the drop volume.
Because of its steady results, the row printed by 24 volts was researched again,. On a new pattern,
we determined the reliability of this printing process. By using the standard parameters, we found
out that almost 90 % of the drops have a deviation of only about 5 % from the average drop size.
49
Enrico Franz
Figure 5: Relation between drop size and nozzle voltage
You can say that the drop size is constant during one printing process.
Drop Volume Measurement
We also need to know how the volume of one drop changes using dierent print parameters. There-
fore, we changed printing frequencies and the piezo voltage again. By using 16 volts, 24 volts and
32 volts, we gathered the drop volume of the dierent frequencies starting at 3 kHz to 19 kHz by
going in 4 kHz steps. We took every measurement at minimum three times. For volume determi-
nation, we used the integrated drop volume measurement. You can dene the number of drops
that you print into a pan. Then you can calculate the drop volume by knowing the density and
the change of weight. The results have not been very constant (see g. 6). Between 3 kHz and
11 kHz, the drop volumes have been regular. At 19 kHz they were so irregular that even additional
measurements could not give usable statements. Similar results you can see in [6].
Figure 6: Relation between frequency and drop volume by using dierent voltages
According to the DMP, the drop mass increases by using a higher nozzle voltage [5]. With a
constant liquid density, the drop volume must increase, too. We could not observe this result.
The measurement method given by DMP might not be reliable enough to make such a straight
statement.
50
Drop Deposition
For analysing the deposition accuracy, it is necessary to get the coordinates of the replaced drops
independently from the alignment of the substrate. Therefore, we took pictures from the printed
pattern to compare them with the original test pattern. By using an analysis program (Igor Pro
4.05), it was possible to get an exact map from the printed dots. By selecting dierent drop sizes and
dierent grey tones, we could select the drops very exactly by using the program. The comparison
of the original coordinates with the test pattern and the detected coordinates of the printed pattern
delivered statements about the deposition of the several drops. Therefore, we had to rotate the print
pattern to the same angle like the test pattern, by rotating the coordinate system of the printed
pattern. After equalizing the dimensions of the picture and the test pattern, we had to lap the
patterns by the optimal distance. Therefore, we tried dierent methods, as you can see in gures 7
and 8. Best results we got by using the goal seek function in Microsoft Excel.
Figure 7: Distances from print pattern to original test pattern by lapping with the drop nearest to average distance
of whole placement
There were discrepancies between the original and the real dot positions. A few dots were strewed
more than 10 % from their target, so they have been declared as outliers. These dots have been
taken out of the results and a new goal seek was performed (g. 8).
By using this method, the average distance was minimized. Both patterns were centre aligned. It
was conspicuous, that the majority of the outliers were found at the left and the upper border of
the pattern (see g. 9). The reason for this could be the too long time gap between the cleaning
process and the start of the printing process. The statistical investigation resulted in an average
accuracy for deposition in X-direction of 0.8 % and in Y-direction of 1.5 %. So you can say: 85 % of
the drops (15 % outliers) are printed within 2 % accuracy to their destination point.
Reliability of Complex Printing Systems
For improving the speed of digital printing systems dierent methods have been tested in science.
For example wide format printers provide one possibility by using many print heads next to each
other in one row [7]. Ivan J. Baiges published another possibility in 2006 [8]. Here, print heads
were arranged on several xed axles vertically to the printing direction so that several parts of the
pattern can be printed at the same time. So, printing speed is multiplied with the number of axles.
The result of using many print heads is an increased printing speed, but also the reliability of the
system decreases. Therefore, we developed a calculation model based on statistical rules, which
allows one to choose the components of the system by knowing the maximum output failure. You
51
Enrico Franz
Figure 8: Distances from print pattern to original test pattern by lapping using goal seek method
can see the model of our assumptions in gure 10. It is based on the theory that one print head
consists of many nozzles nN. The combination of many print heads nPH is called module. So you
have to dierentiate between two cases of complete breakdown of a print head. First case is for
example an electronic failure that stops the complete print head with a probability of pPH without
inuencing the nozzles. Second case is that all nozzles stop working. Though you have to note
that even one nozzle breakdown per print head can cause problems of functionality of the printed
pattern. This must be portrayed in the model. Therefore, the counter-argument had been used.
Probabilities for print head (1) and module (2) breakdown:
p
PH
= [1 (1 p
N
)
n
N
] +p
PH
[1 (1 p
N
)
n
N
] p
PH
(1)
p
M
= [1 (1 p
PH
)
n
PH
] +p
M
[1 (1 p
PH
)
n
PH
] p
M
(2)
n
N
number of nozzles
n
PH
number of print heads
n
M
number of modules
p
N
probability for break down of a nozzle
p
PH
* resulting probability of p
N
and p
PH
(probability for other kind of errors in a print head)
p
M
* resulting probability of p
PH
and p
M
(probability for other kind of errors in a module)
p
M
possibility for break down of a module
With (3) including (1) and (2) we can calculate the probability of a system falls out by using
specic print heads. Though for developing a system it is important to know, which specic parts can
be used, by observing certain expectations on quality. Therefore, equation (4) has been developed
for calculating the maximum breakdown failure of a nozzle is allowed to have in systems with
dierent specications.
p
Ges
= 1 (1 p
M
)
n
M
(3)
p
N
= 1
n
N
_
1
1
n
PH
_
1
(1
n
M
1p
Ges
)p
M
1p
M
p
PH
1 p
PH
(4)
You can see an example in Figure 11.
You can derive how you should specify nozzles, print heads, and modules to keep your printing
failure below 2 %. Every point in the diagram on or below the colored area gives one variant to
52
Figure 9: Compare print pattern with test pattern; missing blue rectangles are outliers
congure a system.
Conclusion
In our research we have investigated dierent aairs, which are important for the reliability and
accuracy of the printing process. The arising of the coee drop eect and its problem for the
ink jet printing process has been proved, by testing dierent solvents on dierent substrates. We
found out, that the drop size during the printing process is stable. The results of the drop volume
measurement of the DMP are negative. In fact, we got no reliable results. At high frequencies the
measurements have been extremely unsteady. To analyze the deposited drops and their position
register, we developed a method, to compare the pattern with the print result half automatically. In
addition we did not only analyze the printing process. We also investigated the reliability of complex
printing systems. Therefore, we developed equations to determine the particular components and
their maximal default-rate.
References
[1] Stephen Pond: Inkjet Technology and Product Development Strategies, 2000, Torrey Pines
Research.
[2] Wolfgang Wehl: CHIP 8/94 S. 104 - 112.
[3] Deegan, R. D.: Nature 1997, Vol. 389, 827-830.
[4] de Gans, B.; Schubert, U.: Langmuir 2004, 20, 7789-7793.
[5] Dimatix: DMP Manual (2006)
[6] Dijksman, J.: J. Mater. Chem., 2007, 17, 511-522, p. 521.
[7] Silverbrook Research Pty.: Pagewidht Wide Format Printer, EP 1177102 B1, 2005
[8] Baiges, Ivan J.: Inkjet Printing System Employing Multiple Inkjet Printheads And Method Of
Performing A Printing Operation US 6,984,014 B2, 2006
53
Enrico Franz
Figure 10: Mathematical model for the reliability a complex printing system
Figure 11: Area of maximum break down possibilities by using 16 nozzles, 4 print heads, 12 modules; previously
dened maximum output failure pGes=2 %
Author Information
Enrico Franz is studying Industrial Engineering with Business Orientation at the Chemnitz Univer-
sity of Technology since 2003. His specialisation is Print- and Media Technologie at the pmTUC. In
summer 2007 he made a three month lasting traineeship in several department of one of the biggest
companies in Bulgaria. Hes going to nish his studys in summer 2008.
54
The Development of Methods for the Determination of Ink-Film Thickness
The Development of Methods for the Determination of Ink-Film
Thickness
Marta Ivantsiv, Halyna Zherebetska, O. Osinchuk
Ukrainian Academy of Printing, Ukraine
Mivantsiv@ukr.net, lesya_n@ukr.net
The paper concerns the development of methods for the determination of ink-lm thickness on
technological objects while printing. The experimental part dealt with the development of the
construction of a detector for the determination of ink-lm thickness, in device adjustment and in
the investigation of changes in ink-lm thickness on imprints during circulation.
For experiments we used a method of infrared light absorption by ink-lm. The given method may
be used not only for research purposes, but also for manufacturing control, thus allowing control of
the quantity of ink supplied to the ink machine and the evenness of ink-lm distribution along the
formation of ink rollers. It was shown that the reection coecient depends on dierent sorts of ink
(both oset ink for a sheet machine and newspaper printing ink) depending on ink-lm thickness.
With the increase of ink-lm thickness, the reection coecient decreases.
For years, investigations have been conducted and some samples of ink-lm thickness control devices
using dierent measurement principles - starting from radioactive to hygroscopic and from capacitive
to glazing contents ones were created. One of the objective methods for the control of oset plate
and ink-lm seasoning is an infrared method. [1] The possibility to control objectively the basic
elements of the process mode (ink-lm thickness, pressure and rate of printing) and knowledge of
the peculiarities of interaction between paper and ink will allow one to consciously manage the
printing process, i.e. to reach the given optimal quality of the imprint.
For experiments we used a method based on the determination of infrared light absorption by ink-
lm. We investigated the possibility of the use of infrared radiation for determining the ink-lm
thickness on imprints and printing machine elements.
Ink-lm thickness control devices immediately inform a printer about ink supply changes during the
printing process, show the tendency in ink supply changes and enable him to make timely corrections
to the process. It contributes, to some extent, to the normalization of printing conditions. Stability
of the ink supply does not necessarily guarantee the identity of production prints, the quality of
which is characterized by many indexes. [2]
For the purpose of obtaining objective information on the ow of the printing process there have
been developed ink-lm thickness control devices on rollers and cylinders of the systems of ink key
setting for measuring the imprint optical density. In the creation of systems of ink key setting, the
given devices are mostly used as providers of information on the regulated parameter.
Predominantly, such devices and systems were rst used for relief printing and intaglio machines. In
oset printing, the properties of ink and its transfer to an imprint are partly inuenced by fountain
solution. This inuence at the stage of development of rst sample devices and their industrial
testing hampered, most frequently, the correct assessment of the testing sample. That is why
the developers strived to investigate and assess characteristics of ink supply control devices in the
conditions excluding problems caused by damping. [10]
However, intensive development of oset printing, forced the researchers and engineers to consider
the possibility of using ink supply control devices on oset printing machines. Many of these devices
proved to be suitable for exploitation on oset printing machines. [3]
Sensor is a sensitive element that transforms the controlled parameter into an electric signal. Sensors
inform on the state of the environment through interaction with it and transform the reaction on
this interaction into electric signals. There are a lot of phenomena and eects, types of properties
and energy transformation, which can be used for creating sensors.
The control procedure lies in obtaining information on the state of the control object, in its control
and processing by the central device and transfer of the control signal to execution devices.
55
Marta Ivantsiv, Halyna Zherebetska
For receiving information there are non-electrical quantity sensors. Thus the control of temperature,
mechanical movements, presence or absence of items, pressure, expenditure of liquids and gases,
rate of rotation, etc. are provided.
Sensors are often classied by the principle of their operation, which, in its turn, may be based
on physical and chemical phenomena and properties. There exist thermal sensors, optical sensors,
pressure sensors, humidity sensing elements and gas analyzers, magnetic sensors, etc. [4]
Infrared sensors include Thermalert GP, Thermalert GPS, Thermalert MID, Thermalert TX sensors
and Raytek thermal infrared sensors. [5, 6]
The most widespread among methods of ink-lm thickness control in ink systems is a photoelectric
method based on measuring the value of the infrared ow passing through the ink layer. Their
industrial exploitation has shown that they are in demand and are successfully used on printing
machines. [3]
For the past 30-40 years, investigations have been conducted and some samples of ink-lm thickness
control devices using dierent measurement principles - starting from radioactive to hygroscopic
and from capacitive to glazing contents ones were created. One of the objective methods of ink-lm
thickness control is an infrared one. Sensor realizing this principle of measurement has two emitting
diodes - sources of the sensed and measured signals, respectively. [7]
Two types of experiments with the use of an infrared sensor have been conducted - the rst, for de-
termining the reection coecient on the ink plate (control of ink-lm thickness in inking systems),
the second - for determining the reection coecient on imprints made at dierent rates of printing.
For experiments we used a method based on light (infrared) radiation absorption by ink-lm.
Studying the possibility of using infrared radiation for the determination of ink-lm thickness on
imprints and printing machine elements, we used the infrared Integrated Transceiver, MAX
3
120
chip with infrared receiving and transmitting diodes with TFDS
3
000 and TFDS
4
500 type logic
ins and outs, as well as DT-182 digital voltmeter. [8] The experiments were conducted on a brass
plate (2 x 5 cm), rolled on with ink (I experiment) and on imprints made on a printing machine with
dierent circulation (II experiment).
The conducted experiments showed that the inuence of ink-lm thickness on an imprint is marked,
rst and foremost, by its optical density. The increase of black ink-lm thickness changes the
reection coecient as a curve with a decrementing gradient.
At rst, when the ink-lm thickness grows with smoothing out the roughness of the paper surface,
the optical density of the imprint sharply rises. With a further increase of the lm thickness, the
growth of optical density ows slowly reaching the density of the ink. For color inks, a change in
ink-lm thickness not only results in brightness, but also considerably inuences the saturation and
hue of the imprint. [2, 9]
Conclusions
1. The possibility of the use of infrared radiation for determining ink-lm thickness on imprints
and printing machine elements was investigated.
2. The value of the infrared ow was shown to be inversely proportional to the thickness of
ink-lm on a brass plate.
3. The reection coecient was found to depend on a type of ink and its thickness. When the
ink-lm thickness increases, the reection coecient decreases, and the reection coecient
for newspaper printing ink is smaller than that for oset ink.
4. Uneven thickness of ink-lm on separate areas of the plate, the clotting of tiny elements of the
image, which leads to a sharp decrease in quality of the imprint, is a result of ink instability
that might appear during printing under the inuence of external factors.
5. The investigation data concerning the inuence of ink-lm thickness on wavelength charac-
teristics of a chalk paper imprint for triad main inks show that the reection coecient at
56
The Development of Methods for the Determination of Ink-Film Thickness
dierent ink-lm thicknesses changes at dierent wavelengths selectively. The increase in ink-
lm and pigment surface concentration leads not only to general brightness of the imprint,
but also to a change in the color hue and its saturation.
6. The possibility to objectively control the basic elements of the process mode (ink-lm thick-
ness, pressure and rate of printing) and knowledge of the peculiarities of interaction between
paper and ink allows one to consciously manage the printing process, i.e. to reach the given
optimal quality of the imprint
7. The method of infrared light absorption by ink-lm which we oered may be used not only
for investigation purposes but also for the industrial control of ink quantity supplied to an ink
machine and evenness of the ink-lm distribution along the formation of ink rollers.
8. Ink-lm thickness control devices enable one to obtain rapid information on deviations in ink
supply during the printing process, to note the tendency in ink supply changes and make timely
corrections to the process. It contributes to normalization of printing conditions. Stability
of ink supply does not necessarily guarantee the identity of production print, the quality of
which depends on many factors.
References
57
November 6, 2007
Session BI
Ingo Reinhold
Numerical Simulation and Investigation of Processes Present in AC
Corona Charging Systems
Ingo Reinhold, Stephan Jahn, Reinhard R. Baumann, Lutz Engisch*
Chemnitz University of Technology, Germany
* Queensland University of Technology, Australia
ingo.reinhold@s2001.tu-chemnitz.de
Abstract
The rapid development of todays commercial printing and graphic arts industry calls for higher
throughput and constantly rising imaging quality for a diversity of printing processes and machines.
One of the promising technologies for high-speed digital printing is xerography. To meet the per-
formance requirements for rapid charging of photoconductors, increased charge current is needed,
which is commonly achieved by applying AC corona charging devices.
This paper deals with the fundamental properties of AC corona charging systems. A 2D nite
element simulation is conducted to show the space charge evolution and resulting surface potential
of the photoconductor. Mechanisms leading to high current systems are identied and discussed with
respect to lateral deviations observed in experiments using unexposed charged photoconductors.
Introduction
DC corona discharge systems were already studied in the 1920s and are an essential component in
many application areas [1]. However, these discharges suer the disadvantages of low current and
high ozone generation at higher operating voltages. Eciency of these types of discharges may be
increased by removal of electron-catching compounds generated during the processes as pointed out
in [2, 3]. Also increasing the applied voltage may lead to higher current but also exhibits the risk
of breakdown.
AC discharge systems oer higher charging currents at the expense of a more complicated power
supply design. However, the non-deterministic processes occurring as a result of the physical and
transient nature are not fully understood on long time scales.
The presented paper is aimed at building understanding of the expected eects leading to a high
current AC corona charging device and the possible resulting lateral and temporal deviations result-
ing from these physical phenomena. A 2D nite element analysis of a simplied model is presented
pointing out possible sources of experimentally observed eects.
Theory
Corona discharges are based on the properties of charged bodies exposed to a high external electric
eld. Through a sucient energy gain by being accelerated as a result of a body force, electrons
may eventually ionize the gas through impact ionization. Ions, due to their low mobility, may not
contribute to the process, but reduce the number of the electrons produced in avalanches through
recombination and attachment.
Following Trinh et. al, corona discharges may be categorized by various modes, resulting in dierent
current characteristics [4].
DC corona
In DC systems the unipolar charge current is made up of ions oppositely charged to the sign of the
applied voltage. Therefore impact ionization is the major process is positive systems, while negative
ions originate from electron attachment processes if the stressed electrode is on a negative potential.
62
Numerical Simulation and Investigation of Processes Present in AC Corona Charging Systems
+
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+
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
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-
-
-
-
negative positive
stressed electrode
shield electrode (bias -/+)
ionization zone
drift zone
insulator
radial streamer
y
x
axis of symmetry
Figure 1: Depiction of the simulated geometry and basic processes occurring in corona discharges
Burst corona is a result of the ionization activity along the stressed conductor, where generated
positive space charge decreases the eld, thereby suppressing the discharge until positive ions are
removed through drift and the gradient eventually rises above the critical value to initiate a new
avalanche. Onset streamers occur due to the creation of positive space charge in the beginning
of the partial breakdown. The positive ions enhance the eld and attract surrounding avalanches.
Therefore a streamer develops far into the drifting zone with the electrons ahead of it. Glow is
observed when the applied voltage is insucient to create radial development of ionization activity
and therefore connes the discharge to a small portion of the space around the stressed electrode.
A weak kHz contribution to the resulting DC current originates from the lateral movement of the
ionization activity along the conductor surface. Breakdown streamers arise when the applied voltage
is further increased leading to higher penetration of the drift zone with elevated intensities. As a
result spots of higher positive ion concentrations may be observed along the wire surface.
Trichel pulses have been observed in negative corona systems. The slowly moving positive ions
and faster moving negative charges reduce the eld around the conductor to below the threshold
value, forcing the discharge to stop. A delay time is needed to remove enough positive ionic space
charge and raise the surface potential gradient above the critical value, resulting in a pulsating
current characteristic. Negative pulseless glow has been extensively treated by Williams [5]. This
kind of homogenous discharge, especially at higher driving voltages due to more ecient removal
of ionic space charge, exhibits four localized regions: cathode fall region, glow, Faraday space and
positive column. Negative streamer discharges at higher applied voltages exhibit essentially the
same mechanisms as the negative pulseless glow, but with the formation of streamer channels into
the positive column.
AC corona
In AC coronating systems ionic space charge of a certain polarity is generated during the respective
half cycle. According to Trinh the above given modes of DC discharges may be also observed
63
Ingo Reinhold
in AC systems and are therefore also applicable here. The current comprises two dierent parts
[6]. A part synchronous with the frequency of the applied voltage, which arises from mainly glow
discharges and therefore exhibits low values, and an impulse current, having high magnitudes from
the propagation of streamers. At low amplitudes of the applied voltage the current of the negative
half wave dominates through the lower value of the onset eld. However, with increasing peak-to-
peak voltage, positive streamers contribute strongly to the resulting current.
Modeling
Many attempts have been made to simulate AC excited discharge processes. As may be seen from
the aforementioned modes and physical processes, an overarching model is hard to accomplish.
Simplications have been proposed in the literature to employ various numerical techniques, such
as equivalent circuits, charge simulation methods [7, 8] and nite element methods [9, 10] with ux
corrected transport [11, 12] or the method of characteristics [13].
For the undertaken numerical investigations the following assumptions apply
The volume expansion of the ionization zone is neglected and the generated charges appear
directly on the conductor surface.
The charge injection process is simplied using the approaches of Rajzer and Oshawa [10, 14].
The generated species during a half cycle are of positive polarity in the positive and negative
in the other half cycle, respectively.
There are no interactions such as recombination within the drift zone.
The retroactivity of the deposited charges on the photoconductor is neglected. The deposited
charge can be therefore calculated from the charges leaving the contemplated space.
Transport
For this investigation a simple model was used to simulate the movement of the charge carriers from
a glow discharge conned to a small region around a stressed, cylindrical electrode. The electron
motion was neglected for simplicity and rougher time stepping [15]. The transport of ions then is
controlled by gradients, e.g. diusion and a volume force, e.g. drift through the electric eld. Since
we calculate the amount of injected space charge on the basis of the breakdown eld at the surface
of the stressed conductor, a conservative form of the transport equation may be utilized, as done
by Karpov [9]. The transient problem may be described by the following equations
c
t
+(Dc
) = 0 (1)
(
r
) +
c
+
c
0
= 0 (2)
where c is the concentration for the dierent ions, t is time, D is the diusion coecient, is the
mobility, E is the electric eld strength, is the scalar electric potential, e is the elementary charge,
0
is permittivity of free space and
r
is the permittivity of the medium around the conductor.
Since the space charge alters the local eld, Poissons equation must be solved simultaneously.
Charge injection
For convenience we follow the studies of Rajzer and Ohsawa [10, 14] and choose a coaxial cong-
uration to assess the amount of injected ionic space charge. According to Abdel-Salam et. al the
dierent onset values are given by E
onset
=
_
A
+B
r
0
_
, where is the surface roughness
factor, A and B are constants taken from [16], and r
0
the outer radius of the coronating wire.
64
Due to the simplied geometry the electric eld strength in the system is analytically given by
E(r) = V/ (r ln(R/r
0
)), where V is the applied voltage and R the distance between the wire and
the photoconductor or shield respectively. Using r = r
0
and the equations for E
onset
an expression
for the onset voltage V
c
may be deduced. Using the results by Rajzer for this simple conguration
enables a description of the injected charge in each half cycle.
c
=
_
4
0
R
2
|V V
c
|, |V | |V
c
|
0 otherwise
(3)
Boundary conditions
The boundary conditions where assigned to a rectangular domain, as in gure 1. The shield is set
to a certain voltage and the wire loaded with a sinusoidal voltage V (t) =

V sint. The bottom side
of the photoconductor is on ground potential, while the left and the edges as well as the outlets are
considered to have only a normal component in the electric eld strength, e.g. n = 0. For the
charge transport equations we superimpose the concentration from equ. 3 on the wire surface, e.g.
absorbing conductor, and convective ux on all other boundaries.
Implementation
Figure 2: Evolution of the positive space charge in the rst discharging period (logarithmic depiction)
The afore explained problem was implemented in Comsol Multiphysics using the standard tools
provided by the software package for geometry modeling and meshing.
The values for the dierent regions were chosen to be consistent with Karpov [9]: frequency (f)
7000 Hz, amplitude (
V ) 7500 V, permittivity of free space (

0
) 8.85 pF/m, permittivity of the
photoconductor (
r
) 5, mobility of the ions () 2 10
4
m
2
/(V s) and diusion coecient (D) 5.3
10
5
m
2
/s.
Articial diusion was used for the convection-dominated problem to stabilize the solution [17].
Results and discussion
The 2D nite element simulation of the above described model yielded the pictures seen in gures
2 through 3.
Figure 2 depicts the progress of the positive ion density in the rst discharging full wave. (a)
shows the initial constitution having negligible background ionization and is followed by the eld
enhancement. Consecutively (b) displays the distribution right after ignition, which, due to the
driving electric eld is moving outward (c). As the now decreasing applied voltage is incapable
of sustaining the critical gradient at the surface of the wire (d) is the point of termination in the
positive half wave. As can be seen from (e) and (f) the density propagates in a circular shape
through the space surrounding the wire, but experiences increasingly dispersion due to the eld
gradient within the ion cloud and concentration gradients at the outer boundaries. Additionally the
65
Ingo Reinhold
highly asymmetric eld distribution in y-direction causes the cloud to bulge out into the direction of
the higher potential gradient. The local eld enhancement of the space charge in connection with the
voltage of the shield electrode results into a ux along the region of higher concentration. Thereby
the characteristic cross is formed within the shield, leaving a bead shaped remanent positive ionic
space charge at the beginning of the next discharging period (see g.4 left).
The development for the negative ion density, as depicted in gure 3, is similar to the one in
gure 2. This time the major potential gradient is between the wire and the shield instead of the
photoconductor. Therefore the circular shape bulges into this direction, leaving also a bead shaped
remanent negative ionic space charge above the wire (cf. g.4). In this case the eld enhancement
through the negative space charge in connection with the shielding electrode connes the negative
ions almost completely to the upper half of the investigated geometry.
Figure 3: Evolution of the negative space charge in the rst discharging period (logarithmic depiction)
The boundary conditions where assigned to a rectangular do-
main, as can be seen in gure 1. The shield is set to a certain
voltage and the wire loaded with a sinusoidal voltage
V(t) =

Vsin(t) (8)
The bottom side of the photoconductor is on ground potential,
while the left and the edges as well as the outlets are considered
to have only a normal component in the electric eld strength, e.g.
n= 0 (9)
For the charge transport equations we superimpose the con-
centration from equ. 7 on the wire surface, e.g. absorbing wire
surface, and convective ux on all other boundaries.
Implementation
The afore explained problem was implemented in Comsol
Multiphysics using the standard tools provided by the software
package for geometry modeling and meshing.
The values for the different regions were chosen to be con-
sistent with Karpov [13]: frequency ( f ) 7000 Hz, amplitude (
V)
7500 V, permittivity of free space (
0
) 8.85 pF/m, permittivity
of the photoconductor (
r
4
m
2
/(Vs) and diffusion coefcient (D) 5.3 10
5
m
2
/s.
Articial diffusion was used for the convection-dominated
problem to stabilize the solution [22].
The 2d nite element simulation of the above described
model yielded the pictures seen in gures 2 and 5.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(j) (i) (h) (g) (f) (e) (d) (c) (b) (a)
Figure 2. Evolution of the positive space charge in the rst discharging
period (logarithmic depiction)
Figure 2 depicts the progress of the positive ion density in the
rst discharging full wave. (a) shows the initial constitution hav-
ing negligible background ionization and is followed by the eld
enhancement. Consecutively (b) displays the distribution right
after ignition, which, due to the driving electric eld is moving
outward (c). As the now decreasing applied voltage is incapable
of sustaining the critical gradient at the surface of the wire (d) is
the point of termination in the positive half wave. As can be seen
from (e) and (f) the density propagates in a circular shape through
the space surrounding the wire, but experiences increasingly dis-
persion due to the eld gradient within the ion cloud and concen-
tration gradients at the outer boundaries. Additionally the highly
asymmetric eld distribution in y-direction causes the cloud to
bulge out into the direction of the higher potential gradient. The
local eld enhancement of the space charge on connection with
the voltage of the shield electrode results into a ux along the re-
gion of higher concentration. Thereby the characteristic cross is
formed within the shield, leaving a bead shaped remanent positive
ionic space charge at the beginning of the next discharging period
(see g. 3).
(a) 2 (b) 6 (c) 10 (d) 14 (e) 18
Figure 3. Development of the initial positive ionic space charge distribution
(logarithmic depiction)
(a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 11 (d) 15 (e) 19
Figure 4. Development of the initial negative ionic space charge distribution
The development for the negative ion density, as depicted in
gure 5, is similar to the comments made on gure 2. This time
the major potential gradient is between the wire and the shield in-
stead of the photoconductor. Therefore the circular shape bulges
into this direction, leaving also a bead shaped remanent negative
ionic space charge above the wire ( cf. g. 4). In this case the
eld enhancement through the negative space charge in connec-
tion with the shielding electrode connes the negative ions almost
completely to the upper half of the investigated geometry.
The boundary conditions where assigned to a rectangular do-
main, as can be seen in gure 1. The shield is set to a certain
voltage and the wire loaded with a sinusoidal voltage
V(t) =

Vsin(t) (8)
The bottom side of the photoconductor is on ground potential,
while the left and the edges as well as the outlets are considered
to have only a normal component in the electric eld strength, e.g.
n= 0 (9)
For the charge transport equations we superimpose the con-
centration from equ. 7 on the wire surface, e.g. absorbing wire
surface, and convective ux on all other boundaries.
Implementation
The afore explained problem was implemented in Comsol
Multiphysics using the standard tools provided by the software
package for geometry modeling and meshing.
The values for the different regions were chosen to be con-
sistent with Karpov [13]: frequency ( f ) 7000 Hz, amplitude (
V)
7500 V, permittivity of free space (
0
) 8.85 pF/m, permittivity
of the photoconductor (
r
4
m
2
/(Vs) and diffusion coefcient (D) 5.3 10
5
m
2
/s.
Articial diffusion was used for the convection-dominated
problem to stabilize the solution [22].
The 2d nite element simulation of the above described
model yielded the pictures seen in gures 2 and 5.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(j) (i) (h) (g) (f) (e) (d) (c) (b) (a)
Figure 2. Evolution of the positive space charge in the rst discharging
period (logarithmic depiction)
Figure 2 depicts the progress of the positive ion density in the
rst discharging full wave. (a) shows the initial constitution hav-
ing negligible background ionization and is followed by the eld
enhancement. Consecutively (b) displays the distribution right
after ignition, which, due to the driving electric eld is moving
outward (c). As the now decreasing applied voltage is incapable
of sustaining the critical gradient at the surface of the wire (d) is
the point of termination in the positive half wave. As can be seen
from (e) and (f) the density propagates in a circular shape through
the space surrounding the wire, but experiences increasingly dis-
persion due to the eld gradient within the ion cloud and concen-
tration gradients at the outer boundaries. Additionally the highly
asymmetric eld distribution in y-direction causes the cloud to
bulge out into the direction of the higher potential gradient. The
local eld enhancement of the space charge on connection with
the voltage of the shield electrode results into a ux along the re-
gion of higher concentration. Thereby the characteristic cross is
formed within the shield, leaving a bead shaped remanent positive
ionic space charge at the beginning of the next discharging period
(see g. 3).
(a) 2 (b) 6 (c) 10 (d) 14 (e) 18
Figure 3. Development of the initial positive ionic space charge distribution
(a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 11 (d) 15 (e) 19
Figure 4. Development of the initial negative ionic space charge distribution
The development for the negative ion density, as depicted in
gure 5, is similar to the comments made on gure 2. This time
the major potential gradient is between the wire and the shield in-
stead of the photoconductor. Therefore the circular shape bulges
into this direction, leaving also a bead shaped remanent negative
ionic space charge above the wire ( cf. g. 4). In this case the
eld enhancement through the negative space charge in connec-
tion with the shielding electrode connes the negative ions almost
completely to the upper half of the investigated geometry.
Figure 4: Development of the initial positive (left) and negative (right) ionic space charge distribution (logarithmic
depiction)
Additionally current and resulting surface potential of the photoconductor were investigated. De-
termination of the current density at dierent positions between the wire and the photoconductor
clearly reveal the inuence of the shielding electrode. Therefore the current below the wire shows
increasingly a positive oset of the synchronous current with increasing distance from the wire,
indicating the major current to originate from positive ions. The resulting surface potential, mainly
arising from positive ions, therefore settles at +40V being a factor of 10-12 lower than experimentally
measured values.
Conclusion
The paper presents a model for studying an AC corona discharge used in xerographic printing
systems. The assumptions shown in sec. dene a system, where the main mechanism for ion
generation is a glow regime. As shown, the resulting surface potential of the photoconductor is
obviously lower, though overestimating charge concentrations, than the measured values, leading to
the conclusion that glow discharge is not the major mechanism for charge carrier production.
The current of the positive half wave gains according to Amara et. al [6] in importance with
increasing peak-to-peak voltage, due to additional streamer discharge. Trinh [4] furthermore stresses
66
the signicance of remanent space charge, which is obvious from our simulations, for the development
of breakdown streamers, which are not fully conductive and do not lead to a breakdown of the gap.
As a result of these streamers local dierences in ion concentrations are present on the surface of
the wire, but lead to no noticeable dierences in current [4]. However, observations have been made
in investigations on dielectric barrier discharges in coaxial congurations, e.g. spontaneous pattern
formation along a high-voltage stressed wire. Guikerma [18] observed a stronger random placement
of laments with increased amplitude of the applied voltage. Visual evidence of these mechanisms
was also given by van Veldhuizen [19].
The undertaken simulations suggest that glow discharge is a background eect in AC corona systems
using blank conductors as stressed electrodes. Therefore high currents are produced by positive
streamers, whose random distribution throughout space may lead to variations in photoconductor
potential.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Matthias Hackert and professor Andreas Schubert for software
provision and support.
References
[1] M. Goldman, A. Goldman, and R. S. Sigmond. The corona discharge, its properties and specic
uses. Pure & Appl. Chem., 57(9), 1985.
[2]Akio Kasuga, Yasushi Hoshino, Makoto Omodani, and Fumihiro Koike. Air ow eect on corona
discharge characteristics. NIP13: Int. Conf. on Digital Printing Technologies, 1997.
[3] A. Yehia, A. Mizuno, and K. Takashima. On the characteristics of the corona discharge in a
wire-duct reactor. J. Appl. Phy. D, 33, 2000.
[4] N. G. Trinh. Partial discharge XX. Partial discharges in air: 1. Physical mechanisms. IEEE
Electr. Insul. Mag., 11(2), 1995.
[5] E. M. Williams. The Physics and Technology of Xerographic Processes. Krieger, Florida, 1993.
[6] K. Amara, A. Goldman, M. Goldman, and R. S. Sigmond. Current imbalance and charge
build-up on insulators in ac air coronas. In 3rd Int. Conf. on Conduction and Breakdown in Solid
Dielectrics, 1989.
[7] M. Abdel-Salam and S. Abdel-Sattar. Calculation of corona V-I characteristics of monopolar
bundles using the charge simulation method. IEEE Trans. on Electr. Insul., 24(4), 1989.
[8] K. Adamiak. Simulation of corona in wire-duct electrostatic precipitator by means of the
boundary element method. In IEEE Ind. Appl. Soc. Annual Meeting, 1, 1991.
[9] S. Karpov. Electrohydrodynamic ow modeling using Femlab. In Comsol Users Conference,
2005.
[10] A. Ohsawa. Modeling of charge neutralization by ionizer. J. Electrostatics, 63(6-10), 2005.
[11] G E Georghiou, R Morrow, and A C Metaxas. A two-dimensional, nite-element, ux-corrected
transport algorithm for the solution of gas discharge problems. J. Appl. Phy. D, 33(19), 2000.
[12] G E Georghiou, R Morrow, and A C Metaxas. Two-dimensional simulation of streamers using
the FE-FCT algorithm. J. Appl. Phy. D, 33(3), 2000.
[13] T. Zhao, S. A. Sebo, and D. G. Kasten. Calculation of single phase ac and monopolar dc hybrid
corona eects. IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, 11(3), 1996.
[14] J. P. Rajzer. Gas Discharge Physics. Springer, 1991.
[15] C. Humpert. Modellierung des dynamischen Verhaltens von Oberchen-Barrierenentladungen
und der Ozonerzeugung. PhD thesis, TH Aachen, 2002.
[16] M.Abdel-Salam and E. Z. Abdel-Aziz. Corona power loss determination on multi-phase power
transmission lines. Electric Power Systems Research, 58(2), 2001.
67
Ingo Reinhold
[17] COMSOL AB. Comsol muliphysics users guide. Stockholm, 2006.
[18] J. Guikema, N. Miller, J. Niehof, M. Klein, and M. Walhout. Spontaneous pattern formation
in an eectively one-dimensional dielectric-barrier discharge system. Phys. Rev. Let., 85, 2000.
[19] E.M. van Veldhuizen and W.R. Rutgers. Corona discharges: fundamentals and diagnostics.
Frontiers in low temperature plasma diagnosis, 2001.
68
Color Changes in System Motive Digital Photography Digital Printing
Color Changes in System Motive Digital Photography Digital
Printing
Marko Stupi, Ivana Pavlovi, Miroslav Mikota
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Graphic Arts, Getaldieva 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
picart@gmail.com
Abstract
For the last 30 years photography covers approximately 2/3 of all illustrations in graphic products.
In the last ten years there were exceptional technological changes as in technnique of photography as
well as in techniques of graphic reproduction. In illustration photography today digital photo system
dominates from the phase of shooting through editing till of prepress and photo illustration is usually
realised in dierent digital printing techniques. However, semantic and syntactic characteristics of
photography as medium and illustration technique remain unchangeable. In transmission of message
(information) the main technological task is correct color reproduction.
In this paper color changes in system motive digital photography digital printing are analyzed
through color dierence determination the Munsell x-rite ColorChecker is shooted in Adobe RGB
color space using dened light temperature, white balance and exposure elements, than the picture
was rendered in sRGB color space and printed in Indigo printing technique.
The same motive shooting editing printing system is used for the real photo motive and
the prints are estimated visually. The results contribute in estimation of concrete photographic
illustration but as well point out problems in objective numerical measurements used in estimation
of photographic illustration. The results also point out the high association value of photography
and photographic illustration as a medium and conrm the fact of unchangeability of communication
characteristics of photographic illustration regardless of technical changes.
Key words: digital photography, food photography, Indigo E-print, color dierence
Introduction
Now-a-days photography is the most frequently used media of picture advertising. Over 70 % of
all imprinted pictorial illustrations are taken out in photographic techniques. The reason that is
so are both the basic semantic and syntactic characteristics of photography as a media and its
reproducibility in most various chains of graphic reproduction. Using both its indexical, iconic and
symbolic character, photographic techniques realize pictures which are trusted the most, pictures
which the consumer accepts as real and as a realistic review of the object represented. With that,
especially today in the digital age, photography oers endless possibilities of picture manipulation.
Food represents one of the oldest photographic motives since the beginnings of photography in
the 19
th
century, food has been a frequent motive realized through various photographic approaches
to still nature. In time, still nature has become a somewhat less frequent photographic motive,
and food as a photographic motive is being more and more realized through advertisement, and
generally, illustrational photography.
In the technical sense, the problem of color reproduction is emphasized as the basic problem in
realization of food photography it is indispensable to monitor those changes from the original
(object), through the taken and the processed photography to the one realized through printing.
By that, it has to be taken into consideration that through dierent phases completely dierent
techniques of color synthesis and color spaces are used. Changes in color through dierent phases
of photographic illustration realization will be monitored through this work (in the object-digital
photography-digital print system) and a visual evaluation of a realistic illustration food photogra-
phy known motives will be added. An associated value of photographic illustration in the territory
of food photography will be evaluated through analysis.
69
Marko Stupi
Theoretical Part
Digital photographic camera
Today digital photographic cameras are a combination of highly developed precise mechanics, op-
tics and electronics. The body of the digital photographic camera insures arrival of light on the
photosensitive media (sensor) in the exact dened time ("exposure time") by opening the lid after
pressing the trigger. Exposure times are given in parts of second, or in seconds in case of a longer
exposure. Professional digital photographic cameras provide automatic and manual TTL light me-
tering systems (that is, determining elements of exposure) possible through the lens of a camera
(TTL through the lens).
Modern professional photographic cameras are built in a way that while shooting the photographer
feels the slightest possible dierence between the "classical" and "digital" technology so that the
work logic would be as similar as possible, and technical, the equipment compatible. That is why
modern professional digital photographic cameras are built to suit professional "classical" photo-
graphic cameras with their appearance and their exterior performance. Of course, in performance,
for the photographer-user there are series of dierences between "classical" and digital photographic
cameras. Digital photographic cameras, that is to say, has to posses a series of functions that make
possible dening elements of photographing that are in the "classical" photography dened along
with the selection of lm (black-white or color, white balance, color space, etc.), and digital picture
recording (digital picture format, resolution, compression). The essential dierence between "clas-
sical" and digital photographic cameras is in the photosensitive media that they use - at "classical"
ones it is lm, and at digital it is CCD (Charged Coupled Device) or CMOS (Complementary
Metal Oxide Device) sensors (1). At CCD as well as at CMOS sensors it is a question of series of
photodiodes which represent one pixel on a nished photograph. A pixel on its own does not have
its physical shape and size; it is in fact an electric charge (a signal) which originates by alighting
single diodes (elements) of photosensitive sensor. Nevertheless, when speaking about the sensors
resolution of the digital photographic cameras, it is dened as a number of pixels on a denite
surface that suits the number of elements of the photosensitive sensor (2, 3). When light reaches
the photodiode, a certain charge appears on it which manifests itself and by it a digital picture
format is gained. At CCD sensors the signal manifests itself in series - one after another for each
sensor element (photodiode) and before a new exposition all the signals need to be evidenced by
reinforcing signal - row after row. At CMOS sensors each sensory element is addressable on X and
Y axis and each sensory element has its own electronic complex, and practically, the signals from
all the elements are evidenced at the same time. That is the reason why CMOS sensors are "faster"
- they make shooting of a larger number of continuous photographs possible and waste up to 400
times less electric energy than CCD sensors. Besides, another advantage of CMOS sensors is that
they directly, as an exit signal, give digital signal, while CCD sensory exit signal is analogical. That
is the reason why today CMOS technology prevails in digital photographic cameras. (2,4)
CCD and CMOS photodiodes are sensitive to the whole visible part of the spectrum. Meanwhile,
to gain color photography certain diode needs to be "sensibilized" only to blue, green or red part of
the spectrum (by analogy to color photographic lm). The most frequent solution to this problem
now-a-days is achieved so that a blue, green or red lter is placed in front of each element (diode)
- after the so called Bayers pattern after which on two "green pixels" comes one "red" and one
"blue". Software of the photographic cameras for each pixel also takes in consideration the value
of neighboring pixels and by that each pixel has R (red), G (green) and B (blue) "information",
and the data that presents digital format of the taken photograph is gained by interpolation. The
alternative solution to Bayers pattern is Foveon X3 sensor which uses silicon characteristics that
in various depths of layer omits various wavelengths what makes RGB entry of picture possible
(5). However, this solution creates a series of problems, rst of all concerning resolution and in
professional digital photography now-a-days Bayers pattern prevails (interpolation).
70
Entry formats and white balance As main specics in shooting with digital photographic
camera in relation to "classical" one, picture entry format and white balance selection can be
pointed out. Entry formats can be without or with data compression. When shooting with a
format without data compression RAW format is used today because it enables maximum entry
quality, but it also takes a lot of memory space and it presumes preprocessing of the photograph
(cooking). JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group) format with compression is more frequently
used because it reduces size of data, but, with enlargement of compression, and data loss. It is
generally considered that motives such as portrait "endure" bigger compression that for example
architecture photography, technical and product photography.
Optimalization of color reproduction in dependence of color temperature of the source of light is
achieved by suiting the white balance (White Balance - WB). In fact, selecting the white balance
has the function of selecting the source of light combination color lm correctional lter with
"classical" color photography. By selecting the white balance, the photographer has the possibility
of using automatic white balance, one of the in advance dened, manual determinations of white
balance on a white surface or suiting of the white balance towards the color temperature of the
source of light. White balance can also be used as a creative element of photography.
Preparation of the digital photographic camera for shooting also considers selection of color space in
which the photograph is being recorded. Professional digital photographic cameras, in most cases,
oer the possibility of recording in a wider (Adobe RGB) and in a narrower (sRGB) color space. In
standard it is recorded in the wider- Adobe RGB color space and transformation into the narrower
color space is carried out in the processing of the digital photograph (2).
Basic photograph pre-editing and editing
RAW formats of photograph entry today are not universal, but they depend on the manufacturer
of a digital photographic camera (2). Although most of these formats can also be pre-edited in the
newer versions of Photoshop usually they are rstly downloaded in an adequate program for pre-
editing in which the parameters of the photograph are dened (that is, the ones set at shooting are
accepted or changed) mainly the ones connected to tones, colors and sharpness and then pre-edited
photograph is saved in one of the standard formats, most frequently JPEG or TIFF.
The basic editing of photographs above all considers dening color space. The total color space that
can be experienced in reality is essentially larger than the color space that can be marked by taking
photographs with a photographic camera, shown on a monitor or realized by printing. Nevertheless,
the human brain can accept a picture as real even when it is realized in such a limited color space
what in the end enables accepting photography as a media that can "realistically" show reality.(6)
Now-a-days, in photographic practice the sRGB (standard RGB) color space is the widest. It was
dened in 1996 by Microsoft and HP with the original idea to enable all the monitors to show colors
equally. This space is particularly limited in the area of cyan-green although in most cases that
does not cause problems in taking photographs, while the sensors of digital photographic cameras
can "record" those colors, manufacturers of professional photographic cameras, with the possibility
of working in sRGB color space, also enable working in a considerable wider Adobe RGB color
space. (2,1)
Meanwhile, as the most of the exit equipment (monitors, printers, projectors etc) "see" colors in
sRGB color space, usually, during downloading pictures in editing program color space is redened in
sRGB color space. Redening color space or "overturning" colors from one color space to another is
called rendering. There are more approaches to rendering, that is, intentions of rendering: rendering
by absolute colorimetrical intentions, rendering by saturated intentions and rendering by perceptual
intentions.
For overturning colors of taken photographs (adobe RGB) into sRGB color space rendering by per-
ceptual intentions is used, and it is also called photographic rendering. The basic idea of rendering
by perceptual intentions is to overturn colors from one color to another in a way that experienced
(perceptually) the whole impression of the picture changes as less as possible although there comes
71
Marko Stupi
to certain colorimetrical changes of color.
For that less saturated colors change less, and the saturated colors change more, compose into
a smaller color space, but by insuring the distinction of all colors of the wider space and in the
narrower color space.(7)
To make rendering possible, besides intentions of rendering, the model of calculating "calculator"
("engine") of color has to be determined. Although the basic idea for such calculating is that it
must be standard, various manufacturers oer various methods (for example Apple, Microsoft, Agfa,
Linotype, Kodak, Adobe). Considering that, in the territory of digital photography, Adobe Photo-
shop has pointed out as a professional standard for working in the digital photographic laboratory,
as a standard model Adobe (ACE) is selected. The alternative is Microsoft icm with practically
neglected dierence in rendering results. (6)
Indigo print
Indigo E-print technology is one of the technologies that have primarily pointed out as one of the
current solutions in digital print territory for producing smaller colorful personalized prints. Printing
procedure by Indigo E-print technology can be divided into seven phases: electric charging of the
photosensitive drum, exposing the photosensitive drum with a laser, depositing of liquid ink onto
the photosensitive drum, picture developing, picture (ink) transfer onto the substrate and cleaning
the photosensitive drum of leftover ink (8).
In the rst phase the photosensitive drum (its cover "PIP" Photo Image Plate) is uniformly
negatively charged (-800 V). After that the laser exposes the charged drum on the places where the
ink needs to be accepted a break out of negative charge comes on those places and they become
more electropositive (-100 V). With that a latent picture is formed on the photosensitive drum.
After that, from the ink storage ink is pumped to the jets which deposit the liquid ink into the
spaces between the photosensitive drum and the development drum which is charged with - 400 V.
Ink, which is located between the photosensitive and the development drum is aimed towards the
more positive charge and is accepted onto the laser exposed places of the photosensitive drum, and
not onto the unexposed ones (that part of ink is accepted by the developmental drum from which
it is taken o by a steel knife and it is then returned to the storage). Because the ink is liquid,
it needs to be xed on the photosensitive drum by depositing mineral oil, pressuring and with the
activity of the electric charge.
The result is a picture of a uniformed ink deposit (6 m) which is conveyed to an oset cylinder
which is positively charged (500 V) and heated (app. 140). Due to the heath of the oset cylinder,
there comes to evaporation of mineral oils, and polymerization of pigment particles and the ink that
forms the picture on the oset cylinder is no longer liquid, but sticky. The picture is conveyed from
the oset cylinder onto the substrate by pressure.
The last phase is cleaning the ink leftovers from the photosensitive drum by exposing the LED
diode the charges are "erased" and a mechanical-spongy roller deposits a layer of mineral oil which
is afterwards taken down along with ink leftovers with a rubber knife. The damaged photosensitive
drum is then ready for a new cycle and the deposit of the second toner this printing technique is
based on yellow, magenta, cyan and black printing.
Experimental part
In the experimental part of the work is, in terms of measuring and visual evaluation, the analysis
of the realization system of food photography by using the digital photographic system and digital
print. For the measuring analysis the standard color table Munsell Color x-rite ColorChecker
has been taken with halogen lighting and suitable white balance by sensitiveness 100/21 ISO and
elements of exposition determined by TTL system with segmented light measurement: exposure
time and the aperture opening 5,6. For the shooting digital photographic camera Canon EOS 5D
with resolution 12,7 MP and 28 mm lens with 2,8 light strength was used. The photograph was
72
taken in a RAW format in an Adobe RGB color space. A realistic photographic motive was taken
in the same way food composition (lemon, orange, tomato, cucumber) to an average consumer of
known colors.
The taken photographs were then downloaded, preprocessed in the Digital Photo Professional pro-
gram and opened in the Photoshop program by rendering color space (Adobe RGB into sRGB) with
rendering by perceptual intentions and Adobe (ACE) color calculator. The photograph of the color
table and the realistic motive were then realized with Indigo print technology. The gained prints of
the color table were measured with spectrophotometer X-RITECOLOR Digital Swatchbook L, a
and b values were determined and color dierences (E
00
) for cyan, yellow, blue, green and red were
calculated. The photograph of the realistic motive was visually evaluated with 1 - 5 evaluations.
Twenty people were examined in the visual evaluation with standard conditions (ISO 3664).
Figure 1: Photograph of food
Figure 2: Munsell Color x-rite ColorChecker
The results
Table 1 shows E
00
color dierences in relation to values of the color table which are given by
taking photographs, editing and printing.
Table 2 shows the results of the visual evaluation.
73
Marko Stupi
Table 1: Color dierences in relation to the object (standard color table)
E
00
E
00
E
00
(Original - shooted) (original - edited) (original - printed)
C (cyan) 5,87 9,19 9,78
M (magenta) 3,53 4,62 6,38
Y (yellow) 1,34 1,61 5,12
R (red) 5,69 6,84 6,48
G (green) 2,88 3,13 5,61
B (blue) 4,72 7,09 7,70
Table 2: Visual evaluations of realistic food photography (1-5)
Evaluation without Evaluation with Evaluation by
seeing the object object by recollection direct comparison
4,9 4,8 4,5
Discussion and conclusion
Shooting results with obvious color changes, but for recorded color, dierences are in the limits
(E < 6). A further change comes while pre-editing and processing photography, which is above
the else, result of selecting method of rendering (alongside perceptual intent) which basically reects
total experience of color, and does not retain colorimetric values. Through this phase (rendering in
new color space) color changes signicantly. Color dierences regard of colors of the objects exceed
the limits E < 6 for area of cyan, red and blue. However, phase of shooting and editing implies
author approach to photography, and author-photographer on the visual evaluation, "accepts" or
"does not accept" the photo. When printing the photo, color still continue to change, and the result
is dierences between color of the object and printed photo, on limits or over limits of E < 6, what
means that color dierences in direct comparison are extremely visible. However, visual evaluation
of food photograph indicates that consumers even in those color changes accept it as the fact of
reality, although they see the dierences in real object and photo.
The hypothesis of high degree of associated value of photo, which is used also in illustrated photo-
graph of food, realized through digital photography and digital printing is validated, with result of
great creativity freedom for author-photographer.
References
[1] M. Mikota, R. Kular, Z. Jeci, Digitalno snimanje u podruju primijenjene i umjetnike fo-
tograje, 9. meunarodno savjetovanje tiskarstva, dizajna i grakih komunikacija - zbornik radova,
Graki fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu, Ogranak Matice hrvatske Senj, Intitut za celulozo in papir,
Lovran, 2005.
[2] T. Ang, Digitalna fotograja, Znanje, Zagreb, 2004.
[3] V. Kropar-Vanina, M. Mikota, Boje-prirunik za vjebe, Graki fakultet Sveuilita u Zagrebu,
Zagreb, 1992.
[4] L. R. Carter, Digicam History, http://www.digicamhistory.com (2006)
[5] V. Mead, X3 technology, http://www.foveon.com (2006)
[6] F. Mueller, Barvni prostor in druge malenkosti, http://www.fotograja.com (2007)
74
[7] A. Rodney, Color Management For Photographers, Focal Press, Burlington, 2005.
[8] N. Hopper, Digital Printing Phenomenon, New Printing Technologies Symposium Proceedings,
Tappi, Atlanta, 1996, 31
[9] P. Walchili, A Novel Approach To Ink Jet Film (Or Paper) Media Granting Highest Resolution,
Fast Drying And High Durability, Recent Progress In Ink Jet Technologies, IS&T, Springeld, 1996,
254
75
Maja Ostoji
Expansion of e-learning in University of Zagreb and projections for
the future
Maja Ostoji, Tina orluka, Alen Okanovi
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Graphic Arts, Getaldieva 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
ostojicka25@gmail.com
Abstract
The goal of this research was to create a poll and conduct it among students of University of Zagreb.
With this poll we tried to determine eects that classes based on e-learning had on students and
to answer critical questions imposed with implementation of these fairly new learning methods.
Questions that preoccupied our attention were: what are the advantages and disadvantages of e-
learning methods; how well do students and teachers accustomed to classic learning methods adapt
to e-learning based methods and how to ease process of adaptation; what sorts of matter are suitable
for classic learning by comparison with those suitable for computer and internet based education;
are in fact multimedia materials more interesting and accepted than e-books and PDF tutorials.
Introduction
E-learning
E-learning (electronic learning) is a term that can be described as any learning method that includes
use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) as well as internet. Its not a very
specic claim because it would be hard to t all of the aspects that e-learning implies into one
simple denition. What makes it so hard to narrow down the description is a variety of tools,
software and multimedia resources used in its implementation.
Types of e-learning
Educational processes dier depending on the way in which knowledge is transferred from teacher
to learner. That implies to educational processes in e-learning as well, thus distinguishing its types.
Integration of information and communication tools with conventional ways of teaching (face-to-
face) is called blended or mixed mode. Distance education is another type of e-learning but can
be considered blended mode if learners are required to show up for examinations, consultations
or any other reason. Today many universities are developing and implementing Virtual Learning
Environment (VLE) and Managed Learning Environment (MIS) in order to oer some classes or
complete programs on-line. Terms asynchronous and synchronous can be used to describe dierent
types of activities and communication technologies used in e-learning. For example, educational
web sites, forums, wikis, blogs and e-mail are asynchronous because participants dont depend on
each others time schedules and do not have to participate in the same activity at the same time. On
the other hand synchronous activities, such as virtual classroom or meeting, presume simultaneous
participation of all interested parties.
Tools for e-learning
Another wide aspect of computer and internet based learning are tools needed for its implemen-
tation. Its a large category that includes software used in creating, hosting and using e-learning
materials. Web-browsers, collaboration tools used for routing messages among learners, editing
programs for sound, video, animation or other media, content converters, all t in this category.
When it comes to more demanding projects that include a lot of on-line courses and materials the
best solution are server based systems such as learning management system (LMS) and learning
76
Expansion of e-learning in University of Zagreb and projections for the future
content management system (LCMS). These provide easier management and administration of e-
learning courses. Course management system (virtual-school system) provides classroom experience
on the Web. Here is a list of some of the available e-learning platforms:
Free: ATutor, Claroline, Dokeos, KEWL, Moodle, Sakai Project
Non-free: ANGEL Learning, Authorware, Blackboard, Captivate, Brihaspati, Tooling Uni-
versity, FirstClass, Knowledge Forum, WebCT, Xmind, TutorVista
Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
There are many benets in E-learning methods and the most signicant are associated with ones
freedom in creating personalized learning schedules, choosing preferred learning methods and media,
accessibility to digital libraries, archives and whole Web, accessibility to students with special needs,
distant learners etc. Initial costs for implementing E-learning methods are considerable but in the
long run, as more and more learners use on-line course materials it pays o. There are of course
drawbacks but most of them arent caused by principles of E-learning itself but by for example
incorrect application and use of the technology. Another disadvantage often used in attempts to
discredit this unconventional learning method is its lack of face-to-face (F2F) interaction with a
teacher but there are several other types of communication like e-mail, discussion forums, audio
and video web-conferences that partially or completely replace conventional F2F ways.
Trends in e-learning
Advances in modern science and technology happen daily and are constantly followed by develop-
ments in Information and Communications Technology. That directly inuences E-learning methods
because with stronger hardware, software and faster internet connections lot of rich multimedia con-
tents become more accessible and attractive to wide range of people. Due to their great importance
in e-learning eciency standard forms of media such as audio and video are improving and some
new ones like voice recognition, force feedback, immersive simulations and embedded systems are
in development.
E-learning in Croatia
While e-learning is developing rapidly in many countries, here in Croatia the situation is not so good.
There are many examples of implementing information and communication technologies in conven-
tional learning methods but none that show real potentials of e-learning. There are no universities
that oer distance learning and very few that oer quality mixed (blended) learning. E-learning
materials mostly consist of graphics and text that is not nearly enough to reach standards in high
education of other, more developed countries. However, there are several important projects that
are probably going to push things forward. Four years ago Croatian Academic and Research Net-
work CARNet opened e-learning Academy (ELA) with three programs: E-learning Management,
E-learning Tutoring and E-learning Course Design. The University Computing Center (SRCE)
and CARNet (in colaboration with Edupoint magazine) also oer oer on-line IT courses. Newly
formed e-learning committee from University of Zagreb worked out a strategy for implementation
of e-learning methods in high education practice in period of next 3 years. The purpose of this
strategy is "to create a positive and stimulating environment for the development and systematic
implementation of e-learning at the University of Zagreb" by supporting teachers, students, de-
velopment of human resources, educational contents, basic and specic infrastructure and other
necessary activities. E-learning committee has set a high standard of expectations for themselves
and hopefully faculties will accomplish intended educational goals.
77
Maja Ostoji
Poll and Results
1. Which semester of your study do you attend?
1. 1-2 27%
2. 3-4 25%
3. 5-6 22%
4. 7-8 26%
2. Do you have computer at your current residence?
1. Yes 84%
2. No 16%
3. Do you think of computer as education tool?
1. Yes 95%
2. No 5%
4. Your internet connection speed?
1. Modem 13%
2. Adsl 42%
3. Direct cable connection 45%
5. How many hours do you spend on the internet?
1. 0-1hour 24%
2. 1-2 hours 53%
3. 3-4 hours 16%
4. 4+ hours 7%
6. For which purpose do you use internet?
1. Fun, free time 51%
2. Communication 30%
3. Informing 12%
4. Studying 7%
7. Have you ever heard a term e-learning ?
1. Yes 84%
2. No 3%
3. Not sure 13%
8. How many classes that you have attended used e-learning system?
1. None 44%
2. 1-5 53%
3. 6-10 3%
4. 11+ 0%
9. Which kind of media have you used the most?
1. Text and picture 90%
2. Sound 0%
3. Video 8%
4. Interactive multimedia content 2%
10. Value the eciency of the media that you have used!
1 0%
2 2%
3 7%
4 79%
5 12%
11. Have you regularly done all of your assignments?
1. Yes 64%
2. No 36%
12. Was the time exibility and content accessibility in e-learning system suitable for you?
78
1. Yes 88%
2. No 12%
13. How long did it take for your professors to reply to your questions via e-mail?
1. Few hours 7%
2. One day 85%
3. Few days 8%
14. Is that kind of communication suitable for you or you prefer face to face contact?
1. Via e-mail 40%
2. Face to face 60%
15. Where did you use the e-learning system the most?
1. Home 73%
2. On college 24%
3. Internet caf 3%
16. How would you like to continue your education?
1. Only classic lectures 18%
2. Combination 76%
3. Only e-learning 6%
Data Analysis
The poll was conducted among equal number of students from each faculty and each year of study.
One student from each faculty was contacted and was asked to conduct the poll among few of his
colleges.
30 faculties 4 years 5 students = sample of 600 students
Because of few problems and unexpected research development, overall number of questioned stu-
dents is a bit lower than predicted and it reached the number of 520 examinees. That is sucient
number to create a big picture of current status that involves e-learning education at University
of Zagreb. Research showed that 50 % of all faculties have some sort of tools for distant learning.
Among those faculties, only few of them have highly developed e-learning systems and they are
somehow involved in technical or information science.
A great number of students use internet capabilities mostly for fun and communication purposes
that are not involved in faculty obligations. Poll results shows that the students are capable to
use internet and e-learning as well on daily basis. The number of 7 % of students that actually
use internet for studying could be signicantly increased by the faculty devotion for e-learning
development to be more interesting, intuitive and easy to use learning tool.
79
Maja Ostoji
During e-learning sessions, examinees were usually interacting with simple media such as text and
pictures and only insucient number with advanced type of media even though their network infras-
tructure allows them to use much more. Internet connection that students use has enough capacity
for its expansion and usage of more complex types of media like video content and interactive ap-
plications. As it was expected most of the students knew something about e-learning or at least
heard about it. Only half of them actually used it on few classes during their education.
One of the biggest disadvantages of this kind of learning is individual work and therefore lack of
control and authority during the studying process. This leads to the situation in which student
leaves all the obligations to resolve in the last moment. Even though they acknowledged time
exibility as advantage, which gave them more freedom in, planning and studying, a third of them
found themselves in unfavorable situation as direct consequence of that problem.
The advantage of this system is fast communication between student and professor and it depends
on professors dedication to frequent system and individual student monitoring. Research showed
that the professors are usually responsible and they respond to students problems and questions in
normal period of time. It is important to point out that the need for face-to-face communication
is not decreasing but is actually still favorable way of resolving a problem. Some problems can be
resolved only in direct communication between student and professor.
The answer on the last question projects the future itself of e-learning in higher education in
Croatia but also in the world. E-learning, just as classic education, has its pros and coins but
80
with combination of those two systems education is brought up on higher level and its quality rises
and becomes more suitable for faster adoption of new information. As diagram shows, during the
learning process, worst results were made using only one media (text, picture, sound). However,
combining those media including their mutual supplementation they eect learning process in a
good way.
We predict a bright future for e-learning systems in Croatia, a country that is on its way to modern
information society because a great number of young people accept new technologies, fast and easily,
and uses them in advance way.
Solutions
Nowadays students are mostly part of generation that grew up using modern technologies including
internet and its applications. It is found through this poll that the answer to the question Why do
only fty percent of all colleges on University of Zagreb have some kind of e-learning based system?
is very simple. There is a little or no knowledge at all about dierent methods of human learning
and about e-learning systems and its capabilities among older professors. There should be a team
made of college employees and students on each college that are ready to provide e-learning system
to large number of students and others that show interest. The main goal of such team should be
implementation of e-learning applications, content production, content standardization and techni-
cal problem solving. Once the system is up and running the need for people and time to resolve
81
Maja Ostoji
eventual problems will signicantly decrease.Technological base for resolving many disadvantages of
e-learning systems exists. For example, poll showed that one of the main issues is student-professor
communication and lack of face to face contact. A fast internet connection on which our examinees
consume internet content allows organizing a video conference. For example combining that with
interactive internet applications could be a good way for fast and real-time problem solving between
student and professor about complex mathematical equation.
Conclusion
E-learning is a modern way of education which involves computer, internet and multimedia mate-
rials. This study was focused on University of Zagreb and its students who worked with this kind
of studying tool. 50 % of faculties use some kind of e-learning system, which is not a negligible
amount of students but it is still a long way to go. With the correct strategy, students desire for
knowledge and an existing network infrastructure in a few years Croatia could have high education
that combines classic and e-learning methods. Mere recognition of e-learning benets is a signicant
and big step forward in our educational development. University of Zagreb made that rst step but
the real work is just beginning. It is important not just to realize all plans considering University
of Zagreb but also to become a catalyst of change and improvement in all Croatian universities as
well as primary and middle school institutions throught the country.
References
[1] William Horton and Katherine Horton, E-learning Tools and Technologies; Wiley Publishing,
Inc., 2003.
[2] Don Morisson, E-learning Strategies; Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2003.
[3] Group of authors, E-learning strategy 2007-2010; University of Zagreb, 2007
82
Session BII
Michael Espig
Physical characterization of a new liquid toner system
Michael Espig
michael.espig@s2000.tu-chemnitz.de
Abstract
After Metcalfe [6] and Mayer [7] had discovered independently how to develop electrostatic
images by using a charged suspension back in the late 50s, toner did attract quite a lot of interest.
Liquid toner contains charged, colored units, which are suspended in a nonconductive liquid. Within
an electric eld these particles perform a movement towards the electrodes of the opposite polarity
throughout the dispersion. However, due to their signicantly smaller particle size in comparison to
dry toner systems, liquid toner can attain a far better resolution in printing. Because of that and
the capability to produce pure, transparent color this toner is predestinated for usage in high-quality
color printing and related applications.
Chemnitz University of Technology and associates are developing a new formula to design a liquid
Carbon-Black toner that is based upon a polymer modication and functionalisation. The purpose
of the present paper is to characterize physical properties of the new toner-compound and examine
its behaviour in electric elds. A static and dynamic ratio of charge to mass will therefore be
prioritized in research. The assays of model-toner will be evaluated by comparison to a commercial
liquid toner.
Theoretical approach on composition and function
In general understanding toner constitutes a special printing ink, that contains besides the color-
giving ingredient also a eld-sensitive component. Basically liquid toner can be separated from dry
toner which is is again dierentiated between one- and two-component systems.
Liquid toner ranks among the Colloids. In these systems substances are distributed as single
molecules, molecule aggregates or independent phases within a continuous medium, that is desig-
nated as the dispersion-agent of the incoherent system [3, p. 105]. Commonly rm toner particles
are dispersed with a concentration of 0,5% 4% within the the carrier uid. The dispersion con-
tains furthermore so called Charge Directors (CD), which consist of freely mobile charge carriers.
The following illustration shows the generic components of liquid toner by means of one particle in
suspension:
The carrier uid ensures the electrophoretic movability of the dispersed particles. Therefore it has
to be non-electroconductive, lowly viscous, easily volatile, toxicologically inoensive and chemically
inert as well be endued with a high dielectric permittivity [2]. Within the suspension toner particles
and Charge Directors are comparably insoluble and freely mobile.
vehicle
Charge Director (CD)
Control Agent (CCA)
pigment
dispersing agent
84
The dispersed particles again consist of several components, which are usually bound by polymers.
The used bonding agent should accordingly be colorless and fulll the requirement for fusing on
substrates. Hence thermoplastic resins, that oer amphiphilic characteristics, are frequently used.
Thus on the one hand the color-giving pigments and Charge Control Agents (CCA) can be embedded
while on the other hand the adhesion on paper is achieved as well. In order to suppress neutralization
processes, the suspension can often be enriched for further attribute development by additives.
The specic characteristics of liquid toner are therefore determined by the composition of its parti-
cles and in addition by colloid-chemical appearances at the boundary interface of particles among
themselves and/or to the dispersing agent.
Comparing the addressed kinds of toner, the particle charge crystallises as the substantial distin-
guishing feature. With dry toner systems the emergence is based on tribocharging, that occurs at
interfaces of solid states. The cause lies here in dierent energy levels and occupation states of
the materials. With liquid toner however the charge leads back to chemical bonds. Since the non
polar dispersion indeed contains no water, which is able to generate charge carriers by dissociation,
various theories have been developed to explain the incident:
Thus for example exists the model of the electrochemical bilayer, which is formed at the interface
of opposed charges. Characterizing this charge allocation dierent statements after Helmholtz,
Gouy Chapman and Stern must be distinguished [3, p. 76, ]. Fundamental varieties are here
in the description of a rigid, diuse or joined layer model, that in result leads to diverse dierences
of potential [1, p. 197].
There are additional models that exist besides the mentioned electrochemical bilayer. With a
sucient material concentration in the nonpolar dispersion for instance it comes to an independent
self-organization of Charge Directors. They aggregate toward a micelle around one counter-electron,
where the non polar hydrocarbon chains of these surfactants face outwards [10, p. 210]. If micelles
penetrate the electrochemical bilayer, charged places on the particle surface and charged micelles
emerge due to dissociation in a complexation-mechanism. This manner is one way to explain the
charging of particles.
Alternatively the acid-base-theory describes the charge-mechanism, which takes place by adsorption
of alkaline CCA at the acidic surface places of a toner particle. The thereby released proton-
transition in the acid-base-interaction process leads to the charge emergence and in response also
to the balancing process of CCA-desorption.
Other beginnings for charge generation concentrate again on the theory of the simultaneous equi-
librium, according to which as per Kitahara [4] the additive of ionic surfactants releases a partial
dissociation. The in such a way developing ions are stabilized by solubilication in the existing mi-
celles. These cause the emergence of charge on the particle surface onto the adsorption equilibrium.
Larson [5] however regards the ion-exchange between itself independently ionizing Charge Director
Micelles and particles as the central charge-mechanism, that is controlled by the micelle-ionization
balance [8]. Finally though it is not possible to postulate a complete explanatory approach out of
it in order to fully describe the emergence of charge for liquid toner.
Concept of polymer toner Carbon-Black
At Chemnitz University of Technology the aim is pursued to establish a procedure for the production
of stable Carbon-Black suspensions. Hereunto an already well-known method for the cross linking
of silica gel particles with Polyvinylamine (PVAm) is being transferred to toner particles, as shown
in gure 1 [11].
After interlacing with PVAm the pigments are functionalized in a second operating phase, in order
to selectively change determined characteristics of the soot suspension. The hydrophobic polymer
Polyisobutylenecarbonacidanhydride, well-known as PIBSA, is utilized for that purpose. By diver-
sifying specic chain lengths or embedding additional branches it is possible to increase dispersion
stability through hydrophobization of the system. This enhancement goes back to the formation
of a covalent bond. Such occurs again, if a amide between the amino groups contained in the
85
Michael Espig
Figure 1: Schema of interlacing soot pigments with PVAm 9095 [9, p. 12]
Figure 2: Schematic illustration of polymer toner Carbon-Black
PVAm-backbone and the anhydrides of the PIBSA is developed by secession of water.
Due to the hydrophobic branches a minimum space between particles is preserved, which limits
reciprocal eects of particles among themselves, as gure 2 symbolizes. Thus equally the agglom-
eration of toner particles in suspension is prevented and a long-term stability over several months
is expected.
In contrast of being stored into large wax units the gas soot pigments of the Chemnitz toner
model are thus interlaced by ne, long-chained polymers. By these also the formation and coinage
of designated characteristics for dispersion stability and runnability is achieved in the process of
functionalization. At conventional toner systems these properties are adjusted by addition of CCAs,
CDs and further additives.
Criteria for characterization
Apart from the charge emergence liquid toner can be characterized particularly on the basis of
physical criteria. Among the most important attributes rank here the size and its allocation as
well as the morphology of the dispersed toner particles. Beyond that characteristics like viscos-
ity, sedimentation stability and surface tension of the suspension aect its behavior in printing
considerably.
For toner functionality however the electrical properties are essential, which can be characterized by
conductivity, the electrophoretic mobility, the Zeta Potential and the charge to mass ratio (Q/m).
The assay of the developed polymer toner within electric elds is the central emphasis of the practical
part of this work.
Results of selective measuring systems
Several samples of the polymer toner Carbon-Black were used during practical examination, which
distinguish from each other by an pH-value, that had been adjusted in the course of synthesis into
the groups pH 3, pH 4.2, pH 6.5 and pH 8. It is further to mention that all experiments were
accomplished with interlaced toner samples, which had not received the named functionalization
yet. An industrial Cyan toner from the Research Laboratories of Australia functions as a reference
model.
With recourse to SEM exposures the size of the synthesized particles can be classied between
50 100 nm. Concerning the morphology of those soot pigments it can be recognized that the
86
(a) mass dierential (b) charging progress
Figure 3: Characteristic patterns of RLA cyan with c = 2% at R = 2,4 M
interlacing with polyvinylamin-9095 does not cause noticeable change of the surface nish. With
the specic surface however a signicant correlation becomes evidently. With rising pH-values this
mass-referred size decreases clearly.
While the analysis of viscosity and surface tension lead to positive results, the sedimentation be-
havior of all samples revealed itself very obviously to be unsatisfactory. The immediate coagulation
of the dye particles results to the fact that an employment under printing conditions is not possible.
To keep in mind however this obstacle can be resolved by the addressed hydrophobization during
the functionalization process.
For determination of Q/m-values, which can be understood as a measure for eld sensitivity, plate
electrodes are used. Working similar to those of a capacitor they are arranged in vertical or hori-
zontal manner and situated within a toner vessel. By impressing a voltage a homogeneous eld is
produced, which results in a electrophoretic movement of particles. If charge carriers attach to the
electrodes, their appropriate part by weight does not contribute any longer to the total mass of the
toner vessel.
By means of mass developing it is possible to dierentiate this curve and determine t
max
at m(t) = 0
in order to lter out the moment of maximum toner accumulation, as shown in gure 0.3(a).
This point describes the signicant toner reaction potential, which is sought-after to identify a
characteristic dynamic Q/m-value.
The ascertainment of transported charge (see 0.3(b)) however is achieved by integration of the
measured current. The following term 1 indicates the computation and leads to the designation
of the Q/m-ratio. A static consideration of toner mobility unlike harks back to total amounts of
transported mass and charge.
Q(t
i
) =
t
i
_
0
I(t) dt I
Rest
t
i
.
_
Q
= C. (1)
i counter
t
i
point of measurement
I
i
current of point i
I
rest
remaining current
The denition of a characteristic Q/m-value determines itself thus from progress of the charge
function as well by dierentiating mass data. The above illustration claries exemplarily two rep-
resentatives from the reference toner RLA cyan.
An evaluation of the results of measurement proves to be very diverse due to the multiplicity of
changeable parameters. Thus exists a proportional coherence between the electrophoretic mobility
and the applied eld voltage, which leads over the range from |100 V| |300 V| with increasing
voltage to a rising current. A similar behavior can be detected by the inuence of the concentration
value. Moreover all samples are subject to the eect of evaporation due to the volatile Isopar
87
Michael Espig
that is used for carrier uid . In order to ensure therefore a comparability, all examination and
environmental conditions such as temperature, air pressure and humidity must be kept as constant
as possible.
Conclusion and perspective
Nevertheless the operability for the new toner concept could be proven in principle for runnability,
which suggests for example excellent results regarding resolution and colorfastness. For a complete
survey however in order to occupy set up thesis additional printing research is of important relevance
apart from the physical characteristics.
References
[1] G. Barnes and I. Gentle. Interfacial Science An Introduction. Number ISBN-10: 0-19-927882-2.
Oxford University Press, The University of Queensland, 2005.
[2] R. Baumann, A.C. Hbler, S. Reuter, and L. Engisch. Ausgabesysteme 2; 10 liquid toner. lec-
ture script Institut for Print and Media Technology, Chemnitz University of Technology [pmTUC],
summer term 2006.
[3] G. Brezesinski. Grenzchen und Kolloide Physikalisch Chemische Grundlagen. Number ISBN
3-86025-016-7. Die Deutsche Bibliothek, 1993.
[4] A. Kitahara, A. Watanabe, and K. Kon-no. The concentration eect of surfactants on zeta-
potential in non-aqueous dispersions. Colloid & Polymer Science, 255: 1118, 1977.
[5] J.R. Larson, I.D. Morrison, and T.S. Robinson. A thermodynamic approach to liquid toner
particle charging and charge director ionization. In 8th International Congress an Advances in
Non-Impact Printing Technologies, page 193, IS&T, Springeld, VA, 1992.
[6] K.A. Metcalfe. Liquid developers for xerography. Journal of Scientic Instruments, 32: 74 - 75,
1955.
[7] Patent. US: 2877133 Electrostatic Photography. Mayer, E.F., 1957.
[8] S. Reuter, S. Franke, T. Zillger, and A.C. Hbler. Characterisation of liquid toners using a new
dynamic method. In IS&Ts NIP 19: International Conference on Digital Priniting Technologies,
number ISBN: 0-89208-247-X, page 138, New Orleans, September 2003.
[9] S. Spange, D. Piasta, and Bellmann C. A simple route for preparing amino-modied carbon black
pigment particles using the water-born poly(vinyl amine). Dyes & Pigments, 2007. not published.
[10] T.F. Tadros. Colloid Stability The Role of Surface Forces Part I. Number ISBN 978-3-527-
31462-1. Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim, 2007.
[11] I. Voigt, F. Simon, K. Estel, and S. Spange. Structure and surface polarity of poly(vinylforma-
mide-co-vinylamine) (pvfa-co-pvam)/silica hybrid materials. Langmuir, 17: 10:3080 - 3086, March
2001.
88
XML in Printing Applications
Michael Rubits
Rochester Institute of Technology, School of Print Media
69 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
E-mail: sponge@d8d.org
Abstract
My project proposes an alternative VDP workow using Extensible Markup Language (XML) and
existing Open Source software packages. XMLs focus of separating content from presentation
changes the workow signicantly: pre-press is driven by data rather than design, stressing data
integrity and asset organization. This focus, combined with various Digital Asset Management
systems, allows for greater exibility in quickly formatting the content for various print outputs,
web, mobile, e-mail, and feasibly any delivery device. In this paper I document the creation of an
XML VDP workow and how a common le can be transformed across various media. I will also
discuss the limitations to using the XML-FO format to handle the nal layout of the XML content.
Keywords: Variable Data Printing, Extensible Mark Up Language, Database Publishing, XML,
XML-FO
Introduction
The proliferation of low-cost digital presses has led to a signicant increase in the production of
Variable Data Print (VDP) projects. VDP spans the gamut from basic mail merge-type documents
to complex, high-volume transactional print (Sorce and Pletka 2006: 41-60). In the United States
alone, the VDP market is projected to grow to nearly 337 billion impressions by the year 2010
(Peck 2007). Though there are numerous VDP software packages available
5
, implementing these
programs require changes to existing production infrastructure, costly hardware and software, and
almost always, the adoption of a proprietary output formats. XML printing workows present an
interesting possibility for an alternative and more "open" variable data workow solution. Based
on this assumption, I attempted to create a new XML based VDP workow and tested the results
against an existing piece of VDP software.
XML Overview
Extensible Markup Language (XML), a exible markup language designed for large-scale electronic
publishing, was rst proposed by the World Wide Web Consortium in 1997. A simplied extension
of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML has become the backbone of many web
technologies including XHTML and RSS (Harold & Means, 2004).
The goal of XML is a perfect separation of content and presentation. When an XML document is
created, it is tagging semantically, with each tag describing the type of content it surrounds. The
document only receives its visual design when a style sheet, written in the Extensible Style sheet
Language (XSL), is applied to it. At that time the XML content is formatted based on the design
rules written for each tag. Therefore, a given document design (XSL) can easily be to create other
nal documents, provided that each XML document it is applied to uses the same tagging structure.
The use of XSL style sheets allows a single XML document to be published across multiple mediums.
Any output format (print ready .pdf, .html, .txt for e-mails, Wiki content, etc.) is viewed as a
presentation mode which specic XSL style sheets can be written for. The main XSL technology
written specically for print is XSL Formatting Objects (XSL-FO). This is an XML-based markup
5
Examples include Atlas Print Shop Mail, Document Sciences xPression, Exstream Dialogue, GMC PrintNet, Oc
Document Designer, Xerox FreeFlow VI Suite, and XMPie PersonalEect and uDirect
89
Michael Rubits
language that focuses exclusively on formatting printed documents, most commonly PDF. It allows
for ner control over page layout over than other XML based language. Thus in creating the XML
based VDP workow outlined in this document, the decision was made to use XSL-FO to format
the documents.
XML and VDP Print Publishing Workows
XML to Print Publishing Workow
The rst step in any XML workow is tagging the document as an XML le. The resulting le
is not a document in the traditional sense; as explained above, the XML le contains only the
semantically tagged content.
Figure 1: Basic XML markup of Hamlet
Using a Shakespeares Hamlet as an example (Figure 1), a play would be broken down into several
parts. The entire document would be wrapped in a tag that specied its document type. Then each
structural component of the play would be hierarchically tagged. The play has a title and author,
and a series of acts. Within these acts, there are several scenes. Inside each scene, there are spoken
lines, stage directions, and the setting of each scene. One could even use a tag to mark emphasized
words within each line. Tags can also include additional information. Note, for example, that each
line can be attributed to a dierent speaker.
Once the XML is constructed, the XSL needs to be built. This takes the XML as the input, processes
it, and outputs an XSL-FO document that can be rendered into a .pdf. This XSL document contains
all the logic that will dene the layout of the whole document. External content like pictures can be
pulled in from the local le system, from a network, or even from a dynamic script on a web server,
by passing nodes from an XML document as variables to a website. The XSL style sheet can either
be written by hand in a text editor or created using a number of dierent commercially available
programs. The nal step of this process is to take the XSL-FO and render it into the output of
choice, most commonly PDF.
VDP Print Publishing Workow
There are a wide variety of potential VDP workows, many featuring steps specic to the proprietary
software involved. However all of them share a general workow. Data must ow out of a database
and into a design template. Personalization logic, in the form of scripts, will be applied to the data
90
to customize the design. When it comes time to output the document, the data, design, assets, and
scripts will be rendered into a .pdf or a proprietary output format and sent to the digital press.
For example, with client side software, such as XMPies uDirect, the data is exported in the form
of a at, comma separated value (.csv) le. The .csv le is then imported into an Adobe InDesign
layout le via the uDirect plug-in. Once imported, the values of various database elds can be
added to the document or used, via a scripting interface, to manipulate the documents content
and design. From there the nal layout is dynamically exported to a printer ready le, creating a
unique page(s) for each record in the .csv.
Method
For the purposes of this project, a simple VDP postcard project was reproduced using both XMPies
uDirect software and an XML VDP Workow. The results were rendered to .pdf and then printed
on a Xerox Docucolor IGen3.
The test data set used was dummy data created by the Rochester Institute of Technologys School of
Print Media for Variable Data prototyping. The addressed postcard featured a number of points of
personalization including a personalized greeting and an image based on the gender of the recipient.
The postcard also featured a promotional message based on the individuals past buying habits.
Modied XML to Print Publishing Workow for Variable Data Printing
The only alteration to the previous discussed XML workow was how the core XML document
was created. The highly structured nature of databases easily lends itself to XML export. In the
process, each entry in a record was tagged with the corresponding eld name. For example:
Entry Last Name First Name Street Address City State Zip Gender
1 ALLEN AMANDA 1821 S. JACKSON, APT#52 GENESEO NY 32707 f
becomes:
<Customer record="1">
<firstName>Amanda</firstName>
<lastName>Allen</lastName>
<streetAddress>1821 S. Jackson, Apt#52</streetAddress>
<city>Geneseo</city>
<state>NY</state>
<zip>32707</zip>
<gender>f</gender>
</Customer>
Comparing the workows
In general, both workows produced visually identical results in approximately the same amount of
time. The bottleneck in each process was laying out the design and scripting the business logic. In
the uDirect workow, this was specically the time spent creating the le in InDesign. In the XML
workow, it was the time spent creating the XSL style sheet.
A dierence in the workows was where and how the personalization logic was inserted into the
process. In the XMPie workow, this took place through the plug-in scripting interface. In the VDP
workow, the decision was made to integrate that information into the original data set rather than
complicating the XSL style sheet. Embedding the personalization "intelligence" inside the data both
simplied the process and also made it easier to proof the overall integrity of the nal product. With
the modied data le one could easily see, while looking at the data, which promotional discount
each individual would receive. Using uDirect the only way to know was to call up an individual
record in the preview interface and conrm that the script had produced the correct result.
91
Michael Rubits
Cross media
Another point of dierentiation was the time it took to migrate the postcard content to the web.
In this respect the XML workow vastly outperformed the uDirect workow. The traditional VDP
workow essentially required the developer to start from scratch, developing individual web pages
for each record or integrate the data with some form of content management system. With the
XML workow, all that was required was creating a new XSL style sheet for the web output and
applying it against the XML document generated from the database.
Limitations to the XML workow
One limitation to the XML workow is the XSL-FO standard itself. The XSL-FO standard is
specically designed to meet the needs of "lightly designed" business documents. As such it has
a number of typographic and design limitations that prevent it from being used in more complex
design scenarios (such as when text needs to run around both sides of a picture). While the postcard
design was simple enough not to cause any signicant layout issues, a dierent layout would have
required either changes to the design or the use of an alternative formatting system such as TeX.
A second potential limitation to the XML workow is that it relies on a dierent set of Information
Technology skills that are generally not seen in your average printing company. There is a lot more
emphasis on traditional programming skills. As noted, due to the lack of a robust visual XSL-
FO editor, the XSL had to be hand written. This can make creating documents tedious at rst,
especially for those not versed in web development where this sort of workow is common. The
advantage to uDirect is that it allowed a traditional designer to accomplish most of the creation of
the postcard.
Conclusion
The XML VDP workow had several potential advantages over the traditional variable print work-
ow. First and arguably foremost is the adherence to open standards. XML parsers are available in
any language, and can interface with dozens of databases using industry-standard SQL, including
the freely available MySQL server. Other open source examples used in this project include the
Saxon parser used to transform the XSL and Apache FOP used to process the XSL-FO into a PDF
le. The source code to all these applications is freely available for download and modication,
adding support for whatever is needed.
As noted above, XML also has the potential to greatly reduce the time spent organizing and
executing cross media campaigns. Since your data source is identical in each output, and can easily
be reused across any amount of media, the process is simplied. Due to the power of the XSL
language, you are not necessarily limited to XML-based languages as output. For example, XML
& XSL can be used to create TeX documents, CSV for import into a spreadsheet program, and any
number of other text le formats.
There are also limitations. While the software needed to implement a workow is freely available,
it requires a dierent set of skills to implement. This can be seen as part of a broader integration of
Information Technology related jobs into the print shop. Additionally there are some programmatic
restrictions that could potentially limit the design complexity of a given VDP project.
Although the application of XML in print production is still relatively limited, it is a technology
that has excellent potential for growth due to its inherently open nature. There are limitations, but
even a small company could easily build industry-specic extensions based on their requirements.
Further, many of these companies are already integrating IT related services when they decide
to oer VDP options to their customers. XML workows allow the possibility for companies to
produce variable data and cross media publications at potentially a much lesser cost than some of
the traditional solution, and enables new links between the database and the document itself that
arent easily available.
92
References
[1] Barzelay, N. (2007) Upstream Database and Digital Asset Management in Variable Data Print-
ing (Processes, Tools, and Skills). Unpublished M. Print Media Thesis, Rochester Institute of
Technology, Rochester, NY.
[2] Harold, E., Means, W. S. (2004) XML in a Nutshell, 3rd Edition. OReilly, Sebastopol, CA.
[3] Peck, A. (2007) Outlook for Variable Data Print Growth in the US. Infotrends. Presented at
the Rochester Institute of Technology, September 27.
[4] Sorce, P., Pletka. M. (2006) Data-Driven Print: Strategy and Implementation. RIT Cary
Graphic Arts Press. Rochester, NY.
93
Anna V. Berdovchtchikova
Direct Laser Printing: Possible Future Trends in Digital Printing
Authors: Anna V. Berdovchtchikova*, Sergey N. Maksimovsky, Moscow State University of Print-
ing Arts (Russia)
The Direct Laser Printing Technology (DLP) is based on application of short laser impulses ( 10
nsec) over ink layer 4-5 m thick. The technology provides transfer of UV-ink drops 20 m in
diameter with 0,6 J energy consumption, similar liquid ink drops with 0,3 J energy consumption.
The achieved results allow creation of high-speed printing devices.
DLP utilizes Light-Hydraulic Eect (LHE) discovered in 1963 and Self Focusing Eect discovered in
1963. The essence of the LHE lies in the formation of a powerful acoustic pulse in liquid accompanied
by absorption of the short laser radiation pulse. This happens due to the fact that the duration
of the pulse aecting the liquid is so short that during its passage for a period from several to
several dozen nanoseconds only a very small quantity of liquid boils, while the rest of it remains
cold. But since a large energy density is injected into a small amount of liquid, a huge pressure of
up to hundreds of atmospheres is generated inside it producing an explosive shock in the rest of the
liquid and ejection of the cold drop.
For better understanding of LHE ink drop transfer process we should mark the boundary between
this eect and pure thermal interaction of laser beam with liquid.
The principle of creating a heat pressure impulse in liquid is widely used in ink jet printing machines,
providing drop-on-demand printing. Such devices stipulate heating of all ink volume (e.g. in a
capillary) therefore creating a superheated steam bubble. As a result a pressure impulse occurs and
an ink-drop is ejected.
In market printing devices of this kind ink is heated by thermal resistances, despite the fact that
many laser-created bubble eect patents where registered in recent 10-12 years by leading oce
equipment rms.
Regardless of the source of heat steam a bubble is created in 2-3 sec, and from the cost point of
view it is ecient to create bubble eect using thermal resistance, not laser beam.
For more complicated solution creation of digital printing machine laser triggered bubble eect
cannot be utilized due to low ejection frequency, low printing resolution and high dependence on
ink type. Let us explain the latter statement.
Liquid ink should be used for bubble eect creation. If viscous ink is used it will start to burn
during 2-3 sec required to create a bubble by a laser beam. At the same time such a long laser
impulse will lead to heat propagation in the ink layer behind the laser impulse spot, therefore not
allowing to eject a drop with a diameter less than 50 m.
LHE allows to create a pressure impulse in ink layer in 2-100 nsec, which is approximately two
times less than bubble eect pressure impulse. Since time required to create pressure impulse is
very small, the transferred into ink layer energy will not expand behind the laser impulse spot.
Only the size of laser spot determines size of ejected ink drops. Moreover size of drops and impulse
creation speed do not depend on ink viscosity.
In the DLP development process we investigated a number of laser beam - ink interaction schemes.
The schemes per US patent No. 6.270.194 and US patent 6.056.388 are of main practical interest.
The scheme per rst patent employs opportunity to eject ink drops from a thin ink layer deposited
on a laser-transparent quill cylinder. Its outside surface is covered by a laser-absorbing layer, which
is needed to level energy consumption on any color ink drop ejection. The absorbing layer (RF
patent No. 2174916) is an alloy of cylinder material and metal.
The scheme per second patent stipulates ink lling of cavities located on cylinder surface.
Every scheme has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, a cylinder with plain outside
surface is easier to manufacture than a cylinder with cavities. However, it is dicult to deposit
level ink layer on a plain cylinder. Energy consumption is less for ink ejection from cavities. Ideally
shaped dots are achieved when a laser-transparent cylinder with grid surface.
94
Direct Laser Printing: Possible Future Trends in Digital Printing
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
In fact nal design of DLP should combine best elements from both schemes. We conrmed exper-
imentally that energy consumption for ejection of 20 m viscous UV-ink drop from 4-5 m thick
layer equals 0,6 J, for a liquid ink drop of same size 0,3 J.
In order to understand the mechanism of laser impulse with ink interaction it was necessary to
dene the critical factor in the ink drop transfer process: whether it is energy exposure (H =
E
H
S
(where E
H
impulse energy, S square of radiated surface) or irradiance F =
P
i
S
(where P
i

impulse power).
For the above purpose we used two experimental devices with Nd:YAG one-mode lasers. One laser
was with a continuous wave-pumping and modulated q-factor, with impulse duration of 150 nsec.
The other laser was with an impulse wave-pumping, impulse duration of 15 nsec. Both lasers had
equal energy impulse, but impulse power is tenfold.
Measurements of cut-o energy (ET) required for even cross section area ink drop ejection showed
that it is approximately equal for both lasers, despite the fact that peak power per square unit
diered signicantly. The results showed that energy exposure plays main role in the ink drop
transfer process.
95
Anna V. Berdovchtchikova
In course of DLP research process we specied that increase of laser impulse frequency leads to
reduction of peak energy required to eject drops from ink layer and reduction of drop size.
Figure 3:
The graph in Fig. 3 shows correlation of laser impulse energy (E
i
) per impulse with impulse fre-
quency. It evidences that for frequencies >0,5 kHz E
i
decreases smoothly. When the frequency is
in the range from 2 kHz to 10 kHz, average impulse energy decreases approximately by a factor of
6, drop diameter approximately by a factor of 3.
In course of the research process we found out that when there is an up to 0,8 mm gap between ink
layer and the paper, shape and size of ink dots remains constant, with an approximately 1 mm gap,
ink dot grows slightly.
Conclusion and resume of the results
The achieved reproducible results of our research demonstrate the opportunity for creation of ex-
perimental printing device based on DLP. It is reasonable to start DLP realization with a small
printing width, e.g. in a device for UV-ink printing on plastic cards. It will allow increasing speed
of this process, and also eliminating ink ribbon, laminating ribbon and printing plates. Further it
is rational to proceed with the creation of DLP-based printing machines with wide printing width,
e.g. for exography. All technical implications for the above work already exist. In future based on
acquired experience it is possible to rollout the technology for high-speed wideband printing. Direct
laser printing, like "drop on demand" units, has no limitations as to the printed stock (paper),
while the productivity of electrophotographic units directly depends on the paper quality. Direct
laser printing has no limitations either as to the ink to be used, while the "drop on demand" units
impose very strict requirements on the ink quality and composition, and electrophotographic units
are very "fastidious" in regard to the toner quality.
96
Evaluation of Color Reproduction and Print Quality Elements of Ink-jet Prints on Uncoated Paper
Evaluation of Color Reproduction and Print Quality Elements of
Ink-jet Prints on Uncoated Paper
Marina Paulenka, Rahela Kular, Maja Stani
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Graphic Arts, Croatia
rinnci@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper deals with color reproduction and dierences and print quality elements of ink-jet prints
on plain oce paper. The printing technique used was drop-on-demand thermal ink jet. Samples
were printed on HP DeskJet 5150 printer with default ink types, CMY ink being dye and Black ink
being pigment type. Same ink settings were used for all the paper types, which assured that the
same volume of ink was transferred on every sample. Papers chosen were all plain uncoated oce
papers of various quality grades. The printed images consisted of GretagMacbeth ColorChecker
simulated charts and ECI Target Visual Layout test forms. General, surface and optical paper
characteristics were measured for the purpose of evaluating their eect on the color reproduction and
the print quality elements. Color reproduction characteristics and E dierences, as well as print
quality elements of samples were measured with spectrophotometer and densitometer respectively.
All the elds of Gretag Macbeth ColorChecker were measured and their L*a*b* and E values
were evaluated. Density and Dot Area elds (for cyan, magenta, yellow and black) of ECI Target
Visual Layout were measured and reproduction curves were plotted. Print quality elements, such
as Tonal Value Increase and Print Contrast were also calculated. The obtained spectrophotometric
and densitometric values were correlated to the paper characteristics.
Introduction
Ink-jet is a digital, non-impact printing technology. The image is created by directly jetting the
prescribed volume of ink through the nozzles onto the substrate. Ink-jet printing is most often
divided into continuous or drop-on-demand (DOD) methods. Continuous ink-jet is based on selective
deection of ink droplets, which are either left uncharged or become charged and thus they later
form the image on the substrate or are deected back into the gutter to be recirculated. Continuous
ink-jet systems can be constructed as either binary or multiple deection systems. Continuous
ink-jet is mainly used in industrial applications and solvent-based inks are mostly used. Drop-on-
demand ink-jet is far more used, and most of the development trends can be found in this area of
ink-jet technology. Drop-on-demand method, as its name implies, functions through release of ink
droplets only when they are needed to form the image on the substrate. Depending on the drop
formation process, drop-on-demand works on piezoelectric or thermal (bubble jet) technology. Inks
used are mainly of aqueous-based type. [1]
Ink-jet printing technology has made great progress over the past decades, considering both its
mechanisms and materials (substrates and inks). Other then being used in industry, manufacturing
and in large printing systems, ink-jet printers are present in vast majority of homes and oces.
It is also dominant technology for printing digital photographs. Since its inks are for most part
consisted of water, and their drying mechanism includes absorptive and evaporative drying [2], the
type of substrate has to fulll specic criteria in order to achieve quality prints. It is because of
that that quality ink-jet papers are mostly coated, and the coating layer (tailor-made to have the
best properties for specic ink type) serves as the receptive layer for the ink, on which the image is
created. In this case, the paper type used as a substrate, having the role of base layer that carries
the coating, has no inuence on future image color and quality properties. This is not the case when
printing on the plain, uncoated paper, mostly used in home and oce printing. In that situation,
the paper directly interacts with the ink and its properties (general, optical, surface) have great
inuence on the characteristic of the future prints. These characteristics include, among others,
97
Marina Paulenka
optical density/the ink layer thickness, color coordinates and color dierence, the dot geometry,
satellites, bleeding and feathering and wicking. In order to achieve optimum quality prints, the rst
parameter which has to be fullled is that XY-spreading of the ink on the paper has to be equal to
Z-penetration of the ink into the bulk [3]. This is aected by sorption and surface properties of the
paper, as well as by its composition, ink chemical content and colorant (pigment, dye) type. For
certain inks and colors, optical properties of the paper (whiteness, brightness and tint) can have
inuence on the colorimetric values of the resulting image.
Materials and Methods
The aim of the work was to apply, using ink-jet printing, the same amount of ink onto the plain,
uncoated papers of dierent quality and then measure some of the resulting image colorimetric
and quality elements. For purpose of this evaluation, the following materials and methods were
employed.
Hewlett Packard DeskJet 5150 color ink-jet printer was chosen as a printing machine. The chosen
printer is based on the drop-on-demand, thermal ink-jet printing technology. It utilizes both types
of inks, the dye-based CMY ink (HP Tri-color 57 Print Cartridge) and pigment-based Black ink (HP
Black 56 Print Cartridge). The substrates chosen were all from the same manufacturer but of three
oce quality grades (S1, S2 and S3). Single manufacturer was chosen as it was intended to rule
out the material and quality dierences among the same grades of paper as more as possible. The
S1 type was copy paper, S2 and S3 higher quality inkjet and premium paper grades respectively.
Additionally, to observe the ink-paper interactions for some of the less used plain papers, two papers
with higher grammages were used (B1, B2). They were also uncoated, listed as oce papers and
manufactured by the same company, but dierent one than the rst group samples. All listed
paper properties were obtained in the laboratory measurements and were checked in comparison
with the values from original manufacturers specications. For purpose of calculating the color
dierence among sample plain papers and specially made inkjet plain papers, the brand name
inkjet paper was used as reference paper (RF). Its role was to serve as a target value substrate, as
it was both uncoated and of similar general characteristics as the other oce papers and, due to its
specications, presumed to give optimum print quality when printed with ink-jet.
Figure 1: Paper L*a*b* values plot
The test targets used were simulated Gretag Macbeth ColorChecker table [4] for color charac-
teristics measurements and ECI 2002 Visual Layout CMYK Target [5] for optical density and tone
value increase (TVI) measurements. ColorChecker is a test target consisting of 24 patches in
98
Table 1: Substrates Characteristics
Paper Sample Code Reference
Paper RF
S1 S2 S3 B1 B2
Grammage (g/m
2
) 90,58 78,03 81,17 83,76 122,09 161,45
Caliper (micron) 113 105 110 110 147 190
Bulk (cm
3
/g) 1,25 1,35 1,36 1,31 1,20 1,18
CIE Whiteness
1
162,31 134,74 157,87 158,60 112,45 117,57
CIE Tint
2
-2,47 -1,34 -1,27 -2,55 -1,55 -0,69
Water Adsorptivity 82,29 36,55 40,42 52,59 43,44 48,13
(Cobb 120)
Roughness 470 615 435 563 487 515
(Bentdsen, ml/min)
L*a*b* Values (D65)
93,8 95,1 95 94,9 94,1 93,9
6,9 3,8 5,6 6,5 2,4 2,3
-16,3 -9,5 -14,8 -15 -5 -6,2
1
Calculated from the measured data with the formula W
CIE
= Y + 800(x
n
x) + 1700(y
n
y); calculated with
scaled Y value.
2
Calculated from the measured data with the formula T
CIE
= 1000(x
n
x) 650(y
n
y), sample is perceived white
if 3 < T < 3, positive value indicates green tint, negative value indicates red tint.
various colors. It includes colors that are usually harder to reproduce correctly (such as skin tones,
sky, foliage, bluish and greenish hues), colors of additive and subtractive synthesis (R, G, B, C,
M, Y) as well as an array of gray patches (white-neutrals-black). It is usually used in digital pho-
tography and colorimetric measurements, and its function in this work was to give an insight into
reproduction of highly ranging colors. The test target was not photographed; instead the digitally
simulated le was used.
ECI 2002 Target is more commonly used in print quality control, and it consists of 1485 small
patches, separated in 13 groups. In this work, the patches from group 7 (CMYK single color
step scales, from 100% to 2% coverage) were measured [6]. Both test targets were handled prior to
printing in Photoshop software. ECI 2002 Visual Target was printed as an TIFF untagged CMYK
le and ColorChecker target as digital TIFF 8-bit RGB le simulated from L*a*b* D50 data, and
was assigned its respective prole (sRGB IEC61966-2.1), according to manufacturers instructions.
No other printing preferences, that are dependant on paper type, were selected for printing and
thus the same amount of ink was transferred to all the sample substrates. This assured that the
measured color dierences and print quality characteristics were inuenced by paper properties and
not by the amount of ink, as the intention of this work was not in trying to obtain the best possible
print on each respective plain paper type but rather to observe the ink-jet prints characteristics in
relation to selected paper properties.
After printing all the samples, the L*a*b* values of all 24 patches of ColorChecker were measured
with Gretag Macbeth Spectrolino spectrophotometer and recorded. Using the E formula [7], the
color dierence E
00
was calculated and recorded. ECI 2002 Visual Target selected elds were
measured with XRite Color Digital Swatchbook densitometer (setting StatusE: reective) and their
D
i
and Dot Area values were recorded. The measured data was handled using the ColorShop 2.0
software. Tonal value increase (TVI) and Print contrast (PC) were calculated. All data recording
and handling from this point on was done in Excel software.
99
Marina Paulenka
Figure 2: ColorCheckerpatches
Figure 3: ECI 2002 Visual Layout CMYK Target
(group 7 marked)
The a*b* values of all 24 ColorChecker patches L*a*b* measurement results are shown in Fig-
ures 4 and g:Paulenka5. When discussing these plots, it must be taken into account that these
are only 2D projections of actual 3D color space, meaning that the L* component of each patch is
not shown here. This is most obvious when observing the gray patches (20 to 23), which lay in the
achromatic part of the spectra and have very similar a* and b* values, but distinctly dierent L*
values and are, when observed in 3D projection, far away from each other. The dots represent the
pairs of a*b* values of each patch on each paper type. In order to see the dots more clearly, they
are divided between two gures depending on their position in the spectra. However, the degree of
variation can not be compared between dots on two gures as their axes are not of the same scale.
Figure 4: ColorCheckerpatches L*a*b* values a*b* plot
As it can be seen in Figure 4, patches number 2, 3, 5 and 19 show more variation between all paper
types than patches 1, 4 and 24. Gray patches (20 to 23) values are even more dependant on paper
100
type; this can be seen from the formation of dots; the patches are not easily distinguishable one
from another, but paper types are. Generally, all patches show the same trend: S2, S3 and RF dots
are nearly always found more down and to the right (to the blue-red or purple part of the plot)
then S1, B1 and B2 dots. This is in relation with the a*b* values of the paper itself, which display
the same trend (see Figure 2).
Figure 5: ColorCheckerpatches L*a*b* values a*b* plot
In gure 5 the rest of the ColorChecker patches, the ones with a* and b* values positioned further
away from achromatic axis, are shown. The patches 15 to 6 (clockwise direction) and patch 16 show
more variation between all paper types than patches 7, 11, 12 and 14. If gure 1 is evaluated at
this time, it can be seen that patches with small variations are those having orange, green and some
yellow hues. On the other hand, those patches that have magenta, cyan, blue and purple hues show
the most variation. The patches that have red and clear yellow in them are in between these two
groups. The general trend of S2, S3 and RF dots being more to the down-right then the S1, B1,
B2 dots is also visible in Figure 5.
As the degree of variation between paper types could be seen on the a*b* plots in gure 4 and 5,
the gures 6 and 7 show the deviation between sample prints values L*a*b*and reference paper and
digital le L*a*b* values respectively. The color dierences values between reference paper print and
sample prints values showed that overall dierence is in the range of tolerance for most of the color
patches and paper types. The exceptions are the white and lighter neutral (grey) patches, as well
as the skin tones and bluish greens. The patches with smallest color dierences between reference
paper and sample papers are the color patches 8, 11 to 14 and 16. The comparison between the a*b*
values of the paper to the calculated color dierences of lighter colors (whites, neutrals) between
reference paper print and sample prints showed the biggest inuence of paper optical properties
on the resulting prints color properties. Correlation of these values to color dierences values gave
strong and very strong correlation factors.
The color dierence between prole (digital le data) and printed samples show that the dark neutral
patches, as well as purple, blue and dark skin patches have the highest overall color dierence values
on all paper types. Although this shows which colors diered most from the target values, it should
be noted that the printing preferences were the same for all paper types and specic printer/paper
type proles were not assigned.
101
Marina Paulenka
Figure 6: Color Dierence, Rf. Pap. vs Print E
00
Plot
Table 2: Density values of solid (100% coverage) CMYK patches, Tonal Value Increase for 50% patch and Print
Contrast values
Paper Sample D
i
D
i
D
i
D
i
TVI(%) TVI(%) TVI(%) TVI(%) PC (%)
Code C M Y K C M Y K
S1 0,95 0,84 0,81 0,92 30 20 17 20 25,77
S2 0,97 0,85 0,81 0,94 29 18 15 18 26,24
S3 0,97 0,87 0,81 0,95 30 20 16 20 26,28
B1 0,95 0,86 0,83 0,92 30 20 17 20 25,28
B2 0,93 0,84 0,82 0,91 29 18 17 19 25,38
RF 0,98 0,87 0,81 0,94 31 21 14 20 25,84
The densitometric measurements of solid and halftone patches of ECI 2002 Visual Layout Target
(Figure 3), as well as TVI and PC values calculated from them, showed that there are no large
dierences between paper substrates. The higher quality grades (S2, S3, RF) had somewhat higher
densities and B2 sample had the lowest density value. PC was also highest for higher quality
grades and lowest for the B group samples. TVI seemed relatively consistent on all samples and
reproduction curves (not shown here) were similar for all paper types.
Conclusions
From the examples of here observed plain paper ink-jet printed samples it can be seen in which colors
and to which degree the paper properties have inuence on obtained prints values. Considering the
results of all measurements conducted in this work, it can be concluded that ink-jet prints printed
with the same amount of ink on various plain paper types in dierent quality grades have values
which are, for most cases, comparative. Densitometric values and values calculated from them were
also comparative for all paper types.
102
Figure 7: Color Dierence, Prole vs Print E
00
Plot
References
[1] Le, H. P., Progress and Trends in Ink-jet Printing Technology, Part 1, Journal of Imaging Science
and Technology, 42 (1), 1998.
[2] Carr, K., Dyes for Ink-jet Printing, Colorants for Non-Textile Applications, Elsevier Science B.
V., 2000.
[3] erni M., Brako S., Inuence of Paper on Colorimetric Properties of an Ink Jet Print, Journal
of Imaging Science and Technology, 51 (1), 2007.
[4] http://www.babelcolor.com/, digital TIFF 8-bit le simulated from L*a*b* D50 data
[5] http://www.eci.org/
[6] Bestmann, G., Technical Recommendation Color Characterization Target and Data File Format
for 4-Color Printing, Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG, 2002.
[7] http://www.ifra.com/website/ifra.nsf/html/COLOR_QUALITY/$le/CIEDE2000.zip/, calcu-
lation of CIE DE2000
103
Miroslav Tejkl
Formulation of Water-based Inkjet Ink Using the Design of
Experiment Method
Miroslav Tejkl, Tom Syrov, Lenka Othalov
Department of Graphic Arts and Photophysics, University of Pardubice, Czech Republic
mirek.miroslav@gmail.com
Abstract
Our department has conducted a research of impact of pigment properties on optical properties of
jetted ink lm on a substrate. For this research, it was necessary to formulate test ink suitable
for printing with piezzo drop-on-demand inkjet printer. A water based ink system as mixture
of concentrate pigment dispersion, several low volatile organic liquid compounds, and deionized
water, was formulated. Easily available organic low volatile compounds were selected: glycerol and
triethylenglycol as humectants, Luviscol K90 (polyvinylpyrolidone) as polymer binder, Disperbyk
as non-foaming surfactant, butylglycolacetate as viscosity modier. Proportions of ink compounds
were reasonably constrained. The experiment was designed by simplex mixture method. Experiment
plan for seven components as factors contained 30 mixtures to be measured and tested in an inkjet
printer. The viscosity and surface tension of the inks, the density of printed area, the image quality
of the edges, printed area homogeneity, and back side of the paper homogeneity were measured,
operating printing nozzles were counted. The table with the plan of the experiment was lled
with measured data and the coecients of the polynomial quadratic model were estimated for
each measured value. Optimal ink formulation was found by maximizing of desirability function
dened by set of criteria. These empirical models failed to predict the properties of optimal ink
formulation. Additional information and conclusions were acquired from the experiment, usable for
further research and future experiment planning. Potential of the usage of the design of experiment
method for inkjet ink formulation research has been tested.
Water-Based Pigmented Inkjet Ink
In recent years, pigment-based inks have become more and more attractive for oce and wide
format inkjet applications. This is mainly due to the fact that pigments generally exhibit greater
light and water fastness properties than dyes used beforehand. This is enabled by ongoing progress
of dispersant development and pigment processing improvement in the last ten years.
Successful ink for inkjet process must negotiate a variety of chemical and physical processes, as well
as other important business considerations. This large number of constraints on the ink properties
leads to a complex design and development task. The resulting multi component ink formulations
try to maximize the ink performance at each stage. No perfect inkjet ink design has been achieved
yet. All commercial inks involve some trade-os of desirable characteristic.
To realize all desirable characteristic of inkjet ink let us split the use of inkjet ink into 7 stages, each
of which implies several considerations. Focused on water-based inkjet ink the general considerations
can be specied:
bulk ink manufacture: bulk ink cost, worker safety, environmental safety
in-printer bulk ink storage: unplanned chemical reactions, some evaporation, dispersion sta-
bility
in-printhead ink waiting: severe evaporation, unplanned chemical reactions
drop generation and placement: large pressure cycling, satellite drop generation, deected
drops, unplanned chemical reactions
ink/media interaction: 3D absorption, severe evaporation, planned chemical reactions
104
Formulation of Water-based Inkjet Ink Using the Design of Experiment Method
ink/media xing: maximum evaporation, planned chemical reactions
ink image end use: environmental exposures, mechanical handling, unplanned chemical reac-
tions
The water-based ink is generally a mixture of water as the main carrier, colorant and additives. The
colorant can be water soluble dye or more lightfast insoluble pigment in form of concentrated water
dispersion. Surfactants added to dispersion act as charge or steric stabilizers. The size of pigment
particles is below 1 m. The smaller the size, the more stable the dispersion and the higher the color
strength. The properties of ink are modied and tailored by additives. Humectants such as polyols
and polyethers are used to slow down main solvent evaporation. Non-foaming surfactants are used
to modify surface tension inuencing in-head behavior, drop formation, bleeding and print-through.
Soluble polymer compound can be added as binder of pigment on a substrate. Flow behavior can
be tailored by viscosity modier. Other compounds such as biocide, pH stabilizer, UV absorber and
free-radical inhibitor can be added.
Design of Experiment
To achieve desired ink properties the inuence of components proportions as factors has to be
understood. Common intuitive approach to examining system response to inuencing factors does
not ensure achievement of desired goals in limited time. Therefore, design of experiment methods
were developed to analyze complex problems inuenced by numerous factors. The intention is to
gain maximum information with minimum amount of experimental work. Employing statistical
methods the compact experiment plan can be designed and evaluated. System response can be
mathematically modeled and optimized according to set criteria. Gained information includes factor
relevancy, factor interactions, correlation of system responses etc. According to plan type it may
be additionally extended with more experiments to describe the real system more precisely.
Experiment Preparation
To gain knowledge about water-based inkjet ink formulations the patent literature was studied. The
problematic of disperse stability was discussed with VUOS, who are engaged in pigment milling
and preparing pigment dispersion. Easily available low volatile organic chemicals were selected
as compounds of formulated ink. Glycerol and triethyleneglycol were chosen as humectants to
slow down evaporation of water in print head. Luviscol K90 (polyvinylpyrolidone) was chosen as
polymer binder to x pigment on a substrate. Disperbyk, which is also contained in concentrated
pigment dispersion, was chosen as non-foaming surfactant to stabilize pigment dispersion and surface
tension modication. Butylglycolacetate was chosen as viscosity modier of polymer compounds.
Concentrated pigment dispersion was prepared by VUOS.
The constraints of proportions of components were set based on patented formulations (see Tab. 1).
Table 1: Proportion Constraints of Ink Components
Compound Max [hm %] Min [hm %]
Concentrated pigment dispersion 35 13
Glycerol 10 0
Triethyleneglycol 15 4
Luviscol K90 (polyvinylpyrolidone) 4,5 0
Disperbyk 2,5 0,5
Butylglycolacetate 12 0
The experimental plan was designed in MiniTab software. The second level of simplex lattice
mixture design for 6 compounds as factors was selected. Compounds were diluted according to
105
Miroslav Tejkl
upper constraint of compound proportions, so water was not considered as factor because it was
part of every compound solution. The overall number of experimental mixtures was reduced this
way. The three repetitions of central point and 6 axial points of experimental plan were added and
then overall number of experiment mixtures was 30.
Sample Preparation
Concentrated pigment dispersion was prepared by stirred milling in VUOS laboratory mill. Carbon
black pigment was milled with ceramic beeds, ionized water and Disperbyk surfactant until sub
micron particles were achieved. Particles above 200 nanometers were ltered out.
The dilutions of components were prepared by diluting with ionized water according to the upper
constraints of component proportions. Experimental inks were mixtures of these dilutions according
to designed experimental plan matrix of weight percent proportions. Total volume of each ink 20 ml
was stirred by high speed stirrer for 6 minutes. Sedimentation tests conrmed long term stability
of dispersion mixtures prepared this way.
Experimental inks were printed by Epson Photo Stylus R240 on 80 g/m
2
plain paper. Testing image
contained fully covered area with marked area, for measuring density, in lower parts of printed area,
where printing process is stabilized. Image was printed using both FastStone viewer (Windows
driver) with 3 pass printing mode and Quadtone Rip (free software rip for Epson printers) with
12 pass printing mode. Only Quadtone Rip printings were evaluated, but FastStone viewer prints
demonstrated ink behavior evolution in print head thanks to printing 3 passes with oset only 1
pixel. Constant or decreasing number of operating printing nozzles during printing was observed.
The nozzle test pattern was printed two times afterward.
Measuring
The properties of experimental inks were described by measured values which could be compared
and mathematically modeled. The ink properties of interest were: ow behavior, surface tension,
printing reliability, image quality properties of fully printed area and edges and print-through.
The ow curves of each ink were measured by Haake Roto Visco 1 viscosimeter with titanium
double gap sensor DG-43 and evaluated by RheoWin 3.30 software. The shear rate varied from 50
to 1600 rpm, temperature was set to 20.5. The ow behavior of experimental inks was close to
Newtonian liquids. The viscosity of inks was constant in all range of shear rates until turbulent
ow of ink in sensor occurred, causing viscosity increase.
Surface tension of inks was described by estimating a contact angle of the drop lying on a substrate.
The substrate was teon wafer with almost no polar component of surface tension. Therefore, the
dispersion component of the surface tension of the inks was examined. The shapes of drops were
captured by CCD camera and angle calculated by CAM 100 Optical Contact Angel Meter software.
Estimating of the value of surface tension of the liquid requires measuring on more substrates and
is more time-consuming. To compare experimental inks the contact angle is a sucient value.
Generally, the higher the contact angle, the higher the surface tension of the liquid.
The print reliability was described by the number of operating nozzles during printing. The test
pattern consists of lines for each nozzle. Lines printed by operating nozzles were counted. The
print head contains 90 nozzles per color. Examination of image quality of the fully printed area
included measuring density of the marked area on test image and calculation of standard deviation
of luminance of scanned testing image print. The density was measured by spectrophotometer
Gretag Macbeth SPM50. The standard deviation of luminance was calculated using Photoshop
histogram expanded view.
Examination of image quality of edges included calculation of MTF50 (modular transfer function)
of horizontal and vertical edges. The horizontal edges of testing image print were inuenced by ink
bleeding, the vertical edges where additionally inuenced by the amount of satellite droplets and
droplets misdirection. Therefore, only the horizontal edges were analyzed. The MTF50 value was
106
estimated using program Imatest v2.3.4. The MTF50 means lowest spatial frequency reproduced
with contrast 50 % and the higher the value, the sharper the edge.
The print-through of ink is the more disturbing the more inhomogeneous and contrasting is the
ink visible on the back side of the paper. To describe this, the standard deviation of luminance of
the scanned back side of the paper was calculated using Photoshop histogram expanded view. The
summary of the tested properties and corresponding measured values are shown in Tab. 2.
Table 2: Observed Ink Properties and Corresponding Measured Values
Ink properties Measured values Inuenced printing performance
Flow behavior Viscosity In-printhead behavior, printing reliabil-
ity and speed, droplets misdirection, ink
dot forming on substrate, print-through
Surface tension Contact angle In-printhead behavior, printing reliabil-
ity and speed, droplet forming, satel-
lite droplets forming, ink dot forming on
substrate, ink bleeding, print-through
Printing reliability Number of operating Print density and homogeneity, image
nozzles reproduction
Image quality of fully Density, standard devia- Image density, contrast, homogeneity of
printed area tion of luminance at areas and smooth gradients
Image quality of edges MTF50 of horizontal Image sharpness, resolution
edges
Print-through Standard deviation of lu-
minance of back side of
the printed paper
The contrast of ink visible on the back
side of paper
The table of the plan of the experiment designed in program MiniTab was lled with measured
values and analyzed. The polynomial mathematical regression model is empirical, because it is not
based on any knowledge about physical behavior of the ink system. The description of reality is
only partial but not useless. The coecients of linear terms of the model describe contributions
of unit change of a component proportions to the dependent variable value. Binary terms reect
synergic or antagonistic eect between two components of the formulation. For each of dependent
values the parameters of mathematical quadratic model were estimated by stepwise method. This
method minimizes the lack of t by removing or adding binary terms to model equation according
to their relevancy. The report generated by Minitab includes list of terms with factor values and
standard deviations, analysis of variances, statistics describing model relevancy like standard error
of regression S and R
2
and list of unusual observations with standardized residual greater than 2.
The residual plot for each response is also generated and includes normal probability plot, histogram
of residuals, residuals versus tted value plot and residuals versus observation order plot. For better
comparison the standardized residuals were plotted.
For example the results of regression of an ink viscosity are shown in Tab. 3. The values of standard
error S = 0.146 and coecient of determination R
2
=97.58 % indicate good t of the regression
model. The ANOVA analysis conrmed signicancy of the linear and quadratic part of the model
with p-values smaller than 0.05. The standard error of statistically signicant coecient is at most
one third of its value. This is case of linear terms, not binary ones. The residual plot does not show
any trend, the residuals distribution is normal which indicates that the mathematical regression
model is suitable.
Optimization is based on dening the desired response value acceptance ranges and priorities. The
result is a set of optimal parameters which represent proportions of components of optimal ink
formulation. The interval of acceptance is dened by target value and the lowest or highest less
107
Miroslav Tejkl
Table 3: The Example of Regression Coecients Estimated for Ink Viscosity
Term Coecient value Coecient standard error
Concentrated pigment dispersion 2,36 0,167
Glycerol 3,32 0,555
Triethyleneglycol 2,19 0,210
Luviscol K90 (polyvinylpyrolidone) 6,78 0,973
Disperbyk 2,50 0,500
Butylglycolacetate 1,87 0,241
Concentrated pigment dispersion * Lu-
viscol K90
4,88 3,092
Glycerol * Triethyleneglycol -6,29 3,099
Glycerol * Butylglycolacetate -8,53 3,099
acceptable value in MiniTab. For example, the viscosity optimization can be based on assumption
that ink with low viscosity easily travels through the paper and ink with high viscosity above 3 mPa.s
is unprintable. Additionally, the maximization of density and minimization of print-through is
desirable. The example of optimization criteria set is shown at Tab. 4.
Table 4: Set of Optimization Criteria
Response Goal Lower Target Upper
bound value bound
Viscosity [mPa.s] Target 1.4 1.9 2.9
Density Maximize 0.5 1
Standart deviation; back side Minimize 5 8
The output of the optimization is formulation of ink with the best predicted properties according
to optimization criteria. This is quantied by composite desirability function shown which is max-
imized. The optimal ink was prepared and tested. The predicted value of viscosity is 2.11 mPa.s;
measured value is 2.58 mPa.s. According to experimental standard deviation which is 0.20 mPa.s
predicted and measured values of viscosity are not statistically similar. Other ink properties and
print test could not be performed due to printer malfunction.
Conclusions
When analyzing the regression coecients of viscosity response in Tab. 3 we can see strong con-
tribution of Luviscol K90. There is also antagonistic interaction of glycerol and butylglycolacetate
reducing viscosity. But we have to have in mind that the regression model is empirical, therefore
the coecient value should not be connected with real physical processes. We also have to take into
account that components of the experimental inks in experimental plan are dilutions containing
water.
Other regression models have poor relevancy, with high standard deviations of the coecients. This
is due to rough regression model or small amount of experimental data to describe complicated
responses of a system in such wide range of proportion variations. Therefore, optimization based
on irrelevant models is not meaningful.
Some general conclusions can be based on correlation matrix plot. The number of operating nozzles
is highly correlated with print density, which is not so surprising. The inks with viscosity above 3
mPa can not be printed. Print-through occurs when viscosity is lower than 2,5 mPa and contact
angle is more than 77. The ink which exhibits print-through also exhibits poor homogeneity of
108
fully printed area due to signicant spreading along the paper bers. The print reliability does not
correlate with contact angle. But in the set of printable inks the majority has contact angle more
than 77. With proportion of Luviscol K90 above 0,2 % the ink can not be printed. The addition
of butylglycolacetate leads to viscosity increase and contact angle decrease. The contact angle is
inversely proportional to butylglycolacetate proportion.
It is not reasonable to have many factors and responses in experimental plan intended for optimiza-
tion. Simple regression model better describes smaller range of factors variations. Therefore, it is
important to set the central experiment point near the desired optimum and vary a small number
of input factors in a reasonably small variation range. An initial set of preparatory experiments
has to be done to nd the area of experimental space with satisfactory responses. The experiments
performed in this work can be considered preparatory because they examine large range of pro-
portion variations of many components. Also, their number was reduced by eliminating water as
independent factor, which distorted the interpretation of component inuence.
The values of dependent variables are predicted from the empirical polynomial regression model.
The values of coecients of the model reect simple relationships between components portions
and variations of ink property only. Therefore these regression models are poor for predicting of
response of such complex system. This is the price for relatively small amount of experimental work
for exploring wide area of proportion variations. We managed to nd a formulation of the ink with
satisfactory properties which could be used as the central point for further experimental plan. The
ink with best properties is labeled with number 23, its formulation is shown in Tab. 5.
Table 5: Formulation of Experimental Ink 23 with Best Performance
Component Proportion [wt. %]
Pigment preparation 25,22
Glycerol 0,87
Triethyleneglycol 5,15
Luviscol K90 0,38
Disperbyk 0,66
Butylglycolacetate 1,02
Deionized water balanced
More conclusions for further experimental work can be done. To achieve the desired color strength
of the ink it is necessary to raise the proportion of the concentrated pigment preparation above
30 %. The negative inuence of pigment amount on print reliability was not observed therefore
the variation in the next experimental plan is not necessary. Addition of Luviscol K90 led to ink
unsuitability for printing. Therefore, it is eligible to exclude Luviscol K90 from further experiments
or replace it with another lm forming substance. The pigment dispersions seem stable even when
diluted to the form of ink. Therefore, addition of surfactant Disperbyk is not needed and can be
excluded from further experiments. At this point, we have all the knowledge necessary to formulate
next experimental plan which may lead to further ink optimization.
Using design of experiment method it was possible to nd working ink formulation for inkjet printing.
Some information about component inuence to ink properties can be gained. The experimental
plan is designed for reducing of experimental work which in other hand reduce amount of gained
information. In case of complex systems with many of inuencing factors, this reduction is neces-
sary. Simple polynomial regression model based on several measured points spread over the wide
experimental space, failed to successfully describe system response during prediction of the optimal
ink properties.
109
Miroslav Tejkl
References
[1] Pond S. F.: Inkjet Technology and Product Development Strategies. Carlsbad: Torrey Pines
Research, 2000
[2] Anderson M. J., Whitcomb P. J.: Mixture DOE uncovers formulations quicker. Rubber & Plastic
News, Oct 21, 2002, p. 16
[3]Blecha P., Vavk I.: zen a zabezpeen jakosti. VUTBr 1997, chapter 6.
[4] StatSoft, Inc. (2006): Electronic Statistics Textbook. Tulsa, WEB:
http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html.
110
Session BIII
Martina Miletic
Ink Trapping in Hybrid Printing Technology
Martina Miletic, Sonja Jamnicki, Irena Bertic
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Graphic Arts, Getaldiceva 2, Zagreb, Croatia
Phone: +38512371080, fax: +38512371077, e-mail: martina.miletic@gmail.com
Abstract
In this paper the authors have studied the prints made with combination of exo and oset inks
used in hybrid printing technology.
A good image reproduction is determined by appropriate trapping. Poor trapping means that
superimposed inks are improperly laid down on the previously printed colours, causing poor colour
balance and poor overall appearance.
Hybrid press systems use combination of dierent printing units, which makes it possible to imple-
ment an oset unit in a exo line.
Each technology has its advantages which, when connected in one production line, can improve the
quality of prints and provide the added value of graphic product.
Flexo printing includes low viscosity inks and oset uses paste, viscous inks. According to that
rheology and drying characteristics are dierent for each type of ink.
The aim of this study was to investigate how two dierent types of inks interact when printed one
over the other in dierent conditions.
The prints for the evaluation of trapping were obtained by applying the exo ink onto the substrate
and then the oset ink onto the layer of exo ink by means of wet-on-wet overprinting. The exo
ink was applied with the appropriate "K Hand Coater" device and the oset ink was applied with
the IGT A2 printability tester, simulating oset printing. Two kinds of paper, oset paper and liner
paper, were used as substrates. Trapping of oset ink over the exo ink was evaluated by its eect
onto the nal L*a*b* properties of the samples obtained.
Introduction
A combination of various printing technologies is very often employed for achieving a graphic product
with added value. Technologies that combine dierent printing techniques in one production line
are known as hybrid printing systems. They can be composed of dierent conventional printing
techniques combining oset, exo or gravure printing units in one printing system. In addition,
digital printing units are combined with one of the conventional printing units.[1]
Among the hybrid printing systems that combine the conventional printing techniques, those con-
necting the oset and exo printing are mostly used. With the combination of these two techniques
it is possible to positively inuence the quality of the output graphic product.[2]
In package printing, there is a growing need for special inks and coatings that are not easily printed
using the standard oset printing technique. A combination of oset and exo units in one printing
system can be a solution for high quality package and label printing.[3]
Flexo and oset inks greatly dier in their rheological characteristics. Flexo inks are uid inks
and oset inks are more viscous inks and are usually referred to as paste inks. Regarding the
dierent types of the ink used, printing with a hybrid system can be problematic, in particular
when overprinting is carried out using dierent process.
The aim of this study was to investigate how two dierent types of inks interact when printed one
over the other on dierent types of substrates.
Experimental Method
The prints made by combination of exo and oset inks were studied in this paper. Ink trapping
value was the print quality characteristic chosen for the evaluation of hybrid printing technique.
112
Trapping is dened as the ability (or inability) of the printed ink to adhere to a previously printed
ink.[4] Good acceptance of ink on the existing ink depends on rheology (viscosity and tackiness) of
the ink which is overprinted, on the ink lm thickness and on the printing sequence of the inks. A
change in lay down results in a change of the colour value and therefore aects image reproduction
accuracy.
The hybrid printing system was simulated by combining laboratory type exo and oset printing
units. Laboratory prints were produced by overprinting a uniform layer of the oset ink on the
exo ink. With this procedure, the secondary colours (blue, green and red) were reproduced and
measured.
The prints obtained by overprinting two oset inks, as well as two exo inks, were used as the
reference values (standard prints) for comparison with the hybrid prints.
Besides ink trapping values, colorimetric measurements of prints were also preformed and the
colour dierence (E
ab
) was determined from the measured L*a*b* values of the studied samples
and reference prints.
Measuring methods
Flexo inks were printed using the K Hand Coater device. For the application of the exo ink, the
K Bar number 1 was used. Oset inks were printed using the IGT A2 printability testing device,
which simulates an oset printing press. The printing speed was 125 cm/s and the printing force
was 350 N. The fountain solution used in the oset printing process was laboratory made.
Immediately after applying the exo ink onto the substrate, the oset ink was overprinted in order
to achieve wet-on-wet acceptance of the ink.
The thickness of a single ink layer was approximately equal. Exactly 1 cm
3
of the oset ink was
applied on the IGT inking unit, so that the thickness of the oset ink layer on print was 8 m. The
thickness of the exo ink layer was 6 m.
Since the two printing techniques combined in the described hybrid printing system use essentially
dierent printing inks considering their rheology and drying characteristics, the prints were made on
two types of the printing substrates. Oset paper and liner paper (regularly used in exo printing
on paper substrates) were chosen as representative printing substrates. The characteristics of the
used printing substrates are given in the following tables:
Table 1: The oset paper characteristics
calliper grammage absorbence/Cobb 120 roughness/Bendtsen
0,117 mm 90 g m
2
50 g m
2
200 ml min
1
Table 2: The liner paper characteristics
calliper grammage absorbence/Cobb 120 roughness/Bendtsen
0,180 mm 140 g m
2
35 g m
2
601 ml min
1
The oset inks used in this study were based on vegetable oil technology and were mineral oil free.
The viscosity of the used oset inks was 45-50 Pa s. Oset inks are viscous inks of great tackiness
which dry by oxidation and adsorption into the printing substrate.
The exo inks used in this study were water-based. Those inks are of low viscosity and they almost
instantly dry on absorbent printing substrates. The viscosity of the used exo inks was 40-60 sec
F4.
113
Martina Miletic
The densitometric and spectrophotometric values were measured on the obtained laboratory prints
with the X-Rite Color Digital Swatchbook device.
The values of two-colour trapping were calculated using the Preucil equation from the densitometric
values of solid patches of cyan, magenta and yellow and overprinted patches M+Y, C+Y and C+M.
The trapping value (FA) for two-colour overprinting was calculated on the basis of the following
equation:
FA
2
(%) =
D
1+2
D
1
D
2
100 (1)
where:
D
1+2
is the ink density of the two overprinted colours,
D
1
is the ink density of the colour that was printed rst,
D
2
is the ink density of the colour that was printed last.
The colorimetric L*a*b* values of prints were determined and the colour dierence (E
ab
) was
calculated between hybrid prints and oset and exo reference prints. The colour dierence (E
ab
)
was calculated on the basis of the following equation:
E
ab
=
_
(L
2
+ a
2
+ b
2
) (2)
For a better presentation of colour dierence between the obtained hybrid prints and the reference
prints, a* and b* colorimetric values were expressed using the CIE a*b* diagram.
The trapping values, expressed as the arithmetical mean of 10 measurements, are presented in
Figures 1 to 3. The values of trapping for dierent printing techniques on each gure are presented
separately for oset and for liner paper.
Figure 1: Flexo "reference" prints
The values of wet-on-wet trapping of the exo overprints are presented in Figure 1. These results
were used as exo reference values for comparison with the hybrid prints.
From measurement results it can be seen that the highest trapping value was measured on the green
prints, followed by the blue and red prints respectively. The same trend was seen on both kinds
of printing substrates. The values of trapping in this printing system are somewhat higher on the
prints obtained on oset paper.
The values of wet-on-wet trapping of the oset overprints are presented in Figure 2. These results
114
Figure 2: Oset "reference" prints
were used as oset reference values for comparison with the hybrid prints. From measurement
results it can be seen that the highest trapping value was achieved on the green prints, followed
by the blue and red prints respectively. The oset overprints follow the same trend as the exo
overprints but their trapping values are somewhat lower than of the exo overprints with exception
of the red oset overprints on which higher trapping values were achieved.
Figure 3: The exo-oset hybrid prints
The trapping values of the hybrid printed samples, obtained by overprinting oset on exo inks,
are presented in Figure 3. The measured trapping values follow the same trend as the reference
samples trapping results. The highest trapping value was measured on the green prints, followed
by the blue and red prints respectively.
The trapping values of the green and blue hybrid prints are considerably higher than the trapping
values measured on the oset and exo reference prints. The trapping values of the red hybrid
prints are very similar to the red exo reference prints.
When discussing the trapping values of the green, blue and red overprints regarding the used printing
substrate it is visible that the highest trapping values were achieved on the oset paper substrates.
The lower trapping values measured on the liner paper are probably the result of the ability of liner
115
Martina Miletic
paper to intake a higher amount of ink due to its higher surface roughness.
Figure 4: E
ab
Oset-Oset vs. Flexo-Oset Figure 5: E
ab
Flexo-Flexo vs. Flexo-Oset
Figures 4 and 5 present the colour dierences (E
ab
) between the hybrid prints and the exo
and oset reference values. The highest colour dierences noticed were those between the hybrid
prints and the reference exo prints in the blue overprints. This behaviour was noticed on both
substrates. The colour dierence between hybrid prints and oset reference prints are smaller than
those between hybrid prints and exo reference prints.
Figure 6: CIE a*b* values of red
(M+Y) overprints
Figure 7: CIE a*b* values of green
(C+Y) overprints
Figure 8: CIE a*b* values of blue
(C+M) overprints
Legend:
F - Flexo reference print on oset paper
O - Oset reference print on oset paper
H - Hybrid print on oset paper
F - Flexo reference print on liner paper
O - Oset reference print on liner paper
H - Hybrid print on liner paper
In Figures 6 to 8, a* and b* colorimetric values of overprint patches: red (M+Y), green (C+Y) and
blue (C+M) are presented. The gures show that the colorimetric a* and b* values of the hybrid
prints are very similar to the oset reference prints while the exo reference prints show certain
aberrations in the green and blue overprints.
116
Conclusion
From the results it can be concluded that trapping is inuenced by the surface roughness of the
printing substrate it is visible in all obtained prints that lower values of trapping were measured
on the liner paper, which has much more rougher surface than the oset paper.
The hybrid prints obtained by the combination of inks of dierent viscosities have produced higher
values of trapping in comparison with the reference exo and oset overprints. It can be concluded
that the studied hybrid prints obtained better ink acceptance than the reference prints.
The colour dierences (E
ab
) were smaller in comparison between the hybrid prints and the oset
reference prints. This was conrmed with the CIE a*b* diagram, presenting very similar colorimetric
a* and b* values of the hybrid prints and the oset reference prints.
References
[1] DHeureuse W., Kipphan H. (2001), Print Technologies and Design Concepts for Hybrid Printing
Systems, DDP2001: Eye on the Future - International Conference on Digital Production Printing
and Industrial Applications, Antwerp, Belgium, The Society for Imaging Science and Technology,
Pages 33-38
[2] Kipphan H. (2001), Handbook of Print Media, Springer, Berlin
[3] Stadler P., Zahn E., Filsinger K.-H., Sauer K. (2002), United State Patent 6443058-"Combined
printing method and hybrid printing machine", www.freepatentonline.com/6443058.html
[4] Zjaki I. (2007), Upravljanje kvalitetom ofsetnog tiska, Hrvatska sveuilina naklada, Zagreb
117
Georgios Vlachopoulos
Studies on misting mechanism of viscoelastic uids using
lithographic printing inks
Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating, Swansea University, UK
183522@swansea.ac.uk
Abstract
Misting is a critical phenomenon that aects the ink transfer quality and ability to print. Misting
in the oset lithographic printing process occurs at the rollers rotation where due to tangential
forces droplets are forced to y away, forming a mist of micro-droplets that interferes with the
printing process. Misting is strongly related to the ink rheological properties. Lithographic coldset
oset inks are complex viscoelastic uids. Typical characterisation of these inks involves thixotropy,
viscosity and tack. In this paper a methodology for the study of the misting phenomena is proposed,
based on the accurate viscoelastic characterisation of the ink of interest and on the measurement,
by trapping techniques, of the achievable misting on a specially adapted tack-tester. An example
of application of this methodology is proposed analysing the eect on the misting phenomena of
coldset ink at dierent concentrations of butyl-diglycol.
Introduction
Misting phenomena is related with the ink splitting mechanisms. Misting in the oset lithographic
printing process occurs at the rollers rotation where, due to tangential forces, micro-droplets are
formed and are forced to y away generating a mist phenomenon. In this study Butyl-Diglycol was
used as an ink additive to study misting eects and the rheological eects of the ink structure. Butyl-
Diglycol (C
8
H
18
O
3
) is a clear, low-volatility, mobile liquid, which is miscible with many common
solvents. Its typical viscosity is 5.9 Pas.
The objectives focus on the understanding of the rheological prole of viscoelastic uids that produce
misting eects in regards with tack value. It also examines the misting mechanism by analysing of
the ink that aborts the distribution system.
Methodology
A lithographic cyan coldset ink was used for this study and was mixed with dierent concentrations
of butyl-diglycol. Six samples were produced, with ink and 0.5 %, 1 %, 2 %, 5 %, 10 % and 20 % in
butyl-Diglycol concentration. The modied ink samples were compared with the standard cyan ink
as reference. The samples were examined on misting levels.
Tack testing and misting examination
Tack and misting measurements were carried out using the IGT tack tester set at 50 m/min speed,
28 temperature and 3.8 m ink lm thickness (0.3 ml ink). In a second test the ink lm thickness
was set at 7.6 m ink lm thickness. During each test the distribution speed was increased in steps
of 50 m/min to 100 m/min and 150 m/min and then was decreased again to 50m/min, (in a single
step) to calculate the variation of tack with the speed and shear eect. Each tack test was carried
out for 300 seconds for each sample. Finally three tests were carried out for each ink sample.
The investigation into ink misting was carried out during each tack test. The enclosed and boxed
distribution system of the tack tester traps the y-away ink that is responsible for misting eects.
The placing of a paper sheet in that area operates as a trap and provides a spray image on the
surface (gure 1).
118
Studies on misting mechanism of viscoelastic uids using lithographic printing inks
Figure 1: Misting trap technique using IGT tack tester.
Misting topography
Each tack test produces a series of tack values across time and also a spray image from the mist ink.
After the tack test, the paper misting-trap was removed and detailed measured by a scanning 0/45
spectrophotometer. The misting topographic analysis was carried out using the density values that
were generated from the spectrophotometer measurements. The misting-trap values were added
in a contour plot in target to provide a detailed surface of misting trends, y-away direction and
variation across the nip exit. The values were also averaged across the length and vertical to the
nip exit of the rollers to analyse the direction of the ink droplets that produce misting.
Results
The increased Butyl-Diglycol concentration in the ink decreases the tack value of the ink. The
higher the butyl-diglycol concentration means the lower the tack. Tack analysis show that speed
signicantly aects the tack value of the ink (gure 2). It provides 20 % higher values with 100 m/min
and 30 % with 150m/min compared to 50 m/min. The tack value decreases again when the speed
decreases rapidly in a single step to 50 m/min and provides similar values (2 % of initial values).
The ink lm thickness also aects the tack values. The 7.6 m lm thickness provides 20 % higher
values than the 3.8 m but with similar behaviour according to increased speed.
The results on misting show that misting eects increase with the increase of lm thickness and the
concentration of butyl-diglycol in the ink (gures 3). The butyl-diglycol aects the ink structure
producing lower tack and allows the ink to y away from the rollers. The phenomenon is critical
when more than 2% of butyl-diglycol is added in the ink.
Misting is related to the rheological characteristics of the ink. The increased concentration of butyl-
diglycol in the ink aects the tack and viscoelastic character of the ink structure. The rollers
velocity forces the ink at the nip exit to y away of the surface. Figure 4 shows the direction of the
mist ink and the eect between the front (elastic roller) and the back (metallic roller) side of the
nip. The eect is signicant increase at the metallic large roller with larger droplets and increased
cover area. A typical topography of the misting sample is presented in gure 5. It show clearly that
misting also increases at the middle across the length of the nip.
119
Figure 2: Tack values of ink and butyl-diglycol ink samples at 7.8 and 3.6 microns ink lm thickness (speed reference).
Conclusions
Misting is a typical phenomenon of Newtonian uids; it seems that occurs with decreasing viscosity
and tack. As a result butyl-diglycol forces the Non-Newtonian ink to a more Newtonian behaviour.
There is a critical threshold for the amount of butyl-diglycol that can be added in the litho ink,
which if exceeded can cause disastrous eect in ink transfer mechanism. Further rheological studies
show that the viscoelastic character of the ink decreases with the increased concentration of butyl-
diglycol. The low viscosity of butyl-diglycol was also shown to have a large eect on the high viscous
ink, for all concentrations considered. Tack values are related with to the viscoelastic character of
the ink. The increase tack shows also a high viscoelastic uid.
Acknowledgments
This study was carried out during the second year of my PhD studies in the Welsh Centre of Printing
and Coating with the nancial support from the Greek State Scholarships Foundation.
References
[1] A. Blayo, S.W. Fang, A. Gandini and J.F. Le Nest "Study of ink misting phenomena", EFPG
(French Engineering School of Paper and Printing)
[2] J. Mewis and F. Dobbets "Flow and tack of printing inks", Department of Chemical Engineering,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. Vol.20 No.3 (1981)
[3] S.M.Chou, T.A. Fander and L.J. Bain "Structural recovery of printing inks studied by steady
shear rheometry", TAGA p280-312 (1999)
[4] J.S. Aspler, Y.H. Zang, L. Larondo and L. Perron "Printing tack development and coated paper
structure", Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada
[5] P.H. Sorensen "Tack of a printed ink lm and its relation to the properties of ink and paper
surface", Advance in Printing Science and Technology 16th International Conference (1983)
[6] John MacPhee "fundamentals of lithographic printing", GATF Press (1998)
[7] M.S. Owens "Misting in forward roll coating structure-property-processing relationships", Thesis,
University of Minnesota, (April 2005)
120
Studies on misting mechanism of viscoelastic uids using lithographic printing inks
Figure 3: Misting eects of butyl-diglycol (Density).
Figure 4: Misting eect between front and back side of the splitting nip.
121
Figure 5: Misting topography by measuring density
122
Some Physico-Chemical Studies of Polygraphic Material Tyvek
Akakiy Dzhvarsheishvili, Elena Sencheva

Moscow State University of Printing Arts, Russia
koks85@bk.ru
skwishy@yandex.ru
General information
Tyvek
(super-white polyolen substrate, see g. 1) is a membrane material that consists of millions

of thin continuous bers of low-pressure polyethylene received by a method of ultrafast molding and
bound under high temperatures. Tyvek
combines in itself the features of paper, lm and tissue.

Such balance of properties makes Tyvek
light, but strong; permeable for vapor, but resistant to

water, chemical reagents and mechanical impacts.
Figure 1: Material Tyvek
(200-fold magnication)
Kinetics and thermodynamic interactions of the Tyvek
material with uids of

low molecular weight
Problem identication
In the course of printing the Tyvek
material contacts on various solvents (components of printing

inks), as a result the substrate gets bulged because it absorbs the solvents with low molecular weight.
This process is more intensive the greater is the thermodynamic anity of the Tyvek
material
and a solvent. And it is such swelling that, eventually, deteriorates the printing quality. In this
context it seems interesting to study the process of interaction of the Tyvek
material with some

solvents: isopropanol, butyl acetate, ethanol, ethyl acetate, ethyl cellosolve. This paper describes a
method for determination the diusion coecient taking into account the thermodynamic quality
of solvent. The attention is focused on study of relationships between the asymptotic properties
of the kinetic swelling curves and the solvents thermodynamic properties dened by parameter.
This relationship is very important for experimental studies of transporting properties of polymer
networks [1, 2].
Mathematical model of a swelling process
At rst, let us introduce some denitions:
u(, ) is a solvent concentration;
is a local volume fraction of polymer;
E
is a volume fraction of polymer in an equilibrium swelling state;
J(, ) describes the current local bulk deformation of swelling material;
= () is a longitudinal relative elongation of a specimen;
Z = V
2
/V
1
is a dimensionless parameter;
123
is the Flory-Huggins parameter;
V
1
is a molar volume of solvent;
V
2
is a molar volume of polymer network subchains;
D is the solvent diusion coecient in the material.
This mathematical model is considered for the polymer 2 h thick with an innite length to both
sides. The model includes the following system of equations and initially boundary-value conditions:
u
= u
, u = u(, ), 0 < < 1 (1)

u(; 0) = 0, u
(1, ) = 0 (2)
() =
_
_
1
_
0
J(, )dx
_
_
1
6
(3)
ln(1 ) + +
2
+Z
1
4
3
E

1
4
= 0 (4)
At = 0
=

E
J
(5)
J = (1
E
) u +
E
(6)
The problem 1-6 is represented in a dimensionless form and describes free swelling of a at specimen
in the proximity of the innitely long layer. The units of measurement of a distance and time are
a semi-thickness of a specimen in a reported state, h, and the value of h
2
/D. Equations 1 and 2
describe the diusion process, equations 3, 5, 6 the deformation process of a polymer network.
The longitudinal deformation of a specimen leads to the higher thermodynamic polymer-solvent
compatibility and causes the solvent concentration growth in the surface layer of a specimen. This
circumstance takes into account boundary condition 4. It follows from the condition of a thermo-
dynamic equilibrium on the specimen-solvent interface that is expressed in the equality of chemical
potentials of a liquid phase and a solvent absorbed by the material. The chemical potential of a liq-
uid phase is taken zero, while the chemical potential of a solvent in a swelling specimen is estimated
by the following expression:
= RT(ln(1 ) + +
2
+Z
1
4
3
E

1
4
) (7)
is the chemical potential of a solvent in a swelling specimen.
The boundary-value problem 1-6 and relationship 7 are written down for a reference state that is
assumed here to be the equilibrium swelling state of the material. Let t
0
be the time of attainment of
the equilibrium swelling state. It should be noted that at t = 0 (initial state) (; 0) = 0, then from
equation 5 we receive that J(; 0) =
E
(), (0) =
1
3
E
, while at t > t
0
(equilibrium swelling state)
(; t) =
E
() J(; t) = 1 (t) = 1. At = 1 condition 4 is turned into the well-known
Flory-Rehner formula
ln(1
E
) +
E
+
2
E
+Z
1
1
3
E
= 0 (8)
Taking into consideration boundary-value problem 1-6 and relationship 7 we can derive the asymp-
totic equation of a kinetic curve at the terminal swelling stage [2]:
g(t) = 1 Ce
2
1
h
2
Dt
(9)
124
where
g(t) =
m(t)
m
E
is a kinetic swelling curve;
m(t) is the current value of uid mass absorbed by a specimen;
m
E
is the maximum value of uid mass absorbed by a specimen;
C is a constant, h-1/2 of the specimen thickness in the equilibrium swelling state;
1
is the rst positive root in the following equation
n
= t g
n
(10)
where
=
4(1
E
)
3 [Z
5
3
E
(1 2 + 2
E
) + 1]
(11)
Solving equation 10 we obtain:
if (0; 0.275], then
1
= 1.47185;
if (0.275; 0.5], then
1
= 1.2756;
if (0.5; 0.6542], then
1
= 1.0794;
if (0.6542; 0.785], then
1
= 0.883;
if (0.785; 0.88], then
1
= 0.697;
if (0.88; 0.95], then
1
= 0.491;
if (0.95; 1], then
1
= 0.2944;
if (1; +], then
1
= 0.0981.
Taking logarithms in equation 9 we obtain
2
1
h
2
D t lnC = ln(1 g(t)) (12)
Equation 12 is the basic for estimation of the diusion coecient.
Experiment
The studied specimen in the form of parallelepiped with volume W
0
was placed into a solvent and
was kept there for 3 months (till its equilibrium swelling state). Then the volume of the swelled
specimen, W
H
, was determined, the volume fraction of polymer in the equilibrium swelling state
were estimated by the following formula
E
=
W
0
W
H
(13)
Then the compression modulus, G, was calculated [3]. Parameter V
2
was estimated by the following
formula (see [2])
V
2
= RT G
1
1
3
E
(14)
where, R is the universal gas constant, T is a temperature in K.
The Flory-Huggins parameter was found from 8. The kinetic swelling curves were estimated by
the following equation
g(t) =
m(t)
m
E
(15)
Applying the experimental data the kinetic swelling curves were plotted. Then the diusion coe-
cient, D, for each solvent was calculated by relationship 12 by the terminal parts of kinetic swelling
curves having represented them in coordinates (t; ln(1 g(t))) in which at g(t) 0.5 they take
the form of a straight line with slope
2
1
D h
2
. The value of
1
was found from equation 10 after
preliminary calculation of by formula 11.
125
Table 1: Thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of the polymer low-molecular liquid interaction
Solvent D(
sm
2
s
)10
7
Butyl acetate 0.839 0.138
Ethanol 1.06 0.06
Ethyl cellosolve 1.425 0.3
Isopropanol 1.46 0.84
Ethyl acetate 2.55 0.459
The results of study are presented in the form of a table (see table ).
Analysis of study results: The Flory-Huggins parameter, , and diusion coecient, D, for each
solvent were calculated. Butyl acetate (the least Flory-Huggins parameter) showed the greatest
thermodynamic anity to the material. Then arranged by decreasing anity are ethanol, ethyl
cellosolve, isopropanol and ethyl acetate. The least diusion coecient is featured by ethanol, then
in a growing order - butyl acetate, ethyl cellosolve, ethyl acetate and isopropanol.
Study of the material structure
The average thickness is 0.219 mm. The value of h (thickness variations) exceeds 0.005 mm,
consequently, the material is not uniform. This may lead in the course of printing to such
defects as missing types in a printing copy.
The average mass is 105.4 g.
The average density is 0.49 g/cm
3
. Density shows that the material is porous, bulked, its
absorbing capacity will not be low. But due to a special coating and a high content of an
aggregate the macroporous structure turns into microporous.
The average porosity is: upper side 90.74 ml/min, network 111.6 ml/min. The material is
microporous, i. e. it possesses low absorbing capacity and, at the same time, due to low ink
absorbing capacity the printed copies are more contrast, more intense, they provide higher
image sharpness.
Mechanical (strength and deformation) properties of materials
Resistance of the material surface to ung (Dennison waxes). The Dennisons gages (waxes)
represent a set of wax sticks featuring dierent adhesion increasing with a number of a stick.
Analysis of study results: Insignicant ung is observed from gage 18 (face and backside),
base lamination from gage 23. Adhesion of the coating made of Tyvek
is high. In the
course of printing no such problems as ung will appear.
Resistance of the material surface to ung on IGT device.
Resistance of the paper surface to ung is the property characterizing its behavior during printing
when rupture strength of a paint layer exceeds the cohesive forces of the material proper. The quan-
titative characteristic is the minimum printing rate at which the paper surface becomes damaged.
Analysis of study results: The average rate at which ung of the material starts is: upper at
4.2 m/s, network at 3.04 m/s. At high oil viscosity and a printing rate of 4.0 m/s the material is
suitable for any printing technique.
126
Study of material surface

Smoothness reects uniformity of the material surface. This parameter depends on the form, total
volume and distribution of non-uniform sections formed between the material surface and the ideal
plane under the assigned conditions of contact between them. The time necessary for removal of a
certain quantity of air at the assigned pressure drop from the space between the material surface
and the carefully polished glass surface that is nearly ideally at.
Analysis of study results: The material possesses low smoothness (upper 56 s, network 24 s),
which corresponds to machine nish (30-80 s). The contact between the material surface and the
printing plate is poor, therefore, the greater pressure should be applied during printing to receive
a high-quality image. For printing it is better to use the face (more smooth) side. The resolution
capacity of the material is not high, i. e. it will be dicult to reproduce on it some small details of
the image.
Material behavior towards uids
The absorbing capacity by xylol. An absorbing capacity is very essential for printing, gluing, ink
xation, interaction of the material with water and other uids. Appropriate evaluation of the
absorbing capacity means compliance with the requirements of timely and complete ink xation
and, as a result, receiving of a quality printed copy. The absorbing capacity of a material is taken
as the time (in seconds) during which the shine of a xylol drop applied on the material fades away.
Analysis of study results: The absorbing time is equal to 35 s. The material features an average
absorbing capacity. Consequently, there will be no problems with ink absorbing and xation on the
material.
Study of the linear deformation of the material with changing humidity. Deformation of the material
at wetting is determined by the results of measurements of a sheet size after its keeping in water
and then after drying out. This corresponds to the ultimate wetting and reveals the maximum
deformation as a result of ber swelling and stress relaxation.
Analysis of study results: At wetting of the material no changes were recorded in the sheet size.
The material is resistant to the action of moisture due to a special coating. Thus, a conclusion can
be made that at wetting and at drying of the material no deformation will occur. In other words,
such defects as misregister will not be observed.
pH of water extract. pH is a quantitative characteristic of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. In
order not to complicate the printing process the reaction of the material should be neutral. The pH
index of water extract is hospitalized. Its value should be within 6.0 to 9.0.
Analysis of study results: pH of the material is equal to 5.98, which corresponds to the acid medium.
There will be no problems with printing.
Adhesive strength of a paint cover
Adhesive strength by an adhesive tape method. The strength of paint cover adhesion with a
substrate was evaluated by pulling away the adhesive tape glued to the printed copy surface.
Analysis of study results: The paint (oset, exographic, screen) does not exfoliate from the printing
carrier, i. e. the printing paint is xed to a printed copy without marring and osetting of the image
[4-7].
References
[1] Denisyuk, E.Ya. and Volkova E.R., Polymer Science, Ser. A, 2003, vol. 45, no. 7, p. 686-693.
[2] Denisyuk, E.Ya. and Tereshatov, V.V., Polymer Science, Ser. A, 2000, vol. 42, no. 1, p. 56-67.
[3] Shakhkeldjan, B.N., Klimova, Ye.D., Kravchina, N.A., Yakushev, S.M. Typesetting materials,
laboratory works, Part 1. World of the Book 1992, pp. 44-46.
127
[4] Shakhkeldjan, B.N. and Zagarinskaya, L.A., Typesetting materials. M.: Kniga, 1988.
[5] Klimova, Ye.D., Kravchina, N.A. and Sretentseva, T.Ye., Typesetting inks. M.: MGUP, 2004.
[6] Flyate, D.M. Paper properties. M.: Forest Industry, 1986.
[7] Ivanov, N.D., Zotova, N.P.. Paper tests. M.: Goslestekhizdat, 1936.
[8] www.tyvek.ru
128
Ink transportation in anilox oset printing
Robert Thieme
robert.thieme@mb.tu-chemnitz.de
Introduction and motivation
Due to the multitude of various advantages, oset printing is the most common printing method.
The key benets are the high printing quality, high printing speeds, the fast job change, the fast way
of producing printing plates and small costs for printing forms. Conventionally, inking is carried out
by long inking units. However, over the last years short inking units became more popular. These
inking units have advantages in relation to the speed of job change, the decrease of waste paper and
disburdening of the printer. Still, there are some unsolved problems, the color density is not easy to
regulate, the ink transportation can become unequable and the mass of the transportated ink can
not be calculated by he volume of the anilox roller alone. Previous investigations in the problem
of ink transportation with engraved rollers concentrated on the exographic process, where these
inking units are state of the art for years. Results for the transportation problems of low viscosity
newtonian uids can not easily be transferred. The mass of the transferred ink is higher and certain
problems such as ribbing eects are unknown in oset printing [1 and 2]. One drawback of previous
investigations is, that the anilox rollers were examined during the printing process. On the one
hand it is so far not known how much ink remains in the cells of the anilox roller after passing the
doctor blade. On the other hand back splitting of the ink lm has always inuences on the result
of the investigation.
Testing units and methods
Concentration lies on the examination of the processes in the nip between the anilox roller and the
ink form roller. Therefore, appropriate testing devices were realised, respectively existing testing
devices were adapted. The device for controlled emptying exists in the Prfbau printability tester
(gure 1 right). The device for lling of the anilox rollers has been newly developed (gure 1 left).
Figure 1: printability tester (left), single roller testing unit (right)
The anilox roller, which is displayed in gure 1, is set into rotation. Over a doctor chamber with
negatively engaged doctor blade the ink is doctored into the cells. After 3 s the lling body is
pneumatically lifted out of the doctor chamber. Due to the rotation of the anilox roller the ink in
the doctor chamber moves on the doctor blade. This process is supported by an air stream. The
ink is completely on the doctor blade after 2 s, after that the whole doctor chamber is panned o
the anilox roller. The testing process consists of weighting the empty anilox roller, lling the anilox
roller, weighting the lled anilox roller, transferring ink from the anilox roller and weighting the
129
Robert Thieme
anilox roller with remaining ink. The mass dierence respectively the volume dierence, which is
connected via the mass density of the ink, will be evaluated.
Furthermore, for examination of the whole anilox oset process a short inking unit has been built
in the laboratory printing press LaborMAN (gure 2).
Figure 2: LaborMAN anilox inking unit
The LaborMAN is a web fed printing press with 140 mm web width and a printing speed of up
to 7.5 m/s. Because of the single sided bearing of all rollers and cylinders a good observability of
the printing process is given. The anilox oset printing unit consists of one anilox roller, one ink
form roller, the plate cylinder, the rubber blanket cylinder and the impression cylinder. The anilox
roller has a diameter of 180 mm and the other four cylinders of 220 mm. All rollers and cylinders
are equipped with dedicated cylinder drives. The soft surface of the ink form roller is realised by
a rubber blanket. Anilox roller and plate cylinder are temperature controlled by two independent
water circuits. This experimental set up is appropriate for investigations in slip between anilox
roller and ink form roller. Evaluated are ink consumption and printing results. Furthermore,
the nip between anilox roller and ink form roller will be lmed by a high speed camera system.
Additional examinations take place in the eld of long time stability of the process.
Experimental results
In the theme complex of ink transportation/lling of the anilox roller two dierent anilox rollers of
dierent theoretical volumes were examined. The remaining specications of the gravure have not
been varied and lie in a range of typical values for the anilox oset process.
First results show that none of the tested rollers is lled to the border of the measured theoretical
volume (table 1).
Table 1: lling degree and released ink volume
Theoretical volume Filled volume Filling degree Released volume
[cm
3
/m
2
] [cm
3
/m
2
] [%] [cm
3
/m
2
]
11.8 8.7 74 1.45
16.0 12.1 76 1.63
One explanation model for the lling behaviour presented in table 1 is the development of a stream-
ing prole in the cells while passing the doctor blade. At the bottom of the gravure the transported
130
ink moves with the circumferential speed of the anilox roller. In the zone of the doctor blade the top
ink layer is stopped by the doctor blade, a speed prole develops and the intermediate streaming
speed of the ink decreases. When leaving the doctoring zone, the ink adopts the circumferential
speed of the anilox roller again. As the volume ow

V = A inter alia described in [3] has to be
of constant value, the transported ink volume has to decrease.
When releasing ink from the anilox rollers to a dry rubber blanket, it was noticed that both anilox
rollers release just a small amount of the contained ink, which is moreover nearly independent from
the theoretical volume (table 1). This behaviour has been described by Meyer for the exographic
process with dierences in the total ink volume. The optical density of the printed product decreases
when the anilox roller runs with externally forced slip on the ink form roller. Figure 3 shows this
relation for the printing speeds of 1 m/s and 2 m/s.
Figure 3: optical density vs. slip
In the presented experiments the anilox roller runs faster than the ink form roller. In [5] decreasing
optical density respective ink transport was published for slower running anilox rollers, too. There-
with, the ink lm splitting under the inuence of slip represents a contrast to the ink lm splitting
in classical inking units with smooth rollers. According to [4], the ink transportation under slip
conditions is dependent on the direction. Moreover, the amount of released ink decreases more with
anilox rollers than with smooth rollers.
Procpectus and conclusions
The presented results give just a small rst insight into current and pursuing work. For the eld of
lling and emptying of anilox rollers large investigations on anilox rollers with varied gravures will
follow. In addition the inuence of the arriving ink layer thickness on the ink form roller will be
examined. Furthermore, an observation of the leaving nip between anilox roller and ink form roller
during the printing process will be carried out. In this paper methods and rst experimental results
for the description of ink lm splitting between anilox roller and ink form roller were presented. The
single roller testing unit represents a new approach for investigation on the problem of lling anilox
rollers. So far, the results show that anilox rollers can not be lled to the value of their theoretical
volume and that they release only a small amount of ink to the ink form roller. With increasing
slip between anilox roller an ink from roller the optical density decreases.
131
Robert Thieme
References
[1] Meyer, K.-H.; Leber, S.; Die Druckfarbenmenge und deren Einuss auf die Druckqualitt in
Abhngigkeit von Druckmotiv und Bedrucksto, short report, DFTA-TZ Stuttgart (2000)
[2] Voss, M.; Analytische Modellierung, experimentelle Untersuchungen und dreidimensionale
Gitter-Boltzmann Simulation der quasistatischen und instabilen Farbspaltung, dissertation, Wup-
pertal (2002)
[3] Oertel jr., H.; Prantl-Fhrer durch die Strmungslehre, 10. edition, Friedr. Viehweg & Sohn,
Braunschweig/Wiesbaden (2001)
[4] Brtz, H.: ein Beitrag zur Farbbertragung in Nassosetfarbwerken unter besonderer Bercksich-
tigung des Feuchtmittels, dissertation, Darmstadt, (1997)[5] DE 198 40 613 A1: patent of Koenig
& Bauer AG (1998)
132
Experimental research of anilox rolls parameters with raster electronic microscope
Experimental research of anilox rolls parameters with raster
electronic microscope
Maxim Aleksashenko
aleksashenkom@mail.ru
In the modern world of graphic arts exography has the maximum potential of development. In the
eld of exible packaging production exography has occupied the leading place for many years.
Since the volume of high-quality exible packaging in the world is constantly increasing (according
to the data provided by various organizations) we should not forget about the development of
exography.
According to many printing specialists the main problem of exography is the lack of standardized
exographic printing process which does not make it possible to assess denitely the nal graphic
arts production.
Since exography reached the level of high quality later than other conventional methods of printing,
such as oset lithography, letterpress and gravure, the shortage of special literature, that is periodical
journals, reference books, texts books for training specialists is quite obvious.
The exographic literature which is available now does not touch upon the complicated physical
and chemical processes and does not demonstrate concrete results which could be arranged in the
form of equations, numbers, tables, etc.
Unfortunately economic factors also interfere with the development of techniques in exography.
It is very often dicult to identify ink compositions, polymer compositions of printing plates,
ceramic compositions of anilox rolls and so on. Manufacturing companies are not willing to reveal
compositions of their products. That is explained by tough competition among manufacturers of
consumables and does not help to develop exography.
Let us dwell on the most important unit of any exographic printing press, without which exogra-
phy would never have became equal with other printing methods, that is the anilox roll. The anilox
roll is a metallic or, more often, ceramic cylinder of the exact shape. Its surface is covered by cells of
the same form and depth. The cells, in their turn, are divided by bridges on the cylinders surface.
In exography an even and measured coating of ink is applied on a printing plate by means of the
anilox roll.
Nowadays there exist about ten major manufacturers of anilox rolls in the world. Each of them
declares that they use the best ceramic covering, engrave cells with the help of the most modern
technology and that the durability of their anilox rolls is unique.
However there is no denite opinion as to the shape of anilox rolls cells. It is generally accepted that
it is spherical but sphere can be dierent. There is still no answer to the question which determines
stability and quality of exographic printing process: "What amount of ink is transferred from the
anilox roll to the printing plate during the process of printing?" The answers to this question dier
so much, that it becomes quite obvious: exographic printing process has not been studied properly
yet.
Now there are no denite recommendations concerning the volume of ink transferred from anilox
roll to the printing plate. This volume is considered to be 40-60 %.
Some specialists say that only 23-25 % of ink volume from anilox rolls cells really reaches the printed
material, this being correct for 99 % uids including inks. There are also other opinions: e.g., anilox
roll on average transfers to the printing plate 30-60 % and printing plate transfers to the printing
stock 46-54 % depending on the structure and roughness of the printing plate and the surface tension.
It is quite evident that the amount of ink transferred by anilox roll to printing plate is aected
by a number of factors, such us type of printing plate, type of composition of printing ink and
conguration of printing unit, type of doctor blade, etc.
Our research has demonstrated defects, some times quite serious, in anilox rolls cells (splits, lack of
133
Maxim Aleksashenko
structure uniformity, "holes" in the ceramic coating of the roll), caused by various reasons: wrong
choice of laser radiation intensity, composition of ceramic covering, roll surface processing, etc. Due
to that there arise problems connected with the optimization and choice of engraving processes.
As an example it is worth mentioning that at present in order to optimize the printing process
and ensure high quality of printing products anilox rolls manufacturers use dierent approaches to
anilox rolls engraving depending on the types of inks which they are going to work with.
It is well known that in the process of anilox rolls usage considerable cells deformation occurs which
is only aggravated in the rolls made with the violation of the technological conditions.
Experimental research made it possible to vividly demonstrate both new anilox rolls defects and
violation of anilox rolls parameters in the process of their usage at existing printing enterprises.
Anilox rolls characteristics may vary due to many reasons, the main one being maintenance of
anilox rolls and inuence of aggressive uids during cleaning.
In specialized literature we can nd references to the discrepancy between some theoretical recom-
mendations concerning anilox rolls ink capacity and ink transfer and real parameters witch resulted
in poor quality of the nished products. However this problem has not been solved up to now
because of economic factors, shortage of experimental studies, lack of reliable results of research in
the media, etc.
In this research we have tried to assess the quality of new and existing anilox rolls. Photographs
of anilox structure obtained with the help of raster electronic microscope enable us to better assess
cells parameters and compare them with those given by the manufacturer in anilox roll specication
(e.g. cells size and depth, walls size, their ratio and anilox rolls lineature). It should be noted that
photographs of such quality cannot be found either on sites or in advertising materials of anilox
rolls manufacturers. The method of surface examining with raster electronic microscope was chosen
because it allowed to obtain higher resolution and deeper sharpness (0,01-0,1 microns). Besides,
unlike optical microscopes in this case we have solved the problem of removing electrical charge
from the examined sample (the samples were covered with gold lm 0,001 microns in vacuum). We
have used raster electronic microscope Stereoscan-360 (Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Raster electronic microscope Stereoscan-360
With its help a new low-lineature anilox roll of a well-known manufacturer was examined. Both
dierences in the shape of some cells and violation of integrity of ceramic cover have been shown
(Fig. 2). As a result this anilox roll cannot be eectively used in the production process for a long
time, because aggressive components of inks and detergents can destroy anilox roll structure and
lead to deterioration of ceramic coating.
During examining anilox roll used in the production process we have managed to show ink residue
in the cells and nd multiple splits in the ceramic coating caused by ultrasonic method of anilox
134
Experimental research of anilox rolls parameters with raster electronic microscope
Figure 2: Violation of integrity ceramic cover of a new anilox roll
roll cleaning. (Fig. 3, 4, 5). After talking to the printshop sta it turned out that splits appeared
not only because of using this aggressive cleaning method, but also because of dierent frequencies
in the cleaning process, witch should not have been done if a low-lineature anilox roll was used.
This example proves once again how important is proper handling of such an expensive part of
exographic printing process as anilox roll.
Figure 3: Ink residue in the cells of the anilox roll used in the production process
Since it is important to visually determine the composition of ink components remained in anilox
rolls cells, we used electronic-probe X-ray microanalysis. We did not nd in the specialized literature
any methods of using electronic-probe X-ray microanalysis for examining anilox rolls.
We propose to continue trying to independently assess anilox rolls of various manufacturing com-
panies with the aim of discovering some discrepancies between ocially specied and real charac-
teristics of anilox rolls. We are also planning to examine anilox rolls used at major economically
eective enterprises in order to determine how the changes of their characteristics aect the quality
of printing products.
135
Maxim Aleksashenko
Figure 4: Change the ratio cell/wall of the anilox roll used in the production process
Figure 5: Splits in the ceramic coating caused by ultrasonic method of anilox roll cleaning
136
November 7, 2007
Session CI
Sergey Dydyshko, Alexander Shevelev
Use 3-D modeling of a print for an estimation of quality of
polygraphic production
Belarus State Technological University, Belarus
ziqwe@tut.by
Abstract
At processing and reproduction of images always it is necessary to be set by questions of quality of
received images. Quality of so complex object as the image is very important, but it is simultane-
ously enough indistinct concepts. Depending on tasks in view it is estimated by various ways. In
the submitted work quality is considered as a measure of a generality of two images, initial (original)
and reproduced (the printed image). Such way allows estimating quantitative change of parameters
at their transformation, i. e. the process of reproduction. At a rating of quantitative change of pa-
rameters there is a problem to dene criteria of quality of the image giving in to measurement which
most full meet to system of human vision. The ideas developed in this work, reect interrelation
between structure of the image, its perception the person, and as its quantitative representation.
Proceeding from these preconditions, consideration and the decision of the research problem of pa-
rameters of printed process is spent. As against a traditional way of the control over test objects
the rating of quality is made on all area of the reproduced image. For denition of parameters of
quality the original way of processing of luminosity-chromatic characteristics of the image is used. It
enables to establish communication between objective (physical) and subjective (visual) parameters
of the image, at its reproduction that facilitates a task of reception of high-quality images.
Introduction
Any graphic object represents the complex phenomenon in information sense. Therefore it is nec-
essary to have physical and mathematical model of this object which would allow spending the
settlement description of those transformations which are carried out in system of image processing.
There are two basic approaches to modeling images: determined and statistical. At the determined
description of the image mathematical function which describes property of the image in its each
point is used. At the statistical description the image is dened by the average characteristics. As
model of the image its digital performance acts.
Digital representation of the image
The compared printed images represent functions of two continuous arguments. For the further
processing and the analysis of the given images it is made operations of digitization and quantization.
After that images represent matrices of a kind
G = Q(g(x, y)) (1)
Where G the digital image;
g(x, y) the analog image;
Q the operator expressing operations of digitization and quantization.
The digital array contains the information on brightness and their distribution on spatial coordi-
nates, and a parity of the color component. In this case chromaticity of the given array is described
according to colorimetric system sRGB. In our work it is important to use that color system in
which to equal change of coordinates of chromaticity there meets equal change of sensation of color.
For this reason translation of the image in color system Lab is made. The gradational characteristic
of the image is described by the following parameters: factors of reection both transparency ()
140
Use 3-D modeling of a print for an estimation of quality of polygraphic production
and () and optical density (D). In graphic art most widely used the parameter of optical density
as the eye linearly reacts not to an increment of brightness, and almost linearly on an increment of
optical density which is in logarithmic dependence on brightness. Creation of the image on a print
pursues the purpose to reproduce by means of polygraphy whenever possible an exact copy of the
original. Conformity of accuracy of a copy to the original characterizes parameters or criteria of
quality of the printed image. Traditional tool means of quality assurance of prints are densitometers
of reected light. With the purpose of simplication of measurement of optical density on edging
elds of prints control labels which periodic measurement during printing enables to watch arising
deviations are printed and is duly on them to react. As labels of the control over a print can be
up to several hundreds, their measurement on a course of a seal manually becomes very dicult.
This circumstance demands system engineering capable quickly enough and precisely to supervise
individual parameters of printed process. The task put with this job, pursues the aim to show
an opportunity and development of a technique of the control of individual parameters of printed
process with the help of the scanner tool. The decision of these tasks is based on an opportunity
of representation of the bidimentional image in three-dimensional basis. Thus, spatial coordinates
of the image are directed on directions x and y, and coordinates luminance (optical density) in a
direction z. The image in such form looks as certain "relief" in which size "peaks and hollows" is set
by size luminance (brightness), and character of their formation in space values x and y (gure 1).
Dissecting "relief" in parallel planes OXY with any interval L (D) we shall receive a row of sections
which will characterize the certain gradation with the certain area (gure 2).
Figure 1: a) structure of a raster point in space, b) three-dimensional model of the image
Figure 2: Model of distribution brightness characteristics of the image on its area
For nding-out of an opportunity of realization of the given task the following comparative exper-
141
iment was carried out. In this experiment gradational characteristics of reproductive process were
measured with the help of a densitometer (optical density) and with the help of the scanner (the
areas occupied with identical luminance).
For transformation of the image to the digital form operation of scanning of this image is spent. For
the reasons described above the scanned image is translated from color space RGB in Lab (gure 3).
After that the image channel-by-channel is processed in system of mathematical modeling.
Figure 3: a) the image in color space Lab, b) channel L, c) channel a, d) channel b
Each selected channel is submitted as a half-tone picture. In each of such images we select the
sites having identical brightness. For this purpose a half-tone picture we shall transform in indexed,
using cutting o on the certain threshold values. In result the array of the image is broken into
layers according to a vector of threshold values. This vector looks like [0 5 10 ... 30 40 50 ... 230
235 255], reduction of a threshold in cbetax and shadows is connected by what even little change in
these ranges results in essential distortions on the image. In result it is received 32 bidimentional
matrixes which describe the area occupied with sites with various luminance thresholds. In gure
sites with various levels of brightness are allocated by various colors (gure 4). Further we calculate
the areas, using the received matrixes.
Figure 4: The indexed image of channels of color space Lab, a) channel L, b) channel a, c) channel b
142
Use 3-D modeling of a print for an estimation of quality of polygraphic production
We compare the received values with values equivalent to them for the researched image. On the
basis of results of comparison we judge conformity of quality of the reproduced image original.
Conclusion
In the resulted dependences we can see concurrence of the data received on the basis of comparison
of the given areas, occupied with the identical gradation, determined with the help of the developed
way, and a densitometer. Measurements with the help of the scanner appear on much more exact
as the sizes of crystals of the CCD on some orders there is less than aperture of a densitometer.
Figure 5: Comparison of the data measured by means of the scanner and densitometer
On results of work it is established, that the certain parameters specify deviations of qualitative
characteristics of the image in the same way, as well as human sight. At carrying out of experiments,
it was possible to receive dependences which allow characterizing parameters of transformation of
images objectively.
Concluding remarks
Result of the carried out work is the conclusion that quality assurance of polygraphic production
with the help of volumetric modeling a printed print on the basis of scanning systems on all area of
the image is possible and can be practically realized. Result of development of a technique should
become creation program and the hardware allowing objectively analyzing a print for the minimal
interval of time. In work the sequence of operations which is a basis of algorithm for development
of software product is given.
References
[1] Prett U. Digital image processing, tom 1 (Mir, 1982), T1, (310 p)
[2] Prett U. Digital image processing, tom 2 (Mir, 1982), T1, (478 p)
[3] Jahne B. Digital image processing (5ed., Springer, 2002) (T) (C) (598s) CsIp
[4] Levkowitz H. Color theory and modeling for computer graphics (Kluwer,1997)
(ISBN 0792399285) (T) (C)
143
Hyun-Kyoo Kang
Feedforward control of downstream register errors in high speed
gravure printing machine
Hyun-Kyoo Kang, Chang-Woo Lee
Konkuk University, Korea
hyunkyoo@konkuk.ac.kr
Abstract
This paper proposed a feedforward register control in sectional type register controller and analyzed
dynamics of register error. Roll velocity for the compensation of downstream register error was
derived from the dynamics. The proposed feedforward controller was veried by simulation study.
Introduction
The register control is one of the most important issues in the printing process. Basically tension
or lateral control is aiming to protect a web from defects during the process. Additionally exible
displays have been focused on as the next leading product expecting a huge marketplace by display
productors and at the same time the demands for reducing unit cost make the roll-to-roll process be
adopted to the display production. Process of display manufacturing consists of various chemical
stages on a same substrate repetitively. Not only tension and lateral control but register control
which make the web move to the desired position according to demands of process are necessary.
Until now Roll-to-Roll systems has been researched on the tension and lateral control to increase
the productivity with high quality such as feedforward lateral control [1], cross-couple control of
tension and lateral [2], compensation method for tension disturbance due to eccentricity of rolls [3],
etc. The mathematical modeling of register error and a decoupling method of tension and cut-o
register error had been developed by only G. Brandenburg [4],[5]. But the additional study on
the register error has not been reported. Some companies of printing machine product the register
controller but they conceal the internal logic.
There are two types of register controllers such as type of compensation roll and type of sectional one.
A latest register controller adopts not compensator roll but sectional. The reason is that sectional
type controller does not need to install the compensation roll, main shaft and gear box. Instead
of the main shaft, each printing unit is driven individually by the driven motor which controls the
phase of printing roll. The individual driven motors make respective phase control possible without
a span length variation. One of the most important issues of sectional type register control is that
a phase change of roll makes register errors at current and rear spans. Against a compensation roll
type register controller, the phase shift of sectional type register controller aects downstream phase
as well as current span; the errors between upstream and downstream are the same magnitude but
opposite direction.
This paper proposed a feedforward register control for the compensation of downstream register
errors in sectional type register controller. Through tension and register model, dynamics of register
was analyzed and roll velocity was derived for the compensation. The downstream register errors
could be canceled out by the same input of downstream phase variation in steady state. But transient
register error was occurred because of upstream tension disturbances caused by phase shifting. Roll
velocity for the compensation of downstream register error was derived to make steady state register
errors zero. The proposed feedforward register controller is veried by simulation study.
Mathematical Model
The mathematical model of linearized register error between two printing rolls which were derived
by G. Brandengurg [4] is
144
Feedforward control of downstream register errors in high speed gravure printing machine
Figure 1: Schematic of 3 color printing machine
Y
i+1
(s) =
v
s
_

i+1
(s)+
i
(s)e
s
(1)
In (1) v,
i
and are operating velocity, variation of strain and time constant between two printing
rolls respectively. Register error is the function of
i
,
i+1
which are determined by velocity of
printing rolls. The mathematical model of linearized tension derived by Shin [6] is
d
dt
[T
i+1
(t)] =
v
i+1,0
L
T
i+1
(t) +
v
i,0
L
T
i
(t) +
AE
L
(V
i+1
(t) V
i
(t)) (2)
where v
i,0
, V
i
(t), A, E denote initial tangential velocity of i-th roll and variation of tangential
velocity of i-th roll, cross section area of web, Youngs modulus of web respectively. Using the
Hookes law (T(t) = AE (t)), we get the equation of strain as (3), dividing (2) by AE.
d
dt
[
i+1
(t)] =
v
i+1,0
L

i+1
(t) +
v
i,0
L

i
(t) +
1
L
(V
i+1
(t) V
i
(t)) (3)
Figure 2: Three color-two span system
Using equation (1) and (3), it is possible to simulate the dynamics of register error determined by
tangential velocity of printing rolls. The relationship among register error and roll phase, velocity,
tension was depicted in Fig. 3. Velocity input of second printing roll was 10 mm/s during 0.1 second.
It means the phase of second roll was changed into 1 mm and it makes the register errors of the
front and rear spans of the second roll -1 mm and +1 mm respectively at steady state. Therefore
a variation of V
2
aects the register error Y
2
at the front span but it makes the unwanted register
error Y
3
at the rear span. The register error of downstream span could be canceled out by the same
input of rear roller velocity in steady state. But the transient register error occurred because of
upstream tension disturbances by phase shifting. The proposed feedforward register controller was
designed for the elimination of downstream register errors.
Design of Feedforward Register Controller
The purpose of a feedforward control is to cancel out of the downstream register error caused by
variation of roll phase. Therefore, we assume that the register error caused by tension disturbance
becomes zero. In Fig. 2 the tension models for the two span system are (4), (5) assuming that the
rst roll is MSD(master speed driver) and tension disturbance, T
1
, is zero.
145
Hyun-Kyoo Kang
Figure 3: Eects of pulse input of V
2
(t)
(Upper left: tangential velocity of printing rolls, Upper right: tensions
Lower left hand: second roll phase, Lower right: register errors)
d
dt
[T
2
(t)] =
v
L
T
2
(t) +
AE
L
V
2
(t) (4)
d
dt
[T
3
(t)] =
v
L
T
3
(t) +
v
L
T
2
(t) +
AE
L
(V
3
(t) V
2
(t)) (5)
Where, V 1 = 0, T
1
= 0
Laplace transform of (4), (5) is
T
2
(s) =

s + 1
V
2
(s) (6)
T
3
(s) =
1
s + 1
T
2
(s) +

s + 1
(V
3
(s) +V
2
(s)) (7)
Where, =
v
L
, =
AE
v
If (1) is multiplied by EA, the equation of register error Y
3
is
Y
3
=
1
s
_
T
3
+T
2
e
s
_
(8)
If we substituted (6), (7) for (8), the register error of downstream could be written as (9) which was
the function of V
2
, V
3
.
146
Feedforward control of downstream register errors in high speed gravure printing machine
Y
3
=
1
s(s + 1)
_
s
s + 1
+e
s
_
V
2
(s)
1
s(s + 1)
V
3
(s) (9)
In (9), we could determine the velocity V
3
making Y
3
be zero in order to reject the eect of V
2
.
Substituting Y
3
= 0 for (9), the input of feedforward control is derived as (10).
V
3
(s) =
_
s
s + 1
+e
s
_
V
2
(s) (10)
Simulation Results
To verify the performance of feedforward control logic, the tension and register model of two-span
system was simulated by Matlab Simulink. In Fig. 4 V
2
is a pulse input for control Y
2
and V
3
. The
feedforward velocity input through (10), keeps Y
3
in zero constantly.
Figure 4: Feedforward velocity input and register error
(left: feedforward input V3 for pulse input V2,
right: compensated register error Y3)
Conclusion
This paper showed that the feedforward controller is necessary to cancel out downstream register
errors in sectional type control. And the feedforward register control logic was proposed using the
dynamics of register error, tension, phase of roll and veried by simulation study. The experimental
study will be executed by 3 color printing machine.
Reference
[1] Kee-Hyun Shin, Soon-Oh Kwon, Sang-Hoon Kim, Seung-Ho Song, "Feedforward control of
the lateral position of a moving web using system identication," IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, Vol 40, Issue 6, 2004, pp. 1637-1643
[2] Kee-Hyun Shin, Soon-Oh Kwon, "The Eect of Tension on the Lateral Dynamics and Control
of a Moving Web," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 43, Issue 2, 2007, pp.403-411
[3] Kee-Hyun Shin, Jeung-In Jang, Hyun-Kyoo Kang, Seung-Ho Song, "Compensation method for
tension disturbance due to an unknown roll shape in a web transport system," IEEE Transactions
147
Hyun-Kyoo Kang
on Industry Applications, Vol. 39, Issue 5, 2003, pp. 1422-1428
[4] G.Brandenburg, "New mathematical models for web tension and register error," in Proc. 3rd
Int. IFAC Conf. Instrum.Autom.Paper, Rubber Plastics Und., 1977, pp. 411-438.
[5] G.Brandenburg, S.Geibenberger, A.Klemm, "Noninteracting control of web force and cut-o
register errors in rotary printing presses with electronic line shafts," EPE Journal, 2006, V.16,
No.2, pp.38-44
[6] Kee-Hyun Shin, "Tension control," Tappi Press, 2000
Author Information
Hyun-Kyoo Kang
Address: 1 HwaYang-Dong, KwangJin-Ku Seoul, Korea
Phone: 82) 2 3436 0321 E-mail: hyunkyoo@konkuk.ac.kr
He received the B.S. and M.S degree in 2000 and 2003 respectively from Konkuk University, Seoul,
Korea, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in mechanical design. He took
part in the development of an autoalign guiding system for high-speed winding in a cable winding
system, a 3-D roll-shape diagnosis method in a steel rolling system, a design of register controller
for high-speed converting machine and real-time control design of electronic printing machine. He
was awarded with a Certicate of Appreciation (award for outstanding paper at the 2002 IEEE
Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting).
Chang-Woo Lee
Address: 1 HwaYang-Dong, KwangJin-Ku Seoul, Korea
Phone: 82) 2 3436 0321 E-mail: leewoo1220@konkuk.ac.kr
He received the B.S. and M.S degree in 2000 and 2003 respectively from Konkuk University, Seoul,
Korea, where he is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in mechanical design.
148
Ways of Improving Flexible Polymeric Packing in Russia
Maria Kolesnichenko, N. Efremov, A. Mandrusov
komag@mail.ru
Today we make high demands to package. It must perform a great number of functions such as:
protection, batching, transportation, storage, market, normative and legislative, ecology, informa-
tion and exploitation. One of the basic function is a protection. Moreover package is a good way to
promote the goods at the market. Therefore package should have a colorful design and high quality
of printing and nishing.
In many developing countries losses of foodstus are 30 40 % and more. At the same time
in developed countries they are only 3 %. In Russia losses of foodstus by working up, storage,
transportation and sale are about one third.
Quality of package made of polymeric lm materials (PFM) depends on properties of lms, design
and overall dimensions of package, quality of printing and nishing, reliability and stability of
working of the packing equipment.
Using the polythickness lms may course problems in printing and nishing, problems in welding,
problems in transferencing of lms between dierent sections of printing and packing equipment.
As a result of deformation behavior of polymeric lm materials are o-register images, instability
of properties in lm area, modication of properties over excess of peak-peak tension (turbidity,
necking and etc.).
Strength properties have an inuence on safety of product during transportation, storage and ex-
ploitation, as well as on easiness of opening the packing.
One of the ways to solve this problem is to use the modern high-eciency equipment. But Russian
lms do not satisfy the necessary requirements.
Therefore today the packing industry is facing an acute problem of perfection the quality of exible
polymeric packing by manufacture PFM with a complex of predicted properties. The use of such
materials will allow to predict the properties of package, and so will stabilize the work of printing,
nishing and packing equipment.
At the moment recommendations on manufacturing of PFM with a complex of predicted properties
in the scientic and technical literature do not exist.
To achieve this direction such steps are necessary:
1. realization the researches and developing the method of manufacturing PFM with a complex
of predicted properties:
a) creation the family of laboratory equipment which will be the analog of industrial;
b) realization the researches of production methods of mono- and multi-layer materials.
2. Realization the researches and developing recommendations for packaging and printing equip-
ment.
3. To provide researches at working environment.
4. Developing normative-legislative documentation.
5. Making complex packaging manufactures.
Aims of this scientic work are:
1. developing the method of manufacturing PFM with a complex of predicted properties;
2. studying the new laboratory equipment;
149
Maria Kolesnichenko
3. controlling new method and realization the researches of physical-mechanical properties of
polyethylene lms.
The properties of exible packing of blown PFM will depend on the quality of used raw materials
and on conditions of extrusion.
The studying of dependence the lm properties from technological process with the purpose of
manufacturing PFM with a complex of predicted properties is the over specied aim.
It is caused by the following reasons:
1. a great number of interdependent factors have an inuence on manufacturing of lms;
2. the problem of carrying out the research work at an industrial extrusion machine.
The analysis of scientic and technical literature show that there are more then 40 basic factors
which have an inuence on blown lm quality. And so to satisfy this task we developed a new
method of multifactor planning of experiment with the use of complex factors.
Figure 1: Extrusion machine E-16
The miniature machine E-16 by MashPlas for reception of a blow lm was created for carrying
out the researches. It allow to model manufacturing process in scale ant to minimize the cost of
research. And it also allow to set and control technological conditions with high accuracy.
This machine consists of 3 sections: extrusion (consist of feed section, transition section and metering
section), nip and windup. Extrusion section has 6 heating zones, as well as cooling by water.
Temperature deection is no more then 1 degree. The speed of rotation of screw, nip and windup
rollers has high accuracy.
As it was told, there are many factors which have an inuence on blown lm quality. Single-factor
experiment is insucient because these factors are interrelation. Moreover when polymer goes
150
through the plant it has 3 dierent aggregative states. Therefore we propose the new method of
multifactor planning of experiment with the use of complex factors.
In this work the complex factors are:
1. temperature in zone of the circular die;
2. linear speed of exit a melt polymer from the circular die;
3. a degree of tube stretching;
4. a degree of cold stretching;
5. a degree of tube blowing.
The form of tube and distribution of temperatures in zones of heating cylinder are constant char-
acteristics of technological process.
The temperature of a melt polymer determine ow and thermophysical properties at entry of blowing
section.
Equipment productivity depends on polymeric material properties, extrusion construction and ro-
tary speed of the screw. We chose the linear speed of moving the melt from the circular die to avoid
the construction depends on the factor: V
melt
=
Q
S
.
A degree of tube stretching is ratio of linear speed of nip rollers to linear speed of moving the melt
from the circular die: i
s
=
V
n
V
melt
.
A degree of cold stretching is ratio of linear speed of windup roller to linear speed of nip rollers:
i
c.s.
=
V
w
V
n
.
A degree of tube blow is ratio a lm width to outside circle of aperture die: i
b
=
2W
d
.
Then we made up the design matrix for experiment according with one of method of multifactor
planning of experiment. A calibration of equipment was done for realization of experiment. For
this purpose we found a functional dependence of value factors of reading frequency sensors.
Figure 2: A calibration of equipment
The researching of received 25 development types of polyethylene lms and discovering of depen-
dences of lm properties from parameters of technological process was the next step of science
work.
In this work in accordance with the State Standard we research:
1. thickness and polythickness;
2. physical-mechanical properties:
a) the tensile modulus;
b) tensile stress at yield;
151
Maria Kolesnichenko
c) tensile strength;
d) elongation at break;
e) elongation at yield;
f) tear resistance.
Figure 3: The functional dependences of polythickness TD from a degree of tube blowing
Figure 4: The functional dependences of the tensile modulus TD from a degree of cold stretching and dependence of
thickness from a degree of tube stretching.
At the result of our research we received the system of the equations:
_
_
H = f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
H
TD
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
H
MD
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
E = f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
y
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
s
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
r
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
y
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
s
= f(T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
)
. . .
where T, V
melt
, i
s
, i
c.s.
, i
b
- complex factors; and H, H, E,
r
,
r
- properties of polymeric lm
materials.
Technologist with this date and mathematical algorithm has a good chance to manufacture PFM
with a complex of predicted properties and minimize the costs of setting the equipment. Thereby
152
the functional dependences of lm properties from parameters of technological process have allowed
to stabilize the processes at printing and package machines. And as a result it improves the quality
of exible package, and therefore safety of packed product.
Resume:
1. We developed a new method of manufacture PFM with a complex of predicted properties.
2. We pioneered the use of complex factors for realization the multifactor experiment.
3. We pioneered the use of method of multifactor planning experiment by M.Protodyakonov for
studying of polymeric lm properties.
4. Special laboratory equipment was used in this work.
5. A calibration of equipment was done for realization of experiment.
6. The system of the equations of lm properties from parameters of technological process was
decided.
7. Carrying out of combined researches in which we examine technology, materials and design
is rather important and perspective direction of the further perfection of quality of exible
polymeric package.
153
Poster Session
Dorotea Agoston
Colour Appearance modelling of dierent prints
Dorotea Agoston
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
doroteaa@gmail.com
Abstract
A Colour Appearance Model provides mathematical formulae to transform physical measurements
of the stimulus and viewing environment into correlates of perceptual attributes of colour (e. g.,
lightness, chroma, hue, etc.). The rst CIE colour appearance model was CIECAM97s. These
models provide a basis for the new colour management systems.[3]
In this paper using Matlab functions XYZ values obtained by spectrophotometric measurements of
dierent prints which were converted into two dierent colour appearance models. The input data
to these models were the luminance of the adapting eld LA, the tristimulus values of the sample in
the conditions, XYZ, the tristimulus values of the source white in the source conditions, XW, YW,
ZW, the relative luminance of the source background in the source conditions Yb and the degree of
adaptation D.
The results show that dierent colour appearance models have some dierences in the rendered
results.
Introduction
A colour appearance model tries to model how the human visual system perceives the colour of
an object under dierent lighting conditions and with dierent backgrounds. By developing such
a model, an image that is viewed under one lighting condition can be adjusted to appear to have
the same colours if it were viewed under a completely dierent lighting condition. The ability of
a colour appearance model to perform this task means that it can be used to develop a device-
independent way of storing images. For example, if an image is scanned into a computer, the colour
appearance model, knowing the scanners illumination conditions, can transform the image into its
internal representation. When the image would be displayed on a monitor or printed, again the
colour appearance, knowing the output displays illumination conditions, can transform its internal
representation on the image to the correct representation for the output display.[1]
Colour Appearance Models
From measurements to colour appearance - A Colour Appearance Model provides mathematical for-
mulae to transform physical measurements of the stimulus and viewing environment into correlates
of perceptual attributes of colour. [3]
Colour Appearance Models:
CIELAB, RLAB, LLAB,
S-CIELAB,
CIECAM97s, CIECAM02,
Hunt,
Nayatani, Guth, ATG
CIECAM97
CIECAM97 is one of many colour appearance models. It was developed as an international stan-
dard colour appearance model that borrows the best ideas from many dierent colour appearance
models. CIECAM97 currently is only developed for a single input colour and a certain illumination
156
environment. It breaks down the illumination environment and the colour stimulus in the following
way:
1. Colour Stimulus: The colour stimulus is the colour being observed. It is dened to cover about
2 degrees of visual angle.
2. Background: The background is the area immediately surrounding the stimulus. It extends
from the edges of the stimulus to about 10 degrees of visual angle in all directions.
3. Surround Field: The surround eld extends to the limit of vision from the background.
CIECAM97 denes a surround eld as average, dark, dim, etc. [4]
The CIECAM97 model uses the color stimulus, the color of white, the background, and the sur-
round eld to calculate its representation of the stimulus color in the viewing condition specied.
CIECAM97 represents the stimulus color using lightness, chroma and hue which are described below:
Lightness: Lightness represents the general illumination of the color. It is related to what people
usually refer to as brightness. A color on a black background will have a greater lightness value than
the same color on a white background. Chroma: Chroma or colourfulness, represents how rich a
colour appears. A colour that is close to a grey value has a low chrome, while a deep rich colour has
a high chroma or colourfulness. Under an overcast sky, objects usually have a low chroma. When
the sun comes out, colours become much more vivid and thus have a higher chroma.
Hue: Hue represents the actual colour one observes: yellow, blue, red, etc. A fruit as it ripens
undergoes a change in hue: transitions from green to orange or red. [4]Once lightness, chroma and
hue information is computed for the colour stimulus and the viewing conditions, it can be used to
transform the colour to a dierent viewing condition. The ultimate goal of the CIECAM97 model
is for the two colours to appear exactly the same.[4]
o CIECAM97 Specics
Input Data
XYZ: Relative tristimulus values of colour stimulus
La: Luminance of the adapting eld (cd/m*m)
XwYwZw: Relative tristimulus values of white
Yb: Relative luminance of the background
Viewing Condition Parameters
c: Impact of surround
N
c
: Chromatic induction factor
F
LL
: Lightness contrast factor
F: Degree of adaptation factor
Surround parameters
Viewing Condition c N
c
F
LL
F
Average Surround 0.69 1.0 1.0 1.0
Dim Surround 0.59 1.1 1.0 0.9
Dark Surround 0.525 0.8 1.0 0.9
Output Data
J: Lightness: Overall illumination of the colour, related to brightness
C: Chroma: Richness of the colour, related to colorfulnes
h: Hue: Classies the colour as an angle, in degrees, around a colour wheel
157
Dorotea Agoston
CIECAM02
CIECAM02 is the CIE Colour Appearance Model (2002) published by the CIE Technical Commit-
tee 8-01 (Colour Appearance Modelling for Colour Management Systems). CIECAM02 takes for
its input the tristimulus values of the stimulus, the tristimulus values of an adapting white point,
adapting, background, and surround luminance information, and whether or not observers are dis-
counting the illuminant. Its outputs are mathematical correlates for the six technically-dened
dimensions of colour appearance: brightness (luminance), lightness, colourfulness, chroma, satura-
tion, and hue. The model can be used to predict these appearance attributes or, with forward and
reverse implementations for distinct viewing conditions, to compute corresponding colours.[1]
o CIECAM02 Specics
Input Data
L
A
: Luminance of the Adapting Field (cd/m
2
)
(often 20% of the luminance of white)
XYZ: Relative Tristimulus Values of the Sample
XwYwZw: Relative Tristimulus Values of White
Y
b
: Relative Luminance of the Background
D: Species the Degree of Adaptation
D=1.0 (Complete Adaptation or Discounting)
D=0.0 (No Adaptation)
D in Between, (Various Degrees of Incomplete Adaptation)
Viewing Condition Parameters
c: Impact of Surround
N
C
: Chromatic Induction Factor
F: Degree of Adaptation Factor
Output Data
The rst seven variables correspond to the:
J: Lightness: Overall illumination of the colour, related to brightness
C: Chroma: Richness of the colour, related to colourfulness
h: Hue: Classies the colour as an angle, in degrees, around a colour wheel
m: Colourfullnes
hq: Chroma: Richness of the colour, related to colourfulness
s: Hue quadrature
q: Brightness
Of the stimulus under the reference illuminamce.
The eight output parameter
cd: is a string that contains the Colour descriptor.
Surround parameters
Viewing Condition c N
c
F
Average Surround 0.69 1.0 1.0
Dim Surround 0.59 0.9 0.9
Dark Surround 0.525 0.8 0.8
158
Measurements
In this experiment two prints were measured with a spectrophotometer Gretamackbet Spectrolin
D=50, Standard observer=2, one with and one without a glossy coating. During measuring the
following parameters were used:
1. the XYZ values of the sample (uncoated and coated prints)
2. the (XYZ)W values of the white (paper white)
The values of the white for the coated print: X=82.01; Y=84.6; Z=73.97
The values of the white for the uncoated print: X=83.08; Y=85.80; Z=75.13
The XYZ and (XYZ)w are 3 x 1 column matrices containing the tristimulus values of the
colour stimulus and the adopted white, respectively, under the test illuminant.
3. L
A
=60 (from a previous experiment)
4. Y
B
=20 (from a previous experiment)
These parameters were included in the matlab functions:
1. function[j, c, hq, m, h, s, q, cd]=ciecam97s(XYZ, (XYZ)W, L
A
, Y
B
, para)Para is a 4 x 1
matrix = (c, N
c
, F
LL
, F)
2. function[j, c, hq, m, h, s, q, cd]=ciecam02(XYZ, (XYZ)W, L
A
, Y
B
, para)Para is a 4 x 1
matrix = (c, N
c
, F
LL
, F) for the F
LL
is always used 1.
Results
Using Matlab functions Ciecam97s.m and Ciecam02.m XYZ values obtained by spectrophotometric
measurements of dierent print were converted into dierent colour appearance models. Each of the
prints more than samples (elds), which helped this experiment to be more objective and accurate.
The results show that the two colour appearance models have some dierences in the rendered
results.
References
[1] Mark D. Farichild, Colour Appearance Models, Munsell Color Science Laboratory, Rochester
Institute of Technology, USA, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2005
[2] Stephen Westland and Caterina Ripamonti, Computational Color Science Using Matlab, John
Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2004
[3] Mark D. Fairchild, Color Appearance Model: CIECAM02 and Beyond, IS&SID 12th Color
imaging Conference
[4] http:/scien.stanford.edu/class/psych221/projects/98/ciecam/Project.html
159
Dorotea Agoston
160
Synthesis of Rocker and Lever CAM Gear with Fixed Slot
Petro Begen, Myroslav Basnyk, V. R. Pasika
mirosik99@ukr.net
A rocker and lever cam gear with the xed slot can be considered as a four-throw joint mechanism
with variable length of the crank. Basic four-throw mechanisms are present in presses, compressors,
vibrating belt-conveyors, various machine-tools, in agricultural, textile and printing machines. They
are cheap in manufacture, reliable and possess high wear resistance and reparability; however,
they can not satisfy certain kinematics requirements. The low of motion of a rocker arm is fully
determined by geometry of the mechanism and it is impossible to change it fundamentally.
If we change the length of the crank in a four-throw joint mechanism with the help of a program,
then we obtain new possibilities to full some additional conditions.
The principle diagram of a four-throw joint mechanism is shown on Fig. 1a. The given mechanism
has two tractive links because the level of mechanism mobility W = 2. Let the crank OA in the
given mechanism is rotating with a set frequency, and the slide-block A is moving according to
a certain law regarding the crank. In this case the length OA will be changing during the crank
rotation and we obtain a combined mechanism of the four-throw joint with variable length of the
crank. We will obtain variation of the crank length with the help of a xed cam (it is not shown
on the diagram), the theoretical prole of which is the trajectory of the point A.
Let us formulate the task in the following way: to synthesize the motion of the slide-block regarding
the crank (the length OA) in such a way that the outgoing link BC would move according to the
set law
3
= a
k
3
with the swing
3
, where a
k
is the specied invariant of displacement.
We will carry out the investigation in units regarding the length of the crank in the extreme right
position of the mechanism, and we set the length as l
OA
= 1 m. Let us combine the center of the
crank rotation with the beginning of the right coordinate system. Then the geometric parameters
of the mechanism will be as follows:
r
= 1 +
r
variable length of the crank,
r
displacement
of the slide-block regarding the crank;
r
= l
AB
/l
OA
l
AB
;
3
= l
BC
/l
OA
l
BC
; like this
a
= a,
b
= b, a abscissa of the point C, b ordinate of the point C;
0
=
_
2
a
+
2
b
.
If we project the vector contour

r
+

2
=

0
+

3
on the coordinate axis, we will obtain the
system of two linear equations regarding an unknown variable radius and the incidence angle of
the connecting-rod
2
.
Let us consider typical positions of the mechanism.
The rst one:

OAB > 90and the length of the connecting-rod AB is more than the length of the
perpendicular BD
put from the end of the outgoing link to the crank line, Fig. 1 b.
For such positions
r
= OD
AD
, where OD
= OD + DD
, OD =
0
cos(
1

0
), DD
3
cos(
1
3
), AD
=
_
2
2
(BD
)
2
, BD
= BC
+C
=
3
sin(
1
3
) +
0
sin(
1
0
).
After substitution of received expressions for the expression of the variable radius
r
=
3
cos(
1
3
) +
0
cos(
1
0
)
_
2
2
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
)
2
(1)
where
1
is the turning angle of the crank,
0
= arctan(
a
).
The second one:

OAB = 90and the connecting-rod AB coincides in the direction with the
perpendicular BD
put from the end of the outgoing link to the crank line, Fig. 2 a.
For such positions = AD OD, or, taking into account that AD = CC
=
3
cos(
1

3
) and
OD =
0
cos(
1
0
), we obtain:
r
=
3
cos(
1
3
) +
0
cos(
1
0
) (2)
The third one:

OAB < 90, and the length of the connecting-rod AB is more than the length of
161
Petro Begen, Myroslav Basnyk
Figure 1: A combined four-throw joint mechanism
a) the principle diagram of the mechanism, b) the position of the mechanism when length of the connecting-rod
AB is more than the length of the perpendicular BD
, put from the end of the outgoing link to the crank line, and
the angle

OAB being obtuse
the perpendicular BD
put from the end of the outgoing link to the crank line, Fig. 2 b.
For such positions
r
= AD
OD
, where AD
=
_
2
2
(BD
)
2
, OD
= OD DD
, BD
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
), OD
=
0
cos(
1
0
)
3
cos(
1
3
).
After substitution we obtain:
r
=
3
cos(
1
3
) +
0
cos(
1
0
) +
_
2
2
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
) (3)
All three expressions 1, 2, 3 for the calculation of the variable radius are expressed by the same items
but with dierent sign before the square root. The rst dependence is true for the angles of the
crank turning
1
>
1
, the second one for the angles
1
=
1
and the third one for the angels
1
<
1
, where
1
is the angle of the crank turning when the crank and the connecting-rod are
reciprocally perpendicular. Let us present an expression with the help of which we could calculate
the variable length of the crank for any position of the mechanism. For this let us introduce the
sign function:
r
=
3
cos(
1
3
)+
0
cos(
1
0
)sign(
1
1
)
_
2
2
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
)
2
(4)
The reciprocally perpendicular position of the crank and the connecting-rod occurs at the moment,
when the expression under the square root gains a minimum. Let us mark the expression under the
square root z =
2
2
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
)
2
and try to nd minimum z by a numerical
method according to the worked out program. As a result we receive the angle value
1
and a
corresponding angle
3
this is the angle of the rocker-arm slope at the moment, when the crank
and the connecting-rod are reciprocally perpendicular.
If in the reciprocally perpendicular position of the crank and the connecting-rod the expression
under the square root is not equal zero, then the geometric contour OABC will be open at the
point A because the length of the connecting-rod AB is more or less than the perpendicular BD
,
Fig. 2 a. That is why, to provide close character of the geometric contour, it is necessary that the
equation z(
1
) = 0 was true, out of which we can determine the necessary synthesized length of
the connecting-rod:
162
Figure 2: A combined four-throw joint mechanism
a) and b) the principle diagrams of the mechanism when the length of the connecting-rod AB equals and is more
than the length of the perpendicular BD
put from the end of the outgoing link to the crank line, and the angle
OAB 90
2c
=
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
) (5)
This synthesized length of the connecting-rod will meet additional conditions for preset mechanism
geometry and the law of motion of the outgoing link.
Taking into account the dependence 5 let us write down the nal expression for the variable length
of the crank:
r
=
3
cos(
1
3
) +
0
cos(
1
0
) sign(
1
1
)
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
)
2
0
sin(
1
0
) +
3
sin(
1
3
)
2
(6)
Crank End During the Reverse Motion
If there are no special conditions applied to the trajectory of the crank end during the reverse
motion, then we determine an unknown trajectory out of the conditions of smoothness of trajectories
conjugation during the direct and the reverse motions. For all that, we will take three conditions
which we apply to the bounds of motion and this will provide a continuous change of the trajectory
curvature. Presenting the unknown trajectory in the form of a 5 level polynomial
rz
=
6
i=1
a
i
i1
1z
we receive the following system of 6 algebraic equations:
under
1z
=
10

rz
=
rs
,
rz
=
rs
,
rz
=
rs
under
1z
=
10
+
1

rz
=
re
,
rz
=
re
,
rz
=
re
(7)
out of which we determine unknown coecients a
i
. Here
rs
and
re
are the values of the crank
radius at the beginning and the end of the direct motion, respectively. We calculate according to
the expression 6;
1z
is the angle of the crank turning within the limit of the reverse motion and
10
+
1

1z

10
+ 2.
The received system of equations 7 gives no limits for the radius value of the crank during the
reverse motion. However, we can draw plenty of curves which meet the conditions of 7. To choose a
163
curve which is the most t one, let us introduce to the system one more additional condition, which
limits the length of the crank: let at the angle
1c
the length of the crank must be
rc
. Changing
the values
1c
and
1c
we receive an additional possibility to inuence the choice of the trajectory
of the crank end during the reverse motion. Taking into account the last remark we receive the
following system of 7 algebraic equations of 6-th level, which in the detailed state has such a form:
a
1
+a
2
1s
+a
3
2
1s
+a
4
3
1s
+a
5
4
1s
+a
6
5
1s
+a
7
6
1s
=
rs
a
2
+ 2a
3
1s
+ 3a
4
2
1s
+ 4a
5
3
1s
+ 5a
6
4
1s
+ 6a
7
5
1s
=
rs
2a
3
+ 6a
4
1s
+ 12a
5
2
1s
+ 20a
6
3
1s
+ 30a
7
4
1s
=
rs
a
1
+a
2
1c
+a
3
2
1c
+a
4
3
1c
+a
5
4
1c
+a
6
5
1c
+a
7
6
1c
=
rc
a
1
+a
2
1e
+a
3
2
1e
+a
4
3
1e
+a
5
4
1e
+a
6
5
1e
+a
7
6
1e
=
re
a
2
+ 2a
3
1e
+ 3a
4
2
1e
+ 4a
5
3
1e
+ 5a
6
4
1e
+ 6a
7
5
1e
=
re
2a
3
+ 6a
4
1e
+ 12a
5
2
1e
+ 20a
6
3
1e
+ 30a
7
4
1e
=
re
_
_
(8)
Thus, the trajectory of the crank end during the reverse motion and it is the rst two derivatives
are described by the following dependencies:
rz
=
7
i=1
a
i
i1
1
rz
=
7
i=1
(i 1)a
i
i2
1
rz
=
7
i=1
(i 1)(i 2)a
i
i3
1
(9)
Let us carry out an investigation to determine the inuence of the values
rc
and
rc
on the
maximum value of the pressure angle during the reverse motion, because the pressure angle is one
of the most important characteristics of cam mechanisms.
We carry out the investigation in such a way. For a preset value of the additional radius
rc
we
make calculations of the trajectory of the crank end for corresponding angle
rc
, changing it within
the limits
10
+
1

rc

10
+ 2 with a certain step. For each pair
rc

rc
we determine
the maximum value of the pressure angle
max
and build a graph of dependency
max=f(
1
)
. We
build the same curves for other values
rc
, changing them within the limits
1s

rc

1e
.Thus,
we will receive the corresponding pairs
rc

rc
, at which the pressure angle during the reverse
motion will be the least one. We calculate the pressure angle according to the known dependency:
= arctan
r
/
r
. . For synthesis of the cam prole during the direct motion and carrying out
an investigation for choosing a t prole of the cam during the reverse motion a corresponding
calculation program was worked out. This program gives a possibility to choose the necessary law
of the rocker arm motion and geometric parameters of the mechanism.
For synthesis such input data were chosen:
the necessary law of the rocker arm motion cycloidal symmetric one with the peak of speed
constant B=1,6.
geometric parameters:
1
= 1,
2
= 6,
3
= 5,
a
= 4,
b
= 0.2,
3
= 45.
The analysis of the numeric results shows that it is impossible to provide a synthesis under the
preset geometric parameters of the crank and the connection-rod. For the successful synthesis it is
necessary to change the length of the connecting-rod from
2
= 6 to
2c
= 5.96797 and for the crank
from
1
= 1 to
1c
= 1.03203. This means that carrying out the synthesis of the real mechanisms
to obtain the real sizes, it is necessary rst to divide the geometric parameters by the synthesized
length of the crank
1c
, then to multiply by the real length of the crank l
OA
at the extreme right
position. Graphic results of the synthesis are shown on Fig. and Fig. .
Curves 1 show the trajectory of the crank end and the pressure angles during the direct motion from
the angle of the crank turning
1
= 41.57 to the angle
1
= 250.5. During the direct motion the
relative lengthening of the crank is 61.4834 % and the maximum pressure angle
max
= 12.169 %.
Let us procede to the investigation of the cam prole during the reverse motion.
According to the algorithm mentioned above the graphs of the maximum pressure angle dependency
max
, Fig. 5, from the xing angle
1
=
rc
for various values of the additional radius
rc
.
164
Figure 3: The synthesized cam prole for cho-
sen parameters of the rocker arm mo-
tion law and the geometric parame-
ters of the mechanism
Figure 4: Radii of curvature and the pressure
angles of the cams shown on Fig.
Figure 5: The dependency of the maximum pressure angle from the angle
1
=
rc
for dierent values of limiting
radius
rc
The analysis of the received graphs shows that for each radius
rc
value there exists such an angle
1
=
rc
, when we watch the minimum of the maximum pressure angle. For an example, a cam
prole during the reverse motion, Fig. , curve 3, the pressure angels, Fig. , the right one, curve 3
and the curvature radii, Fig. , the left one, equation 7. As we can see, both the cam radius and the
radius of the cam prole curvature became less, the same for the maximum pressure angle. The
last one was 28.4 % less.
For the cam shown on Fig. , curve 2, the radius-vector of the cam is calculated according to the
expression:
rz
= 0.02682952373893
5
1
+ 0.84938703487616
4
1
10.48862403997684
3
1
+
63.16802921457857
2
1
185.8057218493489
1
+ 215.5822799823816,
and for the cam shown by curve 3:
rz
= 0.035187270125
6
1
1.2282628673
5
1
+ 17.75839010576868
4
1
136.003771371
3
1
+
581.3696124
2
1
1314.2007
1
+ 1228.3918.
Thus we can make the following conclusions:
165
mathematical reasoning and a calculation program have been oered to do kinematic synthesis
of combined four-throw joint mechanisms according to the specied law of motion and the
rocker arm swing;
for the reverse motion of the rocker arm a simple algorithm of the synthesis of cross-section
of the slot with minimal sizes and minimal angles of pressure has been oered;
the choice of the additional radius and its position is calculated according to the worked out
program.
166
Inuence of printing colour sequence on colour reproduction through colour measurement and
management
Inuence of printing colour sequence on colour reproduction
through colour measurement and management
Vihans Dugar, Paritosh Prayagi, Mukul A. Singh
Printing & Media Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, India
Under the guidance of: Mr. Kiran P. Prayagi (Leading Consultant in printing industry for Graphic
& Arts in India) & Mrs. Soujanya Shenoy (Lecturer Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal)
vihansd@gmail.com
Basics of printing ink sequence
KCMY printing sequence
The four process colours used in oset printing are cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. For various
reasons the colour inks are best printed in the sequence black rst, followed by cyan, then magenta,
and lastly yellow. The reasons are:
A. Producing greys (a basic requirement in colour reproduction) in an ecient manner
B. Colour ink deciencies are compensated the best possible way
C. Ink consumptions is kept at a lower level and thus economical
D. Colour depth and images perspective is maintained
E. Secondary colours red (m + y), green (c + y), blue (c + m) have better hue
F. Colour reproductions achieved at the optimum level
Thus the Printing Industry has established the sequence CMY, K preferably rst, if not then printed
last, as a standard on the basis of extensive research and analysis, which forms a reference to achieve
the best possible colour reproduction.
If the printing inks sequence s changed then with every new sequence we witness colour variations
in the printed images. The ultimate aim of a print is to obtain a perfect colour reproduction so the
prime requirement is to produce greys in the original as greys in the reproduction so that all the
other colours in the print are automatically set to proper hue.
Why is CMY printing sequence standard?
On studying the spectral reectance curves for cyan, magenta, and yellow printing inks, its no-
ticeable that the overall red reectance is much higher than green and blue, and green reectance
is higher than blue. This is due to the fact that the cyan ink contains a considerable proportion
of magenta contamination and the magenta ink contains some yellow contamination. This is also
called as hue error.
(a) Cyan (b) Magenta (c) Yellow
Figure 1: Spectral reectance of red, green, blue lights as given by cyan, magenta, yellow inks
So as observed from the diagram above the sum of all the red, all the green, and all the blue
components is
Red Reectance > Green Reectance > Blue Reectance
167
Vihans Dugar
This higher red reectance shifts the greys towards reddish shade. Now to compensate this shift we
have to print largest quantity of cyan, followed by magenta. Yellow should be the least. In three
colour ink combination the ink printed rst on the substrate has the maximum proportion and the
one printed last has the minimum due to ink trapping conditions. So printing of CMY sequence, to
a great extent, automatically achieves what is necessary.
Designing and printing of test forme
The study is conducted with the help of specially designed test forme by Graphic Arts Technology
& Education for print evaluation. The test forme was printed at Magna Graphics (a Stardust
magazine group printing press) at Kandivli, Mumbai.
Figure 2: GATE Test forme
Printing details of the test forme:
Agfa lm exposed on Dianippon Screen Katana imagesetter
Pre Sensitised plates Technova Taurus
Printing machine Mitsubishi 3F 5-colour
Art Paper Bilt 130 gsm, pH7.0
Inks Micro Environ
Compressible blankets Mac Dermid Rollin Pastel
Fountain solution Technova Total Respect, 2.5 dilution, pH5, conductivity 1500 ms
Grey balance
In Reproduction, eorts are always directed towards reproducing the neutral greys in the original
as neutral greys in the reproduction. Matching the tone rendering of individual colour printings is
important because this determines whether the reproduction will display a general colour deviation.
General colour deviations are more objectionable than deviations in the individual colours. For this
reason faults in the matching of individual colour printings are particularly objectionable in the
grey tones. To achieve neutral grey with 3 colour inks, it has been found out that dierent dot sizes
168
management
are required in each of the 3 printers due to "additivity" and "proportionality" failure of the colour
inks.
The colour sequences printed in the experiment for the analysis are:
1. K C M Y & C M Y K
2. K C Y M & C Y M K
3. K M Y C & M Y C K
4. K M C Y & M C Y K
5. K Y C M & Y C M K
6. K Y M C & Y M C K
We have taken 12 sequences for the experiment with black ink in rst and the last positions, to
prevent the density variations while printing.
NOTE: We have taken the sequence KCMY as the standard and a reference to compare with the
other sequences, for our case study.
Initially on the basis of the least delta E value, the most appropriate greys were selected from the
grey balance target (KCMY Sequence). On visually crosschecking all the patches, the greys have
been selected.
Now, the selected greys of the KCMY sequence were located on the other Sequences and their L a*
b* values were measured and plotted against KCMY.
Figure 3: Concentration of grey with respect to neutral axis
169
Vihans Dugar
In the Graph (g. ) the range of greys produced by each sequence has been depicted by an oval
shaped area.
The major ndings of the graph are as follows:
1) KCYM is deviating more towards Green
2) KMYC is more towards Yellow
3) KMCY is more towards Greenish Blue
4) KYCM is more towards Greenish Blue
5) KYMC is more towards Yellowish Green
6) KCMY is more concentrated towards the neutral axis.
Thus from the above ndings we conclude that the greys achieved by the KCMY sequence is more
towards the neutral grey axis and the scatter is minimum as compared to the other sequences.
Plotting of graph for the colour shift of R, G, B, CMY, CMYK (from highlight to shadow) for each
sequence, against KCMY, as the standard for comparison
The Sequence KYCM is observed as the sequence with the least deviation in the overlap colors and
KYMC is found to be deviated maximum as compared to the standard. Other sequences lie in
between these extremes.
(a) Deviation of KYCM with respect to
KCMY
(b) Deviation of KYMC with respect to
KCMY
Figure 4: Deviation of KYCM/KYMC with respect to KCMY
Trap
Individual printing of C,M,Y on white paper of equal ink thickness remains as it is whereas in
overprint, thickness of 2nd down ink reduces.
Figure 5: Single print
Plotting and analysis of Trap of Overlap colors for all sequences against KCMY
Range of gamut of all the sequences are plotted against the KCMY on the 2D color
space.
170
management
Figure 6: Overprint
(a) KCMY vs. KYCM (b) KCMY vs. KYMC
Figure 7: Trap of overlap colors
Author Information
Mr.Vihans Dugar completed his B.E in Printing & Media Engineering from Manipal Institute of
Technology, Manipal India. Received the Heidelberg Scholarship 2007. Also worked as an active
volunteer for ICEIGATM 2006.Carried out his Project at Graphic Arts technology & Education
in Mumbai under the guidance of Mr.Kiran P .Prayagi. Currently working with Times of India,
Mumbai.
Mr.Paritosh K Prayagi has done his Diploma in Printing from GIPT Mumbai. Completed his B.E
from Manipal Institute of Technology. Carried out his Bachelors thesis with Storenso in Germany,
also presented many Papers at college, National & International Level. Active Member for technical
clubs at college level. Also received Bombay Master Printers Association Student Talent Award
2005. Also worked as an active volunteer for ICEGATM 2006.Presented paper at IARIGAI in 2005.
Currently working with Technical University of Chemnitz.
Mr.Mukul Anand Singh completed his B.E in Printing & Media Engineering from Manipal Institute
of Technology, Manipal India. Presented many Papers at college & National Level. Active member
of Technical clubs at college level .also received 1st prize in graphic designing at a National level
Competition. Carried out his Project at Graphic Arts technology & Education in Mumbai under
the guidance of Mr.Kiran P .Prayagi. Currently working with Times of India, Mumbai.
171
Vihans Dugar
(a) KCMY vs. KYCM (b) KCMY vs. KYMC
Figure 8: 2D Gamut Comparison on a*, b* color axis
172
Statistical Analysis of PDF Files Preighted with the Enfocus Pitstop Server
Statistical Analysis of PDF Files Preighted with the Enfocus
Pitstop Server
Matja Erker, Bojan Petek
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
matjaz.erker@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper focuses on statistical evaluation of preighted PDF documents that contain digital
data for printing the CMYK hardcover books. PDF les were processed by the Enfocus Software
automated preight tool Pitstop Server. Results using two multivariate methods are given and dis-
cussed. Preighting and quality control of les are important phases in modern prepress workows.
Designers should be aware of the importance of qualitative processing of the input les, which are
expected to be printed predictably and regularly. Ideally, all input les are expected to be appropri-
ately prepared without the need for additional corrections. Badly prepared les that cause errors in
the prepress workow (e. g., containing inappropriate color spaces) may require corrections that are
time consuming and costly. Therefore, one of the keys for success is in the eective quality control.
PDF enables us to identify possible prepress errors at the early stages of product development. For
example, errors can be identied during the PDF generation, and can be corrected immediately.
Initially, PDF was not developed for use in the graphic arts but was envisioned as a format to
support the paperless oce. Until the third revision it was generally not suitable for the graphic
arts use. The le format has evolved continually, and the latest PDF versions are very well suited
for wide spectrum of graphic arts and multimedia applications. The development of the PDF 1.3
also brought the PDF/X standard. The PDF/X standard streamlines the documents by eliminating
unnecessary data and optimizing the PDF les for print.
Introduction
The production of printed originals is nowadays spread across various locations and involves a
number of dierent people, not necessarily all print specialists. It is quite common that pages are
created by advertising and marketing professionals or administrative sta with the lack of expertise
in the prepress production. It is therefore highly likely that errors will occur at some point during
the page creation process. Some errors can be spotted simply by looking at a page on the monitor,
but some unfortunately only become apparent when the page is being processed by the RIP in the
imagesetter or platesetter. By that stage, it is often too late to correct them, since typically tight
deadlines will be jeopardized by a small error. The later an error is identied in the process, the
more costly it is to correct it (Jaeggi 1999).
The most common reported problems with the PDF les from clients are: the fonts are not em-
bedded, the picture resolution is too low, there are no bleeds, or users have picked the wrong color
space (Bailey 2005). Not all PDFs are suitable for imaging in high quality. It is estimated that
98 % of all the existing PDF documents cannot be used for print production. They are intended
for oce communication, archives or the Internet (Jaeggi 2004). With the appearance of PDF
version 1.3 and the PDF/X, the PDF started to be accepted by the graphic arts industry (Bailey
2005). PDF/X consists of a family of standards targeted at dierent needs in the graphic arts
industry. Currently, the most widely used standards for a print publishing workow are available
in PDF/X-1a and PDF/X-3 formats. The PDF/X-3 standard is used in the EU, and contains data
in color-managed color spaces (such as Lab, CalRGB or uses an embedded ICC prole), and other
data in grayscale, CMYK and spot colors. PDF/X-1a represents a standard used in the USA, and
supports only CMYK (and spot color) workows, targeted to a specic output device (for exam-
ple, web oset printing according to SWOP). The les created from saving the PDF/X-compliant
les are optimal for digital prepress and printing. Using the right steps produces les that pass
173
Matja Erker
Figure 1: A sequence of operations with Enfocus PitStop Server
the preight without problems by creating the PDF/X-compliant les that rarely exhibit problems
when placing orders at the commercial print shops (Prepressure 2007) A Certied PDF workow
supports preighting and includes the PDF Prole and the corresponding preight report in the
PDF document. This way leaves no doubt about the preight status of the PDF document. When
a Certied PDF document is received that has been preighted with an embedded PDF prole, the
report can be viewed without having to redo the preight. The report is generated from the stored
database and is displayed on a list (Adobe 2003). The term preight was derived from the preight
check of the plane before taking o. PDF preight tools represent a special way of digital proong
processes and are of great importance in digital prepress. Preight essentially acts like a safety net
(Padova 2004).
Research on appropriate selection of preight tools for graphic arts industry in Slovenia took place
in a research thesis performed about two years ago. This research clearly outlined what kind
of preighting tools would satisfy the requirements of the prepress workows under study. The
proposed requirements were: preighting and correction of les, availability on the Internet, PDF/X
support, compatibility with other software applications such as Adobe Acrobat and the cost of the
service. It was determined that Enfocus Pitstop Server could be recommended, oering automation
of the preighting and correction processes while also meeting most of the requirements proposed
in the research (Urh 2005, in Slovenian).
Enfocus Pitstop Server
Enfocus PitStop Server streamlines multi-document preight, auto-correction and large le process-
ing. PDF les are simply dropped into a hot folder and PitStop Server automatically processes the
les using Enfocus PDF Proles and Action Lists. PDF preight and correction are automated in
the sequence of operations, as shown on Figure .
Files in the Input Folder are automatically checked by the PDF prole that is specied in connection
with hot folders. If PDF les meet the requirements, specied by the PDF prole, they are trans-
ferred in Processed Docs on Success folder. Successful processing of PDF documents also generates
a preight report, where detailed information about the main characteristics of PDF document is
explained. The report generated by PitStop Server is also a PDF document (Enfocus 2006).
Experimental work
Given the limited time available for research, we have focused only on the rejected PDF documents
that were primarily intended for commercial printing of hard cover books. Our aim was to determine
which are the most frequent errors that aect negatively on further printing process. Data evaluation
was conducted on the preight reports of source PDF documents that came from customers from
174
Figure 2: Distribution of orders, rejected PDF
les, approved PDF les and both
rejected and approved PDF les by
countries
Figure 3: A distribution of rejected PDF les,
approved PDF les and both rejected
and approved PDF les by printing
products
various countries all over Europe. The other research aim was also to observe any similarities in
the rejected PDFs for hard cover books across countries.
Preight reports were collected in folders daily for one whole year. With this quantity of data we
have gained an extended view of what exactly happened during the preight and how many errors
appeared in the time-span available. Certain errors could be xed by the Enfocus Pitstop Server,
but not all of them. The PDF prole species which errors should be xed and is in general dierent
by printing company to printing company. In the beginning of the preight phase, editing can be
turned on or turn o in the PDF prole. If editing is turned on some errors are xed by the Enfocus
Pitstop Server and listed as Fixed attribute in the preight report. If editing is turned o than it
would be listed only as an Error attribute beside Caution attribute of the preight report. Many
source PDF documents successfully passed the preighting phase on the rst time without Error
attribute listed in the preight report.
Preight reports of the rejected PDF documents by date of creation were stored in folders by
countries and by printing products. Preight reports in each folder were merged with Adobe Acrobat
Professional plug-in ARTS PDF Aerialist 1.2 Split&Merge. Initial statistics included calculation of
the frequency of each Error attribute listed in preight report. Obtained variables were arranged
in columns by countries and by printing products in 21 dierent categories. Initial statistics were
rst shown by radar diagram. The radar diagram proved not to be the right choice for complete
overview of all Error attributes. For better results multivariate data analysis was used instead.
Hierarchical cluster analysis using the Ward method and factor analysis multivariate methods were
chosen for comparison in both classications by countries and by printing products.
Multivariate data analysis
Figure shows a distribution of orders by countries, rejected PDF les, approved PDF les and both
rejected and approved PDF les. Figure shows a distribution of rejected PDF les, approved PDF
les and both rejected and approved PDF les by printing products.
Figure highlights that the arrangement of rejected PDF les among the countries can be of great
importance and a good foundation for further multivariate analysis by the countries (AUT Aus-
tria, CRO Croatia, GER Germany, GBR Great Britain, MSC miscellaneous (other) coun-
tries, NED the Nederlands, SCA Scandinavian countries and SLO Slovenia). On the other
hand, Figure shows that this arrangement could yield problems in further multivariate analysis
(SB CMYK/Grey soft cover books in CMYK/Grey, HB CMYK/Grey hard cover books in
CMYK/Grey, MISC miscellaneous (other) printing products and CVR book covers). Speci-
cally, hard cover books in CMYK are much more frequent than the other printing products in this
175
Matja Erker
Figure 4: Dendrogram of hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward method and Factor plot diagram in rotated factor
space by countries
survey, since the data was collected in printing company where majority of orders came especially
for hard cover books. Due to many variables, multivariate analysis by countries has been chosen to
be used instead. With both hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward method and factor analysis,
variables were cut down on two or more variables or factors.
Cluster analysis attempts to group the objects of an observed set, on the basis of similarity or
distance between them, into mutually exclusive subsets (clusters) that consist of close objects. These
clusters are grouped into larger sets, until all objects are eventually united to the same cluster. The
higher the level of aggregation is, the less similar are the objects in the respective cluster. These
methods for cluster analysis are called hierarchical. The result of hierarchical classication can be
represented graphically by a dendrogram (Vandev, Tsvetanova).
Factor analysis is a statistical data reduction technique. It reduces a large number of variables to a
smaller number of factors, and could be used to create a set of factors to be treated as uncorrelated
variables (Garson 2007). Principal axis factoring (PAF) is one of the factor analysis methods where
the diagonals of the correlation matrix are initially replaced by the squared multiple correlation of
each variable with all other variables in order to remove error variance. These values are the initial
communalities, and they are optimistic estimates because they represent something like the upper
boundary for the proportion of variance that can possibly be accounted for by the factors. From
the initial communalities (based on all variables in the sample) to the nal factors, it depends how
well the variables were sampled in the domain of inquiry (Malle 2004).
Results
Figure shows the dendrogram of hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward method and Factor plot
diagram in rotated factor space by countries obtained in this study. Similarities between some of
the countries are evidently available.
Figure highlights a linkage between the hierarchical cluster dendrogram and the Factor plot diagram
by countries. If the dendrogram is cut in a way two groups are formed. Similar result is visible
on Factor plot diagram, where countries as Germany and the Nederland are close to Factor 2, and
further apart from the others.
Hierarhical cluster analysis using Ward method could also be done for printing products variables
(Figure ), but for the Principal axis factoring it was not possible to extract even two factors to
demonstrate them with factor plot diagram in the rotated space. Therefore, comparison between
the multivariate methods by printing products could not be done for this study.
176
Conclusions and future work
Our analysis mainly focused on the Error attributes from the rejected PDF documents, although it
could also have considered additional attributes, such as Caution and Fixed listed in the preight
report. Caution and Fixed attributes are also a part of the preight reports of successful PDF
documents and do not negatively aect the further printing process.
Multivariate analysis demonstrated that two dierent multivariate methods, i. e. the hierarchical
cluster analysis using Ward method and the factor analysis proved ecient and presented a sup-
porting view on clustering the rejected PDF documents. Other kind of analyses could have been
done using the dierent way of merging the data.
This research also revealed that multivariate analysis by printing products also had limitations, since
both hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward method and factor analysis couldnt be compared.
Given a longer time-span available for research, all listed attributes (including Error, Caution and
Fixed) from the preight reports could have been analyzed. A comparison between other comparable
software solutions could also be initiated.
Nevertheless, this study could be seen as an early attempt to obtain a structured view on problems
in digital prepress.
References
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PitStop%20Server%20User%20Guide%20(enUS).pdf>
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tics, Institute of Mathematics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Soa, Bulgaria. [Retrieved 1.10.2007]
From: <http://www.fmi.uni-soa.bg/fmi/statist/Personal/Vandev/papers/orden1.pdf>
[10] GARSON, D.G. Factor Analysis. 2007 [Retrieved 1.10.2007]. From:
<http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/factor.htm>
[11] MALLE, B. Factor Analysis. Lecture 7 20.4.2004. [Retrieved 1.10.2007]. From:
<http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~bfmalle/613/L7_new.html>
177
Jaka Jeli
Process making of envelopes
Jaka Jeli
University of Novi Sad, Serbia
jelic.jaksa@gmail.com
Introduction
From the beginning of human civilization came need for writing, noticing ideas, thoughts and event.
Those documents needed to be save from growing old. First letter was Sumerian, ideographic script
and dates from 4000 years b. C.
During development of human civilization creates a need for sending, transferring in formations
and also keeping a secrets (condential documents). In that period big problem was to protect
the condential content of documents from unwanted views. Making good protection was a huge
challenge. People was writing on dierent kinds of materials, tiles of clay, cylinder, leaves of Palm...
Later, people used papyrus, parchment and related materials. That was a reason to create suitable
elements for protection for all types of letters, and it depends of materials which was used. The
oldest human civilization was looking for wrapping materials who would be able to adapt for any
type of documents, letters and packages.
Protection wrapping material developed parallel with development of human society. The biggest
problem was mechanical protection of wrapping material. Wooden boxes with partitions was built
for clay tiles and they was sealed with beeswax. That was the only way to protect the content of
letter. Negative sides of those kind of wrapping materials and materials which was used for writing
were their weights and fragility.
New historical period brought use of new foundation like papyrus and parchment for writing data.
Book rolls appears in form of rolls who was wind up over wooden strip. The protection was: letter
was rolled around wooden strip and all that was tied in lamb leather and the end were painted and
sealed.
Later, letters were wrapped in paper, stickied and sealed. That made problems in transport and
identication mails. It turned out in need for standardization mails.
Than appeared an envelope. Envelope had path of development, like other graphical produces and
came in shape as we see it now.
The rst signicant innovations appears in London during reign of Henry VIII. It created need
to standardize cover of mails through cutting, folding and sticking. That caused product similar
current envelope. Three sides of paper surface was sliced, every side cover angle of 45
with two
incisions on each side, than they were fold and cover the angle of 180
. Later, those three sides were

glued and appeared a rectangular shape which was closed with forth side of paper (cover). Cover
of envelope on its surface did not have a glue. First, a letter was placed into envelope and that glue
was placed, before closing.
Occurrence of postal service represented progressive and modern society and economic situation
and standard of state. The postal service was mainly in property of rulers (kings, dukes) and
presented high prot organization because there was no other way of long distance communication.
In industrial period envelopes was only hand made. Soon it ran on mechanical manufacturing with
observing dimension and shape standards.
Today envelop is product of nishing graphic treatment and presents perfect type of compatible
wrapping material. Documents or letters made on dierent surface: paper, cardboard and plastic
place inside envelopes.
According importance and signicant determines: material which is used for envelope manufacture,
shape, purpose, is it need to possess resistance on fold, is it need to be seen the recipients ad-
dress (applies transparent materials), transportation of multimedia information and it needs special
mechanical and electrical protection. Depending of package type matches wrapping material.
178
Current needs show envelope as graphical product and article wrapping material need and must
compete wish and expectation of user.
Envelope classication toward manner of produce technology treatment
Hand made envelopes consider in models of special purpose like design envelopes of high business
envelopes and it is not possible to use mechanical and industrial way of production in one of phase
in procedure of making envelopes. Hand made phase includes special treatment for decoration and
attaching complex parts. Hand made production is very expensive manufacture with high rate
of errors (reason is human factor). Printing, rening, cutting, folding, imprinting and sticking
envelopes perform with machines. Decoration processes are exclusively hand made. Hand made
phase of making an envelope is related with envelope price.
Mechanical way eliminates hand made production and represents modern industrial production.
Hand work includes operator activities like adapting technological systems according demands of
product model. Mechanical manner of production classicates according wrapping material shape
and structure: paper, cardboard and plastic. Production system had to be adapt with technological
system:
Rotation technological system from paper rolls and plastic
Sheet system technological system from sheets of paper (paper, cardboard and rm plastic)
Rotation technological system for production envelopes from paper rolls
Is almost perfect way of industrial production. It is high production machines with high rate
automatization, also known as technological system and in line production. On machines entrance
is placed paper roll or plastic foil, output device is transportation table and device for packaging nal
envelopes in to boxes. Material in shape of stripes goes through machine and performed treatments:
printing, imprinting, cutting, folding, gluing, therm weld, arranging envelopes and packing into
boxes. Transportation system depends from material which is used in product processes. These
are basic standards in projecting technological systems. Complexity of devices depend of handling
function tasks over material.
Main characteristics of in line technological systems which make dierences between other techno-
logical systems or machines for production envelopes from roll are:
Special forms of submit material on entrance
High speed of production
Standard quality
High productivity
Small rate of waste (1-2 %)
Short period for adapting technological system toward tasks from owchart
Possibility to choose forms and materials
Sheet system technological system of making envelopes presents industrial way of
production.
The product, an envelope, appears through moving material through many independent technolog-
ical systems depending of phases order in technological series. This manner of production is called
modular way of production. They connect through transport systems in product line. Transport
systems are: transport lines, portal manipulator, industrial robot and band conveyor.
179
Jaka Jeli
These machines have lower automatization than rotation technological system but with big possi-
bility choice of forms, materials structure and high quality of envelopes.
In East Europe and Balkan are used technical system 25 years old, without apply transport system
but over hand transport system (operators). Classications of technological systems consist of:
1. Printing processes: paper, cardboard and plastic sheets
2. Process of cutting sheets
3. Process in-print and perforing
4. Process of folding envelope
5. Process of printing nal envelope
There are two approaches:
1. Process of printing material sheets according forward envelope model
2. Process of printing nal envelopes
Envelope design
Observing industial design from area of modern industrial production includes technological and
graphical analysis of product in aim to achieve the most possible physical and psychological use
of product article. Consumer groups are initiators of classication envelopes on three directions:
commercial, business and decorative. Based on that classication we apply unique design solution
for every group. Envelope with its own form, dimension, structural material and design eects
indirectly and directly on the eye and brain of observer. In past period design was neglect, but
design envelope presents very important factor which psychological eects on customers, producers
and users. Main task for graphical designer is to make connection between customers desires and
needs on the one side and on the other side to coordinate way of making an envelope on technological
systems. Graphical designer also have to use creative spirit and to respect technical rules which
characterize the product.
Model of desired envelope has to be made before beginning of production. After acceptation the
model begins processes of production. Classication of industrial process for making envelopes:
Dene materials and shapes of envelope
Dene color solution
Dene printing treatments
Dene manner of closing and cover form
Current situation
Current situation gives us clear picture about proportion of existing dierent kinds of envelops:
commercial, business and decorative. According to this classication we get the idea about current
existing materials which are used for envelopes.
The envelopes made of plastic possess good characteristics of wrapping materials. Plastic is young
material in domain of wrapping materials. Development of molecular chemistry and youth materials
form opportunity to project and create technical ideas for envelopes in all three groups (commercial,
business and decorative) and also application of therm plastic materials. Envelopes made of plastic
have to complete following conditions:
180
Figure 1: Classication of envelops based on users in EU
Figure 2: Classication according to materials which are used for envelopes
1. To possess characteristics for transportation
2. To possess business identity
3. Incontrovertibly and credibility
4. Low weight
5. Storing - caring dierent products
6. Material possibility to accept dierent design solutions
The main fault of these envelopes is manner of closing and repeated opening the contents, that is
the reason for limited use. Envelope as wrapping material has to have short time use (one closing
and opening) and after that envelope has to be destroyed. Classications according to groups and
materials point us on big use of envelopes wrapping materials in modern society. The main
envelope function is to send paper contents but envelope can be used for sending dierent kinds of
materials.
Manner of closing and security
The envelope security system has to be suitable and modern in aim to prevent intended and not
intended burglary. The security system for envelopes made of paper consists of glue on cover
sides. The glue can be fast dry and long time dry with silicone strip. In case of burglary material
structure will be damaged, it means the envelope will be torn in slices or chopped and that indicates
the burglary of envelope. After that envelope is useless.
181
Jaka Jeli
For envelopes made of plastic is complicated to establish burglary. The reason is specic surface of
material. The protection is combination of few dierent materials on envelope surface. Those ma-
terials were: paper label with print (hologram or stamp) sensitive on strip, apply of two component
glues, implementation of rivet, zippers...
These are not only ways for protection. Today lot of renowned companies use labels with RIFD
chip. The basic data, like names and address of sender and recipient, weight, date and time of
sending package are written on RIFD chip. Those data are written by special writer on chip. Label
with RIFD chip is pasted inside envelope. RIFD chip has assignment to keep information recorded
on start and according to those information to make the code map. The code map is consist of
points, two of them are start and goal connected with path. Means of transportation is connected
with GPS (global position station), and RIFD chip too. User of postal service, sender or recipient,
in every moment can check the position of package through internet. Only rm envelopes with
secure manner of closing can be used in this kind of transportation.
There are small number of new manners of closing plastic envelopes who have to pass period of
testing.
Conclusion
Envelope made of plastic possess advantage comparing to envelopes made of other materials, but
they have unjustied limited usage. Development of envelopes made of plastic gives new oppor-
tunities for development new materials and technologies. It gives me the conclusion that envelope
wrapping material has new path of development in modern society like it was during history.
182
Perspective of the technologies and means of the laser control usage in graphic arts industry
Perspective of the technologies and means of the laser control
usage in graphic arts industry
Olha Khamula
Scientic adviser: Khamula O. G., associate professor, Lazanovskyj P. P., associate professor
khoo2006@yandex.ru
Usage of the energy in the form of a laser beam by a revolutionary modern method enriches the
technical opportunities of mankind, what leads to the huge economic and social consequences.
In measuring engineering a narrow orientation, small corner of a divergence, small section of a
laser beam; the strictly certain frequency spectrum, high uniformity of laser radiation; the large
capacity, signicant range of a laser beam action are eectively used Laser measuring devices and
systems permit to carry out various high -precision and in many aspects really unique laboratory
researches; to carry out industrial measurements and researches, to organize the ecological control
of an environment. Not all the known opportunities of the laser - measuring engineering are widely
and eectively used in graphic arts industry. Nevertheless, taking into consideration the intensive
transition of modern graphic arts industry on "the electronic rails", it will be natural to assume
that equipment of printing laboratories, shops, enterprises, complexes with the laser measuring
equipment of new generation is the task of the nearest and feasible future. Lets have a look at
some opportunities of lasers usage in graphic arts industry and close to it areas of industry.
Laser engravers for graphic arts industry provide manufacturing of the non-silver photo forms,
oset plates, exography forms, processing of the metallized lms;
Laser methods of the analysis and control enabled us to create absolutely new technical
means for exact non-contact denition of the sizes and forms of the details, conditions of their
surfaces, and also measurement of speeds and moving bodies speed-up, revealing of vibrations
and smashing, remote control of pollution in an atmosphere, denition of the internal pressure
in designs;
The following branch of usage in graphic arts industry is bre communication lines, which
eectively and sturdily carry out remote transfer of the large volumes of the textual and art
information.
Usage of lasers in graphic arts industry ensured the important simplication and acceleration
of the printed forms preparation process, which made possible the occurrence "of desktop
printing houses" and rapidly increased the number of small printing houses:
Laser electro photographic engineering;
Laser engraving;
Laser coding or drawing of the varied digital and letter or bar - code on the serial products
surface.
This list certainly is not complete. On the basis of the laboratory researches we developed and
tested the laser informational calculating devices (LICD) on the printing enterprises. With the help
of that we can supervise:
the thickness of the paper tape;
correctness of the paper sheet feeding (direction of bres in sheets);
to count the amount of sheets (while passing in the certain section of the printing press);
183
Olha Khamula
to catch adhesion or agglutination of the sheets (submission of two and more sheets);
to measure moisture amount in sheets during printing.
The process of the received information processing and the decisions accepting as to the LICD man-
agement included the development of the adequate mathematical models, algorithms of estimation
their probabilistic characteristics, algorithms of these estimations calculations; and on this basis of
the acceptance of the quasi-optimum strategy of management according to the chosen criteria. Basis
for obtaining of the nonlinear and non-stationary equations of the paper (structure) behaviour or
conduct while its interaction with the coherent laser beam are the laws: of movements, continuity
and condition dynamics. Under the small perturbation amplitudes it is possible to pass, proceeding
from the equations of balance of a moisture from the general nonlinear model, to linear, on the ba-
sis of a small parameter method taking into consideration the limiting conditions for each concrete
task. As a result of the carried out analysis and the executed transformations the next additive
model of the surface trajectory in a measurement zone r with the time t was received:
h(r, t|B
TS
) = [H
0
(r) +h
1
(r, t|U) +h
2
(r, t|m) +h
3
(r, t|p)]
B
TS
,
where H
0
is the integrated index of the paper surface level, h
1
level change because of the
deregulation while U management; h
2
is the level change due to the change of paper weight m; h
3
is the level change owing to the vibration of the machine mechanical parts in the given geometrical
basis of the forming machine B
TS
. On the basis of such theoretical analysis the classes of paper
models with the dierent structural characteristics were oered, the part of which was shown on
the g. and . As a result of transformations, which were based on the theory of the rough surfaces
optics and in the processes of the light refraction while passing through the environment, the received
generalized expressions of a light ow I laser paper probing in the going through and reected variant
are accordingly:
I
S
(x, y|t) =
x
max
_
x
min
y
max
_
y
min
S
W
NS
(x, y|t)dxdy
and
I
T
(x, y|t) =
x
max
_
x
min
y
max
_
y
min
T
W
NT
(x, y|t)dxdy,
where
T
is a structural factor of the paper surface roughness;
S
structural attenuation coecient;
W
NS
and W
NT
are the functions of the energy distribution in the going through and reected
probing accordingly.
The received above expressions are fair for all the structure classes, but they will be working while
observing of the certain restrictions: intensity of the I site will be like this:
x [x
min
, x
max
] = V
SL
(x, y), where V
SL
area of sounding of the laser;
d
L
= 2r
max
L
< dimV
SL
(x, y), where d diameter of a light beam.
In the simpler variant the intensity of the received reected beam from the paper surface while
probing by the coherent beam concerning the intensity of the I site will be like this:
I
T
= I
0
T
(x, y|t),
where
T
=

m
i=1
n
j=1
a
ij
(x, y)
ij
T
is the parameter of the stochastic paper structure, which is
the sum of elementary platforms functions a
ij
, multiplied on structural factors
ij
of a surface
roughness. The mathematical signal description, which has passed through the probing object,
of these classes of models which are shown on a g. , where is a spatial frequency of the bres
placing; is the accidence index; I
is the background signal; humidity; d samples thickness.

Parameter
i
is a complex structure function, which depends on the spatial characteristics of the
object probing (paper in this case) and from the humidity changes in time.
The received power equations of probing coherent beam interaction with a stochastic surface are
universal, i. e. that they are suitable for the interaction description with the dierent classes of
184
Perspective of the technologies and means of the laser control usage in graphic arts industry
Figure 1: Homogeneous grating paper model
the paper structure models, because they contain parameter structure coecient, which takes into
consideration the spatial and power changes in dierent modeles classes. For checking of the re-
ceived theoretical rules the modern paper and cardboard types were chosen, as of the Ukrainian
manufacturers, so from the foreign companies. The special attention was paid on the establishment
of the moisture inuence on the printing and technical indexes and revealing of the properties and
structure of a paper changes dynamics while its humidity changes. For laser researches the gas
helium-neon lasers with the capacity 5, 24, 28, 30 mwt, and also semi-conductor laser with the ca-
pacity of 5 mwt were chosen. All the lasers of the red visual spectrum which have the wave length
the 680 nm, which are widely used in manufacture and which are more often available for the user
because of the lower prices. During the researches time the modes optimality of laser probing was
found, the necessary corner of probing was determined; the optimum direction of probing was es-
tablished; the power losses at laser probing were determined; the design data of the laser device was
established. As a great amount of experiences for achievement of necessary measurements accuracy
requires additional time and expenses for experiments and calculation, the mathematical planning
of experiment was used. For the given purpose the method of the least squares was used, which is
the most perspective and gives good results in practice. With the help of it the experimental points
with the given mistakes dispersion in supervision were chosen, at which the parameters estimations
could be dened with the possible greater accuracy. Thus, there are all opportunities for the greater
automation and computerization of the control and measurement processes, which in their turn will
result in obtaining of the better quality production, economy on lack of the products and in the
nal account on cheapening of the printing products.
References
[1] Or. Khamula. The laser and graphic arts industry / magazine "Palette of a seal" / Lviv, 2003,
No. 1, p. 40-41.
[2] Or. Khamula. Use of lasers in graphic arts industry / the Collection scientic - methodical
clauses. - Simferopol, CIIPT, 2003, No. 2, p. 82-85
185
Olha Khamula
Figure 2: Casual grating paper model
186
Dierences in colorimetric values of conventional and hybrid inks
Ana Keler
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Graphic Engineering and Design, University of Novi
Sad, Serbia
anakeler@sbb.co.yu
Abstract
Hybrid printing technology is relatively new in the graphic arts, and as all new technologies have
some production parameters which are not fully explored. Since hybrid inks are not standardized,
for the production control we can only use the ISO 12647-2:2004 or some update version of it, a
standard which is made for the printing with the conventional inks. The aim of this work was to
compare prints made with conventional inks to the prints made with hybrid ones considering the
colorimetric dierences of the achieved colour gamuts. Also conventional and digital proofs were
made, and measurements were made to test their suitability to simulate prints made with hybrid inks
as well to the conventional inks. For the colour measurement we have used a spectrophotometer
and a plate measuring device equipped with a cmos sensor camera for the tone value increase
measurements. The obtained results show some dierences between the conventional and hybrid
inks colour gamuts on both paper type (glossy and matt) and colour dierences between dierent
types of proofs.
Introduction
The term hybrid derives from the Latin hibrida, meaning the ospring of a mixed union. Although
the union referred to was originally restricted to humans or animals, the term hybrid is now most
commonly used in horticulture to describe plants of mixed parentage (hybridisation) and in the
automotive industry to describe vehicles propelled by a combination of internal combustion and
electric power (hybrid motor) [1]. Hybrid ink technology has found a place in the sheetfed litho-
graphic printing industry. Since its inception in the late 1990s, it has continued to grow and evolve.
The technology has brought UV curing into many printing shops that would not have anticipated
being UV printers just a few short years ago. The technology has also led to the improvement
of general UV-curing inks for lithographic applications [2]. Hybrid inks incorporate two dierent
chemical drying properties: they dry by oxidation and penetration like conventional oil-based inks,
and harden under UV radiation like UV-curing inks. To accommodate the dierent modes of oper-
ation hybrid presses are congured with IR, thermal air and UV dryer modules [1]. Hybrid printing
technology is relatively new in the graphic arts and as all new technologies have some production
parameters which are not fully explored. Since hybrid inks are not standardized, for the production
control we can only use the ISO 12647-2:2004 or some update version of it, a standard which is
made for the printing with the conventional inks. A major concern for the formulator of hybrid
inks is that these inks are targeted to print on conventional presses on which roller compounds may
not be UV compatible. Many UV materials cause rollers to swell. This results in improper settings
and destroys print quality. In some cases, excessive swelling actually caused the rollers to self de-
struct. Of course, shelf stability of the ink can not be compromised either. This combination of
conventional oxidation-curing inks and UV-curing inks oers an interesting alternative to standard
printing inks. But care must be taken:
The range of hybrid inks includes ink mixtures with UV-ink concentrations that vary from 10 % to
100 %. Thus it is important to consider the following issues before using a hybrid ink:
1. Compatibility of the hybrid ink with
The roller compound
the printing blanket
187
Ana Keler
2. Selection of a suitable
wash
fountain solution
In all printing operations, inks and printing chemicals come in contact with the rubber compound
and interact with its ingredients. Incompatibility between inks, chemicals and rubber components
can produce swelling or shrinking, which in turn alter the geometry of rollers and blankets, diminish
print quality and reduce roller service life [3].
Experiments
The aim of this work was to compare prints made with conventional inks to the prints made
with hybrid ones considering the colorimetric dierences of the achieved colour gamuts. We have
printed a test chart with conventional and hybrid inks according to ISO 12647-2: 2004 and also
one conventional proof was made as well as a digital proof made by ink jet technology. Test
form, 297x420 mm was created in Adobe Illustrator and than converted in PDF and PS format. It
contained 7 elements, and 2 of them were used for the colorimetric measurements:
1. ECI 2002 Characterization Target with 1485 elds arranged 45x33 which was used for spec-
trophotometric measurements in order to the determine colour gamuts and to obtain ICC
proles.
2. Patches for tone values, tone gradients, full tone patches, used for determination of the tone
value increase.
For printing substrate gloss and matt coated paper (130 g/m
2
), and conventional (Hartman) and
hybrid inks (SunChemical) were used. Oset printing was carried out on KBA Rapida 74 sheetfed
machine. Printing of 4 groups of samples was conducted according to ISO 12647-2 (2004) colour
values for the process colours with color order KCMY. For Matchprint conventional proof the
recommended values of manufacturer for foil order and exposing time where applied. Digital proofs
were made in accordance to print house standards. For the digital proofs we have used 2 types
of paper semi gloss and gloss. For the printing of the digital proofs we have used the Epson
Stylus Pro 4000. Measurements and the sample processing was carried out on GretagMacbeth
SprectroScan. The 45/0 measurement geometry was used with D50 illuminant and observer angle
2. For the analysis of mechanical and optical tone value increase we used the aord mentioned
spectrophotometer and a plate measuring device Techkon SpetroPlate which uses a CMOS sensor.
Results
Spectrofhotometric measurements were carried out to determine CIE Lab values of printed samples
and to compare E values of proofs and printed samples. Fig. shows colour gamuts of Matchprint
conventional proof, digital proof on semi gloss and gloss paper and all printed samples (both con-
ventional and hybrid) in CIE Lab color diagram. Conventional proof has the widest range especially
in orange violet area of gamut. The biggest deviation is between conventional proof and sample
printed with conventional ink on mate paper where ?E*ab amounted to 8.71. The least deviation
is between conventional proof and sample printed with hybrid ink on mate paper where E*ab is
6.70. Digital proofs on gloss and semi gloss paper have almost the same color range, with the widest
range especially in green blue area of gamut. E*ab amounted to 0.73. The biggest deviation
is between digital proofs and sample printed with conventional ink on mate paper where E*ab is
4.80 and the least deviation is between digital proofs and sample printed with hybrid ink on mate
paper where E*ab is 3.70. There is a big dierence in colour gamut comparing samples printed
with hybrid and conventional ink on mate paper where E*ab amounted to 3.60. The sample
printed with conventional ink on mate paper has the widest range especially in violet blue area
188
of gamut. It was found out that samples printed with hybrid and conventional ink on gloss paper
have almost the same color range, where E*ab amounted to 1.30.
Figure 1: Color gamuts of all digital proofs and all printed samples
The measurements also included the determination of the tone value increase. There are two
aspects of the increases in screen dots: mechanical and optical increase. Mechanical increase means
physical increase of halftone dot, which depends on press technique, paper, ink and other physical
parameters. Even the improvements in printing, paper and ink quality, including other physical
parameters, there is no possibility to avoid this eect completely, especially at high resolutions.
Optical increase refers to the fact that the printed dot appears greater that its real geometric
dimension. It is caused by the light which enters the foundation below the dot, where the light can
be reected between the dots due to internal refraction. Optical increase of the raster dot depends
on optical characteristics of materials (ink, paper) and geometric distribution of ink (resolution,
position, dimension and form) [4]. The measurements for mechanical and optical increase of tone
values are presented in Figures . The obtained results shows higher values for the mechanical tone
values increase for hybrid ink on matt and gloss paper and lower values for the conventional ink on
gloss paper. The highest mechanical tone values increase is in yellow colour sample printed with
conventional ink on matt paper and the highest optical tone value increase is in cyan colour sample
printed with conventional ink on matt paper. The highest increase in tone values is in the mid tones
for both ink types.
Conclusion
On the basis of the obtained results it can be concluded that digital proofs are suitable for simulation
of color range with these papers because they have higher color range. Machprint simulates colour
gamut of hybrid ink prints better than it simulates gamut of prints with conventional ink. It also
can be concluded that there is no need to use hybrid ink if they are not used with UV coatings,
because E values show the low dierence between hybrid and conventional inks printed on gloss
paper.
Acknowledgement
I want to thank Foto-OKO printing house from Novi Sad for the help in printing the samples.
References
[1] www.kba-print.com
[2] http://radtech.org/Industry/pdf_articles/hybridinkjanfeb05.pdf, Anthony Bean
189
Ana Keler
[3] http://www.boettcher.de/PDF-Dateien-engl/FA-Hybrid-engl.pdf, Anon
[4] Karlovi, I.: Kolorimetrijska i vizuelna analiza reprodukcije u digitalnoj tampi, Zbornik radova
GRID 06, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Grako inenjerstvo i dizajn, Novi sad, 2006.
190
Figure 2: Mechanical and optical of tone values for conventional and hybrid ink on matt and gloss paper
191
Cathleen Macher
Printed electronics: sprayed PAni source-drain-structures printed
on PET foil applying a spraying technique
Cathleen Macher
catm@hrz.tu-chemnitz.de
Abstract
The term printed electronics summarizes dierent relatively new technologies for the printing of
electronics on common media such as paper, plastic, and textile using standard printing processes.
The Institute for Print and Media Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology focuses its
research on electrical components based on functional polymers. PEDOT/PSS and PAni have
already been used in various applications like electrodes of eld eect transistors (FET). An FET is
a very important component for integrated circuits. It consists of the dierent layers source-drain,
semiconductor, gate-isolator and gate.
As a result of my student research project and focusing mass printing technologies, organic conduc-
tive source-drain-layers were produced utilizing a spraying technique, that printed the water-based
dispersion of the conductive polymer Polyanilin (PAni) on Polyethylenterephthalat (PET) foil.
To locate the PAni lm only where it is needed an etched micostructured high-grade steel stencil
was used. This stencil material makes channel lengths of 100 to 150 m possible. The foil was xed
between stencil and magnets and the conductive material was printed on the substrate surface with
airbrush nozzles. Because PET has a low surface energy, it is necessary to pre-treat the surface so
that PAni can wet the foil. A plasma beam was used to treat the PET surface with the stencil being
laid out. This procedure has the positive eect that the surface energy is only modied where it
is needed depending on the image. Finally the realized source-drain-structures were geometrically
and electrically characterized.
Figure 1: Scheme source-drain-structure, topview
Figure 2: Scheme organic eld-eect-transistor
(oFET)
Author Information
Cathleen Macher was born in Karl-Marx-Stadt, which is now called Chemnitz, in 1982. She went
to school there and is now studying german language & literature studies and Print & Media
Technology at Chemnitz University of Technology. After nine successful semesters she is working
on her nal thesis for M. A. degree. Besides that she is acting as a student assistant at the Institute
for Print and Media Technology in the eld of Polymer Electronics, where printing techniques for
printed electronics are developed.
192
Study of Flow Behaviour of Conventional, Hybrid and UV Oset Inks
Study of Flow Behaviour of Conventional, Hybrid and UV Oset
Inks
Katarna Remenrov
University of Pardubice, Czech Republic
st8922@student.upce.cz
Abstract
The UV markets have been growing over last two decades. Hybrid inks are less than six years old
and growing rapidly. They represent a hybrid between conventional and UV curing inks, because
their drying process includes both drying mechanisms. Because of the novelty of hybrid systems,
there are unanswered questions about what are the expectation for quality and performance and
what are the best practises are for operators. This work was focused on the two process colour ink,
magenta and cyan. Inks from seven dierent suppliers were tested, two conventional, two hybrid
and two UV inks. Two dierent types of fountain solutions one without alcohol and one with the
addition of 5 % IPA were used for preparing emulsions. The emulsions were determined by the
amount and rate of water pick-up. The shear-load dependent ow and time-dependent behaviour
of neat inks and emulsions were measured at dierent temperatures by rotational rheometer RV1
HAAKE. Tackmaster-92 was used to measure the tack and misting characteristics. The rheological
study have shown that in some aspects hybrid ink seems to be similar as conventional (fountain
solution take-up) and in some aspects as UV inks (ow curves, thixotropy). During a printing
process, the variations of the viscosity and other rheological characteristics with the temperature
may disturb the overall quality of the production. The laboratory tests carried out in this paper
are useful in explaining the dierent behaviours of oset inks and its emulsions during low and
high-speed printing.
Introduction
The rheological properties of inks can determine processibility, help drive technology to better
product quality, performance, and eventually growth in consumer acceptance. The amount of inks
available on the market is still increasing, motivated by newer printing technologies, demands of the
printers and the end-users. The current problems of ink manufacturers are of course faster printing
speeds, a more cost-eective processes and environmental regulations. Ultraviolet (UV) curable ink
systems are an expanding area of the printing industry with expectations to develop signicantly
within the next few years. The only major dierence in this printing process, in comparison with
conventional web or sheet fed printing, is the mode of ink drying. UV ink systems contain photoini-
tiators which when activated with the correct wavelength of radiation, undergo a rapid free radical
reaction causing the ink to set rapidly forming a dry hard resin lm. Vehicles consist of oligomers
and monomers and do not contain VOCs. This system, give a number of advantages, namely rapid
drying with no ink set o or smearing, high print gloss and an abrasion resistant surface. There is
also less problem of sample blocking, where none dried ink lms cause the sheets to stick together.
The process is reported to be relatively cost eective, clean and environmentally friendly, however
the printed material may be a little more dicult to recycle. Hybrid inks are based on conventional
oset printing inks, but contain part of UV curable components as well and are able to run on
conventional press machine retted with UV lighting stations. One of the major advantages of
hybrid ink technology is that smaller commercial printers can add inline UV varnishing to their
operations at relatively low cost. The hybrid should be printable with blankets that are also suit-
able for conventional inks. UV components cause conventional rubbers to swell. The change-over
between conventional and hybrid inks is not so simple, and there are a lot of unanswered questions
about, what are the best practices for operators and what are the expectations of the quality and
performance will be.
193
Katarna Remenrov
Experimental
In this work, seven magenta process inks were tested, three conventional, three hybrid and two UV
inks, listed in table 1. Two dierent types of fountain solutions were used for preparing emulsions,
one without alcohol (Supreme 250, Inchema) and one (V 45) with addition of 5 % IPA.
Table 1: Process magenta and cyan oset inks tested in this work
Name of product Type of ink Manufacturer
Rapidon Magenta coldset oset ink SI COLOR Drkfarben
OPTIMA ECO PLUS OPE27 coldset oset ink Coates Lorilleux
Arrow Star Fast Setting 3030 coldset oset ink FLINT - SCHMIDT
SICO-BRITE Magenta 78000026 hybrid ink SI COLOR Drkfarben
REFLECTA-HYBRID Magenta, 42UH 8900 hybrid ink Michael Hber Mnchen
SICURA DEO 456, 12 QM 236648 Magenta UV ink SIEGWERK INK Packaging
LITHOCURE UO 330080-409 UV ink X SYS Print Solutions
Duke Ink Water Emulsication Tester Model D-10 (HDuke Enterprises, USA) was used for preparing
the emulsions. The emulsion was determined by the amount and rate of water pick-up. The ow
behaviour and the viscosities of neat inks and emulsions was measured on rotational rheometer
RV1 HAAKE. All the tests were done with a one cone-plate measuring system. For high viscosity
samples, a titanium cone with radius 20 mm and angle 1 was used. For temperature control during
the test a temperature dependent ow behaviour thermostat DC 30 was used. Experiments for
ow characteristics were run from 0.1 to 1620 s
1
. The Tackmaster-92 (Kershaw Instrumentation,
USA) was used to measure the tack and misting characteristics. The tackmaster rollers temperature
was set to 32 for all measurements. The ink was applied to the tackmaster with a small pipette
that holds approximately 1.2 cubic centimetres and left in low speed (290 rpm) for 50 seconds to
equilibrate. Then the speed was increased to 800 rpm. The tack value was taken after a 120 seconds
at 800 rpm. Misting was performed by way of placing a white piece of paper behind the tackmaster
and collecting the mist for 5 minutes at 800 rpm. The ink layer thickness was triplicate.
Emulsions
The ow behaviour of the oset ink is altered when a dampening solution is emulsied within it.
The fountain solution feed rate is controlled by the type of plate and fountain solution eciency.
In table 2 are summarized the results of the parameters E
max
, the maximal amount of emulsied
fountain solution and k, the emulgation coecient. These parameters were evaluated based on the
relation:
E = E
max
(1 e
kt
)
Flow curves
To determine the character of the behaviour of the inks at medium and high ow velocities, rotational
tests were run from "1 to 1620 s
1
" and a curve tting with rheological model functions was applied.
UV and hybrid oset inks have a dierent ow behaviour compared to the conventional ones.
Viscosity curves are plotted in logarithmic scale in gure 1 for magenta inks and in gure 2 for cyan
inks.
194
Table 2: Duke water take-up magenta
ink
emulsion without IPA emulsion with IPA
E
max
[g/100g of ink] k [10
3
s
1
] E
max
[g/100g of ink] k [10
3
s
1
]
SICO BRITE hybrid 48.83 9.81 55.49 7.28
REFLECTA hybrid 30.18 33.28 39.83 19.98
SICURA DEO UV 26.21 30.95 26.03 23.78
LITHOCURE UV 34.15 23.80 36.61 17.80
SI COLOR coldset 49.68 9.54 49.02 14.88
OPTIMA ECO cold. 63.84 6.50 54.91 11.20
FLINT SCH. coldset - - 90.00 4.38
Figure 1: Steady shear test, viscosity versus shear rate for neat magenta inks
Thixotropy
Thixotropic behaviour means the reduction in structural strength during the shear load phase and
complete structural regeneration during the subsequent rest phase. Thixotropy is a decrease in
the apparent viscosity under shearing, followed by a gradual recovery when the shear is removed.
The eect is time dependent. If the viscosity reduces and immediately returns after shearing, the
material is not thixotropic but just shear thinning. Substances change from a high viscosity gel
to a much lower viscosity sol under exerted high shear during a test period. For real thixotropic
substances the transformation from a gel to a sol and conversely is reversible.
In this work, thixotropy of neat and emulsied inks was provided by four dierent methods. One
method was the measurement of the percentage of regeneration; the test was divided into three
intervals, the rst interval with = 5 s
1
for one minute, the second interval with = 1000 s
1
for 30 seconds and the last interval with = 5 s
1
again for three minutes. From the rst interval,
when the viscosity was almost constant, determined at (100 %) value. At ve time points from
the third interval the percentage of regeneration was calculated. The rate of recovery is an essential
factor for levelling of the ink on the substrate. The results are plotted in gure 3. From the picture
is possible to see that the viscosity of conventional formulation is depended on time at constant
195
Katarna Remenrov
Figure 2: Steady shear test, viscosity versus shear rate for cyan inks
shear rate.
The second method to determine the extent of thixotropy, was calculated from the same tests as
the dierence between the minimum viscosity at the end of second interval under high shear, and
maximum viscosity at the end of the test under low shear rate, =
max
min
. The results are
summarized here in tables 3 and 4.
Table 3: Percentage of regeneration for neat magenta inks
ink RAPIDON OPTIMA ECO SICO BRITE REFLECTA LITHOCURE SICURA DEO
conventional PLUS conv hybrid hybrid UV UV
[Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%]
low shear 50 100 63 100 25 100 25 100 14 100 32 100
high shear 2.4 4.7 5.1 8.1 8.2 32 5.7 23 5.7 41 6.0 19
after 30 s 25 44 27 43 21 82 23 94 12 83 26 80
after 60 s 31 59 33 52 21 85 24 98 12 87 27 83
after 120 s 33 63 36 56 22 85 23 97 13 89 28 85
after 180 s 35 66 37 58 22 86 24 99 13 94 28 86
32.6 31.9 13.8 18.3 7.3 22
Neat inks show an almost complete regeneration after 30 s, but with emulsication, the regeneration
decreases. Faster regeneration facilitates the ability to achieve the required layer thickness, as the
ink lm strength is reached in shorter time. A slower rate of structural regeneration oer a good
levelling behaviour, but a too slower rate can cause an increase in dot gain. Other tests to compare
thixotropy of dierent inks were based on measurement of hysteresis loop. In these tests, the sample
is subjected to increasing shear and then reducing shear. A loop between the UP and DOWN curve
means, that the samples behave dierently before and after shearing and are more or less thixotropic.
The value of thixotropy is determined as a dierence between two areas, between axis and UP
curve and area between axis and DOWN curve. This hysteresis area is proportional to the energy
required to break down the thixotropic structure. The rst test consisted of three parts, up-ramp,
constant upper shear rate and down-ramp. The results are shown here in gure 4.
The hybrid and UV inks appear to have only a shear thinning nature, as the UP and DOWN curves
196
Figure 3: Regeneration of origin viscosity after release of high shear rate
Table 4: Percentage of regeneration for magenta emulsions
conventional PLUS conv hybrid hybrid UV UV
[Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%] [Pa.s] reg.[%]
low shear 40 100 22 100 34 100 19 100 14 100 26 100
high shear 1.1 2.7 1.5 6.9 0.5 1.5 1.1 6.1 0.7 5.0 1.9 7.4
after 30 s 15 38 15 68 8 24 16 86 9 64 18 70
after 60 s 17 42 15 70 8 23 15 82 8 60 19 71
after 120 s 19 46 15 70 8 23 14 76 7 53 19 74
after 180 s 19 47 16 74 8 22 14 75 7 53 19 74
17.9 14.5 7.5 12.9 6.3 17.1
almost overlay each other. From the structure regeneration test, was obtained a more meaningful
insight about the thixotropy phenomenon of oset ink application.
Tack and misting
Tack is by denition the force required to split an ink lm between two rollers. The values are given
in units, which depend on the instrument and the method used. Tack is an important property in
the inking system as well as in the ink/paper interaction and in the ink trapping for multi-colour
printing. In order to trap properly, the ink printed rst should have a higher tack than that of the
following one.
Another property which was evaluated on tackmaster was misting, the tendency of ink to y away
from the rollers. Misting can result in colour contamination and servicing problem for the operator.
Papers with misted ink on it were scanned and subjected to an image analysis. For characterization
of the image, a mean value of luminance was used. Conventional ink mists much less than a hybrid
or a UV ink, with the conventional inks the paper was whiter at a velocity of 1200 rpm compared to
the UV and hybrid inks at a velocity of 800 rpm. Emulsion limits the misting and the mist droplets
197
Katarna Remenrov
Figure 4: Thixotropic area of coldset, hybrid and UV neat inks and emulsions
Table 5: Tack values in gram/meters of neat and emulsied inks
conventional conv hybrid hybrid UV UV
Tack [g/m] Tack [g/m] Tack [g/m] Tack [g/m] Tack [g/m] Tack [g/m]
neat ink 9.3 10.5 14.5 16.4 9.7 10.9
emulsion 8.7 9.1 15.8 16.7 10.9 11.5
are smaller compared to those of neat inks.
Conclusions
The rheological properties of three types of oset inks were investigated, with the aim to describe
some of the peculiar characteristic of hybrid inks. This rheological study has shown that in some
aspects hybrid ink seem to be similar to conventional inks (water take-up and ink/water balance)
and also in some aspects similar to UV inks (ow curves, thixotropy and misting). UV inks have the
lowest viscosity throw wide range of shear rates. Only conventional formulations show thixotropic
nature.
The misting is higher for UV and hybrid inks and this is why it is recommended to run them at
lower speeds.
References
[1] Barnes H. A., (1999), The yield stress everything ows?, J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech.,vol.
81, pp. 133-178
[2] Maurer A., Wozniak G., Hbler A.C., Beier W., (2005), ber das Zerstuben von Oset-
Druckfarbe, Forsch Ingenieurwes, vol. 69, pp. 223-229
[3] Mezger T., (2002), The Rheology Handbook, Curt R. Vincentz Verlag, Hannover, ISBN 3-87870-
745-2
[4] Schramm G., (1998), A Practical Approach to Rheology and Rheometry, Gebrueder HAAKE
GmbH, Karlsruhe
198
Eect of dierent types of lamination on colour gamut and tone value increase of digital prints
Eect of dierent types of lamination on colour gamut and tone
value increase of digital prints
Branka Sakovic
Department of Graphic Engineering and Design, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
ladybranka@yahoo.com
Abstract
Lamination is used not only for protection of printed material but also for aesthetical reasons.
In order to achieve high quality, eects of lamination should be considered and calculated in the
earliest phase of prepress. Dierent types of lamination eect the substrate dierently and in
that way they change the appearance of colour. In this paper we measured the eects of cold
and hot lamination on digital prints, with both matt and gloss foils. Test forms were printed on
matt coated paper using digital machine Xerox DocuColour 12 (uses liquid toner). Prints were
than laminated using two dierent technologies hot and cold. The purpose of this study was
to explore several inuencing parameters between non-laminated and laminated prints, as well as
the dierences between laminated prints with matt and gloss foils. To measure and evaluate the
dierences in colour gamut and the eect of the tone value increase, the mechanical and the optical
tone value increase was measured with CMOS camera and spectrophotometer. The results showed
that there are some noticeable dierences in appearance of colour before and after lamination, and
that those changes depend on type of lamination as well as on type of used foils. As in previous
experiments [1], comparison of prints showed, that glossy lamination, both hot and cold, tends to
increase colour gamut while matt lamination reduces it.
Introduction
Lamination is often key to making printed media suitable for a specic application. Many require-
ments, such as durability, surface nish, stiness, image quality, feel and opacity, justify lamination
as an additional nishing step, but at the same time they force the print service provider to have a
broad understanding of how lamination can aect the printed image. Eects of lamination include:
increased stiness, an image enhancement with improved colour gamut, improved gloss level, a new
surface nish or texture, an image protection which radically enhances the ability to handle the
prints, an improvement of resistance to colour fade against light, air and industrial pollutants, heat,
moisture and water. All these can be compiled in three main groups: eects on the physical and
mechanical properties (stiness, curling, tear strength, etc.), eects on the optical properties (colour
gamut, mechanical and optical tone value increase, gloss level, brightness, etc.) and eects on the
durability (image permanence, ability to handle, etc.) [2]. In this study we explored only the eects
of lamination on optical properties of digital prints, such as tone value increase and colour gamut.
The aim of the study
The main purpose of this study was to measure and explore the dierences between non-laminated
and laminated prints, as well as the dierences between laminated prints with matt and gloss foils.
Two crucial parameters, colour gamut and tone value increase, were evaluated to establish in what
amount lamination changes the appearance of digital prints.
Instruments and materials
All digital prints used in this study were printed on matt coated paper (producer Mreal, type Silver
Blade). In order to explore eects of lamination on liquid toner, test forms were printed using
digital printer Xerox DocuColour 12. Test form, which is a backbone of the experiment and was
199
Branka Sakovic
developed on our department, consists of seven dierent test elements (Figure 1). In this study we
used two elements for the experimental evaluation ECI-2002 Characterization Target and element
with tone value patches ranging from 0-100 %. ECI-2002 Characterization Target allows for precise
colorimetric denition of places of colours in printed material [4].
Figure 1: Test form
After the printing, we laminated test forms using two dierent technologies, hot and cold. In both
processes foils from same supplier (GBC) were applied. For cold as well as for hot lamination foils
with two dierent surface textures were used matt and gloss. After the process of lamination,
digital prints were ready for the experimental part. We analysed printed material by measuring
colour with suitable instruments. That was performed by sending controlled illumination on to a
surface and recording the reection. To collect the data about colour gamut, colour dierence and
optical tone value we used spectrophotometer, which measures the spectral distribution reected
by the substrate at a specied observer angle and illumination. The Gretag Macbeth Spectrolino
which has been used in this study, had the following settings: illumination D50, observer angle
2, measurement geometry of 45/0 and no lter was used. For the print geometry analyse plate
measuring device equipped with a CMOS camera was used. With this instrument we were able to
get information about mechanical tone value increase.
Experiment
To characterise the visual inuence of lamination on digital prints, we analysed spectral data from
laminated and non-laminated prints. Experimental part of the study was divided into two parts
the rst part included measuring of optical tone value increase and colour gamut using spec-
trophotometer, while in the second one mechanical tone value increase was measured with a CMOS
camera. We recorded and analysed colour data for several factors to get an understanding of the
origin of the phenomenon. One of the parameters that reects the biggest impact of lamination
is optical tone value increase. Light scattering in the laminated substrate gives the impression of
increased tone values, which furthermore disturbs the colour balance in a design and creates an
unwanted visual eect [1]. Optical tone value increase is dierent for every process colour, but
usually the biggest increase is in mid-tones as it is shown in gure 2.
200
Figure 2: Optical tone value increase
Using spectrophotometer we also recorded colour shift, which is a consequence of lamination. The
analyses of the full tone colour spectral distribution of laminated and non-laminated samples showed
us that the foils do not lter or emphasize any specic wavelength. Colour dierence between prints
with dierent kinds of lamination and non-laminated prints is signicant, with values E varying
from 3.23 to 6.11. The biggest colour dierence was meaasured on red and yellow elds of ECI-2002
Characterization Target. Bigger color dierence is noticed comparing non-laminated prints with
prints with matt foils, than comparing it with those with gloss lamination. In addition, we came to
a conclusion that matt lamination greatly reduces colour gamut while gloss foils tend to increase it,
but only in small amount for both lamination technologies. This change of colour gamut is shown
in Figure 3.
The metric dot and dot coverage were recorded and analyzed with plate measuring device equipped
with a CMOS camera. The study showed that measurements on laminated and non-laminated
samples are nearly the same for all process colours, except for magenta where tone values are
slightly decreased on laminated samples. This implies that the geometry of the mechanical dot is
201
Branka Sakovic
Figure 3: Colour gamut: non-laminated-yellow, hot matt-green, hot gloss-white, cold matt-red, cold gloss-gray
not so much aected by the process of lamination. Figure 4 shows mechanical tone value increase
for every process colour separately.
Conclusion
Understanding the visual impact of lamination is necessary part of every printing process that
includes use of polyethylene foils. Lamination eects digital prints by creating an optical illusion
which gives the impression that halftone dots are bigger that they really are. The phenomenon
has the character of an ordinary tone value increase where the amount of distortion depends on the
coverage of the area. Optical tone value increase can disturb color balance by shifting colors and that
may cause some unwanted visual results. Use of matt or gloss foils for both lamination techniques
changes the color gamut of digital prints printed with liquid toner, which must be considered in
the earliest phase of prepress. As for the mechanical tone value increase, it has been shown in this
study that the eect of lamination is within the tolerance and there is not a signicant increase in
tone values.
References
[1] F. sterberg: The visual impact of lamination, University of Linkping, 2005.
[2] R. Barba: The Film Lamination of Thermal Inkjet Media: Eects and Compatibilities, Sgia
Journal, 2005.
[3] Gretag Macbeth, Spectrolino Operating Manual
[4] Test form brochure, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad
202
Figure 4: Mechanical tone value increase
203
Mukul Anand Singh
Comparison of dot area possible using ideal inks as against
available inks for process colour printing using neugebauer equation
Mukul Anand Singh
Printing and Media Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal University, India
mukul.a.singh@gmail.com
A study was conducted to analyze the amount of cyan, magenta and yellow ink required in the
reproduction in the terms of the red green and blue transmission from the original (lters) i. e.
equations of the following forms are required
C = f(D
r
, D
g
, D
b
) (1)
M = f(D
r
, D
g
, D
b
) (2)
Y = f(D
r
, D
g
, D
b
) (3)
Where C, M and Y denote amount of (usually measure in dot area) Cyan, Magenta and Yellow
inks respectively while D
r
, D
g
and D
g
denote the Red, Green and Blue lter density of the original.
The input to a colour reproduction process is the density (D
r
, D
g
, D
b
) of the original at a given
point as measured by a scanner. The output is the amount of the various inks printed on paper
at the corresponding point. If the relationship between this output and input corresponds to the
equation and if the equation accurately represents the requirements for good colour reproduction
the process will be successful.
If equation such as 1, 2 and 3 has been successfully formulated their form will often suggest process,
or process modications, which will give improved colour reproduction by comparing the character-
istics of existing process with equations, the reason for some of the deciencies of the process can
often be better understood. This understanding will often be of great help in designing experiments
which are aimed at improving the process.
The numbers of equations have been proposed to represent the relationship between reproduction
density and amount or dot area of ink. None of them are quite accurate, but they are often close
enough for practical purpose. The best known are the NEUGEBAUER EQUATION which are
based on the microstructure of the printed halftone pattern.
THE NEUGEBAUER EQUATION (for colour reproduction)
When a three colour halftone reproduction is examined with a magnier a pattern consisting of
eight dierent colours is seen white, yellow, magenta, cyan and blue-violet, green, red and black.
The colours are formed by the individual inks and their two colours and three colours overlap.
The individual coloured areas are too small to be resolved by the unaided eye which averages the
reectance over an applicable area. In a unit area, the proportion of the total incident light reected
by one of the eight colours is equal to the reectance of that colour multiplied by the area occupied
by it. The total reectance is the sum of the contributions from the eight colours. This applies to
the reectance of Red, Green and Blue light individually. The areas occupied by each of the eight
colours were worked out by some scientists in the past and the equation representing the resulting
colours were given they are known as the NEUGEBAUER EQUATIONS.
To determine the areas occupied by each of the eight colours, it is assumed that they are the same
as if the halftone dots had been printed in a random pattern. This is not strictly true when the
screen angles of the three of the inks are 30 or 60 apart which is usually the case, but it is accurate
enough for practical purpose.
Consider a two color example, such as a yellow and magenta halftone superimposed with fractional
dot areas of y and m respectively as shown in the sketch of the unit area.
Let R
y
, R
c
and R
my
denote respectively the reectance measured with red light of the yellow ink,
204
Comparison of dot area possible using ideal inks as against available inks for process colour
printing using neugebauer equation
Area of total =1*1
Area of overlap=m*y
Area of magenta=m*(1-y)
Area of yellow=y*(1-m)
Area of white paper = area of remainder
= 1-[my+m(1-y)+y(1-m)]
= 1-[my+m-my+y-my]
= 1-m-y+my
= 1-m-y(1-m)
Area of white paper = (1-m)(1-y)
the magenta ink and of the magenta ink printed over yellow. Let R denote the total red reectance
of the combination. The reectance can be measured relative to that of white paper so that the
reectance of white paper is 1.
Total red reectance = area of white * 1+area of magenta * R
m
+ area of yellow * R
y
+ area of
overlap * R
my
R = (1 m)(1 y) 1 +m(1 y) R
m
+y(1 m) R
y
+my R
my
The same reasoning applies for a 3-color area and the resulting equation is
R = (1 c)(1 m)(1 y) +c(1 m)(1 y)R
c
+m(1 c)(1 y)R
m
+y(1 c)(1 m)R
y
+my(1 c)R
my
+cy(1 m)R
cy
+cm(1 y)R
cm
+cmyR
cmy
There are two similar equations for the blue and green reectance in which G and B are substituted
for R.
If one solid ink densities are additive the reectance of an ink combination is equal to the product
of the reectance of its components.
i.e. R
cmy
= R
c
R
m
R
y
R
cm
= R
c
R
m
R
cy
= R
c
R
y
R
my
= R
m
R
y
205
Mukul Anand Singh
Then the previous equation becomes:
R = (1 c)(1 m)(1 y) +c(1 m)(1 y)R
c
+m(1 c)(1 y)R
m
+y(1 c)(1 m)R
y
+my(1 c)Rm R
y
+cy(1 m)R
c
R
y
+cm(1 y)R
c
R
m
+cmyR
c
R
m
R
y
.
This equation can be simplied to:
R = (1 c +c R
c
)(1 m+m R
m
)(1 y +y R
y
)
Similarly,
G = (1 c +c G
c
)(1 m+m G
m
)(1 y +y G
y
)
B = (1 c +c B
c
)(1 m+m B
m
)(1 y +y B
y
)
And by applying negative logarithm both sides of above three equations, we can get the relation
between density of red, green and blue lters with printed dot areas of cyan, magenta and yellow.
i. e.
log R = log[(1 c +c R
c
)(1 m+m R
m
)(1 y +y R
y
)]
D
r
= log(1 c +c R
c
) + log(1 m+m R
m
) + log(1 y +y R
y
) (4)
log G = log[(1 c +c G
c
)(1 m+m G
m
)(1 y +y G
y
)]
D
g
= log(1 c +c G
c
) + log(1 m+m G
m
) + log(1 y +y G
y
) (5)
log B = log[(1 c +c B
c
)(1 m+m B
m
)(1 y +y B
y
)]
D
b
= log(1 c +c B
c
) + log(1 m+m B
m
) + log(1 y +y B
y
) (6)
206
Comparison of dot area possible using ideal inks as against available inks for process colour
printing using neugebauer equation
So from these three equations we can calculate the densities of red, green and blue lters, if we have
printed materials which have cyan, magenta and yellow dots (Halftones).
For ideal inks
It is assumed that:
R
m
= R
y
= G
y
= 1
R
c
= G
m
= B
g
= 0
Then the equations 4, 5 and 6 will become as :
R = (1 c +c R
c
)
(1 c) = R (7)
G = (1 c +cG
c
)(1 m+mG
m
)
= [R + (1 R)G
c
](1 m)
G = [R +G
c
RG
c
](1 m)
(1 m) = G/[G
c
+ (1 G
c
)R] (8)
B = (1 c +cB
c
)(1 m+mB
m
)(1 y +yB
y
)
B = (1 c +cB
c
)(1 m+mB
m
)(1 y)
B = [R + (1 R)B
c
][B
m
B
m
+ 1 m+mB
m
](1 y)
B = [B
c
+ (1 B
c
)R][B
m
+ (1 B
m
)(1 m)](1 y)
(1 y) = B/[B
c
+ (1 B
c
)R][B
m
+ (1 B
m
)(1 m)] (9)
And the negative logarithm of equation 7, 8 and 9 will give the densities of lter -
log(1 c) = log R
log(1 c) = D
r
(10)
log(1 m) = log[G/[G
c
+ (1 G
c
)R]]
log(1 m) = log G+ log[G
c
+ (1 G
c
)R]
log(1 m) = D
g
+ log[G
c
+ (1 G
c
)R] (11)
log(1 y) = log[B/[B
c
+ (1 B
c
)R][B
m
+ (1 B
m
)(1 m)]]
log(1 y) = log B + log[B
c
+ (1 B
c
)R] + log[B
m
+ (1 B
m
)(1 m)]
log(1 y) = D
b
+ log[B
c
+ (1 B
c
)R] + log[B
m
+ (1 B
m
)(1 m)] (12)
The above equations 10, 11 and 12 are representing the relation between amount of cyan, magenta
and yellow Halftone dot area and density of R,G and B lters.
Analysis of neugebauer equation in practical implementation and comparison with ideal equation,
comparison between dot areas occur by ideal ink and practical ink with the help of practical appli-
cation of neugebauer equation.
207
Mukul Anand Singh
1. 1
st
the reproduction of cyan, magenta and yellow halftones dots from the original through R,
G and B lter was taken.
2. Then we can take the print from this C, M and Y plates on a white paper.
3. Densitometer and spectrophotometer was used to calculate dierent parameters for the equa-
tions by substituting these parameters in equation 4, 5 and 6, density of red, green and blue
lters can be obtained. The densities can be compared with the original density of lters.
4. These calculated density values and other parameter can be substituted in equation 10, 11
and 12 and the C, M and Y dot areas for ideal ink can be obtained.
Conclusion
The relationship between the lter transmissions of red, Green & Blue can be related by the re-
spective dot areas of cyan, magenta & yellow on a white paper (base) for ideal inks, as derived
by Dr. Y. A. C. Yule using the neugebauer equations. An attempt has been made to establish a
mathematical relationship between the red, green & blue lters and the actual dot area of cyan,
magenta & yellow of practically used inks.
Further work is being carried out on the comparison between the lter densities calculated on the
basis of print dot areas and the lter densities actually used, based on these practical densities
obtained the dot areas achieved will be calculated for ideal inks.
References
[1] Principles of Colour Reproduction, Dr. Yule
[2] The Reproduction of Colour, 1
st
edition, Dr. R. W. G. Hunt
Author Information
Mr. Mukul Anand Singh completed his B.E. in Printing & Media Engineering from Manipal In-
stitute of Technology, Manipal India. Presented many Papers at college & National Level. Active
member of Technical clubs at college level. Also received 1
st
prize in graphic designing at a National
level Competition. Carried out his Project at Graphic Arts technology & Education in Mumbai
under the guidance of Mr. Kiran P. Prayagi. Currently working with Times of India, Mumbai.
208
Adhesion Characterisation of Inkjet Printed Silver Tracks
Adhesion Characterisation of Inkjet Printed Silver Tracks
Ashok Sridhar, D.J. van Dijk, R. Akkerman
Production Technology Group University of Twente
Building Horst, Drienerlolaan 5, 7522NB, Enschede The Netherlands
Email: A.Sridhar@ctw.utwente.nl
Introduction
The ever-growing need for fast prototypes and reduced manufacturing throughput times in the
electronics industry has lead to worldwide research aimed at developing novel techniques and pro-
cess chains. Inkjet Printing is a versatile, exible and relatively simple process that might t the
bill. It falls under Printed Electronics and is an additive fabrication technique. Typically, metal
nanoparticle-based inks and polymer-based inks can be used in combination with inkjet printing to
fabricate conducting tracks and circuit components (e. g. resistors, capacitors etc.), respectively.
Objective
The main objective of this research is to understand and characterise the adhesion between inkjet
printed tracks and substrate materials. The substrate materials used for this purpose are commonly
used in the PCB industry e. g. FR-4 (reinforced epoxy). With the knowledge gained from adhesion
testing, printing parameters and substrate surface conditioning will then be optimised to yield
desirable adhesion properties.
Methodology
On a rigid substrate material, silver nanoparticle-based ink is deposited using a piezoelectric drop-
on-demand inkjet printer to print tracks that are subsequently sintered in a conventional oven to
impart continuity to the tracks. These tracks are then subjected to Scotch-tape testing, a qualitative
test procedure, and Pull-o testing, a quantitative test procedure, to gain insight into the interfacial
strength (gure 1). The former test procedure is used only during the parameter optimisation stage
where it is required to choose or reject a particular parameter set by qualitatively testing the
adhesion of the printed tracks to the substrates. The latter will be used to quantify adhesion of
tracks at room and elevated temperatures as well as after cyclic thermal loading of the specimen.
Based on the test results, the printing parameters will be optimised. Besides this, a decision on a
suitable substrate conditioning method prior to printing and substrate temperature during printing
will be arrived at (gure 2).
References
ASTM D4541
209
Ashok Sridhar
Figure 1: Scotch-tape test and Pull-o test procedures
Figure 2: Test methodology
210
The Eects of Anilox Roller on Fine Line Printing in Flexographic
Printing Process
M.S.Yusof, A.M.Ahmad Zaidib*, T.C.Claypole, D.T.Gethin
Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP
Swansea, United Kingdom
* School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Pariser
Building, P.O. Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, UK
328199@swan.ac.uk
Keywords: exography, printing, solid line, anilox, interferometer
Abstract
Printing electronics on high-speed presses is seeing an increasing demand than ever. Flexography
posed as an attractive candidate for its high speed printing capabilities though not betters than
gravure but denitely cheaper. And solid line printing is essential to enable printing of conductive
ink tracks compared to dot printing. An investigation into this conventional printing process and
its capabilities of printing ultra ne solid lines for various electronic applications such as RFID
antenna, sensors and other type of nanoscale printing on high speed presses where such volumes
and large active areas can be printed are much needed. Thus the demand of comprehending the
process and its complex interaction between process variables needed to be dened beforehand.
This study will focus on the eects of YAG and CO
2
anilox roll on exographic printing process
in printing ultra ne line under a range of printing condition and image characteristics. A series
of experiments on web press machine with two dierent materials of anilox but with the same
volumes and line rulings had been carried out. Also the application of interferometry techniques
in measuring the printing plate geometry detail and the anilox roller will be shown. A series of
experimental results on dierent impression pressure will also be illustrated. From the results, it
shows that YAG roller releases better ink than CO
2
roller. Nevertheless results from the printed
images shown that CO
2
roller is best selected at higher impression pressure.
Experimental and results
Since the 500 lpi anilox lead to successful print, a further experiment was carried out to investigate
the volume of the anilox roller using a banded anilox with the same cell pattern and opening angle
but with dierent ink volume and dierent materials. Furthermore an investigation of anilox ablated
using YAG and CO
2
that lead to dierent cell shape was carried out. Table shows the details of
both laser engraved of aniloxes.
In this particular experiment, the printing speed was changed to 250 ft/min and kept constant.
Further investigation on the aniloxes under the interferometry technique can be seen as shown in
Figure .
A suitable impression force was carried out at 0.002 inch, 0.003 inch and 0.004 inch. Example results
for 0.004 inch impression are as shown in Figure . It shows the dierence between the largest cell
volumes from band 6 compared to the smallest cell volume on band 1 both on Yag and CO
2
aniloxes.
Both system prints successfully. Also from these images a further comparison between Yag and CO
2
anilox eects can be compared on band 1, which clearly shows that the Yag anilox releases higher
ink volume thus a heavier print.
211
Mohd Sallehuddin Yusof
Table 1: CO
2
and Yag anilox
YAG band 1 band 2 band 3 band 4 band 5 band 6 band 7
volume cm
3
/m
2
1.7 3.1 4.2 5.6 8.2 1.7
Actual volume cm
3
/m
2
1.63 3.04 4.18 5.49 6.59 8.31 1.63
Screen angle (degree) 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Screen count (lpi) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
volume cm
3
/m
2
1.7 3.1 4.2 5.6 4.2 1.7
Actual volume cm
3
/m
2
1.62 3.09 4.21 5.38 5.96 4.02 1.66
Screen angle (degree) 60 60 60 59.9 60 59.9 60
Screen count (lpi) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500
Figure 1: YAG 500 lpi , CO
2
500 lpi and YAG 1400 lpi
Conclusions
A conclusion can be withdrawn as below
Interferometry technique could be used to determine the anilox cell shape and openings.
Yag anilox releases higher ink volume compared to the CO2 anilox
The cell openings ideally ve or more time bigger than the cell openings
212
Figure 2: Yag Band 1 & Yag roller Band 6
Figure 3: CO
2
roller Band 1 & CO
2
roller band 6
213
The Eects of Printing Plate on the Reproduction of Fine Solid
Line Printing in Flexography
M.S.Yusof, A.M.Ahmad Zaidib*, T.C.Claypole, D.T.Gethin
Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating, University of Wales Swansea, Singleton Park, SA2 8PP
Swansea, United Kingdom
* School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of Manchester, Pariser
Building, P.O. Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, UK
328199@swan.ac.uk
Keywords: exography, printing, solid line, digital plate, conventional plate
Abstract
Printing plate is one of the important factors to be taken into account during the printing process.
This study will address the eects between a digitally and a standard exposure made plates have
on reproducing ne solid lines. A full-scale web press printing machine was used to perform the
experiments along with a range of printing conditions and image characteristics. The application
of interferometry techniques in measuring the printing plate geometry detail and the analysis of
the printed images will be illustrated. From the results, the conventionally made printing plate
gives better results at a lower impression than the digital printing plates. But at higher impression
pressure, the digital plate gives an excellent result compared to the standard exposure plate. A
simulation of printing condition using nite element will also be illustrated. And the prediction of
plate expansion within the printing nip where the proportion of increase in line width due to the
deformation (ink spreading) will also be exemplied.
Introduction
Flexography was formerly known as aniline printing until 1952 and has since evolved out of let-
terpress printing [1]. The process is similar to a rubber stamping process but despite its apparent
simplicity, a vast number of parameters aect this process. An in depth investigation on the role
of the printing plate in exograhic printing process upon the dot areas has been carried out [2].
Therefore the necessity of investigating a ne solid line compared to dots, needs to be carried out
extensively to determine any eects on the printed images if this method is to be used for printing
conductive tracks. The role of printing plate as an image carrier itself has several diversity. These
could simply be categorized as plate type, image composition of the plate exposure and other factor
such as the plate properties where the characteristic of the material, hardness, and thickness and
relief depth plays such a major role. The mounting tape is also another parameter which aecting
the role of the image carrier where the diversity of the foam density, hardness and thickness aects
the quality of the printed images. However, in this instance only the diversity in plate making and
its eects will be investigated while other parameter such as mounting tape and the plate type will
maintained consistent. The image which is used come from the same design therefore eliminates
any issue with the image composition. A conventional exposure plate will be compared against the
computer-toplate (CTP) technology or widely known as digital plate will be focused in this paper.
Although the digitally made plate is more expensive which is a drawback, certain advantages on
these CTP plates such as that the workow will remains in the digital format longer, which help
producing a more consistent plate later. Also the intimate contact between the mask layer and the
plate surface tends to lead to a sharper and a higher denition of printing images in dot printing
will be examined when ne solid line images is put onto the test. Since the plate stretches when it
is attached to the plate roller as shown in Figure , it must not be neglected.
However this distortion could be determined using the calculation as written below and corrected
214
The Eects of Printing Plate on the Reproduction of Fine Solid Line Printing in Flexography
Figure 1: Plate distortion when attached to the plate cylinder
when designing a new plate.
DistortionFactor =
print diameter 2 (plate thickness its polyester backing)
print diameter
(1)
Furthermore, the printing plate will distort further when it passes the printing nips and this need
to be fully comprehended as it greatly aects the quality of the images printed.
Experimental
A full scale web press machine is used as shown in Figure for its consistencies compared to a bench
printer. The web press machine facilitates high-speed roll-to-roll printing and oers a potentially
viable production route. With the web press machine, several printing parameters were investigated.
Figure 2: Web press printer
Later, two plates with the same design and thickness of 1.14 mm and 0.60 mm relief height was used
as shown in Figure and measured using interferometry technique [3].
215
Figure 3: Digital and conventional made plates
A comparison between the printed images for a digital plate and conventional plate were conducted
at low impression of 0.003 inch and constant speed of 0.5 ms
1
(100 ft/min). The images show a
steady ow of ink and a rm and uniform width of lines were obtained from a conventional plate
compared to an inconsistent and variable line width gained from the digitally made printing plate.
These show that a digitally made printing plate prints lines that are much ner which may lead to
a smaller line width and gap for future experiments.
Figure 4: Digital at 0.003 inch of impression and conventional at 0.003 inch of impression
Later, a banded anilox was employed with vary line rulings but with near constant ink volume. The
results of the printed images from two-dierence impression printed with digitally made printing
plate are shown in Figure . These images compare from band 6 (1400 lpi) under 0.003 inch and
0.005 inch of impressions clearly shows that the higher engagement leads to more ink spreading.
Thus a simple conclusion can be drawn that with digitally made printing plate, a good consistent
line width can only be achieved at high impression force and higher line rulings as proven in Figure .
Later, the results on conventional made plate were further examined at 0.003 inch engagement with
the conventional made plate and comparisons between lowest band ruling in band 1 (500 lpi) and
the highest line rulings as in band 6 (1400 lpi) as shown in Figure . These clearly show that 50 mm
line gap and width prints are achievable with 500 line rulings. However, better and more uniform
ne lines were achieved with the 1400 line rulings. Based on the experiments, it can be concluded
that 50 mm line gap and widths has successfully been printed which is a key achievement as it is
known that exographic printing limitations are 76 mm line and space at the present [4].
A comparison between 0.003 inch of impression and 0.005 inch for the 1400 lpi anilox is shown in
216
The Eects of Printing Plate on the Reproduction of Fine Solid Line Printing in Flexography
Figure 5: Digital at 1400 lpi at 0.003 inch of impression and 1400 lpi at 0.005 inch of impression
Figure 6: Digital at 0.003 inch of impression and conventional at 0.003 inch of impression
Figure clearly indicating that printing is better at a lower impression force as it shows a cleaner
line while the heavy engagement leads to the ink being pumped out and spread more leading to a
loss of gap.
Conclusions
A conclusion can be withdrawn as below
Conventional plate prints better lines at lower impression and lower line rulings
Digital plate prints exceptionally well at higher impression with higher line rulings
Digital plates prints better at higher impressions due to the actual line width on the plates
are smaller compared to the conventional plates.
References
[1] Flexographic Technical Association, Flexography: Principles and Practices - 5th Edition, Foun-
dation of Flexographic Technical Association, 1999.
[2] M.S.Hamblyn, The Role of the Plate in the Ink Transfer Process in Flexograhic Printing, PhD
thesis, 2005.
217
Figure 7: Band 1 of 500 lpi and band 6 of 1400 lpi at 0.003 inch imression
Figure 8: Band 6 with 0.003 inches impression and 0.005 inches
[3] Yusof, M.S. Hamblyn, S.M. Claypole, T.C. Gethin D.T. 2005. Measuring solid line geometry
on felxographic photopolymer printing plates. Proceedings International Student Print and Media
Technology Conference: pg.127-133 Chemnitz, 2005.
218
November 8, 2007
Session DI
Mladen Lovreek
Philosophy and future trends of CtP
Mladen Lovreek
Faculty of Graphic Arts, University of Zagreb, Croatia
E-mail: ovrecek@grf.hr
Abstract
Print production has entered the multidisciplinary space and multimedia surrounding. If a discus-
sion on rapid technological changes with integrated digital techniques is added to this, then the
situation seems to be vague. This requires full comprehension and redenition of many common
concepts and terms. All of them should be clearly understood in order to take account of them in
the integral process. This claim although can be also applied to conventional methods as well
has specic signicance in considering new technologies and integrated printing processes.
Attaining a printed product is a complex and multi-phase process. When the overall reproduction
chain is analyzed, it is clear that the imaging of the printing plate is that very point in the production
chain that separates - but also links - prepress from printing. The image itself can exist in the non-
material mode, as it is in digital printing, or as a material one in conventional printing. A great
deal of material printing plates refers nowadays to the term "Computer-to-Plate" or CtP.
The meaning of CtP is not - what is often wrong and inadequate perception of its role only
an output unit for producing the printing plates, which can be operated by a couple of simple
commands. CtP is an open, though completely determined prepress system, with the highest
possible level of automation and integration. That also means that in the area of CtP the nal
product already has to be completely determined.
Everything done prior to the point of CtP is immaterial, subdue to changes and improvements
from design to corrections. Moreover, in these pre-phases all further steps press and post-press
operations should be determined, and nally, registered on the plate. This implies interactive
relation of CtP with printing presses and nishing machines. Therefore, the completed plate is
more of a complete information carrier than merely a material image carrier.
Such printing plates, containing the entire information about further operations and the printed
product itself, are quite dissimilar to conventional ones, containing dierent type of information,
with dierent screening structures, as well as geometry of printing and nonprinting elements; dier-
ent dot gains and reproduction curves, with no side eects typical for photomechanical processes.
With the development of new reproduction technologies, advanced computing methods and new
software solutions, the key point of the reproduction chain is shifted closer to the completed printed
product. It should be pointed out, however, that the process of planning and workow itself should
be conducted in opposite directions, with CtP is located just in their intersection. Because of the
reasons mentioned above, it can be emphasized that CtP is the key point of not only the printing
processes itself, but of the complete reproduction chain as well.
Although the present state of technology oers diverse hardware and software solutions, many
questions remain open. It is still not completely clear what will be the future trends and mainstream
in the development of CtP. It is, however, certain that CtP can be already considered as a standard
in the up-to-date print production.
222
Measuring extensional characteristics of printing inks
Davide Deganello, Alex Lubansky*
Welsh Centre of Printing and Coating, Swansea University, UK
* Haemair Ltd, Swansea (UK), and Centre for Complex Fluids Processing, Swansea University
(UK)
d.deganello@swansea.ac.uk
Introduction
The elongation, lamentation and splitting of inks are critical phenomena in printing processes.
Characterising these extensional behaviours will greatly improve our understanding of inks and
processes but there are several challenges. The primary parameter for the study of extensional
properties of a uid is the extensional viscosity, which diers from the commonly measured shear
viscosity and requires specic equipment and theory for analysis. In view of a continuous improve-
ment of the ability of characterisation of inks, a specically designed Extensional rheometer has
been developed at the Welsh Centre of Printing and Coating (Swansea University). In this paper
the extensional rheometer and its components will be introduced. The required theory will be briey
discussed with particular interest towards the Capillary Break-up Extensional Rheometer (CaBER)
test. Examples of extensional characterisation of inks and of complementary applications for the
extensional apparatus will also be presented.
Extensional rheometer: apparatus
The extensional rheometer has been custom-built in collaboration with the Centre for Complex
Fluids Processing for the characterisation of inks and other uids. The apparatus works by creating
and measuring laments of the uid of interest. An image of the apparatus is shown in Figure 1.
Two parallel plates can be independently moved at a controlled speed and distance, maintaining a
constant alignment. During measurement, the uid is loaded between the plates, which are then
moved apart. The evolution of the uid prole is measured using a Kodak EKTAPRO 4540mx
Imager.
The lament is usually recorded at 4500 frames per second, the fastest frame rate available using
the full resolution of the camera, although, for uids with higher viscosity, lower frame rates may
be used. The plates can be moved to a desired position with a precision of within a few microns.
Figure 1: The extensional rheometer
223
Davide Deganello
CaBER test: Extensional Viscosity
The CaBER test uses the extensional rheometer to measure the extensional viscosity of the tested
uid. During a Caber test, the tested uid is "instantaneously" stretched between two plates to a
specic distance, creating a lament between the two plates. Through the analysis of the progressive
lament thinning the extensional viscosity is derived, Figure 2.
Figure 2: Progressive uid lament thinning during a CaBER test
Extensional viscosity is dened as the ratio of the extensional stress and the extensional strain rate.
One problem with the analysis of a capillary-thinning geometry is in the accurate determination
of the strain rate and stress. Conventional analysis is based on a cylindrical approximation. The
lament is analysed only at its thinnest point, i. e. the mid lament, where it is assumed to have a
cylindrical shape. Assuming that the axial velocity does not vary radially, the extension rate can
be dened as 1,
=
2
R

R
T
(1)
Where R is the radius of mid-lament
The stress equation as proposed by Szabo et al [1] in dierential form is:
v
t
+v
v
z
+g =
1
R
2
R
2
E
z

R
2
R(1 +RR
)
z
(2)
Where is the extensional stress, the surface tension and the density. Imposing the cylindri-
cal approximation and neglecting the eect of inertia, curvature and gravity, the stress equation
becomes:
E
=

R
(3)
Integrating these equations, the extensional viscosity is dened as
ext
=

E

=

2
R
t
(4)
Through the application of equations 1 and 4, it is possible to extract from the prole of the
evolution of the mid-lament diameter, (such as in Figure 3); the extensional viscosity at dierent
extensional strain rates can be calculated, (see Figure 4 for an example).
Theoretical work is being carried out by Lubansky et al. [2, 3] in collaboration with WCPC to extend
the capabilities of extensional analysis including eects of inertia, gravity and surface tension by
implementing equation 2 on the whole prole of the lament.
224
Figure 3: Progressive thinning of an oset ink at the mid-lament during a CaBER test
Figure 4: Extensional viscosity for ink of Figure 3
Extensional properties of printing inks: Gravure UV ink
A set of ink was analysed using the extensional rheometer: the ink is a magenta UV curing ink,
developed for gravure applications. The shear viscosity of the liquids was evaluated with a Carrimed
rheometer using the cone and plate method. In the tests, at 20, the test liquid was subjected to
a steadily increasing shear rate from 1 reciprocal second to 100 reciprocal seconds and then to a
steadily decreasing shear rate from 100 reciprocal seconds to 1 reciprocal second. The test was
repeated 4 times to improve accuracy. In Figure 5 the results are presented. No shear thinning was
observed and the viscosity showed an approximately constant value around 1.2 Pa s for the range of
shear rates, possibly indicating Newtonian behaviour.
The extensional viscosity was then measured using the caber test. The measurement was repeated
three times. The evolution of the mid-lament indicates a continuous linear decrease in time of the
diameter, see Figure 6, determining constant value of apparent extensional viscosity, Figure 7. The
constant value of the extensional viscosity and its magnitude in comparison to the shear viscosity
supports the idea that gravure ink has a strong Newtonian behaviour.
225
Davide Deganello
Figure 5: Shear viscosity of gravure ink (4 repetitions, cyclic test)
Figure 6: CaBER test, evolution of mid-lament diameter
Extensional rheometer: complementary applications
The extensional rheometer could be used as an accurate press simulator for the study of specic
phenomena involved in the printing process. An example consists of a preliminary study of the
eect of speed on ink splitting. Same quantities of the UV gravure ink, loaded between the two
plates, were separated at dierent linear speeds, Figure 8.
The evolution of the mid-lament and of the prole was monitored (see Figure 9). Increasing the
speed, the lament reached break-up point at a wider distance between the plates. At high speeds
the thinning of the lament present a logarithmic decrease while at lower speeds it shows a more
linear trend, this dierence could be related to the action of gravity. Accurate study in this sector
could be useful in the study of phenomena such ink misting and ink release.
Conclusions
A specially developed extensional rheometer for the study of printing inks has been presented. The
apparatus and its working mechanism have been described in detail. Theoretical background of
CaBER test has been discussed for a better understanding of the extensional phenomena and of its
226
Figure 7: CaBER test, Extensional viscosity results
Figure 8: Ink splitting between plates
current limitations and assumptions. An extensional characterisation of an UV curing ink has been
presented, validating the indications towards a Newtonian behaviour. Complementary applications
of the extensional rheometer for the study of specic printing phenomena has been proposed
References
[1] P. Szabo, Transient lament stretching rheometer I: Force balance analysis, Rheologica Acta 36
(1997) 277-284.
[2] A.S. Lubansky, Y. L. Yeow, Y.-K. Leong, S. R. Wickramasinghe, B. Han, A general method of
computing the derivative of experimental data, AICHEJ 52 (1) (2006) 323-332.
[3] A.S.Lubansky, D.Deganello, P.R.Williams, Extending the capabilities of lament-based exten-
sional rheometers, AERC 2007, 4th Annual European Rheology Conference,April 12-14, Napoli,
Italy
227
Davide Deganello
Figure 9: Eect of speed on mid-lament ink splitting
228
Monitoring of exo UV inks and varnishes cure process
Josef Knobloch, Lenka Othalov
Department of Graphic Arts and Photophysics, University of Pardubice, Czech Republic
pepa.knobloch@seznam.cz
Introduction
As the fundamental component of common exography and gravure inks is some kind organic solvent
with tightening regulation of VOC (volatile organic compounds) UV curable inks are in question.
Conventional exography and gravure inks feature similar chemical composition and generally have
many properties like relative high solvent content and quick drying in common [1]. Their viscosity
varies between 1-500 mPas. As a solvent organic solvent or water are used in exography inks. The
nal performance is determined by the vehicle chemical nature which includes cellulose derivative,
polyamides, vinyl or other polymers [2].
High amount of organic solvent which are released during printing process evoke the interest
in organic volatile compounds free UV inks. The uidity of UV inks is regulated by ration of
monomers/oligomers from which monomers acts as solvents. Another important aspect which af-
fects the printing quality and needs to be considered is the drying rate and accompanying printing
speed. If the printing speed is not adjusted to let the ink dry then the uncured ink can be transferred
into next form cylinder and impurify the remaining inks in sequence [3].
The aim of this study was to evaluate the cure characteristics of commercially available exo UV
inks and varnishes.
Experimental
Materials
Flexography free-radical binder formulation Flexocure 300 LV
TM
(Azko Nobel Inks) inks and EX-
CURE UV (Arets Graphics) varnishes, including both the cationic and free-radical binder formu-
lation were used. Besides process colours (CMYK), study also includes warm red (WR), purple
(P), process blue (PB), green (G) spot colors. The ink consumption in commercial exography in
average vary between 1.8-2.2 g/m
2
(which corresponding ink layer thickness 1.5-2.0 m), for solids
reaches 2.5-3.5 g/m
2
(2.5-3.5 m) at printing speeds from 70 to 150 m/min.
Experimental setup
For curing two dierent UV sources were used - mercury UV lamp with heat lter and adjustable
conveyor speed from 0 to 9 meters per minute (Miniterm UV, Aeroterm Ostrava, CZ) and 100 W
super pressure mercury lamp CE GREEN SPOT (UV Source Inc., USA) operating in the range of
300-480 nm (max. 365 nm) supplied with 5 mm diameter optical bre. The distance of bre from
the sample was 45 mm with output performance 5 W. The intensity of UV light for Miniterm UV in-
strument was 60/120 W/cm. Determination of UV light source energy dosage per area of in spectral
range of 258-380 nm was performed by compact radiometer (UV Process Supply, USA). The curing
process was studied by the means of FTIR spectroscopy and photocalorimetry. For FTIR evolution
served AVATAR 320 (Nicolet Instrument Corp., USA) system provided with KBr beam splitter and
DTGS KBr detector. All measurement was performed in reection mode. Each spectrum comprised
of 32 scans with the distance for two neighbouring points in the spectra 1.929 cm
1
. Photocalorime-
try was carried out on home-made instrument. The measurement sensor consists from 2 equivalent
and heat insulated inter-independent detector with thermistors which are coupled and combined
into Wheatston bridge. As a source of UV light HBO 200 mercury lamp with power of 0.6 W/m
2
in the spectral region of 363-367 nm was used.
229
Josef Knobloch
Experimental method
For IR spectroscopy inks were spread on glass plate wrapped in aluminium foil and covered by
Teon shield with circular aperture which restricted the measured area and ensured monitoring of
the very same place during sequential curing. Samples were measured before and after exposure to
UV light for a predened time period. Series of IR spectra monitoring the curing process of UV
ink sample in relation to exposure time was obtained. For photocalorimetry study two aluminium
cups each containing 0.01 0.0003 g of varnishes were prepared. The rst one was cured in UV
tunnel and placed on the reference sensor; the other was located on the measuring sensor as it was.
Samples were enclosed in the photocalorimeter cell and by adjusting the potentiometer on reference
bridge the output voltage was set to zero. Samples were exposed to UV light and of voltage change
over time was recorded. All measurements were carried out at ftyfold amplication of the output
signal.
Data evaluation
From the IR spectra proportion of area of selected absorption band that change during the cur-
ing process to that which remains constant (reference) and subsequently degree of conversion was
calculated. For radically cured inks and varnished the reference band was 1726-1732 cm
1
and
variable range from 1408 to 1409 cm
1
. Averaging of two to three analyzes was performed. The
degree of conversion x as a function of time and temperature was calculated by following equation:
x = (A
0
A
)/(A
0
A
f
)
Where A
0
, A
denotes the area of absorption band before and after exposure for dened time and
A
f
is area of absorption band of fully cured sample. Parameters describing conversion development
over time were obtained by least square simplex process [4].
The initial photocalorimetric measurements of voltage change over time were converted to time
dependence of polymerized material weigh. Parameters describing the maximum Y [V/g], the
time at which the maximum was reached X [s/g], induction period I [s/g] which characterizes the
polymerization initiation and tangent line at the point of inexion R [V/s.g], which denotes the
polymerization rate, were subsequently assessed. Again, evaluation was repeated and two to three
times and average was determined.
FTIR spectroscopy
Initially, FTIR spectra of all studied samples were measured. However, these of cationic systems
were hard to read; therefore only radical systems were further evaluated by means of IR. Spectra
of the remaining radical UV inks and varnishes exhibited very same shape which suggests the same
kind of chemical reaction (radical polymerisation) to take place.
IR spectra were evaluated according to data found in literature, however, each source showed
slightly dierent results [5-11]. In case of pure acrylate photopolymerization, acrylate double bond
band (C=C) at 810 cm
1
, which was visible in all radically polymerized samples, was monitored.
Acrylate derivates exhibit C=C bond absorption band shift along the wave number axis: for example
glycidylacrylate has C=C bond absorption at 811 cm
1
plus 3005 cm
1
band which belongs to epoxy
ring. Glycidylmethacrylate can be identied according two peaks at 910 cm
1
and 843 cm
1
which
can be observed only for cationic polymerisation varnishes, methacrylate peaks occur of 1640 cm
1
and 940 cm
1
; 2-methakryloyloxyethyl acrylate is characterized by 1725 cm
1
(C=O), 1635 cm
1
(C=C), 1410 cm
1
(CH), 1160 cm
1
(CO). Esther bond (COO) is described by 1730 cm
1
(C=O) a 1200 cm
1
(CO). Band at 1719 cm
1
was identied to belong to carbonyl group and used
as internal standard.
The degree of conversion calculated from absorption band 1408 cm
1
and 1732 cm
1
is shown in
gure 1 and 2. This relation of degree of conversion on UV light exposure exhibits rapid conversion
230
change at the beginning follow by gradual cure nishing which indicates that at the beginning top
surface layer was cured which then partly absorbing the incident UV light slowed down the curing
in the depth. Experimental data ts well to n-order kinetic formula [12]:
dx
d
= k(1 x)
n
having been integrated: x = 1 [1 k(1 n)](1/(1 n))
where denotes time, k is velocity constant n is the reaction order.
Values of k and n parameters are summarized in table 1. The deviations in velocity constant are
thought to be caused by uneven ink layer thickness but mainly by presence of pigment particles
which absorbs proportion of the UV light and thus aect the curing. The amount of light absorbed
by the pigment varies according to its shadow.
Table 1: Constants for calculation conversion characteristics parameters, F
0
regression sum of squares
ink n k A
f
F
0
N standard deviation
Yellow 1.56 1.425 0.03 0.00030 6 0.0086
Black 3.02 1.202 0 0.00116 9 0.0126
Blue 1.70 1.513 0.02 0.00126 6 0.0177
Cyan 1.58 5.008 0.04 0.00251 8 0.0205
Green 1.64 2.614 0.015 0.00109 7 0.0148
Magenta 1.89 3.113 0.05 0.00202 8 0.0184
Purple 2.85 5.187 0.03 0.00034 9 0.0070
Warmred 1.42 1.127 0.015 0.00019 5 0.0079
Varnish 2.98 9.349 0.2 0.00032 7 0.0080
Figure 1: Relation of degree of conversion on exposure time for C, M, Y, G a WR inks at 22
231
Josef Knobloch
Figure 2: dependency of degree of conversion on exposure time for K, PB, P inks and printing varnish at 22
Photocalorimetry
The dependences of voltage change over time (sometimes called as curing characteristics) obtained
from repeated measurement slightly vary between themselves. This can be account to dicult
sample handling. Second aecting factor was the precision of sample weighing. The weighed amount
was 0.01 0.0003 g. Even such small variances caused noticeable abnormalities in measured data,
especially around the maximum value. Because of these problems and the non-linear response and
transport delay [13, 14] all measured can be compared only qualitatively.
Parameters describing the curing characteristics such as maximum, induction period, and polymer-
ization speed for all studied samples are given in table 2. From that it is obvious that increasing
temperature leads to descent of parameters characterising the maximum (Y and R value) and reduc-
tion of polymerization speed as well. Such behaviour can be also associated with detector non-linear
response.
The inuence of temperature on polymerization followed the general rule, that free radical systems
are not much aected by temperature changes as cationic are. By comparison the induction period
I it is apparent that for free radical UV inks remains in relation to temperature almost unchanged
whereas strongly decrease with temperature grow for cationic systems (gure 1). Parameter X,
which describes the maximum and also the state where heat released by polymerization se equal to
that delivered, behaved in the same way. At 15 degree centigrade cationic UV vanishes exhibited
incomplete curing.
Photocalorimetry did not succeed in evaluation of pigmented systems as with increasing sample
thickness pigments absorb more and more of the incident UV light and inhibit the initiation. The
ink layer thickness that corresponds to sample weight of 0.01 g was measured by micrometer to be
in 125 25 m. However, reduction of weighted amount did not help, because it diminish the heat
released in the reaction and thus making necessary to increase the signal amplication which results
in noise enhancement that aected the repeatability of measurements. And also weighing of such
small amounts was accompanied by higher experimental errors.
232
Table 2: UV varnishes curing characteristics parameters
Varnish temperature [] X [s/g] Y [V/g] R [V/s.g] I [s/g]
EXC90001
15 21.6 180.9 17.258 3.43
20 19.8 161.7 16.683 2.95
25 19.9 136.5 14.007 2.90
35 20.1 90.8 8.943 2.80
EXC90006
15 18.2 204.9 23.927 2.55
20 17.6 172.5 20.142 2.25
25 18.7 144.6 16.402 2.53
35 18.2 97.6 11.241 2.47
EXC90007
15 20.6 206.3 20.690 3.07
20 18.2 184.9 21.400 2.30
25 19.2 149.8 15.692 2.73
35 17.8 105.3 12.092 2.37
EXC90012
15 20.3 223.4 23.906 2.77
20 18.7 198.6 23.066 2.20
25 19.8 161.5 17.739 2.43
35 20.6 108.2 11.097 2.63
EXC90401
15 50.3 145.1 7.953 18.47
20 31.2 96.9 6.926 5.87
25 29.2 73.2 5.357 4.20
35 27.9 50.8 3.664 3.37
EXC90402
15 51.3 127.9 5.559 15.73
20 33.2 75.7 4.625 5.47
25 32.2 52.6 3.539 4.03
35 30.9 37.1 2.505 3.50
Conclusions
Photocalorimetry turn out to be suitable method for investigation only non-pigmented UV systems.
Measurement data was examined for induction period I and polymerization speed R in relation to
dierent conditions. Both the cationic and the free radical UV inks reveal thermal dependency
of polymerization rate which decreases with temperature growth. Signicant dierence was also
observed in induction period characteristics. Free radical inks exhibit almost no change in induction
period, whereas in case of cationic system the period drops rapidly with temperature increase. FTIR
appear to be more suitable and versatile for these applications as it enables investigation not only
pigment less varnishes but also pigmented inks if proper absorption band are selected. However, a
bit tricky was analysis of cationic systems which IR spectra were hard to read.
Although the curing characteristics were aected by not unambiguously specied ink layer thickness
based on the experimental data green and black can still in relation to other inks be considered to
exhibit long curing times. The lower reaction (long curing time) of green ink was compensated by
addition of photoinitiator at the beginning of experiments.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic,
project No. MSM 0021627501.
233
Josef Knobloch
References
[1] Kollektiv: Technik des Flexodrucks, 3. Au. Coating Verlag, St. Gallen 1991
[2] Leach R. H.: The Printing Ink Manual, Blueprint, London, 1991
[3] Mathes H.: Flexo+Tief-Druck 1998 (6) 4
[4] Kuester J. L., Mize J. H.: Optimization Techniques with Fortran, McGraw-Hill New York 1973
[5] Patterson W. A.: Anal. Chem. 24, 822 (1954)
[6] Decker C., Mousa K.: Makromol. Chem. 189, 2381 (1988)
[7] Davidson, Butes: J. Chem. Soc. III. 1988, 2609
[8] Luchtenberg J., Rotter H.: Macromol. Rapid Commun. 15, 81 (1994)
[9] Lin Y., Stansbury W.J.: Polymer, 44(17), 4781 (2003)
[10] Reddy S. K. et al.: J. Polym. Sci., Part A, 43(10), 2134 (2005)
[11] Kumar R. N. et al.: J Appl Polym Sci, 73(8), 1569 (1999)
[12] Koenig J. L.: Spectroscopy of Polymers, 2nd Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam 1999
[13] Kap J.: Master thesis, VCHT, KPF, Pardubice (1997)
[14] Vali J.: Reactivity of organometallic cation-active photoinitiators, Ph.D. work, Univerzita
Pardubice 2001
234
Pigment-Resin Aggregation Eects in Water-based Gravure Inks
Stephanie Pieruccini, Scott Williams
Rochester Institute of Technology, School of Print Media
69 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623 (USA)
E-mail: sap8595@rit.edu; sawppr@rit.edu
Abstract
An investigation into the dependence of water-based gravure ink rheology on image quality was
conducted. We prepared a dilution series of a styrene-acrylic gravure ink system ranging from 20
(fast ink) to 70 (slow ink) seconds (#2 Zahn Cup). The results showed that the rate of shear thinning
was independent of viscosity, and did not correlate with print quality. Pigment-resin complexes
showed growth through a conjoining process, raising the viscosity of the red ink immediately after
formulation. The agglomerate size was found to increase as the overall ink viscosity decreased.
Component most likely appears to play a key role in this bodying process. Further investigation
will go into the root cause of the aggregates/agglomerates formation over time.
Keywords
Water-based gravure ink, pigment agglomeration, styrene-acrylic resin, bodying reaction
Introduction
The motivations, pros and cons, to the development of water-based gravure (WBG) ink have been
well documented
14
. Over nearly four decades of research and development, WBG inks still only
capture 5% of the gravure ink market. This is in contrast to nearly 37 % for the exography ink
market
5
. The barrier that WBG inks must overcome has been high. Literature and industry reports
reference to WBG ink development was prevalent in the 1980-90s, and then seemed to give way to
advancements in the incineration and solvent recovery options in the current decade
58
.
The unforgiving behavior of WBG ink was best summarized in a four part series published in
the TAGA Proceedings by Ryszard and Sprycha of Sun Chemical
912
. Development trials and
challenges over a 15 year period was also documented by the US Bureau of Engraving and Printing
in 1986
13
. A common theme emerges from these reports and articles; WBG inks are dicult
to control on press. Print mottle
13
and poor overprint trapping are the result of high dynamic
ink surface tension
9,10
, unpredictable rheology
10
, dot gain
12
, and ink-substrate interferences from
changes in interfacial pH
11
. As if these challenges were not enough of a barrier to market entry,
we observed an undocumented property which may be a root cause of some of the aforementioned
issues ink bodying upon storage.
Bodying, a term used in the ink industry, refers to the static increase in viscosity over time. We
observed that a commercially available styrene-acrylic WBG proong process red ink substantially
bodies over a short period of time. Of the four process colors, only process red bodies over a
period of time as short as 24 hours. Process yellow bodies the least, but tends to exhibit pigment
sedimentation. Process blue was found to be the least prone to bodying and appears to be the
most stable dispersion of the process inks. We began a study to investigate the bodying reaction
mechanisms and their corresponding impact on print quality.
Materials and Methods
Water-based Commercial Ink Dilution Study
The ink used for this study was commercially available water-based red gravure ink. To measure
viscosity, the average of three Zahn cup (#2) trials was recorded for each dilution condition. Distilled
235
Stephanie Pieruccini
water was added to the ink until target viscosity was obtained.
Gravure Printing Trials
A J.M. Heaford Single Cylinder Proong Press (HA custom model), located within the Print Science
Laboratory at RIT, was used for this study. Southern Graphic Systems of Phoenix, New York
engraved a 30-inch long, 21-inch repeat hollow-core cylinder with a portion of the target design
shown in gure 1. This 55 to 100 % Percent Tint Target was replicated ve times by varying
the line screen to 110, 150, 165, 180 and 200 LPI across the cylinder. Impression pressures were
approximately 600 Kg. A commercially available LWC gravure paper stock was selected for the
prints.
Figure 1: RIT Gravure Print Quality Target.
PAL Normal Peel Scan Procedure
To compare ink coverage over a substantial print area, a proprietary process, which was developed
at the Printing Applications Laboratory (PAL) at RIT, was borrowed. A print area was identied,
scanned at high resolution, and then converted to a grey scale image. A densitometric value is
calculated based upon the grey image and percentage of exposed paper white. The area from which
this value is calculated is much larger than the area capable of being measured by any desktop
spectrophotometric device. An example of this procedures use by PAL is to measure ink adhesion
to substrates using ISO and Tappi tape procedures.
236
Visual Ink Evaluation Light Microscope
Samples of each of the target viscosities, measured with a Zahn (#2) cup, were coated onto a glass
microscope slide. The slides were left to dry at room temperature for 24 hours prior to imaging.
Photomicrographs were created using an Olympus light microscope from 25x to 100x.
Commercial Ink Dilution Series
To survey the bulk composition of bodied in a dilution series was prepared. Figure 2 illustrates
the print trial results using the commercial proong ink dilution series, which ranges from 60 to 20
seconds.
The initial conclusion was that agglomerated pigment structures were the cause of the print void
streaks. The frequency of the void streaks was noted to decrease as the low shear viscosity decreased.
Figure 2: Gravure prints produced with a commercially available water-based process red proong ink diluted to a
#2 Zahn Cup viscosity of 60 (a), 45 (b) and 20 (c) seconds. Each print segment comprises eight tints
ranging from 55 to 100 % in 5 % increments. The 21 inch repeat gravure cylinder was engraved with ve
screen rulings and cell depths (Left to Right) ranging from 110 (not shown), 150 (42.2 m), 165 (59.7 m),
180 (25.5 m) and 200 (23.5 m) LPI (cell depth in microns). Substrate was a LWC gravure publication
stock. The black rectangular box represents the PAL Normal Peel scan area used in the analysis discussed
below
The assumption made was that the size of the agglomerates was directly related to the viscosity
of the inks. This would mean that the thicker inks would have larger agglomerates, and if weakly
assembled, they should break down with the increasing shear force. Smaller structures under similar
force would break down faster. From our measurements the viscosity rate of change was found to
not vary with changes in low shear viscosity over the range of 20-35 seconds. We do not have
rheology data for the viscosities higher than 35 seconds.
237
The data that was collected was analyzed further to see if a correlation existed between the print
void streaks and low shear viscosity. The analysis found that there is a need to extend the rheology
analysis to incorporate the higher low shear values.
Figure 3: Percent PAL Normal Peel Area Averaging 80 to 100% Tint Targets at 150 LPI
The measurements of ink coverage area were done using the PAL Normal Peel Scanning procedure.
The results of the tests are shown in Figure 3. Each value is representative of the average of four
trial prints, which ranged from from 80 to 100 % target tint at 150 LPI line. The trend that is shown
in Figure 3 loosely follows with the amount of water that was added while reducing the viscosity to
20 seconds.
Observations made from the collected data showed three distinct transitions in coverage area. Com-
parison of the data seems to point to the formation of weakly associated pigment agglomerates. The
inks decreased in viscosity over a series of water reductions, but the rate of change remained the
same throughout the sample set. These results would suggest similar ink structures. The data
observed shows an association between the ink bodying mechanism and pigment agglomeration.
Photomicrograph Results
The ink, at each viscosity, was naturally dried onto glass microscope slides. The slides were observed
under an Olympus light microscope. Ink particles were easily seen with low magnication, and best
viewed at 50x.At each viscosity, dierent sized and shaped particles are observed. These shapes are
either somewhat round, or on their way to forming a longer, oval shape. These particles appear to be
pigment-resin complexes. The images illustrate these individual particles in the process of conjoining
or migrating towards conjoining. As they combine the particles grow larger and longer creating an
increase in viscosity. The image in Figure 4 shows that a sample of the red ink at a viscosity
of 20 seconds had signicantly larger pigment-resin complexes than those found in Figures 5-7.
The largest complexes are longer as if the individual particles are stacking on top of one another.
Figure 4 also illustrates two smaller particles conjoining with a very large complex. As the viscosity
increases, the particles are smaller, but still showing conjoining. From this, it could be assumed
that when the ink viscosity is lower, the complexes have more room to interact and conjoin. While
as the viscosity increases, space becomes more limited and fewer complexes can combine.
238
Figure 4: 20 Seconds Figure 5: 30 Seconds
Figure 6: 40 Seconds
Figure 7: 50 Seconds
Figures 4-7. These images were taken with an Olympus microscope at 50x. They illustrate particles joining or
attaching to one another, inevitably growing in size.
239
Conclusion
Observations show that larger structures seem to grow over time through a conjoining process. These
larger structures appear to be pigment-resin complexes. The red ink consistently shows bodying
over a course of just 24 hours from formulation. From this we could deduct that the increased size
of the complexes causes the overall increase in the red ink viscosity. As the complexes grow, they
become too large to move in and out of the image cells. During the print trials, the predominant
print defect was streaks that increase over several subsequent impressions of the same run. The
number of streaks also increases as the image cell size decreases. Despite what was assumed, the
rate of shear thinning was independent of viscosity. Print quality results do not correlate with
the rate of change in viscosity with shear rate. Future experimentation will include observing the
bodying process of the red ink over a course of three to four days. Photos will be taken in regular
intervals using a light microscope to capture evidence of the pigment-resin complexes in the process
of conjoining. Further investigation will go into the root cause of the aggregates/agglomerates
formation over time.
References
[1] Kasunich, C.L., April 1986, Using Water-Based Inks Can Be a Sticky Matter, Package Printing,
33:4, pp 24-28
[2] GAA Conference on Water-Based Inks Proceedings, May 1992
[3] GAA Western Regional Gravure Symposium on Water-Based Gravure Inks Proceedings, Octo-
ber, 1995.
[4] Chudolij, A., February 1999, Success of Water Technologies In Gravure Printing, GAA Pressroom
Conference Proceedings, pp. 199-207
[5] Despite Europes Economic Upswing, Ink Manufacturers Remain Wary: Improved performance,
government regulations are key to future gains (2000). Retrieved June 20, 2007 from Ink World
Web site: http://inkworldmagazine.com/articles/2000/02/water-based-inks.php
[6] The Gravure Report (2001). Retrieved June 20, 2007 from Ink World Web site:
http://inkworldmagazine.com/articles/2001/05/gravure-market-update.php
http://inkworldmagazine.com/articles/2004/05/the-gravure-report.php
http://inkworldmagazine.com/articles/2005/05/the-gravure-report.php
[9] Spyrcha, R. and Hruzewicz, J.N. (1994) Impact of Ink/Paper Interactions on Printability of
Aqueous Publication Gravure Inks Part I: Dynamic Contact Angle and Paper Wetting, TAGA Pro-
ceedings, pp 433-458
[10] Spyrcha, R. and Hruzewicz, J.N. (1995) Impact of Ink/Paper Interactions on Printability of
Aqueous Publication Gravure Inks Part II: Soprtion of Liquids by Paper During Ink Setting and
Drying, TAGA Proceedings, pp 228-250
[11] Auerbach, R., Hruzewicz, J.N., and Spyrcha, R. (1996) Impact of Ink/Paper Interactions on
Printability of Aqueous Publication Gravure Inks Part III: Acid/Base Interactions at the Paper/Ink
Interface, TAGA Proceedings, pp 143-158
[12] Spyrcha, R. and Krishnan, R. (1997) Impact of Ink/Paper Interactions on Printability of Aque-
ous Publication Gravure Inks Part IV:Ink Transfer and Spreading on Paper, TAGA Proceedings,
pp 829-843
[13] Mercer, J.W. (1986) Bureau of Engraving and Printing Experience with Water-based Gravure
Postage Stamp Printing, Tappi Journal v. 69, pp. 30-34
240
Session DII
Nataliya Yarka
Inuence of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Polymeric Tapes
on Their Wettability and Quality of Imprints in Flexography
Nataliya Yarka
Scientic leader: Dr. E.T. Lazarenko, professor, Ukrainian Academy of Printing; Dr.inz. K. Sten-
pen, Institute of Polygraphy and Paper Production, Polytechnic of Lodz
nyarka@gmail.com
Raising of problem
Flexography rapidly develops in Ukraine and all over the world, thus the part of its production
takes the second place in majority of cases after the oset printing.[1] Nowadays a lot of production
is printed on polymeric tapes: dierent types of packing and labels. Polymeric tapes are non-polar
material with the ink-receptive properties of the upper layer; they have low supercial energy. It
complicates their application while making glued up packing, printed, laminated and metal-backer
wares, and requires the previous retrotting of the upper layer properties with the creation on it
such physical and chemical changes which will positively inuence on increasing of the tape adhesive
properties.[2]
Methodology of research
Three-layer, bilaterally oriented polypropylene tape (BOPP) with the density of 0, 91 mg/m
3
was
used for these researches. Among a great amount of the widespread methods of the tape surface
activation the following were used in the experiments:
activation by the corona charging
activation by the isopropyl alcohol
activation by the UV-rays
activation by the 10 % peroxide
The goniometer in the PGX version from the Fibro Systems Company is used for the research. The
device complies with Tappi T558, ASTM D-5725 and ISO standards; it serves for moistening angle
and speed of liquid absorption measurements each micro sec from the moment of drop application.
The dynamic angle measurements of tape moistening by distilled water are executed with the
described device. [5]
As supercial energy directly depends on the moistening angle, it was measured on the tape with
the goniometer during stabilizing time of 2 sec and also cos was calculated. Tapes which had been
activated by a corona charging were imprinted on the EKO exo machine of planetary type (Kuen
Yuh) for the determination of the gradation transmission descriptions. Printing form contained test
objects with the raster scale which consisted of ten elds with the relative area of raster 5 - 90 %.
Activation was conducted by an activator AGT-2 in four modes in relation to power of generator:
0 kW, 1,5 kW, 2 kW, 2,5 kW. The sensitometric measurements are executed with the help of Vipdens
400P (Viptronic Company): reective densitometer with the polarization lter.
Results of researches
On the gures 1 - 5 kinetics of the moistening angle change is described after the examined surface
activation methods of BOPP polymeric tape.
Treatment of tape by isopropyl alcohol as a physical and chemical method consists in dissolving
the upper layer of tape by isopropyl alcohol, making its surface rough, thus multiplying wettability.
242
Inuence of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Polymeric Tapes on Their Wettability and
Quality of Imprints in Flexography
Figure 1: Kinetics of the moistening angle change on the nonactivated tape
Figure 2: Kinetics of the moistening angle change on the tape activated by the isopropyl alcohol
As we see, activation by isopropyl alcohol doesnt give too high results, however in some occasions
they are sucient and this type of activation is used on the polypropylene lines because the increase
of supercial energy from the back of tape is very important while producing packing ribbons to
prevent gluing from both sides of tape.
From gure 3 evidently, that such physical and chemical method of activation as treatment by
peroxide strongly oxidizes polypropylene and raises its wettability. However, it requires long action
(to few tens of minutes) of peroxide that is not comfortable while the high speed printing.
How we can see from gure 4, physical and chemical changes which take place in upper layer under
the action of UV-rays, also cause wettability change which is related not only with the increase of
surface roughness, but also with oxidizing processes. In its turn it inuences the increase of adhesive
connections durability and increase of free supercial energy to 45 dins. As a result we got very
high results of tape surface moistening by liquid.
The method of corona charging belongs to the most widespread methods of polypropylene wares
upper layer modication. How we can see from gure 5, the moistening angle for the PP tape
treated in this way lies within the limits of 48 that is for cos = 0,66.
This method consists in inuence the upper layer with the brief (from 0,01 sec to 0,1 sec) action
of the low-temperature plasma generated in air under atmosphere pressure. During activation
functional groups in an upper layer are formed; they are eligible to form strong physical and chemical
243
Nataliya Yarka
Figure 3: Kinetics of the moistening angle change on the tape activated by the 10% peroxide
Figure 4: Kinetics of the moistening angle change on the tape activated by the UV-rays
connections with other materials. Reason of such changes is the rupture between the atoms of
polymeric chain that is provided with the origin of radicals. While reacting with oxygen and ozone
atoms and molecules, water molecules and with the -OH groups and also between themselves,
radicals form polar connections which contain ketonic, aldehydic, hydroxyl and carboxyl groups.
Mechanism of the described changes is following:
alkaline radicals formation:
peroxide radicals formation
hydroxyl-groups formation
As a result of the described transformations, material with a hydrophobic surface acquires necessary
properties, among them is increase of surface polarity that helps its cleaning, better paint perception
244
Figure 5: Kinetics of the moistening angle change on the tape activated by the corona charging
and as a result helps to improve quality of imprints. Further increase of activation doesnt cause
noticeable quality improvement and gradation descriptions of imprints, because with the enough
high oxygen concentration hydroperoxide groups which lock active oxidizing groups can appear.
The process of hydroperoxide groups formation passes in the following way: [2]
On gures 6 - 9 the research results of the activator power inuence on gradation descriptions of
the imprints made on PP tape are described.
Figure 6: Inuence of the activator power on gradation descriptions of the imprints with blue ink
We can see from gures 6 - 9 that activation mode K1,5 is the most optimal, little less K2
depending on the way of density increase. K0 and K2,5 modes dier by bigger density growth
instability.[4]
245
Nataliya Yarka
Figure 7: Inuence of the activator power on gradation descriptions of the imprints with purple ink
Figure 8: Inuence of the activator power on gradation descriptions of the imprints with yellow ink
Conclusions
From the gotten results we can conrm that PP tape chemical activation doesnt give high results
of moistening angle,consequently, ink adhesion on the tape surface. Surface treatment by corona
charging provides the most stable results and these facts positively inuence on PP tape gluing,
welding, laminating and printing.
References
[1] Helmut Kipphan: Handbuch der Printmedien Technologien und Produktionsverfahren. Springer
Verlag
[2] J. Golembiwsky, M. Zienkewicz, N. Snigur: PP-tape activation before the exo - printing.
Flexography. - 2006. - No. 1 (01). - p. 22-25.
[3] K. Stenpen, O. Gnatyshchak, N. Mykytiv: Supercial properties of anilox billows for exoprint-
ing. Book Cvalilogy. Lviv: UAP, 2005. - No. 8. - p. 112-118.
[4] N. Yarka, M. Estrina: Inuence of polyethylene tape treatment by a corona charging on quality of
exoprinting imprints. 6 International scientic and technical conference of students and graduate
students "Book-printing young". - Kyiv - 2006 - p. 90-92.
[5] N. Snigur, N. Yarka, S. Grynchuk: Inuence of physical and chemical treatment of polymeric
246
Figure 9: Inuence of the activator power on gradation descriptions of the imprints with black ink
tapes on their wettability properties. 7 International scientic and technical conference of students
and graduate students "Book-printing young". - Kyiv - 2007 - p. 150-151.
[6] N. Tsutsa, N. Yarka: Activation of polymeric materials surfaces before printing. Packing. - 2007.
- No. 3. - p. 59-61.
247
Maria Estrina
Research of materials deterioration that are used for stamps
manufacturing
Maria Estrina
estrina@rambler.ru
Imprinting is one of the most widespread types of printed output decoration, and has a great depen-
dence of stamp durability [1]. The built Isicavas diagram [2] shows that the production quality that
was decorated with imprinting depends on such factors as original (design), equipment, technology,
materials, executives and ornamentation. These diagrams were used to develop a questionnaire for
professionals opinions, the analysis of which allowed building the diagram of Pareto. The Paretos
diagram shows that the factors that inuence on the imprinting quality may be disposed in the
following row: pressure value > materials the stamp was made of > temperature > material that is
imprinted > stamping speed [3]. Negative test-forms were made for the experimental research and
they were used for stamp production with raster and linear areas. Stamps were produced using such
materials as brass alloy (Lt hereinafter), magnesium-base alloy (Mg hereinafter), photopolymer (Ft
hereinafter) and well-known technological processes of processing these materials into stamps. For
the mass change estimation of form materials during carrying down we used IMR-1 device; for the
control of mass change AD 500 electronic scales (AXIS, Poland) and for the control of graphic
distortions is microscope. For the experimental data processing was used Origin 7.0 program. The
estimation of measurements authenticity was carried out by the Excel XP program which calculated
the average value, standard deviation and variation, which certainly was within the limits 0,9 - 0,95.
Figure 1: The inuence of number of forming materials loading cycles on the absolute mass modication (% to initial
mass)
Analysis of the abrasive deterioration results made it possible to build the following row of materials
durability for stamp producing (in decreasing order):
St > Ft > Mg > Lt > Cu > Zn
The research results of negative photoform-printing form reproduction showed that on distortion of
printing elements of stamps (in % to the proper elements of photoform) it is possible to build the
next row (in decreasing order):
Lt > Mg > Ft
The result of printing areas (dots and lines) distortion displayed that the distortion increases to-
gether with wear cycles. Thus, they can be arranged by wear speed into the following row:
248
Research of materials deterioration that are used for stamps manufacturing
Figure 2: The inuence of number of forming materials loading cycles on the relative mass modication (% to initial
mass)
Figure 3: Pixels reection precision in the "negative-type form" system (in relative distortion of the elements)
Mg > Ft > Lt
It means that the brass stamps have the highest durability whereas photopolymer have only half.
Therefore it is worth mentioning that brass stamps should be used for large circulation editions
publishing [4]. The achieved results can be explained in the terms of abrasiveness theory concerning
alloys, and material ageing concerning photopolymers. Nevertheless it is still essential to research
durability of stamps that were made of dierent materials in working environment (pressure, speed,
temperature etc.).
References
[1] Helmut Kipphan. Handbuch der Printmedien Technologien und Produktionsverfahren. Springer
Verlag
[2] Isikava K. The Japanese methods of quality management. 1998, 215c.
[3] Estrina M.,Demko M, "Process of stamping: Isicava and Pereto Diagrams", International scien-
tically - practical conference "The book cvalilogy", Lviv, pp. 56-57.
[4] Ivanchyshyn G., Estrina M. "Investigate deterioration of materials which are used for manu-
facturing stamps". International scientic and technical conference "Book-printing young", Kyiv,
Ukraine, pp. 161-162.
249
Maria Estrina
Figure 4: Lines (line elements) reection precision in the "negative-type form" system (in relative distortion of the
elements)
Figure 5: The graphical interdependence of stamps pixel-printing elements distortion and the number of cycles, mm
Figure 6: The graphical interdependence of stamps line-printing elements distortion and the number of cycles, mm
250
Packaging Printing & Smart Object Fabrication. Design of packing of childs commodities
Packaging Printing & Smart Object Fabrication. Design of packing
of childs commodities
Julia S. Gubnitskaya
Kharkov National University of Radio Electronics, Ukraine
julgub@ukr.net
1. ATTENTION KIDS!!
Children are the special group of users with their own habits and preferences. They watch ad-
vertisement with interest, gladly try brand-new things and make experiments. But to make the
advertisement message of childs brend eective, it is necessary to speak not only with kids but also
with their parents. Here lies a problem how to interest parents in the oered products with the help
of packing.
According to the specialists estimation two of three consumers make the nal decision as to the
buying of a thing directly in a place, where it sells. This decision requires no more than 10 seconds.
The future of the thing inside depends on whether the packaging meets inner ideas ands tastes of
buyers. Thats why a wrapper becomes such a powerful means of goods promotion in the modern
market. It is the main thing for the design department of the company while creating the design of
a toys cover to understand, what a buyer doesnt want.
It is the opinion of the experts of the leading Ukrainian companies that packaging is a sort of
guide between a buyer and a producer. It should be directed to that audience (age group), on
which the production is calculated. No doubt, that artistic level plays an important part, but it
is a packaging, which should awake buyers interest and motivate him to buy a thing by means of
correctly given information. For this aim the associative line should be successfully chosen, and the
maintenance of all the principles of building of an advertising composition is obligatory: integrity,
balance, proportionality, subordination and presence of accent in design.
For example, one of the main requirements to packaging of childrens games is functionality: it
must be rm and durable. This quality is important for the trade nets (goods must have a pretty
look even after long-term storing, shifts and various mechanic inuences), as well as for consumers
packaging should not become frayed and fall apart after a child play with it several times. If, for
example, a doll or a car can be kept at home without any packing, with games it is the other thing.
Here a packing is also a container for all the contents. It is irreplaceable. Soft pasteboard packing
is a bad variant in this case. It rumples and breaks easily. Thats why the preference is given to
the rm binders pasteboard. Packaging from such a material will serve for a very long time. It not
only allows to emphasize our production among others on the shop counter, but also fully satisfy
the nal consumer by means of its durability and longevity. Surely, in case with goods for children
packaging should possess a range of other important qualities apart from functionality: brightness,
vividness, and it must be recognizable. Character from the well-known cartoons draw customers
attention perfectly, and we often depict them on our packaging. Very often all sorts of packing of
a denite company are fullled in a single style, having common elements, and work for a brand.
2. Modern rms that make and design packing of childs commodities pay
enormous attention to marketing and study of the market of consumption.
For example, the Russian auction house "Mega Pack" represented childs series of still juice con-
tented drinks "Shrek" by analogy with world popular cartoon "Shrek".
Coruna Branding Group has nished the project, concluded in the creation of a new image for the
series of the childrens cosmetics trade mark "Tip-Top". Packing will be fullled in pink colours
and decorated with hearts. Key-words for the new trade-mark become: loving, sweet, romantic.
Before the image creation, specialists of Coruna Group have analyzed competitive environment and
worked out the position of the trade mark "Tip-Top", which could be shortly formulated as "childs
251
Julia S. Gubnitskaya
cosmetics, joining a mother and a kid". Further Coruna creative group worked out the concept
of the image of the brand, its logotype, motto and packing design, that inform a buyer about
the consumer qualities and position of a given product. The mark is intended for customer of the
economy-type segment.
A lot of rms, aiming to reach success, try to produce qualitative goods and to shape it professionally.
3. Firstly, it should be noted that children, as consumer category, are
subdivided to sub-groups:
new-born (by age to 1 year)
junior preschool age (1 4 years)
middle preschool ages (4 6 years)
school age (6 18 years)
Depending on age of children distinction in interests shows up, that denes the idea of packing
design of commodity.
Secondly, it is necessary to remember about parents who buy toys or food for the kid. Brightness
and originality of forms attract parents and their children, but parents, taking care at their childs
health, pay much of attention to ecological and safe parameters of packing.
What language is it necessary to use in the advertisement of childs commodities? It is true that a
mother makes a decision about a purchase, but children dictate this decision. For this reason the
informative satiation of the packing is mainly addressed to children. This inuence on childrens
mind is usually called "direct connection with consumers". Children use the language of associations,
a toy for them is a means of interchange of information between coevals and preferable means of
communication. Easily understandable communicative codes must be used for the development
of the packing design for kids, so that the emotional perception of advertising actions assume a
character of homour, game or innovation. Its a very long way, as children are the most come-at-
able, but at the same time dicult audience. Packing is working not only at the selling stage: a nice
package is not thrown out, it stays like a souvenir and a kid may continue playing with it. While
embodying a designers idea, one should not forget about the means, allowing to attract customers:
1. Modesty is of no use!
The demonstration of commodity should "weigh heavily" on people. They must want to stop,
take a closer look at it, touch it and buy it, especially if we talk about children.
2. Additional means of expressiveness
Packaging itself is a "dumb seller", but a product often requires a conversation with a customer.
Ordinary technologies are insucient for the aim. For example, blinking pasteboard box can
be used as a packing. A battery, which feed a small blinking lamp, is placed inside a box. A
lens intensies the eect, creating an illusion of movement. It is really dicult not to note
such a packing.
3. No aggression!
It is very important to ll the verge between bright challenge and malicious aggression. Pack-
ing should not be aggressive, because for the audience under investigation the aggression is
inadmissible. Careful parents in their turn try to cultivate the sense of kindness and calm in
their child and they, for sure, wouldnt buy the thing, which to their mind will arouse negative
emotions. According to the laws of psychology childs emotions should be positive. Provoca-
tions of aggression are in rich around. The main aesthetic requirement - correspondence of
a packing and its content to a childs ideas about the beauty. A toy for a child is a denite
ideal, image, which lives in kids subconsciousness.
252
Packaging Printing & Smart Object Fabrication. Design of packing of childs commodities
4. The importance of simplicity
Consumers are lled up with information, and the more dicult it is, the greater amount
of time and eorts are needed to encode it. For this reason if to overload a packing with
information, and in addition to print it with small letters, a consumer would remember only
that it has brought him inconvenience, and later on he will ignore this product.
5. Attention to the form
Habitual packing is a nice thing, in general, but it doesnt often work. Colour attract an eye,
but a form is also a means to make people pay attention to a packing. If we talk about the
advertising eect of a packing, colour scheme plays very important part here. For example, it
is better not to use combinations of red colour with violet, green with orange. Combinations
of red colour with blue or green, and yellow with blue, and orange with blue are considered
to be the most eective.
6. Ecological properties
It is of no small importance to estimate the ecological properties of a packing. A packing
should not cause doubt of customers as regards the accuracy of material selection for its
production. Contact of a product with a packing should not alter the qualities of a product.
It is important to know whether customer trust any denite type of packaging, furthermore,
when we talk about children. Childs food is the most vivid example in this case, because kids
life and health depend on the ecological properties and quality of a product and its packing.
A package with a logotype of the Union of Ukrainian Paediatrists truly has a magic inuence
in the market of childrens commodities. Recommendation of this organization have become
a trump of advertising campaigns of many international brands in the native market.
As the researches show, doctors advice have a great impact on the choice of childs commodities.
Independently in what country goods are produced, enterprises maintain the highest requirements
as to the safety for childs life, as well as for the environment. Only the best materials are usually
used in production. All delivered goods pass strict technological control for the correspondence to
the quality standards, adopted by the European Union. A packing of childs commodities is not so
easily fabricated - the guarantee of the quality of a product.
4. It is very dicult to give a denite answer on the following problem:
Who should be born in mind while working out the design of a packing of childs commodities:
parents active subjects of purchase, or a kid, inuencing them. The dierence depends mostly
on a childs age. Practically, parents play the main pat in those cases, when the matter concerns
very small children, who could not decide themselves to buy a thing. Their constant contact with
the outer world is ltered by the family for 100%. While growing a child makes a choice more
independently, but it also occurs under the inuence of mass-media, of his passions and interests.
In modern world not in the last turn a packing inuences on a customers decision to buy that or
other product. Correct approach to the design and creation of various boxes, packages and covers
help the producers of childs commodities to gain a victory in the competitive struggle and to enlarge
the sales volumes.
Literature
[1] The Journal Packaging & Bottling.
[2] Balashova E. E. Modern trends of the development market tares and packing in Russia and
world/E. E. Balashova, M. A. Yulkin. Archangelsk: CEI, 2000.
[3] http//www.pakkogra.ru
[4] Volova L. Exclusive mode from PREMIER-GRUP /L. VOLKOVA//World of upakovki. 2004.
[5] www.labelworld.ru
253

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International Student Conference

the dielectric loss factor,

V ) 7500 V, permittivity of free space (

Some Physico-Chemical Studies of Polygraphic Material Tyvek

Akakiy Dzhvarsheishvili, Elena Sencheva

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combines in itself the features of paper, lm and tissue.

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