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Rice
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For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation).
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Rice is the seed of a monocot plant Oryza sativa, of the grass family (Poaceae). As a cereal grain, it is the
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most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East, South, Southeast
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Random article Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies. It is the grain with the second highest worldwide
production, after maize ("corn"). [1].
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Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is probably the
most important grain with regards to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of the
Go Search calories consumed worldwide by the human species. [2]
A traditional food plant in Africa, rice has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural Yamada Nishiki rice (50%
interaction
polished) from Hyogo
About Wikipedia development and support sustainable landcare. [3]
Community portal Rice is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can
Rice, white, longgrain, regular,
Recent changes produce a ratoon crop for up to 20 years. [4] The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more
Contact Wikipedia raw, unenriched
depending on the variety and soil fertility. The grass has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–
Donate to Wikipedia Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
2.5 cm broad. The small windpollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous
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inflorescence 30–50 cm long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Energy 370 kcal 1530 kJ
toolbox Carbohydrates 79 g
Rice cultivation is wellsuited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is very
What links here laborintensive to cultivate and requires plenty of water for cultivation. Rice can be grown practically Sugars 0.12 g
Related changes Dietary fiber 1.3 g
anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain. Although its parent species are native to South Asia and
Upload file Fat 0.66 g
certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures
Special pages Protein 7.13 g
Printable version worldwide. Water 11.62 g
Permanent link The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.070 mg 5%
Cite this page seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.049 mg 3%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.6 mg 11%
languages channeling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth
Pantothenic acid (B5) 1.014 mg 20%
ﺔﻴﺑﺮﻌﻟﺍ state, and deters vermin. While with rice growing and cultivation the flooding is not mandatory, all other
Vitamin B6 0.164 mg 13%
Aragonés methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different
Folate (Vit. B9) 8 μg 2%
Azәrbaycan approach for fertilizing the soil. Calcium 28 mg 3%
Bânlâmgú Iron 0.80 mg 6%
(The name wild rice is usually used for species of the grass genus Zizania, both wild and
Bikol Central Magnesium 25 mg 7%
domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.)
Bosanski Manganese 1.088 mg 54%
Brezhoneg Contents Phosphorus 115 mg 16%
Български Potassium 115 mg 2%
1 Preparation as food
Català Zinc 1.09 mg 11%
Ч вашла 2 Cooking
Česky 3 Rice growing ecology Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Chamoru 4 History of domestication & cultivation
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Cymraeg 4.1 Asia
Dansk 4.2 Africa
Deutsch 4.3 Middle East
ެ ަ ◌ި ް ި ◌
ސބހވދ 4.4 Europe
Eesti
4.5 Caribbean and Latin America
Ελληνικά
4.6 United States
Español
Esperanto 4.7 Australia
Euskara 5 World production and trade
ﯽﺳﺭﺎﻓ 5.1 Production and export
Français 5.2 Price
Galego 5.3 Worldwide consumption
贛語 5.4 Environmental impacts
한국어 6 Pests and diseases
7 Cultivars
Hornjoserbsce
8 Biotechnology Oryza sativa
Hrvatski
Ido 8.1 Highyielding varieties
Ilokano 8.2 Potentials for the future
Bahasa Indonesia 8.3 Golden rice
Íslenska 8.4 Expression of human proteins
תירבע 9 Sayings
Basa Jawa
10 See also
Kapampangan
11 References
ქართული
11.1 General References
Kinyarwanda
12 External links
Kiswahili
12.1 General Rice stem cross section
Kreyòl ayisyen
12.2 Rice research & development magnified 400 times
Kurdî / ﯼﺩﺭﻮﻛ
Ladino 12.3 Rice in agriculture
12.4 Rice as food
Latina 12.5 Rice as fuel as in car fuel
Latviešu 12.6 Rice economics
Lietuvių
12.7 Rice genome
Líguru
Lingála
Lojban Preparation as food [edit]
Magyar A: Rice with chaff
Македонски The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to remove the B: Brown rice
chaff (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process, the product C:Rice with germ
is called brown rice. The milling may be continued, removing the 'bran', i.e., D: White rice with bran residue
ﻯﺮﺼﻣ
E:Musenmai (Japanese: 無洗米 ),
Bahasa Melayu the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating white rice. White rice,
"Polished and ready to boil rice",
Nederlands which keeps longer, lacks some important nutrients; in a limited diet which literally, nonwash rice
日本語 does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent the disease (1):Chaff
Norsk (bokm ål)
beriberi. (2):Bran
Norsk (nynorsk) Broker of rice in the 1820s (3):Bran residue
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Japan. "36 Views of Mount Fuji"
White rice may also be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called (4):Cereal germ
Polski Hokusai polished rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in general), (5):Endosperm
Português parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice may also be enriched by
Rom ână adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the
Runa Simi cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the
Русский
United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated
Саха тыла
methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water insoluble substance which is
Shqip
Simple English resistant to washing.
Slovenščina In some countries parboiled rice is popular. Parboiled rice is subjected to a
Српски / Srpski steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice. This causes
Suomi Old fashioned way of rice nutrients from the outer husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain
Svenska polishing in Japan."36 Views of
itself. The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the
Tagalog Mount Fuji" Hokusai
grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the milled grain
ไทย
changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled
Türkçe as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled
Українська rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking
Tiếng Việt regular white rice. This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed to Terraced rice paddy on a hill
Võro slope in Indonesia.
consuming parboiled rice.
文言
Winaray Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer), [5] talccoated rice remains the norm in
שידִיי some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used in others (such as the United
中文 States). Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains.
Rice bran, called nukkah in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to
produce an oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and Takuan.
Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Rice
flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a glutenfree diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw wild or brown
rice may also be consumed by rawfoodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually 1 week to 30 days); see also Gaba rice below.
Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Cooked rice may be further fried in oil or butter, or beaten in a tub to make mochi.
Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all of the essential
amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combined with other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat.
[6]
Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating
grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing prepuffed pellets in a lowpressure chamber. The ideal gas
law means that either lowering the local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation, resulting
in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to less than onetenth that when puffed.
Cooking [edit]
There are many varieties of rice such as laweed; for many purposes the main distinction is between long Wikibooks Cookbook has a
and mediumgrain rice. The grains of longgrain rice (high amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; recipe/module on
mediumgrain rice (high amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Mediumgrain rice is used for sweet dishes, Rice Recipes
for risotto in Italy and many arrossos as arròs negre, etc. in Spain.
Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. It can be cooked in just as much
water as it absorbs (the absorption method), or in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving (the
rapidboil method). [7] Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking
rice. Rice is often heated in oil before boiling, or oil is added to the water; this is thought to make the cooked
rice less sticky.
In Arab cuisine rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is
also used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves. When combined with milk, sugar and honey, it is
used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamic
texts spoke of medical uses for the plant. [8]
Rice may also be made into rice porridge (also called congee, okayu, jook, or rice gruel) by adding more water Uncooked, polished, white long
grain rice grains
than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water to the point that it becomes very soft, expanded, and
fluffy. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is also a traditional food for the sick.
Rice may be soaked prior to cooking, which saves fuel, decreases cooking time, minimizes exposure to high
temperature and thus decreases the stickiness of the rice. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of
the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains.
Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is milled, fully cooked and then dried.
A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known as GABA Rice or GBR (Germinated Brown Rice)
[9]
may be used. This involves soaking washed brown rice for 20 hours in warm water (38°C or 100°F) prior to Chinese rice dish utilising
cooking it. This process stimulates germination, which activates various enzymes in the rice. By this method, a Basmati rice
result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice, it is possible to obtain a more
complete amino acid profile, including GABA.
Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4°C–60°C [13] . When storing cooked rice for use the
next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production.
Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.
Rice growing ecology [edit]
Rice can be grown in different ecologies, depending upon water availability. [10]
1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone
2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season
3. Deep water or floating rice
4. Coastal Wetland
5. Upland rice, Upland rice is also known as 'Ghaiya rice', well known for its drought tolerance [11]
History of domestication & cultivation [edit]
Asia [edit]
Rice has been cultivated in Asia for over 10,000 years.
Genetics shows that rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze river valley. [12]
Main article: Oryza sativa#History of domestication and cultivation
Africa [edit]
African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1700 and 800 BC, 'Oryza glaberrima propagated from
its original centre, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its The average Asian rice farmer
original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, possibly brought to the African owns a few hectares : Banaue Rice
continent by Arabs coming from the east coast between the 6th and 11th centuries CE. Terraces, N. Luzon, Philippines
In parts of Africa under Islam, rice was chiefly grown in southern Morocco. During the ninth century rice was also
brought to east Africa by Arab traders. Although, the diffusion of rice in much subSaharan Africa remains
uncertain, Arabs brought it to the region stretching from Lake Chad to the White Nile. [13]
Middle East [edit]
According to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was introduced to the Middle East in Hellenistic times,
and was familiar to both Greek and Roman writers. They report that a large sample of rice grains was recovered
from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the first century AD) at one end of the ancient world, while at the same
Rice crop in Madagascar
time rice was grown in the Po valley in Italy.
In Iraq rice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq. With the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the
southern shores of the Caspian Sea and then beyond the Muslim world into the valley of Volga. In Palestine, rice came to be grown in the Jordan
valley. Rice is also grown in Yemen. [13]
Europe [edit]
The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the tenth century. Records indicate it was grown in Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice
cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although historians are not certain. [13]
Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop. [13]
After the middle of the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age of European
exploration.
Caribbean and Latin America [edit]
Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced to the Caribbean and South America by European
colonizers at an early date with Spanish colonizers introducing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz
and the Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it at about the same time to Colonial Brazil. [14] Recent
scholarship suggests that African slaves played an active role in the establishment of rice in the New World and
that African rice was an important crop from an early period. [15] In either case, varieties of rice and bean dishes
were a staple dish along the peoples of West Africa and they remained a staple among their descendants
subjected to slavery in the Spanish New World colonies and elsewhere in the Americas. [16]
Latin American producers often
United States [edit] farm several hundred hectares :
Rice paddy in Paraguay.
In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar. [17]
In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor
obtained from the Senegambia area of West Africa and from coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston,
through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest
prices, in recognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice plantations
around Georgetown, Charleston, and Savannah. From the slaves, plantation owners learned how to dyke the
marshes and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was milled by hand with wooden paddles, then
winnowed in sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was another skill brought by the slaves). The invention of South Carolina rice plantation
the rice mill increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright (Mansfield Plantation, Georgetown.)
Jonathan Lucas was another step forward. Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profitable with the
loss of slave labor after the American Civil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century. Today, people can visit the only remaining
rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original winnowing barn and rice mill from the mid1800s at the historic Mansfield Plantation in
Georgetown, SC. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The cultivar has been preserved
and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop. [18]
In the southern United States, rice has been grown in southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since the mid
1800s. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wet marshes and low lying prairies where they could also farm crayfish when
the fields were flooded [19]. In recent years rice production has risen in North America, especially in the Mississippi
River Delta areas in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi.
Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese laborers
immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their own consumption. However, commercial
production began only in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County. [20] By 2006, California produced the second
largest rice crop in the United States, [21] after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six counties north of
Sacramento. [22] Unlike the Mississippi Delta region, California's production is dominated by short and mediumgrain
japonica varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as Calrose, which makes up as much as
eighty five percent of the state's crop. [23]
References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated Zizania palustris American longgrain rice
plants
More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S. [24] According to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice production in
the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately half of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. provides about 12% of world rice trade. [24] The
majority of domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%), while 16 percent is used in processed foods and beer respectively. The
remaining 10 percent is found in pet food. [24]
Australia [edit]
Although attempts to grow rice in the wellwatered north of Australia have been made for many years, they have consistently failed because of
inherent iron and manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.
In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on soils within the MurrayDarling Basin that were too heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too
infertile for wheat. [25]
Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia, was (and remains) very cheap, the growing of rice was taken up by
agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina, and the first mill opened
at Leeton in 1951.
Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs, [25] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign
currency. Aboveaverage rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s [26] encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigious
water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned with declining
flow in the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.
Although rice growing in Australia is exceedingly efficient and highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought
have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat
opportunistic, with the area planted varying significantly from season to season depending on water allocations in the Murray and Murrumbidgee
irrigation regions.
World production and trade [edit]
Production and export [edit]
World production of rice [27] has risen steadily from about 200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to 600 million
tonnes in 2004. Milled rice is about 68% of paddy rice by weight. In the year 2004, the top four producers were
China (26% of world production), India (20%), Indonesia (9%) and Bangladesh (5%).
World trade figures are very different, as only about 5–6% of rice produced is traded internationally. The largest
three exporting countries are Thailand, Vietnam, and the United States. Major importers usually include
Paddy rice output in 2005.
Indonesia, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Brazil and some of the Persian Gulf countries. Although China and India
are the top two largest producers of rice in the world, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced
domestically leaving little to be traded internationally.
Price [edit]
In March to May 2008, the price of rice rose greatly due to a rice shortage. In late April 2008, rice prices hit 24 cents a pound, twice the price that it
was seven months earlier. [28]
On the 30th of April, 2008, Thailand announced the project of the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries (OREC) with the potential
[29][30]
to develop into a pricefixing cartel for rice.
Worldwide consumption [edit]
Between 1961 and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40%.
Consumption of rice by country—2003/2004
Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural
(million metric ton) [31]
area is used for rice production. [32].
China 900
U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years, fueled in part by commercial
India 125 applications such as beer production. [33] Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at
Indonesia 37 least half a serving of white or brown rice per day. [34]
Brazil 24 In many countries where rice is the main cereal crop, rice cultivation is responsible for most of the
Vietnam 18 methane emissions. [35] Rice requires much more water to produce than other grains. [36]
As sea levels rise, rice will become more inclined to remain flooded for longer periods of time.
Thailand 10
Longer stays in water cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes fermentation of
Myanmar 10 organic matter in the soil. During the wet season, rice cannot hold the carbon in anaerobic
Philippines 9.7 conditions. The microbes in the soil convert the carbon into methane which is then released
through the respiration of the rice plant or through diffusion of water. Current contributions of
Japan 8.7
methane from agriculture is ~15% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, as estimated by the IPCC.
Mexico 7.3 A further rise in sea level of 1085 centimeters would then stimulate the release of more methane
South Korea 5.0 into the air by rice plants. Methane is twenty times more effective as a greenhouse gas than
carbon dioxide. [37]
United States 3.9
Malaysia 2.7
Main article: List of rice diseases
Source: Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the
United States Department of Agriculture
rice crop (or of rice seeds). [38] (Jahn et al. 2007) Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects,
rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including the overuse of
pesticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application. [39] Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and
army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrip outbreaks are associated with drought. [40].
One of the challenges crop protection specialists are trying to help address is the development of rice pest management techniques which are
sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened.( [41] At present, rice pest
management includes cultural techniques, pestresistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which include insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence that
farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. [42][43][44][45][46] By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests, [47] misuse of
insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks (Cohen et al. 1994). Botanicals, so called “natural pesticides”, are used by some farmers in an
attempt to control rice pests, but in general the practice is not common. Upland rice is grown without standing water in the field. Some upland rice
farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably
helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed
and insect infestations. [48]
Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage. [49] Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended
for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance. [50] Three main
types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance. [51] Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host
plants which insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a
plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation. [52] Over time, the use of pest resistant rice varieties selects for pests that
are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have
broken down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests, and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said
to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance.
[53]
Cultivars [edit]
Main article: List of rice varieties
While most breeding of rice is carried out for crop quality and productivity, there are varieties selected for other reasons such as texture, smell and
squishiness. Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generally called 'floating rice' [14] .
The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI ) in the Philippines, with over 100,000 rice accessions
[15] held in the International Rice Genebank [16] . Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai Jasmine
rice is longgrain and relatively less sticky, as longgrain rice contains less amylopectin than shortgrain cultivars. Chinese restaurants usually serve
longgrain as plain unseasoned steamed rice. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are shortgrain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is
properly known as "glutinous rice" (note: glutinous refer to the gluelike characteristic of rice; does not refer to "gluten") to make zongzi. The
Japanese table rice is a sticky, shortgrain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well.
Indian rice cultivars include longgrained and aromatic Basmati (grown in the North), long and mediumgrained Patna rice and shortgrained Sona
Masoori (also spelled Sona Masuri). In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown in the delta regions of Kaveri
River. Kaveri is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. In the Western Indian state of
Maharashtra, a short grain variety called Ambemohar is very popular. this rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.
Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavours; the most noted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna
rice, and a hybrid cultivar from America sold under the trade name, Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have a
mild popcornlike aroma and flavour. In Indonesia there are also red and black cultivars.
Highyield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems called the new rice for Africa
(NERICA) cultivars have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve food security in West
Africa.
Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars, indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Rice Unpolished longgrain rice grains
was chosen as a model organism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 with bran
megabase pairs). Rice was the first crop with a complete genome sequence. [66]
On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The
declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.
Biotechnology [edit]
Highyielding varieties [edit]
Main article: Highyielding variety Polished Indian sona masuri rice
grains
The High Yielding Varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase
global food production. Rice, like corn and wheat, was genetically manipulated to increase its yield. This project
enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The first "modern rice", IR8 was produced in 1966 at the
International Rice Research Institute which is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Baños site. IR8 was created through a
cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen." [67]
With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for reduced height(rht), gibberellin insensitive (gai1) and slender rice (slr1) in
Arabidopsis and rice were identified as cellular signaling components of gibberellic acid (a phytohormone involved in regulating stem growth via its
effect on cell division) and subsequently cloned. Stem growth in the mutant background is significantly reduced leading to the dwarf phenotype.
Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become
redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and
intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two to three times.
Potentials for the future [edit]
As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the "Green Revolution" is cited as the model for
economic development. With the intent of replicating the successful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing
research on African agricultural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way this can happen is the production of "New Rices for
Africa" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African agriculture are produced by the African Rice
Center, and billed as technology from Africa, for Africa. The NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and International
Herald Tribune (October 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence.
Golden rice [edit]
Main article: Golden rice
German and Swiss researchers have engineered rice to produce Betacarotene, with the intent that it might someday be used to treat vitamin A
deficiency. Additional efforts are being made to improve the quantity and quality of other nutrients in golden rice. [68] The addition of the carotene turns
the rice gold.
Expression of human proteins [edit]
Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin, lysozyme, and human serum albumin which are proteins usually found in
breast milk. These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects. [69]
Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions which are used to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby
shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia. [70]
Sayings [edit]
In Andhra Pradesh, India a proverbial saying states: "ANNAM CAREMBAL KASTANA RECOCLT PARABRAHMA SWAROOPAM" meaning that
rice is another form of God.
A proverbial saying in Japan states: "The farmer spends eightyeight efforts on rice from planting to crop." This teaches the sense of mottainai and
gratitude for the farmer and for rice itself. [71]
There is a Sri Lankan saying, 'deyyange haal kawila', meaning 'having eaten God’s rice'. This is used to explain a crazy person or his actions in
general with humour. The reasoning behind this is that when the rice harvest is collected, a small fraction of the best part is dedicated to the gods
and that is sacred if a person eats that, they will be afflicted with curses and lose mental stability/act crazy.
The expression for eating food in Thai, "gin kow", literally means, "to eat rice". Vietnamese use the phrase "ăn cơm" in the same way. Likewise,
the Chinese use the phrase "eat rice", "chi fan", in the common greeting "Ni chi fanle ma?" to mean literally "Have you eaten?", and by extension,
"How are you doing?".
In Hindi and Urdu the word for food itself, khānā, is used as a synonym for 'cooked rice'. Similarly, the words for lentils and cooked rice, dālbhāt,
are synonymous with food itself.
In the Philippines there is an expression "One grain of rice equals one bead of sweat.". This saying may be seen in the context of the high level of
labour involved in the production of rice. It may be said that there is a psychological element to this expression in encouraging people to
appreciate the effort that has gone into putting food on their plates and perhaps suggesting that they do not waste food. This may be seen in a
similar context as Christians who say Grace before eating food.
Ashkenazi Jews consider rice a grain and refrain from eating it during Passover.
See also [edit]
Ambemohar
Basmati rice
Beaten rice
Bhutanese red rice
Black rice
Brown rice syrup
Fengyuan City
Forbidden rice
Inari
Indonesian rice table
Jasmine rice
List of rice dishes
List of rice varieties
Navara rice
New Rice for Africa
Nutritious Rice for the World
Protein per unit area
Puffed rice
Rice Belt
Rice bran oil
Rice ethanol
Rice wine
Risotto
Rosematta rice
Straw
System of Rice Intensification
Weedy rice
White rice
Wild rice
Rice shortage
red rice
References [edit]
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4. ^ International Rice Research Institute The Rice Plant and How it Grows Retrieved January 29, 2008
5. ^ Risks of Talcum Powder
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spectroscopy ". Field Crops Research. Retrieved 20080108.
7. ^ The latter method of using excess water is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are flushed away when the water is
discarded.
8. ^ Watson, p. 15
9. ^ Shoichi Ito and Yukihiro Ishikawa Tottori University, Japan. "(Marketing of ValueAdded Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice
Bread.) ". Retrieved February 12 2004.
10. ^ IRRI rice knowledge bank
11. ^ drought tolerance in upland rice
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13. ^ a b c d Watson, p. 1718
14. ^ Slavery in America: Rice and Slavery
15. ^ Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas by Judith A. Carney
16. ^ National Research Council (1996 0214). "African Rice ". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains . Lost Crops of Africa. 1. National Academies
Press. ISBN 9780309049900. Retrieved 20080718.
17. ^ Slavery in America: Rice and Slavery
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19. ^ Farm Raised Crawfish
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20070810.
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24. ^ a b c States Department of Agriculture August 2006, Release No. 0306.06, U.S. RICE STATISTICS
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246
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27. ^ all figures from UNCTAD 1998 –2002 and the International Rice Research Institute statistics (accessed September 2005)
28. ^ "Cyclone fuels rice price increase" , BBC News, 7 May 2008
29. ^ "Mekong nations to form rice pricefixing cartel" , Radio Australia, April 30, 2008.
30. ^ "PM floats idea of fivenation rice cartel" , Bangkok Post, May 1, 2008.
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32. ^ Don Puckridge, The Burning of the Rice [1]
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34. ^ Iowa State University (July 2005). Rice Consumption in the United States: New Evidence from Food Consumption Surveys .
35. ^ Methane Emission from Rice Fields Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by HeinzUlrich Neue.
36. ^ report12.pdf
37. ^ IPCC. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. United Nations Environment Programme, 2007:Ch5, 8, and 10. [2]
38. ^ Jahn et al. 2000
39. ^ e.g. Jahn et al. 2005 [3]
40. ^ Douangboupha et al. 2006
41. ^ Jahn et al. 2001)
42. ^ Jahn et al. 1996
43. ^ 2004a,b)
44. ^ [4]
45. ^ [5]
46. ^ [6]
47. ^ (Jahn 1992)
48. ^ (Jahn et al. 1999)
49. ^ (Jahn et al. 2004c , Khiev et al. 2000)
50. ^ [http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/glossary/default.htm#Glossary/D.htm Definition of resistance
51. ^ Painter 1951, Smith 2005)
52. ^ Kogan and Ortman, 1978
53. ^ (e.g. Liu et al. 2005, Sangha et al. 2008 )
54. ^ planthopper
55. ^ [7] (Preap et al. 2006), armyworms [8] , the green leafhopper,
56. ^ (Jahn and Khiev 2004)
57. ^ rice bug (Jahn et al. 2004c)
58. ^ (Murphy et al. 2006), [9]
59. ^ [10]
60. ^ (Leung et al. 2002)
61. ^ (Pheng et al. 2001)
62. ^ Rice weevils
63. ^ Rice Ragged Stunt
64. ^ Sheath Blight
65. ^ Tungro
66. ^ Gillis, Justing (August 11, 2005). "Rice Genome Fully Mapped ". washingtonpost.com.
67. ^ Rice Varieties: IRRI Knowledge Bank. Accessed August 2006. [11]
68. ^ Grand Challenges in Global Health, Press release , June 27, 2005
69. ^ Nature's story
70. ^ Bethell D. R., Huang J., et al. BioMetals, 17. 337 342 (2004).[12]
71. ^ proverbial saying, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan), (Japanese)
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External links [edit]
Rice research & development [edit]
Intensify to Diversify: an IRRI rice intensification project in Cambodia
Celebrating the Land (Part 1): video about an IRRI project to increase rice production in Laos
Celebrating the Land (Part 2): video about an IRRI project to increase rice production in Laos
Operation Rice Bowl of the Catholic Relief Service
RiceFish Culture in China, an IDRC Project
JICA rice project in Bolivia
Rice in agriculture [edit]
American Phytopathological Society: Diseases of Rice (Oryza sativa)
FAO: Animal Feed Resources Information System, Oryza sativa
Origin of Chinese rice cultivation
Rice as food [edit]
How to Cook Rice StepbyStep Photos
US Patent 6,676,983: Puffed food starch product
How to Save a Bad Batch of Rice and Other Tips
A Malaysian Food Heritage
Different types of rice
Named commercial rice varieties used by growers
Rice as fuel as in car fuel [edit]
Japanese Rice Ethanol Plant to Start 2009 .
Using rice husks (chaff) to generate electricity in rural India
Rice economics [edit]
Rice as a Commodity
UNCTAD market information
Grain Drain: The Hidden Cost of U.S. Rice Subsidies
Vietnamese Rice Website
Rice genome [edit]
Rice Genome Browser
n:Chinese authorities question genetically altered rice allegation
Oryza sativa The rice genome, a "Rosetta stone" for other cereals
Rice Genome Research Program
Rice Genome Approaches Completion
The Genomes of Oryza sativa: A History of Duplications
Biologists Trace Back Genetic Origins Of Rice Domestication
Waterproof rice can outlast the floods —Researchers have tracked down a gene that allows the plant to survive complete submersion
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