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The Big Picture: A Review of Biology Cells and Their Processes

Organic Compounds A compound is a combination of 2 or more atoms An organic compound is a compound that contains carbon atoms that have combined with each other An inorganic compound is a compound with no combination of carbon atoms The Four Types of Organic Compounds (The Molecules of Life Carbohydrates! "ugars used for short term energy Lipids! Fats and oils used for long term energy #roteins! Made up of amino acids$ used for construction materials and chemical reactions in the body o %n&ymes! "pecial types of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body but are not changed by the reactions 'ucleic acids! ('A and )'A$ contains genetic information Cells A cell is the smallest unit that is alive and can carry on all the processes of life Cells ma*e up organisms (living things o +nicellular organisms are made up of , cell o Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells Cells contain organelles- which are speciali&ed compartments that carry out a specific function Types of cells o %u*aryotic cells contain a nucleus- such as animal and plant cells o #ro*aryotic cells contain no nucleus- such as bacteria Animal Cells +sually round Organelles include o nucleus! controls cell activities o cell membrane! controls what enters and leaves the cell and also protects the cell o endoplasmic reticulum (%) ! tunnels for compounds to move through the cell o .olgi body! processes and stores protein o )ibosomes! ma*e proteins o Mitochondria! Ma*es energy for the cell o Lysosome! /as en&ymes that digest waste and old organelles o Cytoplasm! Fills the empty space of the cell o 0acuole! "tores food- water- and waste o Centrioles! /elp in cell division and is only found in animal- not plant- cells #lant Cells +sually s1uare Organelles include o %verything that an animal cell has plus more

2 o Chloroplast! Traps sunlight to ma*e food for the plant o Cell wall! #rotects the cell

9 3acterial cells "maller and simpler than plant or animal cells 3acteria are unicellular 'o nucleus /ave a single closed loop of ('A- cell wall- cell membrane- cytoplasm and ribosomes "ome have a capsule (shell for protection - pili (short hair li*e structures to hold onto host cells - and flagella (whip li*e structure for movement Cell membrane Made up of molecules called phospholipids #hospholipid bilayer is the 2 layers of phospholipids that ma*e up the cell membrane Cell membrane is fluid- which means that it is constantly flowing and moving over the cell Cell membrane is selectively permeable- which means that it allows small compounds- but not large ones- to pass right through There are different ways that materials are transported across the cell membrane o #assive transport! re1uires no energy (iffusion! compounds move from high to low concentration Osmosis! diffusion of water o Active transport! re1uires energy %ndocytosis! large compound are brought into the cell %4ocytosis! large compounds are e4ported out of the cell Types of solutions o /ypotonic solutions cause water to move into the cell so the cell swells up o /ypertonic solutions cause water to move out of the cell so the cell shrivels up o 5sotonic solutions cause no net movement of water into or out of the cell #hotosynthesis #rocess by which organisms use energy from sunlight to ma*e their own food (glucose .lucose is a simple sugar #hotosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells and some bacteria Chloroplasts have a green pigment called chlorophyll "teps of photosynthesis o ,6 Light reaction! chlorophyll in the chloroplasts absorbs sunlight o 26 (ar* reaction! The energy from the sunlight is used to ma*e glucose Light energy is completely changed into chemical energy (glucose Chemical e1uation for photosynthesis 7CO2 8 7/2O 8 light energy C7/,2O7 8 O2 Cellular )espiration #rocess that brea*s down glucose in order to ma*e energy for an organism AT#! compound that stores energy in an organism Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell Two types of cellular respiration o Aerobic respiration! re1uires o4ygen to occur Mostly happens in animals and plants

< There are 9 steps in aerobic respiration "tep , is glycolysis! glucose is cut in half "tep 2 is the citric acid cycle! glucose halves get electrons chopped off of them "tep 9 is the electron transport chain! electrons combine with o4ygen and are used to ma*e a lot of AT# Chemical e1uation for respiration C7/,2O7 8 O2 7CO2 8 7/2O 8 AT# energy Aerobic respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis o Anaerobic respiration! does not re1uire o4ygen to occur Mostly happens in bacteria and yeast Also called fermentation Ma*es less AT# than aerobic respiration Chromosomes ('A strands in the nucleus that contain the directions on how to ma*e and *eep an organism alive Made up of genes- which are traits of an organism Cells will die if their ('A is damaged or removed /umans have mostly diploid cells- which means that we have 2 of each type of chromosome o /omologous chromosomes are 2 of the same type of chromosome o :e have 29 types of chromosomes but; o :e have <7 chromosomes in all29 chromosomes from mom 8 29 chromosomes from dad /uman gametes (sperm and egg cells are haploid cells- which means that they have , of each type of chromosome o "perm and egg cells have 29 chromosomes in all Autosomes! Chromosomes that do not determine gender "e4 chromosomes! Chromosomes that determine gender o .irls are ==- 3oys are => ?aryotype! ordered picture of an organism@s chromosomes o /ealthy individuals have 2 of each type of chromosome o 5ndividuals with (own "yndrome have three A2, chromosomes Cell Cycle The cell cycle is the phases in the life of a cell o ,6 M phase! Mitosis (cell division occurs o 26 ., phase! Cell grows o 96 " phase! ('A synthesis (chromosomes are copied o <6 .2 phase! Cell grows o B6 M phase begins again Chromosomes must be copied before mitosis so that new cells receive the same chromosomes found in the old cells

B Mitosis (ivision of a cell into 2 identical cells 3efore mitosis! Chromosomes have copied themselves "ister chromatids! original chromosome and its e4act copy are attached to each other #hases of mitosis o ,6 #rophase! 'uclear membrane falls apart and spindle fibers start to form o 26 Metaphase! "ister chromatids line up along the middle of the spindle fibers o 96 Anaphase! "ister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell o <6 Telophase! "pindle fibers brea* down and new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes Cyto*inesis occurs when the cytoplasm actually divides- forming two new cells

Genetics
Meiosis Cell division that produces gametes (se4 cells - such as sperm and egg cells Fertili&ation! #rocess of an egg and a sperm cell combining to produce a &ygote o Cygote! 3aby that is only , cell big o %gg cell (29 chromosomes 8 sperm cell (29 chromosomes D baby (<7 chromosomes "teps in meiosis o ,6 3efore meiosis! 2 chromosomes of the same type come together to ma*e a chromosome pair %ach chromosome doubles This gives < chromosomes stuc* together o 26 Meiosis 5! Chromosome pairs separate into two new cells o 96 Meiosis 55! %ach chromosome separates from its copy into < new cells 5n meiosis- one cell becomes four cells but in mitosis- one cell becomes two cells ('A (eo4yribonucleic acid Ma*es up the chromosomes in the nucleus and never leaves the nucleus A chromosome is a chain of different genes ('A has a double heli4 shape /as four types of bases! adenine (A - guanine (. - thymine (T - cytosine (C A binds T and . binds C ('A is complementary- which means that the bases on one strand match up to the bases on the other strand o For e4ample! "trand ,! AT. CCT .AC "trand 2! TAC ..A CT. "emi conservative replication is the process by which ('A copies itself and each new piece of ('A is made up of , old strand and , new strand

)'A )ibonucleic acid )'A is a copy of ('A that goes out into the cytoplasm to tell the cell what to do in order to stay alive )'A is single stranded and has uracil (+ rather than thymine (T o + binds A and . binds C

7 o 5f the ('A is Then the )'A will be AT. CCA AA. +AC ..+ ++C

+sing ('A to ma*e protein ,6 Transcription! ('A in the nucleus is used to ma*e messenger )'A (m)'A o ('A has all the directions the cell needs to live 26 )'A moves out into the cytoplasm o )'A carries the directions to other parts of the cell 96 Translation! The )'A attaches to a ribosome and directs the production of a protein o #roteins do all the wor* in the cell o %very 9 bases in )'A is called a codon and codes for , amino acid Mutations A mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome 5f the mutation happens in a body cell- it only affects the organism that carries it 5f the mutation happens in a se4 cell- it can be passed on to offspring Mutations can be o harmful if they reduce an organism@s chances for reproduction or survival o helpful if they improve an organism@s chances for survival o neutral if they do not produce an obvious changes in an organism o lethal if they result in the immediate death of an organism Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by a mutagen- which is a factor in the environment li*e +0 and chemicals Mendelian .enetics .regor Mendel is an Austrian mon* credited with beginning the study of genetics .enetics is the study of heredity /umans have 2 genes for every trait o Alleles! (ifferent forms of a single trait- li*e blue and brown are two eye color alleles (ominant gene! E"trongerF of 2 genes and shows up in the organism o )epresented by a capital letter o 3 is the dominant gene for brown eyes )ecessive gene! E:ea*erF of 2 genes and only shows up when there is no dominant gene present o )epresented by a lowercase letter o b is the recessive gene for blue eyes /omo&ygous (purebred ! :hen 2 genes are ali*e for a trait o 33 is homo&ygous for brown eyes- bb is homo&ygous for blue eyes /etero&ygous (hybrid ! :hen 2 genes are different for a trait o 3b is hetero&ygous Mendel@s law of segregation states that the 2 genes we have for each trait get separated from one another when we ma*e egg and sperm cells Mendel@s law of independent assortment states that the gene for one trait is inherited independently of the genes for other traits o Only true when the genes are on different chromosomes

I #unnett "1uares #unnett s1uares are charts that are used to show the possible gene combinations in a cross between 2 organisms G Let@s say that 3 is the dominant gene for brown eyes and b is the recessive gene for blue eyesG .enotype! The genes of an organism (3b #henotype! The physical appearance of an organism (3rown eyes #arents 3b 4 bb 3 b b 3b 3b b bb bb Offspring phenotype BJK 3rown eyes BJK blue eyes 3 b Offspring genotype BJK 3b BJK bb #arents 3b 4 3b 3 33 3b b 3b bb 3b Offspring genotype 2BK 33 BJK 3b 2BK bb Offspring phenotype IBK 3rown eyes 2BK blue eyes

/uman .enetics Multiple alleles are three or more alleles that e4ist for a single gene o For e4ample- A- 3- and O are the multiple alleles for blood type o The possible blood types are A- 3- A3- and O >ou can be A8 or AH- 38 or 3H- A38 or A3H- O8 or OH depending on whether your blood cells have a special )h protein Codominance occurs when 2 dominant genes are e4pressed and both genes are seen in the organism o A3 blood is codominant- a cat with blac* and white spots is codominant 5ncomplete dominance occurs when 2 dominant genes are e4pressed and blended together in the organism o 5f the red flower color gene () is mi4ed with the white flower color gene (: then the offspring will be pin* (): A polygenic trait is a trait that is controlled by more than one pair of genes- li*e s*in color A se4Hlin*ed trait is a trait that is found on the = chromosome- such as colorblindness o Females are == so have 2 copies of se4Hlin*ed traits o Males are => so have , copy of se4Hlin*ed traits

Ecology
%cology %cology is the study of how organisms fit into their environment A community is the organisms that live in a particular environment A habitat is the physical location of a community An ecosystem is a collection of organisms and their physical environment The diversity of an ecosystem is a measure of the number of species living there There are different feeding groups of organisms o Autotrophs! Organisms that ma*e their own food- li*e plants and some bacteria o /eterotrophs! Organisms that cannot ma*e their own food- li*e /erbivores! %at plants

L Carnivores! %at meat Omnivores! %at plants and meat There are different factors is an ecosystem o Abiotic factors are nonliving things o 3iotic factors are living things- such as #roducers! Organisms that ta*e in energy from their surroundings to ma*e their own food Consumers! Organisms that eat other organisms for energy (ecomposers! "pecial type of consumer that eats waste products and dead organisms for energy There are different trophic levels in a food chain o A trophic level is a feeding level in an ecosystem o A food chain is a lineup of organisms that shows who eats who o ,st trophic level is usually a producer o 2nd trophic level is a primary consumer o 9rd trophic level is a secondary consumer o <th trophic level is a tertiary consumer o and so on o Last trophic level is a decomposer %very time an organism eats- it obtains energy from its food o "o energy is transferred from the ,st to the 2nd to the 9rd trophic level and so on (but some of this energy does get lost along the way o %nergy pyramid! #icture showing how much energy is transferred to the different trophic levels in a food chain A food web is a networ* of connected food chains

Cycles of Matter :ater- nitrogen- carbon- and o4ygen are recycled in the environment through cycles The nitrogen cycle o 'itrogen in the atmosphere is ta*en in by bacteria that live in plant roots o The nitrogen is passed onto the plants and any animals that eat the plants o Once the plant or animal has died- decomposers (bacteria again ta*e up the nitrogen in the dead material and send it bac* to the atmosphere The water cycle o #recipitation- such as rain and snow- fall to the earth o The water either seeps into the ground for plants to use and the plants give off e4cess water bac* to the atmosphere or runs off the land to lowerHlying bodies of water where it evaporates bac* into the atmosphere The o4ygenHcarbon cycle o Carbon dio4ide from the atmosphere is ta*en in by plants who use it during photosynthesis and release o4ygen bac* into the atmosphere o O4ygen in the atmosphere is ta*en in by animals and plants who use it during respiration and release carbon dio4ide bac* into the atmosphere 5nteraction in an environment %ach organism has a niche- or role- to play in its environment

O Competition is a struggle between organisms for resources- such as food- water- shelter #redators are organisms that catch- *ill- and eat other organisms called prey "ymbiosis is a close relationship between 2 organisms in which one organism lives near- onor even inside another organisms and in which at least one organism benefits o There are three types of symbiosis o ,6 Commensalism is when one of the 2 organisms benefits from the symbiosis o 26 Mutualism is when both organisms benefit from the symbiosis o 96 #arasitism is when one organism benefits (parasite and the other organism is harmed (host from the symbiosis The parasite feeds on the host while it is still alive- wea*ening but not *illing it An adaptation is a change in the behavior or physical characteristics of a species that ma*e it better suited to its environment #opulations of organisms increase and decrease due to overpopulation of a competitor or predator- disease- lac* of food or water or shelter- and e4treme weather %cosystems are constantly changing due to changing populations of organisms- changing weather- natural disasters- and human activity %very time a change occurs- the balance of the ecosystem has to be readMusted

The Theory of Evolution

%volution %volution is a change in a species over time The theory of evolution was stated by Charles (arwin and is based on natural selection 'atural selection states that organisms with traits well suited to an environment are more li*ely to survive and produce more offspring than organisms without these favorable traits 3iodiversity! Organisms become very different from each other as they evolve and become better suited to their environments The theory of evolution is supported by evidence that includes o Adaptations! structures and behaviors that organisms have evolved in order to survive better in their environments o The fossil record which is information about all *nown fossils o Comparative anatomy which is when the bodies of different organisms are compared to see if they are related /omologous structures are body structures on different organisms that are similar 0estigial structures are body structures that may have served a purpose in ancient ancestors but no longer are functional in current organisms o The fact that all vertebrate embryos loo* very similar as they develop before birth o The fact that the ('A of closely related organisms loo*s very similar Ta4onomy Ta4onomy is the science of classifying living things Organisms are organi&ed into I different levels of ta4onomy (?ing #hilip came over for good spaghetti o ,6 ?ingdom N most broad o B6 Family o 26 #hylum o 76 .enus o 96 Class o I6 "pecies N most specific o <6 Order Closely related organisms have more levels of ta4onomy in common than unrelated organisms

,J There are si4 *ingdoms of living things (Archie eats pretty fantastic apple pies o ,6 Archaebacteria! bacteria that live o <6 Fungi! Mushrooms- yeastsin e4treme environments molds o 26 %ubacteria! common bacteria o B6 Animalia! animals o 96 #rotista! "ingleHcelled organisms o 76 #lantae! plants %very organism has a uni1ue twoHword scientific name that is written in Latin o The first word is the genus- the second word is the species (/umans are Homo sapiens) "ome scientists prefer to organi&e organisms into domains rather than *ingdoms o There are three domains (Archie eats eels o ,6 Archaea! 3acteria that live in e4treme environments o 26 %ubacteria! Common bacteria o 96 %u*arya! Organisms whose ('A is in a nucleus